A  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  EDUCATION 


THE  MACMiLLAN   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON    -    CHICAGO 
ATLANTA   ■    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON   -    BOMBAY   -    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


A 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    EDUCATION 


EDITED  BY 

PAUL   MONROE,   Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    THE    HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION,    TEACHERS    COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


WITH   THE   ASSISTANCE   OF   DEPARTMENTAL   EDITORS 

AND 

MORE  THAN   ONE    THOUSAND   INDIVIDUAL   CONTRIBUTORS 


VOLUME   ONE 


Nrto  gorfe 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

1911 

AH  rights  ref^crved 


Copyright,  1911, 
By  the  MACMILL/VN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  elcctrotypcd.     Pviblished  January,  1911. 


J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Iier»ick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


16 

V.I 

C.3 


SANTA  BARBARA  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 


65289 


A   CYCLOPAEDIA   OF   EDUCATION 

EDITED    BY 

PAUL   MONROE,   Ph.D. 

PR0PES80R    OF    THE    HISTORY    OF    EDUCATION,    TEACHERS    COLLEGE 
COLU.MIUA    UNIVEHSITV 


DEPARTMENTAL   EDITORS 

Higher  axd 

Elmer  E.  Brown,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.  .     Commissioner   of    Eduoation    of    the  Secondary 

United  States,  Washington,  D.C.  Education 

Edward  F.  Buchner,  Ph.D.    .     .     Professor  of  Education  and  Philoso-  Biography, 

phy,    Johns    Hopkins    University,  Philosophy 
Baltimore,  Md. 

William  H.  Bukxham,  Ph.D.      .     Professor    of    Pedagogy    and    School  Hygiene 

Hygiene,  Clark  Uuiversitj-,  Worces- 
ter, Mass. 

Gabriel  Compayrk Inspector  General  of  Public  Instruc-  Education  in 

tion,  Paris ;    Member  of  the  Insti-  France 
tute  of  France. 

Ellwood  p.  Cubberley,  Ph.D.    .     Head   of   Department    of    Education,  Educational 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  Administration 
Stanford  University,  Cal. 

John  Dewey,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.     .     .     Professor    of    Philosophy,    Columbia  Philosophy  of 

University,  New  York  City.  Education 

Charles  H.  Judd,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.  .     Director  of  the  School  of  Education,  Psychology 

University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

Arthur  F.  Leach Charity  Commissioner  for  England  and  Middle  Ages, 

Wales,  St.  James,  London.  Reformation 

Will  S.  Monroe,  A.B Professor  of  Psychology  and  the  His-  Biography, 

tory  of  Education,  Montclair  State  American 

Normal  School,  Montclair,  N.J.  ^ 

J.  E.  G.  DE  Montmorency,  M.A.,  LL.B.     Barrister-at-Law,    London  ;     As-  History  of 

sistant     Editor,    the     Contemporary  Educational 

Review.  Admini.stration 

WiLHELM  MtJNCH,  Ph.D.      .     .     .     Profcssor  of  Pedagogy,  U^niversity  of  Education  in 

Berlin,  Berlin,  Germany.  Germany 

Anna  Tolman  Smith      ....     Specialist,  Bureau  of  Education,  Wash-  National 

ington,  D.C.  Systems 

David  Snedden,  Ph.D Commissioner   of   Education   for   the  Educational 

State     of     Massachusetts,    Boston,  Administration 

Mass. 

Henry  Suzzallo,  Ph.D.      .     .     .     Professor  of  the  Philosophy  of  Educa-  Educative 

tion,    Teachers    College,     Columbia  Methods 
University,  New  York  City. 

Foster  Watson,  A.M Professor    of    Education,    University  English 

College     of     Wales,     Aberystwyth,  Educational 

Wales.  History 

V 

THIS  BOOK  IS  NOT  ^O  8k 
^AKCM  FROM  THE  LIBRARy 


CONTRIBUTORS   TO   VOLUME    I 


James  R.  Angell,  A.M.,  Professor  and  Head 
of  the  Department  of  Psychology,  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago.     (Psychology.) 

Roswell  P.  Angier,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Psychology  and  Acting  Director 
of  the  Psychological  Laboratory,  Yale 
University.     (Psychology.) 

L.  D.  Arnett,  Ph.D.,  Specialist  in  the  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Education,  Washington, 
D.C.  (National  Sy.stems  of  Education.) 

Joseph  CuUen  Ayer,  Jr.,  Rev.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  Di- 
vinity School,  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  (Early 
Christian  and  Medieval  Education; 
Canon  Law;  etc.) 

Henry  Turner  Bailey,  Editor  School  Arts 
Book.     (Drawing.) 

Liberty  H.  Bailey,  LL.D.,  Director  of  New- 
York  State  College  of  Agriculture, 
Cornell  University.  (Agricultural  Edu- 
cation.) 

Franz  Boas,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  and 
Head  of  Department  of  Anthropology, 
Columbia  University.     (Anthropology.) 

John  G.  Bowman,  A.M.,  Secretary  of  the 
Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Teaching.  (Colleges  and  Uni- 
versities.) 

Elmer  E.  Brown,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education, 
Washington,  D.C.     (Academies.) 

Samuel  W.  Brown,  A.B.,  IDean  of  the  Profes- 
sional School,  State  Normal  School, 
Le-\viston,  Idaho.     (Bible  in  the  Schools.) 

Edward  F.  Buchner,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Education  and  Philosophy,  Johns  Hop- 
kins University.  (Educational  Philoso- 
phers.) 

Leo  Burgerstein,  Ph.D.,  k.k.  Professor, 
Privatdozent  in  the  University  of 
Vienna,  Vienna,  Austria.  (Hygiene  of 
Coeducation;  Air  of  the  Schoolrooin; 
etc.) 

John  Burnet,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Greek, 
University  of  St.  Andrews,  Scotland. 
(Aristotle.) 

William  H.  Burnham,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Pedagogy  and  School  Hygiene,  Clark 
University.     (School  Hygiene.) 

Otis  W.  Caldwell,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Professor 
of  Botany,  University  of  Chicago. 
(Botany  in  the  Schools;  etc.) 


Edward  H.  Cameron,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Pro- 
fessor of  Psychology,  Yale  University. 
(Psychology.) 

Paul  Carus,  Ph.D.,  Editor,  The  Monist; 
Editor,  The  Open  Court.  (Buddhism 
and  Education,  etc.) 

Morris  Raphael  Cohen,  Ph.D.,  Instructor 
in  Mathematics,  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York.     (Davidson.) 

Percival  R.  Cole,  Ph.D.,  Vice-Principal  of 
the  Training  College,  Sydney,  Aus- 
tralia. (Australia;  Topics  in  the  His- 
tory of  Education.) 

Brother  Constantius,  Professor  of  Philos- 
ophy, Christian  Brothers  College,  St. 
Louis,  Mo.  (Christian  Brothers,  Schools 
of.) 

John  M.  Coulter,  Ph.D.,  Professor  and  Head 
of  Department  of  Botany,  University 
of  Chicago.     (Botany.) 

Ellwood  P.  Cubberley,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Education,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  Univer- 
sity. (Educational  Administration;  State 
Systems  of  Education;  etc.) 

Alexander  Darroch,  M.A.,  Professor  of 
Education,  L^niversity  of  Edin- 
burgh. (Scotch  Universities ;  and  Biog- 
raphies.) 

Eugene  Davenport,  M.Agrl.,  LL.D.,  Dean 
of  College  of  Agriculture,  LTniversity  of 
Illinois.     (Agricultural  Colleges.) 

Henry  Davies,  Rev.,  Ph.D.,  Rector,  Easton, 
Md.     (Church  Fathers.) 

John  Dewey,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  Columbia  University.  (Phi- 
losophy of  Education.) 

Raymond  Dodge,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Psy- 
chology, Wesleyan  LTniversity.  (Psy- 
chology.) 

Arthur  W.  Dow,  Professor  of  Fine  Arts, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 
(Methods  of  Teaching  Art.) 

Fletcher  B.  Dresslar,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Education,  University  of  Alabama. 
(School  Architecture;  etc.) 

Knight  Dunlap,  Ph.D.,  Associate  in  Psy- 
chology, Johns  Hopkins  LTniversity. 
(Psychology.) 

Edward  C.  Elliott,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Education;  Director,  Course  for  the 
Training  of  Teachers,  University  of 
Wisconsin.  (City  School  Administra- 
tion; etc.) 


CONTRIBUTORS   TO   VOLUME  I 


Frederic  E.  Farrington,  Ph.D.,  A.'ssociate 
Prufossor  of  iMlucatioual  Adniinistra- 
tion,  Teachers  (.^ollege,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity.    (French  Ediicalors;  etc.) 

Jefferson  B.  Fletcher,  A.M.,  Professor  of 
Com]5arative  Literature,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity.    {Casliglione.) 

Herbert  D.  Foster,  Litt.D.,  Professor  of 
History,  Dartmouth  College.  {Calvin; 
Calrini.sin  and  Education.) 

William  T.  Foster,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  President  of 
Reed  College.     {American  College.) 

Shepherd  L  Franz,  Ph.D.,  Scientific  Director 
and  Psychologist,  Government  Hospital 
for  the  Insane;  Professor  of  Ex]5erimental 
P.sychology  and  of  Philosophy,  George 
AVashington  University.     {Psychology.) 

Charles  Galwey,  A.B.,  Tutor  of  English, 
College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 
{Colleges  and  Universities.) 

Charles  J.  B.  Gaskoin,  Rev.,  M.A.,  Scholar 
of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge  University, 
Cambridge,  England.     {Alcuin;  etc.) 

Henry  H.  Goddard,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Director 
Department  of  Psychological  Research, 
New  Jersey  Training  School  for  Feeble- 
Minded,  Vineland,  N.  J.  {Schools  for 
Dcffctires.) 

Louis  H.  Gray,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Editor 
on  Hastings,  Encyclopedia  of  Religion 
and  Ethics.     {Alphabet.) 

G.  Stanley  Hall,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of 
Clark  University.     (Adolescence.) 

Alfred  D.  F.  Hamlin,  A.M.,  Professor  of  the 
History  of  Architecture,  Columbia  L^ni- 
versity.     (Architecture.) 

James  P.  Haney,  B.S.,  M.D.,  Director  of 
Art,  High  Schools,  New  York  City.  {Art 
in  the  Schools.) 

Lee  F.  Hanmer,  Associate  Director,  Depart- 
ment of  Child  Hygiene,  Russell  Sage 
Foundation.  (Athletics  in  Secondary 
and  Elementary  Schools.) 

Isaac  T.  Headland,  D.D.,  Professor  in  the 
Imperial  University,  Peking,  China. 
(Chinese  Education;   Confucius;  etc.) 

Ernest  N.  Henderson,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy  and  Education,  Adelphi 
College.  (Philosophical  and  psychologi- 
cal topics.) 

Clark  W.  Hetherington,  A.B.,  Professor  of 
Physical  Education,  and  Director  of 
Athletics,  University  of  Missouri. 
{Athletics.) 

Herman  H.  Home,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the 
History  of  Education,  and  of  the  His- 
tory of  Philosophy,  New  York  Univer- 
sity.    (Francis  Bacon;  etc.) 


William  DeWitt  Hyde,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Presi- 
dent of  liowdoin  College.  {The  Amer- 
ican College.) 

Harold  Jacoby,  Ph.D.,  Rutherfurd  Pro- 
fessor of  Astronomy,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity.    {Astronomy.) 

Joseph  Jastrow,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Psy- 
chology, University  of  Wisconsin. 
(Topics  in  Psychology.) 

Jeremiah  W.  Jenks,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor 
of  Political  Economy  and  Politics, 
Cornell  University.  (Education  for  Cit- 
izenship.) 

Joseph  F.  Johnson,  A.B.,  D.C.S.,  Dean  of 
School  of  Conmierce,  New  York  Uni- 
versity. (Commercial  Education;  Ac- 
cnuntancy  Education.) 

Wm.  Dawson  Johnston,  A.M.,  Librarian  of 
Columbia  University.  {Bibliographical 
Education.) 

Adam  Leroy  Jones,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity.    {.Esthetics.) 

Richard  Jones,  A.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  and 
Head  of  Department  of  English  Litera- 
ture, Tufts  College.     (Carlyle.) 

Whitman  H.  Jordan, Sc.D.,  LL.D.,  Director 
of  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Ge- 
neva, N.  Y.  {Agricultural  Experiment 
Stations.) 

Charles  H.  Judd,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor 
and  Director  of  the  School  of  Educa- 
tion, University  of  Chicago.  (Educa- 
tional Psychology.) 

Isaac  L.  Kandel,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Teaching 
Fellow  in  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University.  {Historical  and  Admin- 
istrative Topics.) 

Helen  Keller.     (Education  of  the  Blind.) 

D.  J.  Kennedy,  Rev.,  O.P.,  Profes.sor  of 
Sacramental  Theology,  Catholic  Univer- 
sit.y.     (Dominicans.) 

Frederick  P.  Keppel,  A.B.,  Dean  of  Colum- 
bia College.    (Columbia  Lhiiversity  ;  etc.) 

William  H.  Kilpatrick,  A.M.,  Lecturer  in 
Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University.  (Colonial  Period  in  Amer- 
ican Education.) 

Edwin  A.  Kirkpatrick,  Ph.M.,  Head  of  De- 
partment of  Psychology  and  Child 
Study,  State  Normal  School,  Fitch- 
burg,  Mass.      (Child  Study.) 

George  P.  Krapp,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Eng- 
lish, Columbia  University.  (Anglo-Sax- 
on; etc.) 

Arthur  F.  Leach,  Charity  Commissioner  for 
England  and  Wales,  London.  (Topics 
in  English  Educational  History.) 


CONTRIBUTORS   TO   VOLUME   I 


Gardner  C.  Leonard,  A.B.,  Director  Inter- 
collegiate Bureau  of  Academic  Cos- 
tume.    {Academic  Costume.) 

Florence  N.  Levy,  Editor,  American  Art 
Annual.     {Art  Schools  in  America.) 

Gonzalez  Lodge,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek,  Teachers  College,  Co- 
lumbia University.    {Ccesar ;  Cicero ;  etc.) 

Donald  Macmillan,  Rev.,  M.A.,  Kelvinside, 
Glasgow,  Scotland.     {Buchanan.) 

Joseph  McCabe,  formerly  Rector  of  Buck- 
ingham College.     {St.  Augustine.) 

Frank  Morton  McMurry,  Ph.D.,  Professor 
of  Elementary  Education,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University.  {Biog- 
raphy in  Education;  etc.) 

Anne  Sullivan  Macy,  Teacher  of  Helen 
Keller.     {Education  of  the  Deaf-Blind.) 

Frank  A.  Manny,  A.M.,  Professor  of  Edu- 
cation, State  Normal  School,  Kalama- 
zoo, Mich.  {Boarding  Schools;  etc.) 

George  L.  Meylan,  M.D.,  Assistant  Professor 
of  Physical  Education  and  Medical 
Director  of  the  Gymnasium,  Columbia 
University.  {Educational  Athletics; 
etc.) 

Paul  Monroe,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the  History 
of  Education,  Teachers  College,  Colmn- 
bia  University.  {History  of  Educa- 
tion.) 

Wilis.  Monroe,  A. B.,  Professor  of  Psychology 
and  Education,  State  Normal  School, 
Montclair,  N.J.  {A  merican  Biography; 
etc.) 

Frederick  Monteser,  Ph.D.,  Head  of  German 
Department  De  Witt  Clinton  High 
School,  New  York  city  ;  formerly  Lec- 
turer on  Education,  New  York  LTniver- 
sity.     {German  Educational  Biography.) 

J.  E.  G.  de  Montmorency,  B.A.,  LL.B.  Lit- 
erary Editor  of  The  Contemporary 
Review;  Barrister,  London,  England. 
{English  Educational  History.) 

James  Bass  Mullinger,  M.A.,  late  Librarian 
and  University  Lecturer  in  History, 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  {His- 
tory of  Cambridge  Univers-ity.) 

James  Phinney  Munroe,  B.S.,  Secretary  of 
the  Corporation,  Mass.  Institute  of 
Technology,  Boston,  Mass.  {Appren- 
tice   Education.) 

Naomi  Norsworthy,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Educational  Psychology. 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 
{Psychology.) 

Robert  L.  Packard,  A.M.,  Specialist  in  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington, 
D.C.    {Spanish  American  Education.) 


Erastus  Palmer,  A.M.,  Professor  and  Head 
of  Department  of  Public  Speaking,  Col- 
lege of  the  City  of  New  York.  {Decla- 
mation; Debating.) 

Walter  B.  PiUsbury,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Psychology,  University  of  Michigan. 
{Psychology.) 

F.  M.  Powicke,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Eco- 
nomics, LTniversity  of  Belfast,  Ireland. 
( K  ing  A  If  red ;  etc . ) 

John  Dyneley  Prince,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Semitic  Languages,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity. {Assijrian  and  Babylonian  Edu- 
cation.) 

Wyllys  Rede,  Rev.,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  Fellow 
Johns  Hopkins  University.  (Church 
Fathers.) 

Charles  R.  Richards,  B.S.,  Director,  Cooper 
Union,  New  York  City.  {Topics  in 
Industrial  Education.) 

James  H.  Robinson,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
History,  Columbia  University.  {Alche- 
my;  Astrology;  etc.) 

Julius  Sachs,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Secondary  Education,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University.  {Topics  in 
Secondary  Education.) 

Michael  E.  Sadler,  LL.D.,  Litt.D.,  Professor 
of  Education,  University  of  Manches- 
ter.    {English  Educational  Biographies.) 

Irene  Sargent,  Professor  of  the  History  of 
Fine  Arts,  Syracuse  LTniversity.  {Art 
Schools  of  Europe.) 

Walter  Sargent,  Professor  of  Fine  and  In- 
dustrial Arts,  University  of  Chicago. 
{Design.) 

Douglas  G.  Schulze,  B.A.,  Assistant  Master, 
LTppingham  School.  {Athletics  in  Eng- 
lish Schools.) 

Izora  Scott,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in  Latin,  Eras- 
mus Hall  High  School,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 
( Ciceron  ia  nism .) 

Carl  E.  Seashore,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Psy- 
chology and  Dean  of  the  Graduate  Col- 
lege, State  LTniversity  of  Iowa.  {Psy- 
chology.) 

Joseph  Sexton,  Liverpool,  England.  {Ap- 
prcnticcsh ip  Education.) 

T.  Leslie  Shear,  Ph.D.,  fonnerly  Instructor 
in  Classical  Philology,  Barnard  College, 
Columbia  University.     {Archceology .) 

Stuart  P.  Sherman,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Pro- 
fessor of  English,  Universitv  of  Illinois. 
{Chesterfield.) 

Thomas  E.  Shields,  Rev.,  Ph.D.,  Professor 
of  Education,  Catholic  University  of 
America,  Washington,  D.C.  {Convent 
Schools;  etc.) 


Ix 


CONTRIBUTORS   TO   VOLUME  I 


Alexander  Smith,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Clicin- 
istry,  University  of  Cliicago.  {('Ihiii- 
/.x/;-//.) 

Anna  Tolman  Smith,  Specialist  in  Education, 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington,  D.C.  {National  Systems 
of  Education.) 

David  Eugene  Smith,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics,  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University.  (Mathe- 
matics.) 

David  Snedden,  Ph.D.,  Commissioner  of 
Education,  State  of  Ma.ssachusetts. 
(Topics  in  Educational  Ad  mini  strati  on.) 

J.  E.  Spingarn,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Com- 
parative Literature,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity.    {Comparative  Literature.) 

George  M.  Stratton,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Psy- 
chology, University  of  California.  (Psy- 
chology.) 

James  Sullivan,  Ph.D.,  Princijial  of  Boys' 
High  School,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.  (Civics; 
Current  Events;  etc.) 

Henry  Suzzallo,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the  Phi- 
losophy of  Education,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  LTniversity.  (Educative  Meth- 
ods.) 

Amy  E.  Tanner,  Ph.D.,  Department  of  Ex- 
perimental Pedagogy,  Children's  Insti- 
tute, Clark  University.     (Adolescence.) 

Rudolf  Tombo,  Jr.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Adjunct 
Professor  of  the  Germanic  Languages 
and  Literatures,  Columbia  L^niversity. 
(  Universities.) 

William  P.  Trent,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  Professor 
of  English  Literature,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity.    (Aistell;  etc.) 

A.  C.  True,  Sc.D.,  Director  of  Office  of  Ex- 
periment Stations,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.C.     (Agricultural  Education.) 

WUliam  Turner,  Rev.,  A.B.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy,  Catholic  University 
of  America,  Washington,  D.C.  (Aqui- 
nas;   Benedictines;  etc.) 


Harlan  Updegraff,  Ph.D.,  Specialist,  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education,  Washing- 
ton, D.C.     (Alaska;  etc.) 

George  E.  Vincent,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Sociology,  University  of  Chicago. 
(Chautauqua;  University  of  Chicago; 
etc.) 

J.  W.  H.  Walden,  Ph.D.,  formerly  Instructor 
in  Latin,  Harvard  University.  (  Univer- 
sity of  Athen.'i;   etc.) 

Monsignor  B.  N.  Ward,  Rt.  Rev.,  President 
St.  Edmund's  College,  Old  Hall,  Ware, 
England.     (Wm.  Allen;  etc.) 

Margaret  F.  Washburn,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Psyc^hology,  Vassar  College.  (Psychol- 
ogy.) 

Foster  Watson,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Educa- 
tion, University  College  of  Wales, 
Aberystwj-th,  Wales.  (English  Edu- 
cational History.) 

John  B.  Watson,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Experi- 
mental and  Comparative  Psychology, 
Johns  Hopkins  University.     (Darwin.) 

Samuel  Weir,  Ph.D.,  Dean  of  the  School  of 
Education,  Dakota  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity.     (Bioyraphy  and  Philosophy.) 

Guy  Montrose  Whipple,  Ph.D.,  Assistant 
Professor  of  Eilucation,  Cornell  Univer- 
sitv.    (Psychology.) 

Edmund  B.  Wilson,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Profes- 
sor of  Zoology,  Columbia  University. 
(Biohxpi.) 

Harry  L.  Wilson,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Profes.sor  of 
Roman  Archaeology  and  Epigraphy, 
Johns  Hopkins  University.  (Archaeol- 
ogy.) 

Mary  Schenck  Woolman,  B.S.,  Professor  of 
Domestic  Art,  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia University.     (Domestic  Art.) 

James  L  Wyer,  Jr.,  Director,  New  York 
State  Library,  Albany,  N.Y.  (Bibliog- 
raphies of  Education.) 

Robert  M.  Yerkes,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Comparative  Psychology, 
Harvard  University.     (Psychology.) 


PREFACE 

A  Gydopedin  of  Edtication:  The  present  work  is  the  result  of  the  cooperative  effort  of 
several  hundred  specialists,  who  have  here  contributed  the  results  of  their  study  to  the  system- 
atizing of  educational  ideas  and  practices.  A  spirit  of  loyalty  to  their  chosen  profession  and 
a  scholarly  interest  in  the  attempt  to  give  a  more  definite  scientific  basis  to  the  work  of  the 
teacher  have  been  the  dominant  motives.  That  no  such  cyclopedia  has  ever  appeared  in 
English,  although  similar  ones  have  existed  in  other  languages,  is  the  justification  for  such 
an  undertaking.  The  resulting  work  represents  the  product  of  long  investigation  on  the  part 
of  most  of  the  contributors,  and  is  the  immediate  outcome  of  several  years  of  special  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  editors. 

The  Need  for  such  a  Work:  Three  conditions  indicate  clearly  the  need  of  such  a  work  for 
English-speaking  j)eople :  First.  The  vast  and  varied  character  of  educational  literature,  in- 
dicative of  a  corresponding  variety  in  educational  ideas  and  practices.  Second.  The  growing 
importance  of  education  as  a  social  process,  of  the  school  as  a  social  institution,  and  of  the 
teacher  as  a  social  functionary.  Third.  The  great  numerical  strength  of  the  teaching  pro- 
fession and  its  rapidly  changing  personnel. 

The  last  annual  bibliography  of  education  published  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education  contained  more  than  twelve  hundred  titles.  The  publishers'  announcement  of  the 
past  year  gives  the  titles  of  348  new  works  on  education  out  of  a  total  of  8745  new  books 
issued  in  the  United  States.  For  several  years  previously  the  ratio  was  even  larger.  In 
England,  the  ratio  was  578  to  8446 ;  in  Germany,  for  the  preceding  year,  the  ratio  was  4203 
to  30,317 ;  in  France,  1005  to  8805.  This  summary  does  not  include  the  very  numerous  vol- 
umes, classified  under  history,  philosoxshy,  sociology,  religion,  and  related  subjects,  which  have 
immediate  educational  significance.  During  the  same  time  educational  periodicals  were 
issued  in  the  United  States  to  the  number  of  150 ;  in  Germany  the  number  is  even  in  excess 
of  this  total.  This  vast  and  growing  literature  indicates  not  only  a  vigorous  interest  in  educa- 
tional problems  and  practices,  but  it  is  evidence  also  of  an  equally  great  diversity  in  views 
and  in  practices.  It  is  clearly  evident  that  the  rank  and  file  of  the  teaching  profession,  as 
well  as  the  casual  social  observer,  would  be  hopelessly  lost  in  this  maze  of  material,  and  that 
some  guidance  is  necessary  even  to  those  most  thoroughly  prepared  to  seek  for  the  sanest 
ideas  and  the  soundest  practice.  But  no  attempt  has  previously  been  made  in  English  to 
systematize  the  extensive  body  of  knowledge  found  in  this  rapidly  expanding  literature. 

The  need  for  such  a  work  is  further  emphasized  by  the  growing  imiaortance  of  the  teach- 
ing profession.  It  is  now  the  largest  in  point  of  numbers  of  all  the  professions.  Its  standards, 
while  vague,  are  gradually  being  raised  and  harmonized,  its  aims  broadened  and  made  more 
definite.  In  fact,  one  of  the  most  significant  of  recent  social  changes  is  the  tendency  to  throw 
upon  the  school  various  social  and  ethical  responsibilities  hitherto  assumed  by  other  professions 
or  by  other  institutions.  The  school  is,  in  the  broadest  way,  being  made  responsible  for  the 
morals  of  the  growing  generation.  The  family  no  longer  performs  its  earlier  function  of  train- 
ing in  practical  activities  and  homely  duties ;  and  the  school  must  take  its  place.  The  play- 
ground, with  its  development  of  sound  physique,  of  skill,  of  the  sense  of  fair  dealing,  ol 
interest  in  group  activities,  must  be  incorporated  in  the  school.  Even  the  opportunities  for 
social  amusements,  with  the  resulting  attainment  of  social  graces,  are  now  coming  to  be  offered, 
both  in  urban  and  rural  communities,  through  the  school.     Devotion  to  private  morality  and 


PREFACE 

to  jdiblic  duty  are  now  expected  to  result  from  the  work  of  tlie  teacher  rather  than  from  tliat 
of  the  parent  or  other  professional  guides.  The  school  is  expected  to  lessen,  if  not  to  obviate, 
the  work  of  the  court,  especially  for  juvenile  offenders;  to  furnish  the  services  of  the  physi- 
cian and  dentist;  to  serve  in  place  of  .tlie  minister ;  to  surpass,  both  in  scientific  cliaracter  and 
in  practical  value,  the  work  of  the  farm,  the  shop,  and  the  home.  The  overburdened  teacher 
needs  a  guide  in  the  maze  of  his  new  duties  and  multiplied  activities  ;  the  public  needs  a  source 
of  information  as  to  what  the  school  is  trying  to  do  and  is  actually  accomplishing,  and  why  it 
is  making  such  efforts. 

Even  these  hints  of  the  enlarged  scope  of  the  teacher's  work  do  not  fully  present  the 
situation.  Society  is  laying  all  of  these  tremendous  responsibilities  on  a  profession  for  which 
it  makes  no  adequate  provision,  either  in  the  way  of  remuneration  or  by  other  inducements, 
to  attract  the  best  talent  to  the  profession,  to  train  such  talent  adequatel}-,  or  to  retain  it  for 
any  length  of  time.  The  teaching  profession  is  a  rapidly  changing  one.  Probably  twenty-five 
per  cent  of  the  entire  profession  in  the  United  States  is  renewed  each  year.  It  seems  almost 
a  travesty  to  call  such  an  unstable  body  a  profession  ;  and  a  blunder  for  society  to  bestow  such 
tremendous  responsibilities,  with  so  slight  consideration  of  the  conditions  implied.  The  work 
of  the  educational  administrator  is  to  replenish  the  rapidly  depleted  ranks  with  the  best  mate- 
rial available;  to  raise  the  new  recruits  as  quickly  as  possible  to  a  standard  of  efficiency; 
to  improve  them  constantly  while  in  service. 

Tlie  Scope  of  the  Work  :  These  volumes  will  include  a  concise  discussion  of  all  topics  of 
importance  and  interest  to  the  teacher,  and  will  give  such  information  concerning  every  divi- 
sion of  educational  practice  as  is  essential  to  a  book  of  reference.  Completeness  of  treatment 
is  not  designed.  Completeness  of  scope  is  attempted.  Every  aspect  of  education  as  an  art 
and  as  a  science  will  be  treated.  The  main  departments  will  be  those  of  the  Philosophy  and 
Science  of  Education ;  History  of  Education ;  Educational  Biography ;  Educational  Institu- 
tions, including  Universities,  Colleges,  and  special  Institutions ;  Secondary  Education ;  Ele- 
mentary Education ;  the  Curriculum ;  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision ;  School 
Systems,  home  and  foreign;  Educational  ]^Iethod,  general  and  special;  Educational  Psy- 
chology; School  Hygiene  and  School  Architecture.  Every  subject  taught  in  the  school  will 
be  considered  in  detail,  as  to  history,  content,  educational  value,  special  methods,  and  bibli- 
ography. Every  important  method  or  educational  device  that  is  advocated  now  or  has  found 
a  place  in  the  past  will  be  defined  and  evaluated.  The  department  of  Educational  Adminis- 
tration will  include  a  treatment  of  the  system  of  education  in  every  country  and  in  every  com- 
monwealth in  the  United  States.  Each  of  these  articles  will  include  an  historical  treatment 
as  well  as  an  analysis  of  contemporary  conditions.  All  institutions  of  higher  education  will 
also  be  considered  individually ;  every  phase  of  educational  work  in  the  various  social  ramifica- 
tions of  the  present  will  be  presented.  Every  important  point  in  school  administration,  school 
supervision,  and  classroom  management  will  be  treated  by  some  specialist  competent  to  deal 
with  the  subject. 

Slight  attention  has  been  given  to  matters  of  opinion  only.  The  aim  is  to  present  authen- 
tic information.  With  current  problems  the  purpose  has  been  to  state  the  facts  of  the  prob- 
lem onlj',  leaving  inferences  to  the  reader  after  consideration  of  the  facts  presented  or  after 
reference  to  further  discussions. 

Tlie  Aim  of  the  Work:  The  making  of  a  work  of  reference  is  only  one,  and  that  not 
the  most  important,  of  the  motives  which  have  controlled  the  editors.  In  the  first  place  it  is 
hoped  that  by  standardizing  and  organizing  in  a  succinct  form  the  information  essential  for 
an  intelligent  participation  in  educational  activities,  something  will  be  contributed  to  the 
solution  of  educational  problems ;  if  in  no  other  way,  at  least  through  its  direct  aid  to  those 
engaged  in  practical  work. 

As  a  work  of  reference  the  pragmatic  purpose  is  evident.     The  need  for  a  comprehensive 


PREFACE 

organization  of  information  concerning  education  has  been  indicated.  Not  only  does  the 
teacher  need  a  source  of  information  for  all  problems  which  come  up  in  the  schoolroom  and 
for  all  discussions  of  theory  that  grow  out  of  these,  but  school  administrators  and  local  officials 
require  an  accessible  source  of  information  that  will  give  them  the  main  points  in  regard  to 
any  topic  and  put  them  immediately  in  touch  with  the  best  literature  relating  to  any  topic. 
Professional  men,  editors,  ministers,  politicians,  —  whoever  deals  with  questions  of  public 
welfare  intimately  connected  with  education,  —  need  a  reference  w^ork  giving  the  outlines 
of  educational  problems,  the  suggested  solutions,  the  statistical  information,  and,  in  gen- 
eral, the  essential  facts.  IMuch  of  this  information  cannot  now  be  obtained  from  existing 
books  of  reference.     Such  assistance  this  Cyclopedia  seeks  to  give. 

The  most  practical  and  most  immediate  aim  is  to  be  of  service  to  the  rank  and  file  of  the 
teaching  profession.  To  accomplish  this  end,  the  entire  work  is  organized  not  simply  as  a 
book  of  reference,  but  also  as  a  systematic  treatise  on  each  phase  of  the  subject.  To  further 
this  design,  each  aspect  of  the  subject  which  lends  it.self  to  systematic  scientific  treatment  is 
under  the  charge  of  a  departmental  or  associate  editor  who  is  an  authority  in  the  special  field, 
and  who  is  responsible,  not  only  for  an  adequate  presentation  of  established  facts,  but  for  such 
a  systematic  organization  of  the  material  that  the  combined  articles  will  serve  as  a  scientific 
treatise  on  the  subject.  To  this  end  the  work  includes  a  logical  outline  of  the  topics  treated, 
with  paginal  references.  With  such  analyses  the  work  will  constitute  an  authoritative  and 
comprehensive  yet  condensed  textbook  on  method,  on  educational  psychology,  on  school 
administration,  on  school  hygiene,  on  the  history  of  philosophy  of  education,  etc. 

Finally  a  deeper  professional  motive  has  actuated  those  who  have  contributed  most  to 
the  work.  Out  of  such  an  organization  of  materials,  so  heterogeneous  in  character,  it  is 
hoped  that  some  greater  unity  may  be  given  to  our  educational  thought  and  a  greater 
uniformity  may  result  in  educational  practice.  The  mere  systematization  of  educational 
ideas,  with  a  greater  degree  of  uniformity  in  use  of  terminology,  should  assist  in  unifying 
educational  thought.  The  bringing  to  light  of  divergent  practices;  the  statement  of  the 
results  of  the  best  conducted  experiments  ;  the  statement  of  theory  underlying  our  practice  ; 
the  effort  involved  in  the  application  of  the  comparative  method  of  investigation  and  study, 
—  all  these  should  tend  to  a  uniformly  higher  plane  of  educational  practice. 

The  Editorial  Staff:  The  first  volume  includes  about  a  thousand  title  entries.  The 
articles  are  the  contributions  of  more  than  one  hundred  specialists.  Subsequent  volumes 
are  now  being  prepared  by  contributors  representing  an  equally  wide  range  of  interest.  The 
departmental  editors,  chosen  chiefly  from  the  American  field,  represent  in  every  case  the  most 
authoritative  and  sane  specialization  in  their  respective  spheres.  To  a  number  of  contributors 
the  editor  is  no  less  indebted  than  to  the  departmental  editors. 

The  completed  work  will  be  the  consummation  of  plans,  developed  through  many  years  ; 
the  execution  of  these  plans  will  be  due  to  the  cooperation  of  the  numerous  contributors, 
whose  assistance  has  been  as  generous  and  hearty  as  their  scholarship  is  wide  and  thorough. 

THE   EDITOR. 


A   CYCLOPEDIA   OF   EDUCATION^ 


ABACUS.  — A  term  used  in  education  witli 
several  meanings.  As  a  school  instrument  it 
seems  originally  to  have  meant  a  sand  table,  or 
board  covered  with  fine  dust,  whence  the  Greek 
ii/3a|  from  the  Semitic  abq,  dust,  —  the  most 
commonly  accepted  of  several  etymologies. 
Upon  this  dust-covered  table  figures  were  writ- 
ten, to  be  erased  by  rubbing  with  the  thumb. 
This  form  of  abacus  seems  to  have  been  of 
Semitic  origin,  and  its  use  extended  to  the  Far 
East  and  to  Europe,  the  name  tabula  geometri- 
calis  being  often  applied  to  it  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  Upon  this  abacus  the  calculator  or  ge- 
ometrician wrote  with  a  stilus  or  radius  geomet- 
ricalis,  very  much  as  on  the  wax  tablet  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  which  was  itself  a  variant 
of  the  sand  board.  Numerals  taught  in  the 
western  Arab  schools  by  the  help  of  this  dust 
board  were  commonly  known  as  gol)ar  (dust) 
numerals,  and  these  are  closely  related  to  our 
modern  "Arabic  "  forms.  The  second  and  more 
distinctive  form  of  abacus  was  a  ruled  table 
upon  which  sticks  or  disks  were  placed  in  such 
a  way  as  to  represent  numbers.  The  earliest 
forms  of  counters  were  probably  pebbles  {calculi, 
whence  our  word  "  calculate").  These  were 
thrown  upon  the  ruled  table,  and  hence  were 
caWed  projectiles  or  jetons  (hovnjacere,  to  throw), 
and  hence  our  expression  "  to  cast  an  account." 
They  were  also  known  as  abaculi  (counters  or 
reckoning  pennies),  in  Latin  denarii  supputarii, 
and  in  German  Rechenpfennige,  Zahlpfennige  or 
Raitpfennige. 

There  have  been  four  leading  variants  of  this 
kind  of  abacus.  In  the  first  the  counters  were 
loose  disks  placed  in  lines  or  spaces  to  indi- 
cate numbers,  a  form  that  continued  in  Europe 
until  the  eighteenth  century,  although  not  usu- 

.,, ally    described     in     text- 

l)ooks  after  the  latter  half 

of  the  sixteenth   century. 

Shakespeare    speaks    con- 
temptuously    of    a    shop- 
keeper    as     a     "  counter 

__^ caster,"   and   Hartwell   in 

~  his    1646   edition    of    Re- 

eorde's  Ground,    of   Aries, 

*  speaks  of  ignorant  people 

as  "  any  that  can  but  cast 

with  counters."     Such  an 

-  -  abacus  is  here  illustrated. 

_.      ,  ,   ,  The    lines   indicate,    from 

1  he  abacus  ruled  on  a    ^i        i     ^.a  •*        x 

j^ljlg_  the    bottom,    units,    tens, 

hundreds,    and    so    on,    a 

cross  being  placed  on  the  lines  of  thousands  and 

millions,  and  on  every  third  line  thereafter,  this 

VOL.   I B 


0 


© 


© 


© 


The  arc  abacus. 


being  the  origin  of  our  separatrix.  The  spaces 
represent  5,  50,  500,  and  in  general  5- 10",  a  relic 
of  the  Roman  notation  which  was  originally 
used  in  central  Europe  in  connection  with  this 
form.  Thus  in  the  above  figure  the  number 
represented  is  70,952.  It  is  evident  that  the 
simple  operations  can  be  performed  by  manipu- 
lating these  counters,  and  so  common  was  this 
method  that  "to  abacus"  was  a  recognized 
verb  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  arithmeticians 
were  known  as 
ahacisti.  A  second 
variant  is  the  "  arc 
abacus,"  "  column 
abacus,"  or"  arcus 
Py  th  agoreus," 
commonly  attrib- 
uted to  Gerbert 
(Pope  Sylvester 
II,c.  IOOOa.d.).  In 
this  form,  which 
was  never  exten- 
sively used,  the 
lines  were  vertical  and  the  threefold  groups 
(our  "  periods")  were  marked  off  by  arcs.  In- 
stead of  u.sing  several  counters  to  represent  any 
number  of  units,  Gerbert  used  one  upon  which 
the  number  was  written,  the  zero  having  no 
counter,  as  in  the  above  representation  of  70,952. 
As  soon  as  the  zero  became  well  understood,  this 
form  of  the  abacus  lost  what  little  standing  it 
had.  A  third  form  of  the  counter  abacus  is  the 
one  in  which  the  calcuU  are  either  strung  on 
wires  or  allowed  to  slide  in  grooves.  This  form 
was  used  by  the  Romans,  at  least  five  early 
specimens  having  been  known  in  recent  times. 
The  Roman  abacus  resembled  somewhat  the 
late  Japanese  soroban,  which  is  still  used  for 
practical  computation.  The  Japanese  derived 
this  instrument  from  the  Chinese  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  modifying  it  slightly,  and  the 
Chinese  seem  not  to  have  used  their  sivaji  pan 
before  about  the  thirteenth  century.  The  old 
mathematical  treatises  of  China  represent  num- 
bers by  rods  Fig. 
3,  representing 
537,063.  This  is 
Chinese  abacus.  the    foufth    form 

of  this  class  of 
abacus.  In  Japan,  at  least  from  about  600  a.d., 
bamboo  rods  (chikusaku)  were  used,  these  being 
later  replaced  by  the  sanchu  or  sangi,  rectangular 
sticks  laid  in  squares  on  a  ruled  table.  By  the 
sangi  the  number  (Fig.  4),  527,068,  would  be 
represented  as  here  shown.  In  Persia  the  beads 
are  strung  on  wires,  and  this  form  is  also  found 


-LO± 


ABANDONED   CHILDREN 


ABBEY  SCHOOLS 


among  tlu-  Arab  traders  to-day,  and  evidently 
worked  its  way  north  into  Russia,  where  it  is 

still  almost  uni- 
versal. W  i  t  h 
the  abacus  reck- 
oniiiK  is  closely 
connected  the 
early    Court    of 


X 


Japanese  abacus. 


the  Exchequer,  the  tally  stick,  the  quipos  of 
Peru,  the  use  of  counters  in  panics  (like  poker 
chip-sandthe  bead  counters  used  in  billiards),  the 
conversation  beads  of  the  Mohainniedan,  and 
the  prayer  beads  of  certain  relision.s  (.such  as  the 
rosary).  Even  to-day  a  great  i)art  of  the  world 
does  its  computing  on  some  form  of  the  aba- 
cus, and  for  the  more  enlightened  part  there 
is  a  return  to  mechanical  calculation  by  means 
of  the  modern  computing  machines. 

The  term  "  abacus  "  came  also  to  be  used  in 
the  Middle  .A.ges  to  mean  merely  arithmetic,  as  in 
Leonardo  Fibonacci's  Liber  abbaci  (tic)  of  1202, 
and  in  numerous  other  abacidi.  Even  as  late 
as  the  time  of  the  early  printed  arithmetics, 
Libro  il'abaco  was  not  an  uncommon  name 
for  a  textbook  on  the  subject. 

In  modern  education  there  has  been  a  return 
to  the  use  of  counters  or  of  similar  devices  in  the 
teaching  of  number  to  young  children,  a  com- 
mendable idea  when  not  carried  to  an  extreme. 

D.  E.  S. 

ABANDONED  CHILDREN.  —  See  Fouxd- 
LixG  Ho.MEs;  Ori'h.ws,  Edicwtiox  of. 

ABBEY  SCHOOLS.  —  The  importance  of 
aVibeys  and  monks  in  the  advancement  of  edu- 
cation has  been  much  exaggerated.  To  these 
alone  has  been  imputed  the  preservation  of 
learning  in  the  Dark  .Vgos,  which  research  has 
been  pushing  further  and  further  back  till  they 
almost  disappear  in  the  light  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  so  much  less  dark  are  they  found  to 
be  than  they  were  painted.  Indeed  it  may  al- 
most be  said  that  their  darkness  varies  directly 
with  the  darkness  and  the  ignorance  of  those 
who  dub  them  dark.  The  abbeys  at  first 
undoubtedly  set  themselves  against  learning. 
Even  Ilieronymus,  commonly  called  St.  Je- 
rome, reputed  the  most  learned  man  of  his  age, 
with  learning  ac(iuired  in  the  public  schools 
of  the  "  heathen,"  in  theory  tried  to  put  learning 
behind  him  as  an  evil  thing,  when  he  became  a 
monk,  and  a  legend  tells  how  an  angel  came  and 
flogged  him  for  reading  Cicero.  He  repudiated 
the  l)ishops  and  priests  who  sent  their  sons  to 
secular  schools  and  to  read  Vergil.  It  has  been 
acce])ted  and  repeatedly  said  that  there  were 
schools  in  the  abbey  of  Lerins  founded  by  St. 
Honorat  c.  410,  but  it  is  mere  assertion  without 
one  single  document  adduced  in  its  support. 
There  were  learned  men  among  its  members, 
no  doubt,  but  they  had  got  their  learning  before 
going  there.  That  bishops  resorted  to  it  as  a  re- 
treat is  true,  but  not  for  learning  any  more  than 
the   schoolmasters   who   went   into   retreat   at 


Radley  a  few  years  ago  went  there  for  the  good 
of  their  minds.  They  went  for  the  good  of 
their  souls.  Even  Mal)illon.  who  has  done  more 
than  any  one  to  color  the  history  of  abbeys  with 
a  learned  tinge,  points  out  this  error.  The  insti- 
tutions of  Cassian  (q.r.).  who  founded  the  abbey 
of  St.  Victor  at  ^Iarseilles  c.  417,  have  been 
cited  as  tending  to  encourage  learning.  Hut 
he  attacked  it.  He  declares  the  syllogisms  of 
dialectic  and  the  elo<iuenec  of  Cicero  are  un- 
worthy of  the  faith.  A  monk  is  directed  to 
drive  out  all  remembrance  of  secular  learning 
by  incessant  reading  of  the  Scriptures.  Even 
learning  in  thiMilogy  is  discouraged.  A  monk 
is  not  to  study  commentaries.  "  If  he  gives 
himself  to  chastity,  the  understanding  of  the 
Scriptures  will  come  without  any  theological 
studies."  He  forbids  even  the  art  of  writing. 
More  than  a  century  later  Cassiodorus  {(/.v.),  one 
of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  age,  founded  two 
abbeys  in  Calabria  and  wrote  his  Iiistitutinns 
for  them.  He  did  enjoin  the  study  of  the 
Fathers  and  Christian  historians  as  well  as  of 
the  Scriptures;  and  he  allows  the  study  of 
grammar  so  that  the  Scriptures  may  be  copied 
correctly.  But  it  was  not  Cassiodorus.  but 
Benedict,  who  became  the  prophet  of  the  monks. 
The  Benedictine  Rule  (see  Be.vedk'tines),  of 
almost  the  same  date  as  the  Institutioiiy,  set 
apart  only  two  hours  out  of  each  day  for 
reading,  except  in  Lent  ;  when,  lack  of  food 
preventing  hand  labor,  the  monks  were  re- 
quired to  read  through  one  hook  during  that 
period,  but  the  only  books  mentioned,  or  ap- 
parently allowed,  were  the  Bible  and  the 
Psalters.  Even  this  rule  was  remitted  for 
those  who  were  too  lazy  to  read.  They  might 
commute  it  for  work.  Xot  a  word  in  the  rule 
refers  to  education.  Boys  were  allowed  to  be 
offered  {oblati)  to  God  and  presumably  to  be 
brought  up  in  the  monastery,  and  of  course 
they  must  have  been  taught.  But  even  this  is 
not  said,  and  no  hint  is  given  of  education  of 
outsiders  being  a  duty  to  monks.  It  is  only 
when  we  come  to  the  Celtic  monasteries  of  the 
sixth  and  seventh  centuries  that  there  is  any 
identification  of  monasteries  with  education. 
There  is  no  authentic  evidence  of  this  before 
St.  Columban  (q.v.),  said  to  have  been  born 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  and  by  a 
biographer  rather  more  than  a  century  later 
to  have  studied  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  ge- 
ometry. The  number  both  of  monks  and 
clerks  seems  to  have  been  greatly  exaggerated. 
Apparently  whole  families  and  clans  formed 
monasteries.  An  obscure  phrase  in  the  Brehon 
laws,  "  purity  benefits  the  church  in  receiv- 
ing every  son  for  instruction,"  is  interpreted  to 
mean  that  all  were  to  be  educated.  What 
appears  to  be  certain  is  that  some  were  educated 
and  that  Irish  monks  conveyed  learning  to 
England,  and  English  clerics  and  monks  went  to 
Ireland  to  learn.  Clonfart,  under  St.  Brendan, 
is  credited  with  40,000  monks,  but  no  doubt 
through  a  misreading.     Thrice  fifty  seems  to  be 


ABBEY  SCHOOLS 


ABBEY  SCHOOLS 


the  normal  number  in  the  round  figures  of 
Hibernian  and  monastic  exaggeration.  Eng- 
lish monasteries  founded  on  the  Celtic  model, 
such  as  Jarrow  and  Wearmouth,  contained  six 
hundred  monks,  and  Bede  {q.v.)  the  master, 
as  Alcuin  {q.v.)  calls  him,  was  educated  in  the 
monastery  and  spent  his  life  in  educating  others, 
and  died  about  735.  It  is  to  be  observed  that 
no  word  is  said  as  to  his  educating  other  than 
the  inmates  of  his  monastery.  Letters  of  Aid- 
helm's  are  preserved  of  doubtful  authenticity, 
purporting  to  come  from  foreigners  wishing  to 
be  taught  by  him  at  Malmesbury.  But  they 
seem  to  be  monks.  St.  Columban  carried  the 
same  influence  to  France.  There  is  great  exag- 
geration in  the  amount  of  learning  and  the 
number  of  the  learned.  The  Lives  of  Saints 
repeat  with  unabashed  plagiarism  the  very 
same  phrases  one  after  another  as  a  sort  of 
common  form  for  the  accounts  of  the  successive 
youthful  prodigies  of  learning  which  those  who 
in  after  life  developed  into  saints  are  all  repre- 
sented as  being.  Still  at  this  epoch  monasteries 
in  Ireland,  in  England,  and  in  France  do  seem  to 
have  become  the  centers  of  learning  and  schools. 
Alcuin,  however,  who  illuminates  the  Palace 
Schools  of  Charlemagne  from  780  onwards,  was 
not  a  monk,  though  often  spoken  of  as  if  he  was. 
When  he  did  enter  the  abbey  of  Tours  as  abbot 
in  796,  it  is  difficult  to  make  out  how  far  he 
still  kept  an  open  school.  He  certainly  re- 
pudiated his  own  love  for  Vergil  and  the  classics. 
While  under  Alcuin's  influence,  Charlemagne 
attempted  to  make  the  monasteries  into  abbeys. 
The  decree  of  the  Council  of  Aachen  or  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  789  for  the  establishment  of  schools 
where  music,  arithmetic,  grammar,  and  writing 
should  be  taught  had  extended  to  monasteries 
as  well  as  cathedrals.  The  famous  plan  of 
St.  Gall  in  Switzerland  attributed  to  the  in- 
fluence of  Eginhard,  Charlemagne's  son-in- 
law,  shows  an  outer  school  as  well  as  an  inner 
cloister  {q.v.),  a  novice's  school;  a  boarding 
school  for  gentle  youths  {piikra  juventu.i) 
with  a  master's  house  attached.  But  this  plan 
was  never  carried  out,  and  it  is  probable  that 
none  of  the  outer  schools  of  monasteries  were 
ever  established.  At  all  events,  by  another 
Council  at  Aachen  under  the  reactionary  Louis 
the  Pious  in  817  the  ascetic  view  again  pre- 
vailed, and  outer  schools  were  expressly  pro- 
hibited. "  No  school  shall  be  kept  in  a  monas- 
tery, except  for  oblates."  From  this  time  there 
is  no  evidence  of  abbey's  doing  anything  through 
their  own  members  for  the  education  of  others. 
The  monastic  or  cloister  schools  {q.v.)  were  solely 
for  novices  and  oblates.  In  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries,  when  the  secular  canons  were 
turned  out  to  make  room  for  regulars,  an  at- 
tem]>t  was  made  to  transfer  to  the  ablieys,  more 
particularly  to  the  new  orders  of  Regular  or 
Augustinian  canons,  not  to  the  old  order  of  Bene- 
dictines, the  control  of  the  schools.  But  the 
schools  were  transferred  as  property,  like  the 
churches    and    other    possessions    of    the    ex- 


truded canons,  and  were  not  intended  to  be,  and 
were  not,  taught  or  governed  internally  by  the 
abbeys.  Thus  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds "(c.  1020) 
King  Canute  turned  out  the  seculars  for  monks, 
and  we  find  the  abbey  afterwards  governing  the 
school.  At  Dunwich,  the  school,  founded  in 
631,  the  first  in  England  of  which  the  foundation 
is  recorded,  was  "with  all  the  churches  of  Dun- 
wich Ijuilt  or  to  be  built "  given  o^•er  to  the  Priory 
of  Eye  on  its  foundation  in  1083.  Thetford 
school  was  granted  to  Thetford  Cluniac  Pri- 
ory in  1107,  but  about  111-i  recovered  by  the 
Bishop  of  Norwich  and  granted  back  to  the 
Dean  of  Thetford.  At  Reading  in  1125,  Hun- 
tingdon in  1427,  Dunstable  in  1131,  Glouces- 
ter in  1137,  Christ  Church,  Hants,  in  1147, 
Derby  about  1150,  Bedford  about  1153, 
Bristol  in  1171,  documents  recording  the  trans- 
fer to  or  the  assertion  of  the  rights  of  the 
abbey  or  priory  in  consequence  of  a  tran,sfer 
are  preserved,  chiefly  in  the  chartularies  of 
the  intruding  monks  or  canons.  But  the  in- 
mates of  the  abbey  did  not  teach  the  schools 
themselves.  They  only  appointed  the  mas- 
ters, who  were  alwaj-s  seculars,  and  asserted, 
on  occasion,  the  monopoly  of  the  masters  in 
their  jurisdiction.  They  did  not  even  as  a  rule 
pay  the  masters,  who  lived  on  tuition  fees.  In 
the  fourteenth  century,  however,  the  monas- 
teries began  to  do  something  for  the  educa- 
tion, not  of  outsiders,  but  at  all  events  of 
those  who  were  not  prospective  monks,  in  the 
almonry  schools  {q.v.),  established  for  their 
pages  and  choristers  the  charity  boys  then 
first  introduced  into  monastic  churches,  num- 
bering from  12  or  13,  at  least  in  one  place  (St. 
Mary's  Abbey,  York),  to  50  (the  round  number). 
Also  the  abbots  used  to  receive  young  noble- 
men, especially,  we  may  suppose,  the  sons  of 
the  abliey  knights  and  other  chief  tenants,  into 
their  houses  as  wards  and  pages.  Thus,  Abbot 
John  II  of  St.  Albans,  1235-1260,  is  said  to 
have  been  known  among  all  the  prelates  of  the 
realm  as  a  mirror  of  religion  and  a  wit,  and  very 
liberal,  and  so  many  nobles  of  the  realm  com- 
mitted their  sons  to  his  guardianshij)  to  be 
brought  up.  But  we  find,  as  at  Glastonbury 
shortly  before  the  dissolution  of  abbeys,  that 
they  were  very  few  in  number  and  that  a  private 
tutor,  a  secular,  was  employed  to  teach  them. 
In  abbeys  for  women  this  process  was  more 
common.  Not  only  did  they  take  in  young 
ladies,  as  in  the  celebrated  return  of  them  at  St. 
Mary's  Abbey,  Winchester,  at  the  dissolution, 
but  they  took  in  little  boys  as  well,  as  we  learn 
from  many  fulminations  at  visitations  against 
their  keeping  boys  too  old,  or  at  all,  and  in 
the  dormitories.  The  amount  of  education 
given  in  them,  however,  was  of  the  smallest, 
for  though  in  Saxon  times  there  is  plenty  of 
evidence  of  the  high  education  of  the  nuns,  in 
post-Concjuest  times,  they  were  certainly  not 
learned.  One  proof  is  that  they  were  always 
addressed  by  the  bishops  in  French  as  only 
being    acquainted    with    what    was    then    the 


ABBOT 


ABBOTSHOLME 


vernacular,  as  in  the  celebratod  letter  of  Arch- 
bishop Peckham  to  the  nuns  of  Godstow  about 
their  too  great  familiarity  with  Oxford  under- 
graduates. Nor  indeed  were  the  abbeys  for 
men  such  houses  of  learning  themselves  as  to  be 
capable  of  becoming  so  for  otliers.  The  abbey 
school  taught  the  licnedi<-tine  rule  rather  than 
grammar.  Episcopal  visitations  in  all  centuries 
ring  with  complaints  of  their  want  of  learning. 
When  Benedict  XII  in  1335  tried  to  make  the 
Benedictines  and  Augustinians  learned,  he 
ordered  them  to  provide  a  grammar  master, 
who,  contrary  to  the  rule,  might  be  a  secular. 
The  specimens  of  such  appointments  preserved 
are  secular.  One  of  the  latest,  at  Win- 
chester, was  the  Usher  or  Second  Master  of 
the  college.  Yet  William  of  Wykeham  had  to 
coni[)lain  of  the  monks  of  the  cathedral  of 
Winchester  murdering  the  ([Uantities  in  reading 
the  lessons,  and  so  did  William  Warham  of  the 
monks  of  Canterbury  a  century  and  a  half 
later;  while  Bishop  Xicke's  visitations  of  Nor- 
wich at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  are  full 
of  complaints  that  no  grammar  schoolmaster  is 
kept  at  the  monasteries  and  liiat  the  monks  are 
ignorant.  The  abbots  ami  friars  had  generally 
been  to  Oxford  or  Cambridge  under  the  statute 
of  1335,  which  required  five  per  cent  of  the 
monks  to  go  to  the  universities.  Nothing  like 
that  proportion  went,  in  fact.  Even  at  West- 
minster Henry  VII  complained  at  the  end  of  his 
reign  that  the  monks  were  sunk  in  ignorance, 
and  gave  a  new  endowment  to  send  three  of 
them  to  the  university.  Popular  hterature 
from  the  twelfth  century  downward,  notably 
the  Canlcrhurji  Talcs,  testifies  to  the  disregard 
for  learning  in  the  abbeys.  The  cause  of  educa- 
tion and  schools  suffered  nothing  by  the  dissolu- 
tion of  abbeys  by  Henry  ^TII,  except  in  those 
cases  where  the  schools  and  their  endowments, 
for  which  they  had  been  trustees,  were  treated 
as  abbey  property  and  confiscated  to  the  Crown, 
without  refoundation.  A.  F.  L. 

ABBOT,  GORHAM  DUMMER.  —  School- 
man born  at  New  Brunswick,  Ale.,  Sept.  3, 
ISO" ;  educated  in  private  schools  and  at 
Bowdoin  College  and  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary; teacher  in  the  academy  at  Castine,  Me., 
princijjal  of  the  academy  at  Amherst,  ilass.; 
instructor  in  the  Mt.  \'ernon  School  for  Girls; 
director  of  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge  1S3G-1S43:  principal  of  Spingler 
Institute,  afterwards  Abbot  Collegiate  Institu- 
tion, 1S43-1S71;  author  of  aspelhng  book,  and, 
with  Joshua  Leavitt  (q.i'.),  of  a  series  of  school 
readers;  died  Aug.  3,  1874.  W.  S.  M. 

ABBOTSHOLME.  —  A  school  opened  in 
ISS!)  by  iJr.  Cecil  Reddie,  who  was  i)rofoundly 
impressed  by  the  limitations  of  the  English 
Public  Schools  (?.t'.)  and  undertook  "to  pro- 
vide for  boys,  between  the  ages  of  about  ten 
and  nineteen,  an  all-round  education  of  an 
entirely  modern  and  rational  character,  based 


upon  the  principles  of  educational  science,  and 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  English  cultured 
classes,  which  should  direct  the  national  life." 
It  is  this  api)eal  to  the  needs  of  the  directing 
class,  together  with  the  recognition  that  these 
needs  include  some  phases  of  training  usually 
left  to  the  lower  clas.ses,  that  have  been  most 
frecpiently  noted  by  critics.  Early  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  school  Dr.  Reddie  came  under 
Herbartian  influence,  and  reorganized  his  work, 
which  had  leaned  toward  natural  science,  by 
an  arrangement  of  humanistic  studies  in 
stages,  grouping  what  seemed  to  be  appropri- 
ate material-  for  each  year  of  age  around  a  core 
or  center.  Thus  one  year  was  predominantly 
given  to  French  interests  and  materials,  an- 
other to  German,  etc.  The  teachers  trained 
by  association  with  Dr.  Reddie  have  been  con- 
spicuous in  their  later  work  for  pedagogical 
techni(iue. 

Few  schools  have  been  kept  so  definitely  at 
the  focus  of  consciousness  of  a  founder.  A  most 
elaborate  and  extensive  set  of  records  and  pho- 
tographs has  been  made  and  preserved.  The 
book  Abholxhuhne  contains  an  extraordinary 
amount  of  material  showing  the  theories  of  the 
author,  and  accounts  of  what  has  been  at- 
tempted. The  building,  located  on  an  estate  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  acres  in  Derbyshire  near 
Rocester,  is  a  marvel  of  planning.  The  details 
of  school  life  are  minutely  prescribed.  It 
seemed  significant  of  the  extent  to  which  Eng- 
lish traditions  of  corporal  punishment  prevail 
that  this  was  almost  the  only  activity  about 
which  no  records  were  made  and  the  estimates 
of  the  number  of  cases  by  head  boy  and  pre- 
fects (who  are  isemiitted  to  flog  on  agreement  of 
all  the  prefects  with  the  consent  of  the  head 
master)  differed  considerably  from  those  of  the 
masters. 

The  grades  of  society  below  the  prefects  arc 
stars  (who  perform  special  service),  mids,  and 
fags.  There  are  two  or  three  of  these  last  as- 
signed to  each  prefect.  They  are  supposed 
to  perform  any  duties  a.ssigncd  to  them,  and  in 
turn  the  prefect  is  expected  to  look  after  his 
fags,  take  walks  with  them,  etc. 

The  formal  aspects  of  religious  services  re- 
ceive considerable  attention.  The  emphasis 
here  upon  form  seems  to  be  similar  to  that  in  all 
other  fields  in  the  school;  the  intention  is  that 
whatever  can  be  systematized  shall  be  put  into 
machine  operation  in  order  to  free  the  higher 
centers  for  work  requiring  originality  and  initia- 
tive. Dr.  Geddes"  and  Dr.  Scott's  criticisms  of 
tliis  are  suggestive  (see  bibliography).  The 
earlier  emphasis  upon  the  activities  of  outdoor 
life,  as  haymaking,  using  these  as  an  opjiortu- 
nity  for  participation  in  productive  labor  and  for 
festival  celebration,  has  been  somewhat  reduced. 
The  garden  has  on  the  whole  yielded  somewhat 
to  cricket,  but  the  extensive  records  of  the  school 
experiments  will  well  repay  the  study  of  those 
who  are  concerned  with  one  of  our  most  urgent 
problems,  —  the  balance  of  cultural  and  voca- 


ABBOTT 


ABCDARIANS 


tional  interests  and  activities  during  the  ado- 
lescent period. 

Tlie  scliool  has  attracted  wide  attention  and 
has  directly  influenced  schools  in  various  coun- 
tries more  extensively  than  has  perhaps  any 
other  single  school  since  Fellenberg  founded 
Hofwyl.  For  an  account  of  this  influence 
and  a  list  of  references  see  article  on  The  New 
School.  F.  A.  M. 

References:  — 
The  Ahhnlshnlme  School  Song  —  The  Love  of  Comrades 
(Whitman)  and  The  Graces,  before  and  after  dinner. 
(London.) 
Carpenter,    Edward.     Affection   in    Education,    hit 

Jour.  Ethics,  IX,  482. 
De  I5rath,  S.,  Foundations  of  Success. 
Geddes,  Patrick.     The  school  at  Abbotsholme,  Elem. 

Sch.  Tr.  V,  321,  396. 
Jackman,  W.  S.     Notes   on  Foreign   Schools,  Ed.  Rev., 

XXI,  2;  XXII,  50. 
Reddie,    Cecil.     Abbotsholme.    (London,     1900.)      (Re- 
viewed    in     Educational     Review     (N.Y.),    March. 
1901,  .ind    School  .Journal  (N.Y.),  June  29,   1901.) 
An  Educational  Atlas   and  Educational    Ideals  in 
Jotin  Bull  (1901). 
Scott,  Colin  A.     Social  Education,  ch.  iii. 
Search,  P.  W.     Abbotsholme,   Century,   Vol.  76  :    pp. 

235-240. 
Simons,  A.  T.     Some  Modern  Experiments  in  Educa- 
tion, School  World,  June,  1900. 

ABBOTT,  BENJAMIN  (1762-1849).  — 
Schoolman  educated  in  Phillips  Academy  at 
Exeter  and  at  Harvard  College;  instructor  in 
Phillips  Academy  at  Exeter  and  first  principal 
of  Phillips  Academy  at  Andover  (1788-1838). 

W.  S.  M. 

ABBOTT,  JACOB  (1803-1879).  — Author  of 
the  "  Rollo  books";  educated  in  the  district 
schools  and  at  Bowdoin  College  and  Andover 
Theological  Seminarv;  professor  in  Amherst 
College  (1824-1829), "principal  of  Mt.  Vernon 
School  for  Girls  in  Boston  (1829-1834);  edited 
several  school  books  and  wrote  more  than  200 
books  for  children.  W.  S.  M. 

A-B-C  METHOD.— A  method  of  teaching 
reading  to  beginners,  in  which  the  first  step  is 
to  learn  the  names  and  letters  of  the  alphabet 
in  order.  The  letters  are  then  combined  into 
syllables  and  words,  which  are  pronounced 
through  the  assistance  given  by  spelling.  It  is 
the  method  of  teaching  "  reading  by  spelling  the 
same "  mentioned  in  early  American  school 
records.  One  of  the  synthetic  or  word-building 
methods. 

See  Alph.\betic  Methods  ;  Reading, 
Te.\ching  Beginners. 

A-B-C  SCHOOLS.  —  A  term  commonly  used 
in  the  past  to  designate  the  elementary  school, 
when  such  schools  gave  the  merest  rudiments  of 
learning.  The  institution  is  discussed  in  the  fol- 
lowing article. 

See  also  D.\me  School;  Petty  School;  etc. 

ABCDARIANS,  ABECEDARIO,  OR  ABE- 
CEDARIE.  —  The  name  given  to  the  teacher  of 
children  at  the  earliest  stage,  or  to  the  children 
themselves.      The    term    was    used    by   Min- 


sheu  in  his  Guide  into  Tongues  (1617) 
(see  Murray's  Oxford  Diet.),  but  was  probably 
in  use  long  before  that  date.  The  teaching  of 
the  alphabet  as  preliminary  to  the  learning  of 
Latin  gave  rise  to  elementary  textbooks  ex- 
tant at  any  rate  as  early  as  1510  (see  Wat- 
son's English  Grammar  Schools,  chap.  ix). 
Schools  in  which  elementary  instruction  was 
carried  on,  which  may  be  called  abecedarian, 
were  in  existence  in  England  in  the  Middle 
Ages  under  the  names  of  A-B-C  schools,  Read- 
ing, Writing,  and  Song  Schools.  (See  Leach's 
English  Schools  at  the  Reformation.)  In  the 
English  organization  of  schools  after  the  Refor- 
mation there  was  no  systematic  provision  for  ele- 
mentary instruction.  All  that  was  done  was 
done  in  the  grammar  school  (q.v.).  In  1682 
Richard  Mulcaster  (q.v.)  published  his  impor- 
tant Elementarie,  detailing  the  well-considered 
methods  for  teaching  reading,  writing,  drawing, 
vocal  and  instrumental  music.  Arithmetic  is 
omitted.  In  spite  of  Mulcaster's  plea  for  ele- 
mentary schoolmasters  as  a  separate  organiza- 
tion, the  elementary  work  had  to  be  undertaken 
in  the  grammar  school  itself.  The  Statutes 
of  Alford  Grammar  School  (Lincolnshire)  in 
1599  require  that  "  none  "  should  be  admitted 
before  "  he  can  read  perfectly  and  write 
legibly,"  and  that  it  is  not  the  business  of  the 
schoolmaster  to  teach  writing.  But  this  (like 
similar  statutes  of  other  schools)  was  clearly 
a  counsel  of  perfection.  For  in  1612  .lohn 
Brinsley  {q.v.)  in  his  Lucius  Literarius,  bitterly 
complains  that  the  grammar  school  should  be 
troubled  with  teaching  ABC.  "  The  very 
little  ones  in  most  country  towns  would  require 
a  whole  man  of  themselves  to  be  always 
teaching  the  ABC  and  reading."  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  both  Mulcaster  and  Brinsley  plead 
for  the  teaching  of  sound  English  to  the  elemen- 
tary pupils. 

'Though  the  main  "  burden  "  of  teaching  the 
young  children,  called  "  petties,"  fell  often 
on  the  grammar  schools,  there  were  other  un- 
organized agencies  for  their  instruction.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  the  intention  of 
Edward  VI's  Itijunctions  of  1547  to  require 
the  continuance  of  the  old  Chantry  priests  (who 
played  so  conspicuous  a  part  in  elementary 
instruction  in  the  pre-Reformation  times  in 
England  —  see  Leach's  English  Schools  at  the 
Reformation).  Chantry  priests  were  required 
by  these  Injunctions  to  teach  youth  to  read 
and  write  and  to  train  them  in  "  good  manners 
and  in  virtuous  exercises."  "  Every  parish," 
says  Mulcaster  in  his  Positions,  "  hath  a 
minister,  if  none  else  in  the  parish,  who  can 
teach  writing  and  reading."  So,  too,  the  parish 
clerk  in  the  Middle  Ages  had  been  often  a  bene- 
ficed cleric,  who  undertook  elementary  in- 
struction, and  there  was  a  survival  of  the  custom 
in  Tudor  and  Stuart  England,  so  that  wc  are 
told  of  the  alphabet  inscribed  on  the  church 
bell,  suggesting  that  A-B-C  schools  were  held 
in  belfries.     At  the  visitation  of  Dr.  Richard 


ABCDARIANS 


ABCDARIANS 


Montague,  Bishop  of  Norwich,  the  inquiry 
is  made,  "  Do  any  teach  in  your  Church  or 
Chancel?  which  is  to  tiie  profanation  of  that 
l)Iace."  Anotlier  survival  from  the  Middle 
Ages  was  tne  Song  Schoolmaster.  In  the 
Camden  Society's  reprint  of  a  sermon  hj'  a  Hoy 
Bishop  {q.  v.)  in  Cdoucester,  looS,  it  would  apjjcar 
that  these  schools  were  \'ery  i)a(lly  conducted. 
It  was  only  in  1905  that  the  last  of  the  Song 
Schools  (which  combined  the  special  teaching  of 
music  with  elementary  instruction)  —  namely, 
that  of  Newark  (Nottinghamshire)  disappeared. 
Churchwarden's  accounts  and  town  records 
show  that  schools  of  the  abecedarian  kind 
existed  in  England  for  elementary  instruction, 
in  some  connection  with  the  churches  —  from 
tlic  Hi'formation  continuously  to  what  may  be 
calleil  the  organization  of  the  church  elementary 
schools  under  the  name  of  the  Charity  Schools 
(q.v.)  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Besides  the  provision  of  teaching  by  the 
clergy,  parish  clerks,  church  schools,  and  the 
grammar  school,  there  were  a  large  number 
of  voluntary,  irregular,  uidicensed  (by  the 
Bishop  or  his  ordinary)  |)rivate  adventure 
schools  {q.i'.)  of  the  "  dame  school  "  (q.v.) 
type.  Edward  (or  Edmund)  Coote  (q.v.), 
master  of  the  Free  School  at  St.  Edmunds 
Bury  (Bury  St.  Edmunds),  catered  for  these 
by  his  textbook  The  English  Schoolmaster, 
issued  in  1596.  He  states  in  his  "  Directions," 
"  Thou  mayest  sit  on  thy  shop-board,  at  thy 
looms,  or  at  thy  needle,  and  never  hinder  thy 
work  to  hear  thy  scholars  after  thou  hast  once 
made  this  little  book  familiar  to  thee."  John 
Brinsley  in  1612  makes  a  suggestion  for  passing 
over  from  the  grammar  school  the  teaching  of 
"  petties  "  in  exact  accordance  with  Coote's 
provision.  "  It  woukl  help  some  poor  man  or 
woman,  irho  knew  not  how  to  live  otherwi.'ie,  and 
who  might  teach  the  petties  well,  if  they  were 
rightly  directed."  Another  expedient  for  deal- 
ing with  the  abecedarians  was  that  of  Man- 
chester Grammar  School  Statutes  (1524), 
Guisborough  Grammar  School  (1561),  Riving- 
ton  Grammar  School  (1566),  and  Bungay 
School  (Suffolk,  1592).  _  Boys  from  the  highest 
form  were  deputed  to  give  the  abecedarian  and 
elementary  instruction.  Thus  early  the  pupil 
teacher  system  (q.v.)  was  instituted.  In  the  main, 
however,  outside  of  the  grammar  schools,  abece- 
darian instruction  was  carried  on  in  "  dames 
schools."  Coote  had  addressed  his  book  to 
"  men  and  women  of  trade,  as  tailors,  weavers, 
seamsters,  and  such  others  as  have  undertaken 
the  charge  of  teaching  others."  Occasionally  a 
higher  stamp  of  teacher  was  secured.  Thomas 
Farnaby  (q.v.),  afterward  one  of  the  greatest 
classical  scholars  of  his  time,  the  founder  of  the 
most  renowned  of  private  grammar  schools, 
had  accompanied  Drake  on  his  last  voyage, 
and  on  his  return  to  England,  as  Anthony  k 
Wood  tells  us,  "  stooped  so  low,"  r.  1596,  as  to 
be  an  abecedarian,  at  Martock  in  Somersetshire. 
But  in  1660  Charles  Hoole  (q.v.)  in  his  "Petty 


Schools,"  one  of  tlH>  divisions  of  his  Neiv  Dis- 
covery of  the  Old  .[rt  of  Teaching  School,  speaks 
of  the  "  Petty  School  "  as  being  "  left  as  a  work 
for  poor  women  or  others  whose  necessities 
comi)el  them  to  undertake  it  as  a  7nere  shelter 
from  beggary." 

Hoole's  account  of  what  a  petty  school  should 
be  is  the  most  outstanding  document  of  ele- 
mentary education  in  England  up  to  the  time 
of  the  Restoration.  He  gives  in  detail  a  careful 
method  for  teaching  the  alphabet  and  early 
spelling,  and  advocates  the  teaching  of  simple 
English  literature  to  the  "  petties."  Teaching 
should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  responsible 
teachers  —  to  be  paid  at  least  twenty  pounds 
a  year  (a  not  inconsiderable  amount  in  those 
times),  with  a  house  provided.  Fees  should  be 
required  from  those  able  to  pay,  but  poor  boys 
should  be  admitted  free  of  cost.  Hoole  urges 
the  wealthy  to  erect  and  endow  such  "  Petty  " 
schools.  No  more  than  40  boj-s  are  to  be 
allotted  to  each  master.  The  school  should 
have  four  forms.  In  the  lowest,  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet  are  to  be  learned  from  the  primer. 
In  the  second,  spelling  is  to  be  learned  from  the 
Psalter.  In  the  third,  reading  from  the  Bible. 
In  the  fourth  form,  reading,  writing,  casting  of 
accounts,  and  profitable  English  books.  Hoole 
further  hints  at  the  training  of  such  teachers 
on  a  similar  scheme  to  that  suggested  by 
Matthew  Poole  in  1658  in  his  Model  for  the 
maintaining  of  students  of  choice  abilities  at  the 
Vniversity,  principally  in  order  to  the  mini.'itry. 
Nearer  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century 
William  Walker,  in  Some  Improvements  to  the 
Art  of  teaching,  suggested  an  inquiry  from 
authority  with  a  view  to  the  reformation  of 
"  ignorant  and  injudicious  petit  schoolmasters 
and  school-madams."  Many  of  the  free 
schools  established  in  the  seventeenth  century 
with  buildings  and  endowments  of  pious  bene- 
factors were  elementary  schools.  They  were 
sometimes  established  to  instruct  in  reading  and 
writing  (sometimes  also  in  arithmetic),  and  also 
sometimes  to  provide  premiums  for  putting  boys 
and  girls  out  to  apprenticeship.  The  first 
Dissenters'  English  Charity  School  was  founded 
in  Gravel  Lane,  Southwark,  in  1687.  In  1699 
the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge 
(q.v.)  was  established,  and  from  that  time  for- 
ward for  many  years  elementary  cilucation  was 
chiefly  associated  with  the  Charity  Schools 
(q.v.)  in  connection  with  that  society. 

In  America  the  term  was  used  throughout  the 
colonial  period  and  well  into  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury to  indicate  the  children  engaged  in  learning 
the  alphabet  and  the  process  of  reading  rather 
than  to  indicate  the  teacher.  In  general  the 
work  of  the  abecedarian  was  of  a  most  mechan- 
ical character,  —  mere  rote  work,  —  and  when 
better  methods  of  elementary  teaching  were 
introduced  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  term  fell  into  disuse.  In  fact,  the 
term  was  used  quite  often  to  indicate  the  pecul- 
iar rote    work    by   which    the  alphabet   was 


ABCDARIANS 


ABELARD 


taught:  the  teacher,  pointing  to  the  letter, 
saying  a,  the  child  repeating,  a ;  and  so 
through  the  alphabet  (see  Warren  Burton, 
The  District  School  as  it  luas,  1833,  for  a  full  de- 
scription of  this  method).  Henry  Barnard,  com- 
menting on  the  work  of  the  abecedarian,  in 
the  early  nineteenth  century,  says:  "  If  a 
child  be  bright,  the  time  which  passes  during 
this  lesson  is  the  only  part  of  the  day  when  he 
does  not  think.  Not  a  single  faculty  of  the 
mind  is  occupied  except  that  of  imitating 
sounds;  and  even  the  number  of  these  imita- 
tions amounts  only  to  twenty-six.  A  parrot  or 
an  idiot  could  do  the  same  thing." 

During  the  early  colonial  period  the  same 
effort  was  made  in  the  colonies  that  was  made  in 
England  to  relegate  the  work  of  the  abecedarian 
to  the  home  or  to  the  dame  school  and  to  keep 
it  out  from  the  town  school,  even  when  an 
English  rather  .than  a  Latin  school.  Thus  the 
agreement  between  the  feoffees  of  the  school  of 
Roxbury,  founded  1645,  and  their  schoolmaster 
in  1668,  contains  the  following  clause,  "  Where- 
upon ye  said  John  Prudden  doth  promise  and 
engage  to  use  his  best  skill  and  endeavours, 
both  by  precept  and  example,  to  instruct  in  all 
scholasticall,  morall,  and  theologicall  disci- 
pline, the  children  (so  far  as  they  are  or  shall  be 
capable)  of  those  persons  whose  names  are  here 
underwritten,  all  ABC  Darians  excepted." 
This  attitude  towards  the  abecedarian  was  con- 
tinued in  some  of  the  larger  towns  until  w-ell 
into  the  nineteenth  century,  though  for  the  most 
part  the  local  school  —  town  or  parish  —  had  in- 
cluded, long  before,  both  the  dame  school  and 
private  abecedarian  instruction. 

In  Massachusetts,  for  example,  the  law  pro- 
vided that  "  no  youth  shall  be  sent  to  the 
Grammar  Schools,  unless  they  shall  have  learned 
in  some  other  school,  or  in  some  other  way,  to 
read  the  English  language,  byspellingthesame"; 
and  also  provided  for  the  establishment  of 
preparatory  schools  to  perform  this  service. 
In  Boston,  however,  such  schools  had  not  been 
established  by  the  school  authorities,  and  in 
1817  it  was  found  that  there  were  more  than 
4000  children  in  162  private  schools.  The 
discovery  of  these  conditions  led  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  Primary  School  Committee  to 
establish  and  oversee  such  elementary  schools, 
in  addition  to  the  School  Committee  of  long 
standing.  This  separate  organization  of  the 
schools  continued  until  1855.  In  most  com- 
munities, however,  the  abecedarian  had  long 
since  been  absorbed  into  the  regular  public 
schools.  F.  W.  AND  P.  M. 

See  D.\ME  School;  Elementary  Educa- 
tion; England,  Education  in;  Colonial 
Period  in  American  Education. 

References    (besides    those    mentioned    in    the    ar- 
ticle) :  — 
Adams,  F.     History  of  the  Elementary  School  Contest  in 

England.   (London,  1883.) 
HoLM.\N,    H.     English  National  Education.    (London, 
1898.) 


De  Montmorenct,  J.  E.  G.     Progress  of  Education  in 

England,  eh.  iii.      (London,  1904.) 
Fitch.    Sir  Joshu.\.     Educational   Aims  and   Methods, 

Lecture  VI.      (Endowments  and  their  Influence  on 

Education.)      (Cambridge.  1900.) 
WiGHT.M.tN,  J.  M.     Annals  of  the  Boston  Primary  School 

Committee,  1818-1855.      (Boston,  1860.) 

ABELARD  (ABAILARD),  PETER  (1079- 
1142).  —  The  most  famous  teacher  of  the 
twelfth  century  ;  he  was  born  near  Nantes 
in  1079.  He  has  left  an  invaluable  sketch 
of  his  life  in  a  long  letter  which  con- 
tains The  Story  of  his  Disasters  ( Hi.^toria 
calamitatum).  No  other  document  of  the 
twelfth  century  casts  so  much  light  on  the 
conditions  preceding  the  rise  of  the  universities. 
As  a  young  man  he  went  forth  to  engage  in  dis- 
cussion (disputando)  in  all  those  places  in 
France  where  he  had  heard  that  the  science  of 
dialectic  was  cultivated.  At  the  cathedral 
school  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris  he  encountered 
William  of  Champeaux  (q.v.),  and  quickly 
aroused  his  hostility  b}'  refuting  some  of  his 
doctrines.  He  then  began  to  lecture  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Paris,  and  attracted  many 
students.  After  a  period  of  retirement  due 
to  illness,  he  returned  to  .study  rhetoric  under 
William,  and  claims  to  have  permanently  dis- 
credited him  by  forcing  him  to  retract  or  revise 
his  statement  of  the  nature  of  universals. 
Abelard  then  taught  logic  and  "  grammar  "  — 
to  wit  the  Latin  classics  —  for  a  time  in  Paris; 
but  determined  to  turn  to  theology,  and  betook 
himself  to  Anselm  of  Laon.  He  speedily 
wearied  of  the  old  man's  lectures,  and  tells  us 
how  he  himself  began  rival  lectures  on  the  book 
of  Ezekiel,  to  the  great  delight  of  the  students, 
but  to  the  scandal  of  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties, since  he  had  no  license  to  teach.  On 
returning  to  Paris  he  found  that  William  of 
Champeaux  had  withdrawn,  and  he  was  per- 
mitted to  lecture  regularly  in  the  cathedral 
school.  His  distinction  as  a  theologian  at- 
tracted many  students,  but  at  the  height  of  his 
success  the  tragedy  which  has  rendered  his 
name  immortal  —  his  connection  with  his  pupil 
Heloise  and  the  horrible  revenge  of  her  uncle  — 
led  to  his  retirement  to  a  monastery.  Later 
he  became  a  hermit  in  Champagne,  but  hundreds 
of  .students  continued  to  flock  to  him.  The 
end  of  his  life  was  embittered  by  a  prosecution 
for  heresy  conducted  by  St.  Bernard.  He  was 
condemned  by  the  Council  of  Sens  in  1141  for 
the  alleged  heresies  of  his  works,  and  was  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment,  but  allowed  to  retire 
to  the  monastery  of  Cluny.  He  died  the 
following  year  (1142). 

The  main  secret  of  Ab^lard's  power  of  attract- 
ing students  was  doubtless  his  stimulating  ra- 
tionalism, his  skill  in  discrediting  the  positions 
of  less  thoughtful  rivals,  and  his  remarkable 
range  of  reading,  which  enabled  him  to  illustrate 
and  enliven  his  lectures.  The  modern  reader 
is  not  so  likely  to  seek  Abelard's  spirit  in  his 
longer  theological  works  and  sermons  as  in  his 


ABELARD 


ABERDEEN 


interesting  Dialogue  between  a  Philosopher,  a 
Jew  and  a  Christian,  and  especially  in  his  fa- 
mous Sic  et  Nan.  The  introduction  to  the 
latter  work  gives  us  indeed  a  key  to  Abelard's 
intellectual  tendencies.  There  are,  he  declares, 
many  obvious  contradictions  and  obscurities 
in  the  innumerable  writings  of  the  Church 
Fathers,  and  our  respect  for  their  authority 
should  not  prevent  us  from  trying  to  come  at  the 
truth.  In  so  doing  we  need  not  impugn  their 
good  faith  and  insight.  They  themselves 
freely  point  out  one  another's  mistakes  and  even 
admit,  as  docs  Augustine  ('/.''.),  that  they  are 
subject  to  error.  There  are  many  obvious 
reasons  why  ancient  writings  are  difficult  to 
understand  and  are  subject  to  varying  interpre- 
tations. A  writer  may,  for  example,  employ 
different  terms  to  mean  the  same  thing,  in  order 
to  avoid  a  monotonous  repetition  of  the  same 
word.  P'amiliar,  vague  words  may  be  selected 
so  as  to  appeal  to  the  intelligence  of  the  common 
folk;  and  sometimes  a  writer  sacrifices  perfect 
accuracy  in  the  interest  of  a  clear  general  state- 
ment. Then,  poetic  language  is  often  obscure 
and  vague.  Aloreover,  the  Fathers  often  relied 
on  the  opinions  of  others,  and  often  introduce 
erroneous  views  and  leave  the  reader  to  distin- 
guish between  the  true  and  the  false.  In  the 
case  of  the  Scriptures,  while  we  may  not  say  that 
the  writers  erred,  we  may  suspect  that  the  scribe 
made  a  blunder  in  copying  the  manuscript  or 
that  there  is  an  error  in  interpretation,  or  that 
the  passage  is  not  understood.  In  view  of  these 
considerations  and  of  the  necessity  of  cultivat- 
ing the  critical  powers  of  his  students,  Abelard 
brought  together  a  selection  of  the  questions  on 
which  the  Fathers  appeared  to  disagree,  begin- 
ning significantly  enough  with  the  fundamental 
query,  "  Should  human  faith  be  based  on  reason 
or  no?"  He  gives  the  opposing  authorities,  but 
offers  no  solution,  for  he  maintains  that  the  un- 
solved problems  would  excite  tender  readers  to 
a  zealous  inquiry  into  the  truth,  and  so  sharpen 
their  wits.  "  The  master-key  of  knowledge  is 
indeed  a  persistent  and  frequent  questioning," 
for  did  not  Aristotle,  the  most  clear-sighted 
of  all  philosophers,  desire  above  all  other  things 
to  arouse  this  questioning  spirit?  "  By  doubt- 
ing we  come  to  examine,  and  by  examining  we 
come  to  the  truth." 

Here  is  the  basis  for  the  type  of  higher  criti- 
cism which  was  only  to  prevail  centuries  after 
Abelard  was  in  his  grave.  The  scholastic 
philosophers  of  the  thirteenth  century  were  as 
bold  as  Abrl.'ird  in  the  questions  they  proposed 
and  in  the  difficulties  they  raised,  but  they  were 
always  careful  in  their  lectures  and  works  to 
supply  the  correct  answer  to  them.  To  Abelard, 
at  least  in  his  younger  days,  must  be  attributed 
the  chief  role  in  arousing  that  intellectual  en- 
thusiasm which  attracted  thousands  of  students 
to  Paris  and  led  to  the  development,  a  generation 
after  his  death,  of  the  cathedral  school  of  Notre 
Dame  into  the  "  universitas,"  or  professors' 
guild,  of  Paris.  J.  H.  R. 


See  Universities. 

References  :  — 

Chev.^lier.  Ripertoire  des  Sources  Hisloriques.  (Bio- 
Bibliographic  :    s.f.  Abailard.) 

Cousin.  Ourragcs  inedits  d'Abelard.  (Paris,  1S36.) 
Opera.      (Paris,  1X49-1859.) 

Erdmann,  J.  K.  History  of  Philosophy,  I.  (London 
and  New  York,  1)S90.) 

Hausrath.     Piter  Abelard.      (Leipzig,  1893.) 

Henke  AND  LiNDENKOHL.  Edition  of  Sjc  e<  jVon.  (Mar- 
burg, 1831.) 

McCaue,  Joseph.     Peter  Abelard.     (New  York,  1901.) 

Maurice,  F.  D.  Meiiiieral  Philosophy  from  the  fifth  to 
the  fourteenth  centuries.  (Loudon  and  Glasgow, 
1859.) 

Poole,  R.  L.  Illustrations  of  Medutval  Thought. 
(London,  1884.) 

Rashdall,  H.  Universities  of  Europe  iji  the  Middle 
Ages.  Vol.  I.      (Oxford,  1895.) 

S.\NDYs,  J.  E.  A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship. 
(Cambridge,  1903.) 

TowN.sEND,  W.  J.  Great  Schoolmen  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
(London,  1881.) 

ABERDEEN,   THE    UNIVERSITY    OF.— 

A  coeducational  institution  located  at  Aberdeen, 
Scotland.  It  consists  of  two  colleges  having 
an  independent  origin  and  endowment.  The 
older  institution,  called  King's  College,  was 
founded  in  1494  under  a  Papal  bull  obtained 
at  the  instance  of  King  James  I\'.  The 
other  institution,  that  of  Marischal  College,  was 
founded  in  1593  by  George  Keith,  fifth  Earl 
IMarischal  of  Scotland,  under  a  Charter  ratified 
by  Parliament.  Both  colleges  maintained  an 
indejiendent  existence,  exercising  University 
rights  and  privileges  until  18.58,  when  they  were 
united  into  one  corporate  body  called  the  Uni- 
versity of  Aberdeen.  The  University  buildings, 
formerly  of  King's  College,  are  situated  in  the 
older  part  of  the  city,  and  here  are  conducted  the 
Divinity  classes  and  most  of  the  Arts  classes; 
IMarischal  College  is  situated  in  the  new  town, 
but  nothing  remains  of  the  original  buildings, 
and  recently  extensive  additions  have  been 
made,  and  here  are  conducted  the  remaining 
courses  provided  by  the  University.  At  present 
the  educational  work  is  divided  into  five 
faculties  or  departments,  viz:  The  faculties 
of  Arts,  Science,  Divinity,  Law  and  Medicine, 
and  degrees  are  granted  to  students  successfully 
undergoing  courses  of  study  in  the  respective 
Faculties.  The  only  vocational  degree  con- 
ferred by  the  University  for  other  than  the 
learned  professions  is  the  Bachelor  of  Science 
in  the  department  of  Agriculture,  which  falls 
under  the  Faculty  of  Science.  The  total  num- 
ber of  students  in  attendance  numbers  between 
1200  and  1300,  of  whom  about  900  are  students 
proceeding  to  graduation  in  one  or  more  of 
the  faculties.  The  Faculty  of  Arts,  formerly 
attended  by  students  desirous  of  extending  their 
general  education,  is  now  largely  composed  of 
teacher  students  and  is  the  largest  in  number, 
having  over  450  students ;  Medjcine  conies 
next,  with  somewhere  about  300  graduating 
students;  the  Faculties  of  Law  and  Divinity 
have  a  comparatively  small  number  of  graduat- 
ing students.      The  Faculty  of  Science,  insti- 


ABILITY 


ABILITY 


tuted  only  in  1SS9,  is  gradually  increasing  in 
numbers.  The  income  of  the  University  is 
derived  mainly  from  four  sources:  (1)  Fees 
of  students;  (2)  Endowments;  (3)  Grants 
by  the  State;  (4)  Grants  from  the  Carnegie 
Trust  for  the  endowment  and  aid  of  the  Uni- 
versities of  Scotland.  A.  D. 

References  :  — 
Walker,  R.  and  Mdnro,  A.  M.     Handbook  to  Cityatid 

University.      (Aberdeen.  1906.) 
Bdlloch,  J.  M.     History  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen, 

1495-1895.      (London,  1895.) 

ABILITY,    GENERAL    AND    SPECLAL  : — 

By  ability  is  meant  the  power  of  the  indi- 
vi'dual  to  produce  results.  The  conception  in- 
cludes all  the  functions  that  one  may  possess,  — 
the  organic  functions,  the  powers  of  movement, 
the  powers  of  sensation,  the  higher  psychic 
powers,  and  the  activities  which  they  condition. 
Ability  covers  both  abihty  to  do  and  ability  to 
learn,  the  latter  power  revealing  itself  in  modifi- 
cations of  the  former. 

The  largest  contrast  between  types  of  ability 
is  ordinarily  thought  to  be  that  between  our 
mental  and  our  physical  powers.  There  is,  how- 
ever, an  intimate  connection  between  the  two. 
This  connection  is  by  most  psychologists  sup- 
posed to  be  so  close  that  in  the  terras  of  Pro- 
fessor James'  working  hj^pothesis  "  the  immedi- 
ate condition  of  a  state  of  consciousness  is  an 
activity  of  some  sort  in  the  cerebral  hemispheres, 
and  "  all  mental  states  are  followed  by  bodily 
activity  of  some  sort."  The  so-called  "  func- 
tional "  p.sychology  conceives  of  consciousness 
as  existing  in  order  to  modify  or  to  readjust 
the  reflex  or  habitual  physiological  reactions 
of  the  organism  when  these  prove  ill  adapted. 
In  that  event,  it  must  certainly  depend 
upon  a  physiological  stimulus,  for  it  is  only 
for  the  sake  of  facilitating  the  proper  re- 
sponses to  such  stimuli  that  it  exists.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  must  result  in  movements,  for 
the  control  of  these  reactions  constitutes  its 
function. 

Since  mental  ability  is  concerned  in  the  task 
of  learning,  or  of  readjustment,  the  distinction 
between  ability  to  do  and  ability  to  learn 
would  seem  to  be  more  fundamental  than  that 
between  mental  and  physical  ability.  The  two 
powers,  that  of  doing  and  that  of  learning,  are, 
again,  as  intimately  interconnected  as  are  the 
mind  and  body.  In  order  to  readjust,  or  to 
learn,  it  is  necessary  that  the  individual  should 
have  the  ability  to  be  sensitive  to  lack  of  ad- 
justment, the  ability  to  perform  experimental 
acts  with  a  view  toward  discovering  a  reaction 
that  will  prove  adaptive,  and  the  ability  to  feel 
or  know  when  this  successful  reaction  is  or  is  not 
found.  The  first  and  the  last  of  these  powers 
are  closely  associated,  if  not  identical.  Sensi- 
tivity to  lack  of  adjustment  will  not  only  stimu- 
late experimentation  toward  a  better  condition, 
but  will  indicate  when  this  experimentation  is 
as  yet  unsuccessful.     Such  sensitivity  has  been 


called  affective  consciousness,  or  feeling,  and  in 
this  we  have  the  first  important  type  of  mental 
ability.  If  one  has  no  feeling,  one  cannot  learn. 
Feeling  stimulates  the  learning  process,  and 
directs  it  by  compelling  the  inhibition  or  elimi- 
nation of  unsuccessful  reactions.  Without  such 
feeling  experimentation  or  learning  could 
neither  begin  nor  end. 

On  the  other  hand,  learning  depends  quite 
as  much  on  the  power  to  make  experimental 
reactions  as  it  does  on  feeling.  The  possibilities 
in  the  way  of  experimentation  may  include  the 
sum  total  of  the  reactions  that  the  individual 
can  make.  Power  to  learn  rests  on  the  number 
and  variety  of  such  reactions  and  on  the  ability 
to  make  them  in  an  experimental  way,  —  that 
is,  in  situations  other  than  those  to  which  they 
by  heredity  or  habit  are  associated.  Thus 
to  learn  rests  back  upon  power  to  do. 

The  reactions  that  an  individual  can  make 
cluster  about  certain  large  functions.  These 
functions  correspond  to  needs  of  the  organism. 
They  are  its  instincts.  Heredity  and  habit 
attach  certain  reactions  to  the  sense  of  certain 
needs.  Ability  to  do,  therefore,  rests  back  on 
one's  equipment  of  instincts,  to  satisfy  which  the 
reactions  are  made. 

Just  as  ability  to  do  depends  on  the  instincts, 
or  needs,  of  the  individual,  and  the  reactions 
that  can  be  made  in  order  to  fulfill  them,  so 
ability  to  learn  depends  on  one's  power  to  read- 
just the  reactions,  so  that  when  the  hereditary 
or  habitual  ways  of  satisfying  certain  instincts 
fail,  other  methods  can  be  substituted.  The 
diversity  of  organs  and  structures  connected 
with  the  body  form  the  physiological  basis  of 
the  ability  to  do;  the  central  nervous  system 
is  in  the  main  the  physiological  basis  of  the 
power  to  learn.  By  it  all  parts  of  the  body  are 
interconnected,  so  that  the  need  of  any  part 
can  be  met  by  the  reactions  that  can  be  per- 
formed by  any  other  part.  Thus  in  any  emer- 
gency one  can  shift  rapidly  from  one  to  another 
of  his  possibilities  of  action,  and  learning  be- 
comes possible. 

The  kind  of  learning  that  involves  merely 
directive  feeling  and  the  power  to  make  experi- 
mental activity  is  often  called  "  learning  by 
trial  and  error."  It  is  the  simpler  method  of 
readjustment.  The  higher  method  of  learning 
may  be  called  "  conscious  learning."  The  in- 
dividual who  learns  consciously  does  not  hasten 
blindly  through  a  lot  of  experimental  move- 
ments, but  instead  reflects  upon  ideas  of  move- 
ments, or  plans  of  action,  and  considers  what  is 
likely  to  be  the  outcome  of  each  and  its  relative 
advantages  and  disadvantages.  Thus  for  ex- 
perimental movements  he  has  experimental 
ideas.  But  in  order  to  have  these  ideas  he 
must  cognize  the  nature  of  the  situations  with 
which  he  deals,  he  must  retain  an  account  of 
these  cognitions  in  memory,  and  be  able  to 
recall  them  when  needed  in  new  emergencies. 
He  must  be  able  to  perceive,  to  imagine,  and  to 
conceive.     Such  consciousness,  in  contrast  with 


9 


ABILITY 


ABILITY 


feeling,  or  affective  consciousness,  may  be  called 
cognitive  consciousness.  As  affective  conscious- 
ness stimulates  experimentation  and  elimi- 
nates the  unsuccessful  experiments,  so  cogni- 
tive consciousness  provides  ideas  to  take  the 
place  of  actual  experiments,  witli  a  great  result- 
ing gain  in  avoidance  of  destruction,  ciTort.aiul, 
in  general,  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  blind 
struggle  to  evolve  a  better  way  of  doing  things. 
Affective  consciousness  may  be  characterized 
as  selective  consciousness;  cognitive  conscious- 
ness is  descriptive.  It  describes  the  conditions 
and  results  of  experimentation. 

Cognitive  consciousness  finds  its  foundation 
in  the  different  (pialitics  that  are  noted  because 
of  the  differentiation  of  our  powers  of  sensation. 
These  cpialitics  are  discriminated  as  a  result  of 
recall  ami  comparision  by  what  is  known  as 
perception.  Perception  discriminates  and  gives 
meaning  to  sensation.  Imagination  reproduces 
])erception  with  variations  more  or  less  radical 
from  the  original.  Conception  seizes  and  ab- 
stracts the  relationships  among  experiences. 
Finally,  judgment  appears  to  give  a  cognitive 
basis  for  the  process  of  selection  among  ideas. 
In  judgment  cognition  encroaches  upon  the 
selective  function  that  was  originally  performed 
solely  by  feeling.  Thus  all  the  varieties  of  cog- 
nition can  be  interpreted  from  the  point  of  view 
of  their  function  in  connection  with  the  work 
of  learning  or  readjustment. 

The  physiological  foundation  of  these  higher 
mental  powers  is  found  in  the  cerebral  cortex, 
which  is  :-onceived  to  be  the  organ  of  memory, 
and  so  of  the  recall,  comparison,  and  analysis 
of  experience.  This  function  may  be  regarded 
as  the  secondary  function  of  the  hemispheres, 
the  primary  function  being  that  of  bringing  to- 
gether all  parts  of  the  body,  so  that  learning  by 
a  quick  resort  to  one  after  another  reaction 
until  a  successful  cue  is  found  may  be  made 
easy. 

The  descriptions  of  cognition  find  their  func- 
tion not  merely  as  an  aid  to  the  successful  prose- 
cution of  the  experimentation  in  connection 
with  which  they  are  accjuired,  but  also  in  future 
emergencies  when  they  are  recalled.  Indeed, 
this  latter  use  soon  overshadows  the  former. 
Before  the  child  has  acquired  much  experience, 
he  learns  by  trial  and  error.  This  learning  is  not 
at  first  favored  especiallj^  by  cognition.  Later, 
however,  as  experience  accumulates,  actual 
experimenting  is  cut  short,  and  at  length  very 
considerably  replaced  by  foresight.  The  fact 
that  the  process  of  acquiring  ideas  is  to  such  an 
extent  separated  from  that  of  utilizing  them  has 
made  mental  life  seem  to  be  independent  of  the 
utilities  of  physical  adjustment.  Mental  ability 
has  been  conceived  to  be  concerned  in  a  differ- 
ent set  of  interests  from  physical  ability,  and 
hence  somewhat  sharply  differentiated  there- 
from. 

The  tendency  to  think  of  mental  ability  as  a 
thing  apart  from  physical  ability  and  so  of  the 
general  utilities  of  the  life  of  the  individual  is 


apparent  in  the  older  psychology.  Connected 
with  this  was  the  cla.ssification  of  mental  abili- 
ties according  to  what  were  known  as  the 
faculties.  This  classification  recognized  that 
mental  ability  was  not  a  unitary  affair,  but 
rather  specialized.  It  conceived  the  various 
processes  to  which  the  mind  sulimits  its  experi- 
ence to  be  distinct,  and  held  tiiat  men  might 
differ  from  each  other  in  respect  to  these. 
Some  excel  in  perception,  others  in  memory 
or  imagination,  others  in  reasoning;  some  sur- 
pass in  judgment,  while  some  show  extraordi- 
nary powers  of  will.  General  ability  reduces 
itself  to  a  sum  of  special  abilities,  and  the 
special  abilities  of  the  mind  are  held  to  lie  the 
facidties.  When  in  the  history  of  p.syciiology 
the  powers  of  the  mind  came  to  be  more  and 
more  connected  with  the  body  and  especially 
with  the  brain,  a  school  arose  which  strove 
to  locate  the  various  faculties  in  different 
portions  of  that  organ.  These  men,  the  phre- 
nologists iq.r.),  offered  a  far  more  minute  sub- 
division of  the  faculties  than  that  just  indicated. 
As  many  as  43  faculties  could,  according  to 
Fowler,  be  distinguished  and  located.  Spurz- 
heim's  {q.v.)  list  included  such  traits  as  com- 
bativeness,  cautiousness,  hope,  comparison. 

The  faculty  theory  may  be  regarded  as  a 
sort  of  psychological  realism.  The  reality, 
so  far  as  mental  ability  is  concerned,  is 
thought  to  lie  in  a  power  that  is  manifested  in  a 
formal  process.  Not  any  single  mental  activity 
as  a  whole,  but  those  universal  aspects  which 
appear  in  the  common  forms  of  many  different 
activities,  is  held  to  be  the  true  essence  of  mind. 
This  abstract  formal  aljility  Herbart  rejected 
in  favor  of  what  he  called  apperception  (q.v.). 
On  the  theory  of  apperception,  mental  activity 
consists  in  the  interpretation  of  sensation  by 
memory,  in  the  fusion  of  new  and  old  experience. 
Hence  mental  ability  was  made  by  him  a  func- 
tion of  the  previous  experience  of  the  individual. 
Instead  of  being  an  abstract  power,  it  was  re- 
garded as  immediately  dependent  on  the  con- 
crete content  of  consciousness. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  theory  of  appercep- 
tion can  be  easily  a.ssociated  with  the  functional 
theory  of  mind.  For  while  it  does  not  explicitly 
take  the  view  that  consciousness  exists  for  the 
sake  of  reailjustment,  it  regards  mental  ability 
as  consisting  in  the  functioning  of  the  experience 
that  has  been  acquired  by  the  individual.  The 
new  situation  is  illuminated  by  the  old  experi- 
ence, according  to  Herbart;  it  suggests  a  num- 
ber of  ideas  as  to  the  possible  ways  of  dealing 
with  it,  according  to  the  functional  psychology. 

The  functional  psychology  does,  however, 
make  a  marked  advance  upon  the  Herbartian 
analy.sis  of  mental  ability.  For  by  it  instinct 
and  the  possibilities  in  the  way  of  overt  activity 
on  the  part  of  the  individual  are  conceived  to  lie 
back  of  the  possibility  of  accumulating  and 
using  experience.  Thus,  according  to  Herbart, 
interest,  which  is  essential  to  the  effectiveness 
of  mental  activity,  is  conceived  to  be  a  result 


10 


ABILITY 


ABILITY 


of  apperception.  The  functional  psychology 
would  make  interest  the  ground  of  apperception. 
The  older  thinker  holds  that  thinking  is  based 
on  previous  experience;  the  newer  school  traces 
that  previous  experience  back  to  the  reactions 
and  the  instincts,  the  readjustment  of  the  rela- 
tions between  which  was  the  original  stimulus 
to  cognition. 

The  Herbartian  view  of  mental  ability  departs 
from  the  realism  of  the  faculty  theory  toward 
a  psychological  nominalism  that  recognizes  in 
the  particular  experience  rather  than  in  the 
general  power  the  true  foundation  of  mental 
activity.  Mental  ability  becomes  on  this  basis 
the  sum  of  an  enormous  mass  of  special  abilities. 
We  find  these  abilities  ranging  themselves  in 
great  groups  according  to  the  interrelations  of 
the  phases  of  experience  of  which  they  consist. 
Power  goes  in  fields,  and  one's  ability  in  any 
field  depends  on  his  mastery  of  the  experience 
that  can  be  said  to  make  it  up.  This  same 
psychological  nominalism  may  be  said  to  be 
present  in  the  view  of  the  functional  psychology, 
with  the  difference  that  ability  is  thought  to 
cluster  about  instincts,  for  it  is  in  the  functioning 
of  these  that  ex])cricnce  is  by  this  school  con- 
ceived to  be  acquired. 

The  theory  that  mental  ability  can  be  classi- 
fied into  faculties  received  quite  as  telling  a 
blow  from  the  researches  into  the  relation  of 
mind  and  brain  as  it  did  from  the  analysis  of 
Herbart.  Curiously  enough,  these  researches 
began  with  the  phrenologists,  Gall  and  Spurz- 
heim,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  pushed  the  faculty 
theory  to  an  e.xtreme.  As  knowledge  of  the 
localization  of  the  functions  of  the  brain  in- 
creased, however,  it  became  apparent  that  these 
were  associated  with  the  various  senses  and 
motor  organs  of  the  body.  Brain  activity  was 
found  to  consist  in  the  reception  of  sensory 
currents  and  the  transformation  of  these  into 
motor  impulses  through  a  more  or  less  compli- 
cated machinery  of  association,  the  nature  of 
which  is  much  dependent  upon  the  earlier 
experiences  of  the  individual  concerned.  Thus 
mental  ability  was  founded  on  the  possession  of 
the  special  senses  and  well-equipped  brain 
tracts  associated  therewith,  together  with  an 
apparatus  for  associating  these  regions  with  the 
motor  areas.  The  definite  organization  of  these 
associations  by  which  power  to  do  is  achieved 
is  a  result  partly  of  heredity  and  partly  of  the 
practice  and  experience  of  the  individual. 

The  view  that  mental  ability  consists  of  a 
great  ma.ss  of  special  abilities  more  or  less  inti- 
mately related  with  each  other  seems  fairly  well 
borne  out  by  researches  into  the  correlation  of 
mental  traits.  A  great  mass  of  these  are  col- 
lected by  Professor  Thorndike  (Educational 
Psychology).  For  example,  he  found  that  one's 
power  to  remember  a  series  of  figures  might 
vary  widely  according  to  whether  this  series 
were  presented  to  the  eye  or  to  the  ear.  If  a 
number  of  individuals  were  tested  in  both  exer- 
cises, the  relative  standing  of  any  one  in  auditory 


memory  would  not  be  the  same  as  that  in  visual 
memory,  although  the  two  functions  would  have 
some  positive  relation  to  each  other.  The  defi- 
nite correlation  he  discovered  was  from  29  to  39 
per  cent.  The  correlation  between  power  to 
remember  the  contents  of  a  passage  and  a  list 
of  figures,  both  presented  to  the  ear,  was  found 
to  be  only  4  to  5  per  cent ;  whereas  that  between 
the  power  to  remember  a  passage  presented  to 
the  ear  and  one  presented  to  the  eye  was  90 
per  cent. 

These  results  in  regard  to  memory  are  typical 
of  correlations  of  specific  powers  of  discrimina- 
tion, rapidity  and  accuracy  of  reaction,  etc. 
Wherever  the  nature  of  the  material  with  which 
the  individual  was  called  upon  to  deal  varied, 
there  some  variation  in  the  power  of  the  mind  to 
cope  with  it  was  discovered.  Similar  results 
were  obtained  from  a  comparison  of  the  relative 
abilit}'  displayed  by  students  in  various  school 
subjects  as  indicated  by  the  marks  received 
therein.  Dr.  Wissler  found  a  correlation  of 
standing  in  Latin  with  standing  in  mathematics 
of  58  per  cent.  Latin  showed  60  per  cent  cor- 
relation with  German  and  75  per  cent  with 
Greek.  It  is  evident  that  the  degree  of  rela- 
tionship between  the  subjects  is  reflected  in  the 
relative  ability  of  students  in  them. 

One  of  the  most  important  questions  regarding 
ability  is  that  of  the  respective  parts  of  heredity 
and  of  education  in  determining  it.  On  this 
matter  two  distinct  questions  may  be  raised. 
The  one  concerns  the  character  and  the  other 
the  relative  amount  of  the  material  derived  from 
either  source.  On  the  question  of  the  character 
of  the  contribution  of  heredity  and  education 
to  one's  ability,  the  view  that  the  former  agency 
gives  the  general  basis  of  our  intellectual  and 
physical  powers,  while  the  latter  one  trains 
and  specializes  these,  is  commonly  held.  This 
conception  finds  support  in  a  comparison  of  the 
abilities  of  the  lower  animals  and  man.  As  we 
descend  in  the  scale  of  life,  we  find  less  and  less 
capacity  for  education,  more  and  more  depend- 
ence on  heredity.  Moreover,  it  is  seen  that 
the  specific  nature  of  the  activities  of  the  brutes 
is  determined  largely  by  instinct.  In  man, 
however,  as  Professor  James  points  out,  al- 
though the  instincts  are  even  more  numerous 
than  in  the  lower  animals,  they  are  more  vague, 
more  imperfect.  They  are  just  mere  needs  or 
desires,  the  specific  method  of  gratifying  which 
is  largely  left  to  the  control  of  education.  Man 
inherits  many  instincts,  the  power  to  do  many 
things,  and  a  nervous  sj^stem  that  permits,  on 
the  one  hand,  the  formation  of  the  greatest 
variety  of  habits,  or  associations  between  stim- 
uli and  movements,  and,  on  the  other,  the 
acquisition  of  a  great  mass  of  directive  experi- 
ence. The  specific  character  of  the  habits  and 
experience  which  he  acquires  depends  upon 
education. 

As  regards  the  relative  amount  of  material 
derived  from  the  two  sources,  there  are  a  great 
number  of  studies,  of  which  Galton's  Hereditary 


11 


ABITURIENTENPRUFUNG 


ABNOR^L\L 


Genius  (New  York,  1884),  Wood's  Mental  and 
Moral  Heredity  in  Royalty  (New  York,  190G), 
and  Thoriulikf's  Mca-'nireinents  of  Twins  (New 
York,  1905)  are  among  tlie  most  noteworthy. 
Galton  concludes  that  there  is  a  marked  tend- 
ency for  genius,  superior  abihty,  height,  eye 
color,  special  kinds  of  artistic  power,  and  other 
traits  to  be  liercditary.  Thorndikc  found  that 
inheritance  has  a  most  pronounced  effect  on 
such  minute  powers  as  those  of  spelling,  writing, 
addition,  and  multi))lication,  as  shown  by  the 
extraordinary  resemblance  of  twins  in  these 
respects,  —  a  resemblance  not  to  be  accounted 
for  by  training,  since  others  who  had  received 
the  same  training  did  not  show  it.  He  con- 
cludes that "  heredity  itself  is  highly  specialized." 
In  general  the  investigators  agree  that  educa- 
tion can  fashion  one  to  mediocre  efficiency,  but 
that  it  caiuiot  produce  marked  ability. 
See  FoRM.\L  Discipline;  Discipline. 

E.  N.  H. 

References  :    Any  recent    text-book    in   psychology 
may    he    consulted,     but     the    following    give    special 
treatment :  — 
Heck,    W.    H.     Mental    Discipline    and    Educational 

Values.     (New  York,  1909.) 
Thorndike,     E.     L.     Educational    Psychology.      (New 
York,   1903.) 

ABITURIENTENPRUFUNG.  —  Also    Ab- 

G.VNti.s-,    M.KTURiT-VT.s-,    or    Reifeprufung. 

The  final  leaving  examination  in  a  German 
high  school  with  a  nine  years'  course,  intro- 
duced in  1788.  The  following  is  the  procedure 
for  the  examination  in  Prussia.  The  examina- 
tion can  only  be  taken  by  those  who  have 
reached  the  Prima,  or  highest  class.  The 
faculty  decides  who  shall  be  admitted  to  the 
examination,  which  in  scope  and  character  is 
limited  to  the  work  of  the  Prima.  The  examin- 
ing commission  consi-sts  of  the  director,  the 
faculty  of  the  highest  class,  and  a  representative 
of  the  Provincial  School  Board  (see  Ger.m.^ny, 
Educ.\tion,\l  System  in).  Suitable  questions 
for  the  examination  are  submitted  by  the 
teachers  to  the  director,  who  gives  his  approval 
and  submits  the  questions  to  the  representative 
of  the  Provincial  School  Board  for  selection. 
The  examination  is  both  written  and  oral,  but 
candidates  who  present  good  written  papers 
may  be  excused  from  the  oral.  In  the  Gymna- 
sium the  examination  includes:  (1)  A  German 
essay;  (2)  a  translation  from  German  into 
Latin;  (3)  a  translation  from  the  Greek; 
(4)  from  the  French  into  German;  and  (5) 
four  problems  in  mathematics.  The  oral  ex- 
amination includes  Latin,  Greek,  religion,  hi.s- 
tory,  and  mathematics.  There  is  a  system  of 
balancing  up  bad  papers  with  the  good,  except 
that  no  candidate  will  be  passed  who  fails  in 
German  or  both  classical  languages.  In  the 
Realgymna-tium  and  the  Oberrealschule  the 
examination  includes:  (1)  a  German  essay; 
(2)  a  French  or  English  essay;  (.3)  a  translation 
from  German  into  French  or  English;  (4)  four 
problems    in    mathematics;     (5)  one    problem 


in  physics  or  chemistry.  In  the  former  there 
is  in  addition  (6)  a  translation  from  Latin  into 
German.  The  oral  examination  incluiles  reli- 
gion, French,  English,  history,  mathematics, 
phj'sics,  or  chemistry. 

The  Abituriodenpriifung  is  not  only  a  test 
of  scholarship,  but  success  in  it  carries  with  it 
several  privileges,  all  of  which  are  since  1902  en- 
joyed e(|ually  by  the  Realgymnasium  and  Ober- 
realschule with  the  Gymnasium.  The  passing  of 
the  final  examination  is  obligatory  for  admi.ssion 
to  the  universities  and  the  learned  professions 
since  1834,  with  the  exception  that  graduates  of 
the  Oberrealschule  must  make  up  Latin  before 
they  can  be  admitted  to  the  study  of  medicine, 
and  that  candidates  for  theology  must  have  a 
knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek,  the  certificates 
of  the  leaving  examination  now  have  equal 
value.  A  further  privilege  carried  by  this  exam- 
ination is  the  admission,  after  pursuing  certain 
studies,  to  all  posts  in  the  state  service.  The 
Abitiiricntenpriifung  serves  to  secure  a  certain 
standard  of  uniformity  in  the  standards  of  the 
high  schools  throughout  the  tierman  states, 
since  it  is  practically  the  only  recognized  exami- 
nation for  entrance  to  full  enjoyment  of  univer- 
sity privileges. 

See  CiERM.^NY,  Educ.\tio.\  in. 
References :  — 
Lexis,     W.     Das    deutsche     Vnterrichtswesen,    Vol.    I. 

(Berlin,  1903.) 
RnssELL,  J.   E.     German  Higher  Schools.     (New  York, 
1905.) 

ABNORMAL. —A  term  descriptive  uf 
nuirked  physical  and  mental  deviation  from  the 
condition  generally  found  in  the  particular  class 
to  which  reference  is  made.  Some  writers  incor- 
rectly use  the  word  as  a  synonym  of  "  path- 
ological." The  latter  term,  however,  always 
implies  a  .state  or  condition  in  which  there  is 
some  interference  with  the  normal  functions, 
as  in  disease,  whereas  "  abnormal "  includes 
other  types  of  deviation  as  well.  A  double- 
yolked  egg  is  abnormal,  but  not  pathological; 
a  man  fifty-four  inches  tall  may  be  only  ab- 
normal, whereas  a  man  of  the  same  height 
who  is  a  cretin  (dwarf  due  to  insufficient  or 
absent  thyroid  secretion)  is  not  only  abnormal, 
but  also  pathological;  all  hallucinations  are 
abnormal,  while  only  a  limited  number  of  them 
are  pathological. 

From  time  to  time  attempts  have  been  made 
to  classify  bodily  and  mental  abnormalities,  but 
on  account  of  the  diversity  of  the  material  and 
the  efforts  to  make  the  schemes  all-inclusive,  the 
plans  are  not  suitable  for  p.sychological  or  edu- 
cational purposes.  The  diflRculties  of  classify- 
ing pathological  abnormalities  are  not  so 
great  as  those  of  classifying  all  abnormalities, 
but  the  pathological  abnormalities  arc  suffi- 
ciently varied  in  character  to  require  more  than 
one  method  of  grouping. 

For  convenience  here  we  may  group  the 
bodily  and  mental  activities  which  are  of  educa- 
tional importance  into  three  classes:  sensation, 


12 


ABNORMAL 


ABSENTIA 


association,  and  movement.  In  such  of  these 
classes  of  activities  we  may  find  the  following 
kinds  of  abnormalities:  (a)  absence  or  loss, 
(fc)  decrease,  and  (c)  increase.  The  important 
abnormalities  on  this  basis  of  cla.ssification  in 
each  of  the  three  classes  are  given  in  Tables  I, 
II,  III,  respectively. 

TABLE  I 
Sensation  Abnormalities 


Abnormal  Conditions 

Conditions 

Absence  or 
Losa 

Decrease 

Increase 

vision 

blindness 

amblyopia 

hearing 

deafness 

partial    deaf- 
ness 

hyperacusis 

taste 

ageusia 

smell 

anosmia 

hvperosmia 

touch 

anipsthesia 

hvposesthesia 

hyperesthesia 

pain 

aniilgesia 

hypoalsesia 

hyperalgesia 

temperature 

thermoan- 

thermohvpo- 

thermohyper- 

esthesia 

:ESthesia 

aesthesia 

TABLE    II 
Association  Abnormalities 


Normal 

Abnormal  Conditions 

Process 

Absence  or 
Loss 

Decrease 

Increase 

memory 

speech 
attention 

amnesia 

dumbness 

aphasia 

aprosexia 

varj'ing     de- 
grees        of 
amnesia 

partial  apha- 
sias 

hypermnesia 
hyperprosexia 

TABLE    III 
Movement  Abnormalities 


Absence  or  Loss 

Decrease 

Increase 

paralysis 

paresis 
retardation 

spasm 
tic 

convulsion 
cramp 

disturbances  in  movement  abilitj'.  We  may, 
however,  disregard  the  finer  distinctions  in  this 
place,  and  classify  the  material  solely  as  a  con- 
venience. For  the  more  careful  analysis  of 
many  of  the  conditions  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  articles  dealing  with  the  separate  topics. 

Following  are  lists  of  abnormalities  that  can- 
not be  properly  clasised  in  the  foregoing  tables, 
but  which  have  many  points  of  similarity  to 
those  alreadj'  mentioned.  Vision :  decrease  — 
color  blindness,  hemianopsia,  contractions  of 
the  visual  field.  Hearing:  decrease  —  tone 
deafness;  increase  —  tinnitus  aurium  (a  sub- 
jective tinkling  sound).  Memory:  decrease 
—  lapses,  forgetfulness.  Speech:  decrease  — 
aphonia,  hoarseness.  Attention:  decrease  — 
distraction.  Movement:  increase  —  tremor, 
contracture,  impulsion,  catalepsj-,  athetosis; 
decrease  —  ataxia,  weakness. 

All  the  abnormalities  mentioned  thus  far 
may  be  considered  quantitative  variations 
from  the  normal,  but  there  are  other  abnor- 
malities that  may  more  properly  be  called 
variations  in  quality.  Some  of  these,  but  not 
all,  may  be  described  as  perversions  of  normal 
conditions.  Under  this  heading  (qualitative 
abnormalities)  the  most  common  are:  halluci- 
nations, illusions,  delusions,  allochiria,  polyffs- 
thesia,  vertigo,  diaeusis  (unpleasant  sensation 
from  ordinary  stimuli),  parosmia  (smell  perver- 
sion), kakosmia  (subjective  smell  sensations  of 
an  offensive  character),  and  parageusia  (taste 
perversion). 

There  are  two  very  general  mental  abnormali- 
ties, each  composed  of  a  number  of  perverted, 
decreased,  or  increased  functions.  These  two 
general  conditions  are  commonly  called  insanity 
and  feeble-mindedness. 

The  latter  term  is  used  in  describing  indi- 
viduals who  have  not  attained  a  normal  mental 
status,  when  compared  with  other  indi\iduals 
in  the  community.  Those  individuals  are 
called  insane  who  have  shown  marked  deviation 
from  their  own  normal  manner  of  feeling,  think- 
ing, and  acting.  The  distinctions  between  the 
two  classes  is  brought  out  in  more  detail  in  the 
articles  deahng  with  these  topics.  S.  I.  F. 

ABSENT  -  MINDEDNESS.  —  See    Atten- 


For  a  complete  division  of  speech  abnormali- 
ties the  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles  on 
speech  defects,  aphasia  and  those  mentioned 
under  the  latter  topic. 

In  addition  to  the  abnormalities  mentioned  in 
the  three  tables,  there  are  many  others  not  so 
distinctly  losses,  decreases,  or  increases  in  func- 
tion. ]Many  of  these  are  complex  in  character, 
and,  if  the  classification  purports  to  be  complete, 
they  ought  to  be  grouped  under  two  or  more 
headings.  All  difficulties  in  movement  and  all 
sensation  deficiencies  may  be  considered  partial 
losses,  but  many  of  the  movement  abnormalities 
depend  upon  sensation  los.ses,  and  some  of  the 
sensation    abnormalities   are    dependent   upon 


ABSENTIA,  DEGREES  IN.  — The  confer- 
ment of  a  degree  on  a  candidate  who  has  fulfilled 
the  necessary  requirements  for  it,  but  is  unable 
to  be  present.  The  presentation  for  degrees  was 
for  so  long  an  important  feature  in  a  student's 
career,  connected  as  it  generally  was  with  dis- 
putations, that  although  the  form  has  dis- 
appeared, the  ceremonial,  which  is  more"  pic- 
turesque than  significant,  has  been  retained 
even  by  those  universities  which  cannot  look 
back  to  the  period  when  the  degree  conferment 
meant  something.  Hence  the  practice  of  in- 
sisting that  all  candidates  for  degrees  be  present 
in  person  is  almost  universal  in  Great  Britain 


13 


ABSTRACT   AND   CONCRETE 


ACADEMIC   COSTUAIE 


and  very  common  in  America.  In  Great 
Britain  dcprccs  in  absentia  will  generally  not 
be  granted  unless  the  candidate  is  out  of  the 
country.  In  case  of  illness  candidates  must 
apjJcar  at  a  suhseciuent  conferment.  In  many 
universities  an  intermediate  conferment  during 
the  year  has  been  introduced,  when  it  is  usual 
to  charge  an  additional  fee.  When  degrees  are 
conferred  in  aliscnlia,  the  names  of  the  candi- 
dates are  read  out  after  the  conferment  of 
similar  degrees.  At  O.xford  degrees  i'((  absentia 
are  only  conferred  on  canilidates  resident  abroad 
and  occupied  in  inisiness  or  profession  or  study, 
who  have  fulfilled  the  statutory  requirements, 
as, for  example,  suljinitting  a  dissertation,  obtain- 
ing a  grace  from  their  college,  or,  if  the  degree 
is  in  divinity,  subscribing  to  the  statutory  dec- 
laration. In  addition  an  extra  payment  of  £5 
is  required.  In  American  colleges  the  practice 
varies.  The  presence  of  all  candidates  is  usually 
expected,  but  the  requirements  are  more  strin- 
gent for  those  who  are  proceeding  to  the  first 
degree. 

See  Degrees. 

ABSTRACT    AND    CONCRETE.  — See  Con- 

CltKTi;   .\.M)   Al!STH--VCT. 

ABSTRACTION.  —  A  term  of  logic  meaning 
the  separation,  for  i ntellcct iial  purposes  only,  of  a 
quality  from  the  thing  to  which  it  belongs,  or  a 
relation  from  the  pair  of  things  between  which  it 
subsists.  Its  possibility  rests  upon  capacity  for 
selective  attention,  in  virtue  of  which  some  trait 
not  sensuously  conspicuous  or  intense  is  dwelt 
upon  because  of  its  importance  in  relation  to 
some  conceived  end.  While  the  brutes  have 
great  power  of  concentration,  there  is  great 
doubt  whether  (except  ])erhaps  in  the  case  of 
some  of  the  higher  apes  and  monkeys)  they  have 
the  power  of  selective  attention.  Since  reason- 
ing depends  upon  the  capacity  to  treat  an  ex- 
tracted quality  or  relation  as  a  sample  or  typical 
instance,  rational  thought  is  dependent  on  ab- 
straction or  selective  attention.  The  consider- 
ation of  some  quality  or  relation  irrespective 
of  the  particular  context  in  which  it  is  found 
is  obviously  an  indispensable  prerequisite 
for  all  generalization  {q.v.),  so  much  so  that  it 
may  be  put  down  as  a  general  principle  that 
abstraction  exists  for  the  sake  of  a  resulting 
generalization.  If  this  principle  were  uniformly 
borne  in  mind  in  education,  there  would  be 
little  occasion  for  the  attacks  which  educational 
reformers  have  made  upon  the  proneness  of  in- 
struction to  run  into  abstractions;  for  it  will 
be  found  that  the  abstract  in  the  sense  of  the 
unduly  abstruse,  the  excessively  theoretical 
and  useless,  always  means  abstraction  arrested, 
so  that  it  has  become  an  end  in  itself  instead  of  a 
preliminary  to  recognition  of  a  general  principle. 

J.  D. 

See  Concrete  and  Abstr.\ct. 

ABSTRACTION.  —  A  term  used  along  with 
"  comparison  "  to  describe  the  "  third  step  "  in 


the  procedure  of  the  recitation,  or  "  inductive 
development  lesson." 

See  Co.Mi>.\iusoNs  and  Abstr.\ction;  Reci- 
T.\TioN,  Method  of. 

ABUL-WEFA.  —  Mohamcd  ben  Mohammed 
ben  .lahja  l)en  Isma  'il  ben  el-'Abbas,  Abii'l- 
Wefa  el-HuzjanI,  one  of  the  greatest  teachers 
and  mathematicians  among  tlie  Arabs,  was  born 
in  Buzjan  near  Xis.abur  in  940,  and  died  in  997. 
He  wrote  on  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  algebra, 
and  edited  various  works  of  AL-Kuow.\ii.\z.Mi 
(q.v.),  Ei:cLiD  (q.v.),  Diophantus  iq.v.),  and 
HIPPARCHUS  (q.v.).  D.  E.  S. 

ABULIA.  —  A  symptom  in  many  mental  dis- 
eases, consisting  essentially  in  a  decrease  or 
absence  of  will  power,  and  in  a  falling  oif  of 
attention.  In  neurasthenia  and  in  psychas- 
thenia  the  abulia  is  incomplete,  but  in  such 
conditions  as  hysteria  there  may  be  a  lo.ss  of  all 
voluntary  action.  All  actions  are  not  equally 
affected,  for  it  is  found  that  those  of  a  reflex 
and  instinctive  nature  are  usually  retained, 
while  only  those  of  a  more  complex  nature  are 
lost.  In  hy.steria  the  abulia  may  be  so  marked 
as  to  simulate  a  complete  paralysis,  Imt  the 
paralyses  of  organic  origin  are  not  usually  con- 
sidered abulias. 

See  PsYCHASTHENi.A.,  Xeur-vsthenia,  and 
Hysteria. 

References  :  — 

HuGONiN.  Contribution  a  Vetvde  des  troubles  de  la 
I'ulunle  ctiez  les  alienes.  (Paris,  1892.)  (With  a 
practically  complete  bibliography  to  the  year  of 
publication.) 

RiBOT.    Maladies  de  la  volonte.     (Paris,  1883.) 

ACADEMIC  COSTUME.  —  In  this  country 
as  in  Europe  academic  costume  consists  princi- 
pally of  caps,  gowns,  and  hoods  of  forms  that 
have  become  specialized  and  used  as  outer  gar- 
ments by  students,  holders  of  degrees,  and  offi- 
cials in  universities,  colleges,  and  other  institu- 
tions of  learning.  It  is  closely  related  to  the 
professional  costume  used  by  members  of  the 
bench  and  bar  in  many  countries,  by  the  clergy 
and  choirs  in  many  churches,  by  various  frater- 
nal orders  in  ceremonial  exercises,  and  has  many 
features  in  common  with  the  medieval  dress  still 
used  by  ancient  guilds.  The  noticeable  feature 
is  the  long,  full,  flowing  gown  or  robe,  which 
seems  to  have  been  inherited  from  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  when  the  universities 
were  finding  a  form  which  recognized  a  demo- 
cratic factor  in  the  self-governing  powers,  but 
under  a  headship  appointed  by  the  Church.  The 
scholars  were  clerics,  and  so  their  robes  were  not 
far  different  from  those  of  other  clerical  orders. 

It  seems  to  have  been  at  this  time  that 
the  dress  of  the  friars  and  nuns  became  fixed. 
Flowing  robes  were  the  dignified  dress  of  the 
times,  and  special  forms  which  were  set  aside  for 
the  use  of  the  various  parts  of  the  university 
body  have  persisted  with  modifications  down  to 


14 


o 


'o 


e 

o 
O 

« 


Q 


Q 

13 


B 

■3 

O 


ACADEMIC  COSTUME 


ACADEMIC   COSTUME 


the  present.  The  cold  Isuilclings  of  medieval 
times  required  capes  and  hoods  for  warmth. 
The  cap  replaced  the  hood  for  the  head  and  the 
cape  with  hood  was  modified  into  the  present 
hood,  which  by  colors,  trimming,  and  linings  be- 
comes perhaps  the  most  noticeable  and  signifi- 
cant part  of  the  costume  in  British,  Colonial, 
and  American  colleges.  Full  black  robes  are 
used  by  professors  in  German  universities  on 
their  ceremonial  occasions;  in  the  University 
of  Paris  the  costume  is  a  gown  of  black  with 
colored  facings,  with  a  colored  scarf  hanging 
from  the  shoulder  and   a  high    turban  with  a 


tion  only  in  the   college  colors  which    line  the 
hoods. 

In  the  colored  plate,  illustrating  the 
American  usage,  the  hood  linings  are  seen 
treated  heraldically  as  inverted  shields,  the 
colors  being  arranged  as  one  or-  more  chevrons 
of  the  secondary  color,  upon  a  ground  of  the 
primary  college  color,  or  divided  parti-per-chev- 
ron.  Where  the  same  colors  have  been  used  by 
different  institutions,  —  generall.y  widely  sepa- 
rated,—  different  shades  of  the  same  colors  have 
been  followed.  In  the  British  plate,  the  em- 
pirical character  of  the  usage  is  evident. 


Bachelor's  Cap,  Gown,  and  Hooi 


Doctor's  Cap  and  Gown. 


Master's  Cap,  Gown,  and  Hood. 


colored  crown.  Different  colors  denote  dif- 
ferent faculties.  For  high  occasions  they  have 
gorgeous  robes  made  largely  of  silk  of  the 
faculty  colors  —  scarlet,  crimson,  and  yellow. 
Academic  costume  is  largely  used  in  the 
colleges  and  universities  of  the  British  Empire 
and  the  United  States.  In  the  former,  each 
university  has  its  own  empirical  usage,  small 
relationship  being  discoverable  between  the 
various  codes,  except  in  the  shapes  of  the  caps, 
gowns,  and  hoods.  The  colorings  are  unrelated, 
except  that  red  gowns  and  red  hoods  are  indica- 
tive of  a  doctorate.  In  the  United  States  there 
is  in  general  use  a  uniform  system  adaptable  to 
each  institution,  and  differing  at  each  institu- 


The    following    are    the    codes    of    Oxford, 
Cambridge,   and   Edinburgh :  — 


UNIVERSITY    OF    OXFORD 
B..\.  M.B. 


Gown.     Black  stuff. 
Hood.  Black        stuff 

trimmed  with  white  fur. 


M.A. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.      Black      silk 
with  crimson  silk. 


lined 


Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.     Blue  silk   trimmed 
with  white  fur. 


M.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.      Scarlet  cloth  lined 
with  crimson  silk. 


15 


ACADEMIC  COSTUME 


ACADEMIC   COSTUME 


Mus.B. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.     Blue  silk  trimmed 
with  white  fur. 


Mus.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 

Hood.     White   silk  in   bro- 
cade  lined  with 
silk. 


crimson 


S.C.L.  and  S.M. 

Gown.     Black  stuff. 
Hood.     Blue  silk. 


B.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hooil.     Black      silk     lined 
with  glossy  black  silk. 


D.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.     Scarlet  cloth  lined 
with  black  silk. 


B.C.L. 

Gown.     Black  .silk. 
Hood.     Blue  silk   trimmed 
with  white  fur. 


D.C.L. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.     Scarlet   cloth  lined 
with  crimson  silk. 


Doctors  of  Divinity,  Civil  Law,  Medicine, 
Mu.sic,  Science,  and  Letters  are  entitled  to  wear 
a  scarlet  cloth  gown,  faced  and  lined  with  the 
color  of  the  lining  of  the  hood  of  their  respective 
faculties. 

UNIVERSITY    OF    CAMBRIDGE 

B..\. 


Gown.     Black  stuff. 
Hood.  Black         stuff 

trimmed  with  white  fur. 


UNIVERSITY    OF    EDINBURGH 

M.A. 


D.Sc.  and  D.Litt. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 

Hood.      Black     silk 

Gown.     Black  silk. 

with      l>lue     silk, 

Hood.     Scarlet  cloth   lined 

with  white  fur. 

with  French  gruj-. 

M.A. 

Gown.      Black  .silk. 
Hood.         Black    silk     lined 
with  white  silk. 


B.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.     Black     silk     lined 
with  black  silk. 


D.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.     Scariet  cloth 
with  pink  silk. 


lined 


LL.B. 

Gown.      Black  silk. 
Hood.     Black  .silk  trimmed 
with  white  fur. 


LL.M. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 

Hood.     Black      silk 

with  white  fur. 


lined 


LL.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.      Scarlet  cloth   lined 
with  pink  silk. 


M.B. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.   Black  silk  trimmed 
with  white  fur. 


M.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.     Scarlet  cloth  lined 
with  pink  silk. 


Mus.B. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.  Black  stuff 

trimmed  with  white  fur. 


Mus.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.     Red  puce  silk  lined 
with  white  silk. 


Doctors  of  Divinity,  Laws,  Medicine,  and 
Music  are  entitled  to  wear  scarlet  gowns, 
faced  and  lined  with  the  color  of  the  lining  of  the 
hood  of  their  respective  faculties. 


Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.     Black     silk     lined 
with  white  silk. 

B.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 

Hood.  Black  silk  lined 
with  purple  silk,  bor- 
dered with  fur. 

D.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.      Black    cloth   lined 
with  puri)le  silk. 

LL.B. 


lined 
edged 


LL.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.      Black    cloth  lined 
with  blue  silk. 


M.B.  and  M.S. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.     Black     silk     lined 

with  crimson  silk,  edged 

with  white  fur. 

M.D. 

Gown.     Black  silk. 
Hood.     Black   cloth    lined 
with  crimson  silk. 

B.Sc. 


Gown. 

Black 

silk. 

Hood. 

Black 

silk 

lined 

with 

lenion- 

\-ello\\ 

■    silk, 

edgec 

with  white 

ur. 

D.Sc 

Gown. 

Black 

silk. 

Hood. 

Black 

silk 

lined 

with 

cmon-. 

ellow 

silk. 

Full-dress  gowns  for  Doctors  of  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  are  made  of  superfine  scarlet 
cloth,  loose  sleeves,  lined  with  rich  silk  of  the 
color  of  the  lining  of  the  hood  of  the  graduate's 
degree. 

The  following  is  the  Intercollegiate  System 
in  use  in  the  United  States. 


Undergr.^duate  :     Of   black   stuff,    round   or   pointed 

sleeve,  open  or  closed,  "no  hood. 
B.\CHELORS  :    Of  black  stuff,  long  pointed  sleeve,  open 

or  closed,  with  hood. 
M.4STER.S  :    Of  silk  preferably,  long  closed  sleeve,  vnth 

slit  near  upper  part  for  arm,  open,  with  hood. 
Doctors:    Of   silk   preferably,  with  round  hell  sleeve; 

gown  faced  down  the  fronts  and  barred  on  the  sleeves 

with  black  velvet  or  velvet  wholly  or  in  part  of  the 

degree  color,  with  hood. 

Presidents,  Chancellors,  and  Deans  may  have 
the  yokes,  fronts,  and  bars  trimmed  with  gold 
braid  and  may  wear  gold  tassels.  INIcmbers 
of  the  Governing  Body  (Trustees,  etc.)  may 
wear  the  Doctor's  gown  during  tenure  of  office. 


Hoods  should  be  of  the  same  materials  as  the 
Gowns,  arc  of  di.stinctive  shapes  for  Bachelor, 
Master,  and  Doctor,  and  are  lined  with  silk 
showing  the  official  colors  of  the  institution  con- 
ferring the  degree,  or  with  which  the  wearer  is 
connected,  and  are  trimmed  with  velvet  of  the 
color  distinctive  of  the  degree,  thus:  — 

Arts  and  letters  white  Oratory       .      .     .  silver-gray 

Theology .     .  scarlet  Engineering    .     .  f>range 

.  purple  Pharmacy        .     .  olive 

blue  Dentistry  .     .     .  lilac 

gold-yellow  Veterinary  science  gray 

brown  Forestry     .      .      .  russet 

green  Library  science    .  lemon 

.  i)ink  Pedagogy  .     .     .  light  blue 

.  drab 


Laws 

Philosophy 
Science 
Fine  arts  . 
Medicine 
Music  . 

Commerce  and  Accountancj' 


16 


ACADEMIC   COSTUME 


ACADEMIC  COSTUME 


CAPS 

The  Oxford  cap,  of  serge  or  broadcloth,  with 
either  stiff  or  folding  crown,  is  worn  for  all 
degrees,  but  the  Doctorate  is  entitled  to  a  gold 
tassel  in  whole  or  part,  and  the  Doctor's  cap 
maj'  be  of  velvet. 

The  official  colors  of  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant institutions  are  as  follows:  — 

Yale Blue 

Harvard Crimson 

Columbia Light  blue,  -n-ith  white  chevron 

Princeton Orange,  with  black  chevron 

Univ.  of  Penn Red,  with  blue  chevron 

Williams Royal  purple 

Bryn  Mawr Maize,  with  white  chevron 

Cornell    ....     Carnelian,  with  two  white  chevrons 

University  of  Chicago Maroon 

Union Garnet 

Hamilton Blue,  with  buff  chevron 

New  York  University Violet 

Johns  Hopkins Black,  with  gold  chevron 

Syracuse Orange 

Tulane Olive,  with  blue  chevron 

Dartmouth Green 

Wellesley Dark  blue 

Brown Brown 

Mt.  Holyoke Light  blue 

Amherst Purple,  with  white  chevron 

Wesleyan Cardinal,  with  black  chevron 

Tufts Brown,  with  blue  chevron 

George  Washington  Uni- 
versity      Blue,  with  buff  chevron 

Lehigh Brown,  with  white  chevron 

Georgetown Gray,  with  blue  chevron 

Holy  Cross Purple 

St.  Francis  Xavier    .     .     .    Maroon,  with  blue  chevron 

Manhattan White,  with  green  chevron 

University  of  Michigan     .        Maize,  with  blue  chevron 
University  of  California     .  Gold  silk,  with  Mue  chevron 

St.  Stephens Cardinal 

Rutgers Scarlet 

Foreign  Colleges 

Protestant  College,  Beirut, 

Syria Turkey  red  and  white 

Robert     College,     Con- 
stantinople           Light  blue 

Manila  University Gold  and  light  blue 

Naturally  college  colors  are  better  known 
in  their  bounds  than  outside,  and  better  at 
institutions  that  play  match  games  together 
than  at  more  distant  places.  American  col- 
lege colors  are,  however,  being  carried  every- 
where, especially  since  it  has  become  the 
custom  for  universities  and  colleges  to  give 
to  the  recipients  of  their  honorary  degrees  the 
correct  hoods  for  these  degrees.  At  centen- 
nials and  other  great  convocations  many  are 
given  to  vLsiting  delegates  from  American  and 
foreign  universities,  and  are  carried  and  later 
worn  in  widely  separated  places,  and  thus 
serve  to  make  known  the  institutions  whose 
degrees  are  represented  by  the  hoods. 

As  there  are  a  large  number  of  professors 
in  America  holding  German  degrees,  in  faculties 
where  the  intercollegiate  system  is  used,  it  has 
become  the  custom  for  them  to  use  the  caps, 
gowns,  and  hoods  of  their  appropriate  degrees, 
which  are  usually  Ph.D.,  lining  the  hoods  with 
the  colors  of  the  German  universities,  upon 
which  is  laid  a  German  tri-chevron  of  black, 

VOL.   I  —  c 


white,  and  red.  This  custom  was  inaugurated  in 
189.5  at  the  University  of  Chicago  by  a  confer- 
ence of  professors  of  German  and  other  national- 
ities who  were  outfitting  under  the  American 
system,  and  who  designed  this  symbolism  to  in- 
dicate the  source  of  the  degrees  which  represented 
so  much  of  German  moclcrn  research. 

The  German  universities  are  represented  as 
follows :  — 

University  of  Berlin 

Purple,  with  tri-che^'ron  in  center 
LTniversity  of  Freiburg 

Dark  green,  with  tri-chevron  in  center 
University  of  Gottingen 

Yellow,  with  tri-chevron  in  center 
University  of  Halle 

White,  with  tri-chevron  in  center 
University  of  Heidelberg 

Red,  with  tri-chevron  in  center 
University  of  Munich 

Light  blue,  with  tri-che^'ron  in  center 
Universitj'  of  Leipsic 

CJreen  above  white,  with  tri-chevron  in  center 
University  of  Jena 

Green  above  gold,  with  tri-chevron  in  center 
University  of  \\'iirzburg 

Blue  above  white,  with  tri-chevron  in  center 
University  of  Tubingen 

Red  above  black,  with  tri-chevron  in  center 
University  of  Bonn 

White  above  black,  with  tri-chevron  in  center 
University  of  Strassburg 

Black  above  red,  with  white  chevron 
University  of  Breslau 

Black  above  white,  with  red  chevron 
Royal  Normal  College,  Munich 

Blue  and  white  panels,  with  tri-chevron 

Harvard  has  the  same  code  for  gowns,  but 
shows  the  school  in  which  the  degree  was  given 
Ijy  the  same  colors  as  the  trimming  of  the 
hoods  under  the  intercollegiate  system,  in  the 
form  of  braided  double  crow's-feet  (for  honorary 
degrees,  triple  crow's-feet)  placed  on  each  side 
of  the  gown  in  front  near  the  collar.  Harvard 
hoods  are  all  of  the  Master's  shape,  lined  with 
crimson,  and  are  of  different  lengths  for  Bache- 
lors, Masters,  and  Doctors.  For  honorary  de- 
grees they  are  of  cloth,  otherwise  they  match 
the  gowns.  Professors,  assistant  professors, 
and  other  members  of  the  University  Council 
wear  a  square  soft  cap  of  velvet. 

The  following  colleges  retain  empirical  codes 
in  use  before  the  framing  of  the  intercollegiate 
system:  Trinitv,  University  of  the  South  (Se- 
waneo),  St.  John's  (Annapolis).  They  are  to 
be  foimd  in  the  Living  Church  Almanac. 

Caps  and  gowns  have  been  used  in  the  United 
States  from  colonial  times,  particularly  at  Co- 
lumbia (King's  College),  where  a  local  code  ex- 
isted. New  York  University-,  University  of  Penn- 
sj'lvania,  and  others  have  used  gowns  for  long 
periods.  About  1SS.5  there  came  a  student 
movement  to  use  them,  and  from  then  until 
1S93  there  was  a  rapidly  increasing  adoption  of 
the  custom  on  the  part  of  graduating  classes  due 
to  an  appreciation  of  their  value,  largely  from 
a  democratic  standpoint,  since  gowns  and  caps 
clothed  all  alike  in  an  outward,  ecjual  fellowship. 
An  interest  also  arose  among  college  presi- 
dents and  trustees,  and  the  Yale  Corporation 
17 


ACADEMIC  COSTUME 


ACADEMIE 


was  one  of  the  earliest  governing  bodies  to  be 
gowned.  The  Cohiinhia.  Now  York  University, 
and  University  of  Pennsylvania  faculties  were 
already  gowned.  The  Harvard  faculty  was 
supplied  for  the  2.")0th  anniversary  in  1886. 

Ttje  statute  for  an  Intercollegiate  System 
of  Academic  Costume  was  drawn  by  a  comniis- 
sion  proposed  by  Princeton  in  1893,  to  which 
the  leading  universities  and  colleges  were  in- 
vited to  send  members.  Columbia  was  rep- 
resented by  President  Seth  Low  and  Bishop 
Potter,  a  trustee;  Yale  by  Rev.  Chas.  Ray 
Palmer,  a  trustee;  University  of  New  York 
by  Chancellor  McCracken,  and  Princeton  by 
Col.  John.].  McCook,  a  trustee  who  was  the  mov- 
ing spirit  at  Princeton  in  proposing  the  com- 
mission, and  the  secretary  of  the  commission 
when  organized.  A  number  of  institutions 
expressed  interest  without  sending  delegates. 
Col.  McCook  had  seen  the  value  of  devices 
on  army  uniforms  in  dilTerentiating  the  various 
army  corps  and  divisions.  He  studied  the 
traditional  colors  as  used  in  the  older  universi- 
ties of  Italy,  France,  and  Great  Britain  to  mark 
the  different  faculties;  he  realized  the  endless 
confusion  that  would  arise  should  each  Ameri- 
can college  have  its  own  unrelated  code  of 
gowns,  and  especially  of  hoods,  and  knew  that 
American  colleges  would  never  be  able  to 
secure  the  benefits  of  academic  co.stunie  unless 
a  sy.stem  could  be  devised  that  could  be  adapted 
to  all  institutions  and  be  understood  in  all  by 
any  one  who  had  become  familiar  vrith  the  sys- 
tem at  any  one  institution.  The  writer,  whose 
article  in  the  University  Magazine  of  Dec,  1893, 
had  pointed  out  the  need  of  a  system,  was  called 
into  consultation,  prepared  colored  sketches 
and  experimental  gowns  and  hoods,  and  assisted 
in  defining  the  distinguishing  features  of  the 
caps,  gowns,  ami  hoods  for  the  different  degrees. 

The  statute  as  prepared  by  the  commission 
was  offered  to  the  universities  and  colleges,  and 
was  soon  adopted  by  a  considerable  number, 
and  has  since  been  taken  up  so  generally  that 
it  is  considered  to  be  in  force  at  all  institutions  in 
the  United  States,  with  the  few  exceptions 
noted.  In  189-t,  when  the  statute  was  adopted, 
a  registry  under  the  name  of  the  Intercollegiate 
Bureau  of  Academic  Costume  was  opened  to 
record  the  correct  colors  of  the  institutions,  the 
arrangement  of  the  colors  where  more  than  one 
was  employed,  and  any  other  particulars  of  the 
gowns,  hoods,  and  caps  u.sed  under  the  system 
or  otherwise  of  all  colleges  and  universities 
wherever  located,  and  any  other  information  as 
to  their  ceremonies.  In  1 902  the  Regents  of  the 
University  of  the  State  of  Xew  York  granted  a 
charter  to  the  Bureau  which  had  really  been  in 
existence  since  1887,  and  it  has  continued  its 
location  at  .\lbany,  N.Y. 

The  object  of  the  corporation  is  "  to  establish 
and  maintain  a  library  relating  to  the  universi- 
ties, professional,  technical,  and  advanced 
schools  and  colleges  of  the  world,  particularly 
as  to  their  membersliip  and  their  ceremonial 


and  other  public  appearances,  including  their 
gowns,  hoods,  caps,  robes,  badges,  banners,  arms, 
and  other  regalia  used  on  such  occasions;  to 
maintain  a  register  of  statutes,  codes,  and 
usages,  designs  and  descriptions  of  the  arti- 
cles of  academic  costume  and  regalia  with 
their  correct  colors,  materials,  qualities,  sizes, 
proportions,  and  the  arrangement  thereof; 
to  promote  social  intercourse  among  mem- 
bers of  universities  and  colleges,  and  to  dis- 
seminate information  on  the  subjects  above 
mentioned." 

The  o]>inion  of  the  bureau  is  to  be  had  by  any 
one  interested,  without  charge,  as  it  was  founded 
through  an  academic  interest  to  fill  a  need  of  the 
colleges  and  universities  in  collating  informa- 
tion and  securing  correctness  in  the  use  of  aca- 
demic costume  —  the  regalia  of  the  educational 
army.  G.  C.  L. 

References:  — 

Academical  Hoods,  etc.      Rev.   John  Woodward,  LL.D., 

F.S..\.  .Scot.,  Rector  of  St.  Mary's,  Montrose. 
Albani/   Bureau   of  Academic    Costume.     Reprint   from 

-Vlbimy  -trtfHj,-,  1902. 
Calthrop.   Diox  Cl.wton.     English  Costume,  Vol.  2, 

p.  142.      (London.  1906.) 
Costumes  of  the  Alembers   of  the    University  of  Oxford. 

24    plates.     Oxford. 
Costumes   of  the    University   of  Cambridge.    24    plates. 

Cambridge. 
F.4JRHOLT,    F.    W.      Costume    in    England.      (London, 

1860.) 
La  Croix,  P.\tJL.     Manners,  Customs,  and  Dress  during 

the  Middle  Ages.      (London.  1877.) 
Leonard,  G.\RDNER  C.     The  Cap  andGcnon  in  America. 

(.\lbany,  N.V..  1896.) 
Wells.  J.     Oxford  and  its  Colleges.     (London,  1898.) 
Wells.  J.  The  Oxford  Degree  Ceremony.   (Oxford,  1906.) 
Wood,  T.   W.       Ecclesiastieal  and  Academical   Colours. 

(London,  1876.) 
Wood.    T.    W.     The    Degrees,    Gowns,    and    Hoods    of 

British,  Colonial,  Indian  and  American  Universities 

and  Colleges.     (London.) 

ACADEMIC  FREEDOM.  —  See  Freedom 
OF  Te-\ching  or  Academic  Freedo.m  (for 
Freedom  of  Le.\rxixg,  see  Elective  System). 


ACADEMICIAN. - 

NALisM  i.\  America. 


-  See  Educational  Jour- 


ACADEMIE  (English,  academy).  —  The 
largest  unit  in  the  administrative  organization 
of  the  French  educational  system.  The  ninety 
departments  into  which  France  is  divided 
are  grouped  in  a  more  or  less  arbitrary  fashion 
into  seventeen  academies.  These  are:  Aix, 
BesanQon,  Bordeaux,  Caen,  Chamb^ry,  Cler- 
mont, Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille.  Lyons,  Montpel- 
lier,  Nancy,  Paris,  Poitiers,  Rennes,  Toulouse, 
and  Algier,  each  one  taking  its  name  from  the 
city  which  is  its  official  seat,  and  each  except 
ChamWry  and  Algier  having  its  own  university. 
The  administrative  officer  of  the  academy  is  the 
rector,  who  is  at  the  head  of  all  three  degrees  of 
instruction,  elementary,  secondary,  and  higher. 
(The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  is  the  rec- 
tor of  the  Academy  of  Paris,  but  his  active 
functions,  as  far  as  this  particular  academy  is 


18 


ACADEMY 


ACADEMY 


concerned,  are  delegated  to  a  vice-rector.) 
Under  the  rector  are  as  many  academy  in- 
spectors as  there  are  departments  in  the  acad- 
emy, although  Paris  has  several  additional 
inspectors.  These  academies  vary  greatly 
in  size  and  importance,  ranging  from  Paris, 
with  nine  departments  and  approximately  five 
and  three  quarters  millions  of  people,  to  Cham- 
bery,  with  only  two  departments  and  fewer 
than  seventy-eight  thousand  inhabitants. 
See  Fr.\nce,  Education  in. 

ACADEMY.  —  A  term  derived  from  the  Greek 
dKaS-rjixeia,  a  suburb  of  Athens,  which  was  laid  out 
by  Cimon  and  presented  to  the  city  as  public 
pleasure  grounds.  It  was  here  that  Plato  met  and 
discussed  with  his  pupils,  and  here  his  followers 
established  themselves  as  a  school.  Hence  the 
name  "  Academy"  came  to  be  applied  to  them, 
and  from  this  use  was  adopted  generally  to  refer 
to  any  school  or  place  of  learning  or  any  a.ssocia- 
tion  of  men  formed  for  the  pursuit  of  literary  or 
scientific  or  artistic  investigation.  The  library 
and  university  of  Alexandria  are  said  to  have 
originated  from  such  an  institution,  founded  by 
Ptolemy  Soter.  And  Charlemagne  and  Alcuin 
are  credited  with  the  establishment  of  an 
academy  for  the  study  of  grammar,  rhetoric, 
poetry,  history,  and  mathematics.  But  it  was 
during  the  Renaissance  that  the  academy  in  the 
sense  of  an  association  of  literary  men  sprang 
into  popularity  with  the  educated  cla.sses, 
particularly  with  the  aristocracy,  who  here 
found  an  outlet  for  their  activity.  Although 
the  academy  may  have  originated  earlier  or  in 
another  country  (Belgium  is  said  to  have  had  an 
academy  in  the  twelfth  century),  Italj'  is  the 
scene  of  its  fuller  development;  and  only  one 
other  institution,  the  Academy  of  Floral  Games, 
founded  at  Toulouse  in  1325  to  award  prizes 
to  successful  Troubadours,  has  had  a  longer  and 
more  successful  career,  continuing  in  existence 
to  the  present  time  for  the  encouragement  of 
poetry.  The  earliest  academies  were  founded 
for  the  advancement  of  the  study,  first  of  cla.ssi- 
cal,  and  soon  afterwards  of  Italian,  literature. 
The  Platonic  Academy  was  founded  at  Florence 
in  1474  under  the  patronage  of  Cosmo  de'  Medici 
for  the  study  of  philology  and  the  philosophy 
of  Plato,  to  which  were  soon  added  the  works 
of  Dante  and  other  Italian  writers.  After  the 
expulsion  of  the  Medici  and  the  dissolution  of 
the  academy  in  1527,  the  work,  particularly  the 
study  of  Italian  writers,  was  taken  up  by  the 
Academy  of  Florence,  1540.  Numerous  associa- 
tions were  formed  for  the  same  purpose  in  all 
parts  of  Italy;  the  most  famous  being  the  Acca- 
demia  della  Cruscn  or  Furfuratorum,  the  "  acad- 
emy of  the  sifted  ones,"  formed  in  1587. 
This  academy  published  in  1613  the  Vo- 
cabulario  della  Crusca.  Incorporated  with 
two  other  societies  it  is  still  in  existence. 
Academies  of  a  similar  character  soon  came 
to  be  established  throughout  Europe.  In 
1617     Die     Fruchtbringende      Gesellschaft    was 


founded  at  Weimar  to  foster  a  study  of  the 
German  language  and  rhetoric  and  to  set  the 
standards  for  a  distinctively  German  education 
and  morality.  Its  influence,  however,  was 
never  strong.  The  further  development  of  the 
literary  academj'  took  place  in  France  under 
the  patronage  of  Louis  XIV  and  his  ministers. 
The  French  Academy  originated  from  a  private 
society  formed  for  the  study  of  French  litera- 
ture. It  received  its  charter  from  the  King,  on 
the  recommendation  of  Richelieu,  in  1635.  Its 
aim  was  "  to  regulate  the  language  and  render  it 
pure,  eloquent,  and  capable  of  treating  the  arts 
and  sciences."  Its  most  important  work 
was  the  issue  of  the  Dictionary  in  1639,  which 
has  been  constantly  supplemented.  With  this 
Academy  all  French  literary  men  have  been 
connected.  Upon  the  merits  of  a  body  which  at- 
tempts to  act  as  a  High  Court  of  Letters  it  is  not 
necessary  to  enter  here.  During  the  Revolu- 
tion the  French  Academy,  along  with  other  exist- 
ing academies,  was  incorporated  in  the  Institute. 
An  academy  of  this  type  was  never  formed 
in  England.  Arising  out  of  the  study  of  litera- 
ture, academies  for  the  study  of  archa-ology  and 
history  arose.  In  1701,  under  the  patronage  of 
the  King,  the  Royal  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and 
Medals  was  formed,  primarily  for  the  purpose 
of  suggesting  suitable  designs  and  memorials  to 
commemorate  the  work  of  Louis  XIV,  and 
secondarily  for  the  study  and  discussion  of  the 
subject  generally.  In  1755  the  Academy  of 
Herculaneum  was  established  at  Naples  for  the 
study  and  discussion  of  antiquities.  This 
academy  published  an  account  of  its  workin 
1775  in  the  Antichitd  di  Ereolano. 

But  it  was  in  the  field  of  science  that  the 
academy  had  its  greatest  and  most  universal 
success.  The  universities  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  century  did  not  look  with  favor 
on  the  .study  of  science,  and  except  in  a  few 
German  universities  no  encouragement  was 
given  to  it.  The  Academy  afforded  an  excellent 
organization  for  those  whose  interests  were 
strongly  scientific.  It  is  a  matter  of  note  that 
the  best  work  in  science  has  been  done  outside 
the  universities  and  largely  through  the  en- 
couragement of  the  academies.  The  earliest 
scientific  academy  was  founded  in  1560  at 
Naples  —  the  Academia  Seereiorum  Naturae 
—  the  membership  in  which  was  open  only  to 
those  who  had  made  some  discovery  in  medi- 
cine or  philosophy.  Incurring  the  suspicions  of 
the  Church,  this  academy  was  speedily  dis- 
solved. An  academy  with  similar  aim  was 
formed  at  Rome  under  the  influence  of  Federigo 
Cesi,  bearing  the  name  Lined,  or  the  lynxes. 
The  Accademia  del  Cimento  at  Florence  (1657- 
1667)  was  a  society  founded  for  the  purpose 
of  conducting  experiments.  Of  this  academy 
Torricelli,  the  inventor  of  the  barometer,  was  a 
member.  In  France  the  Old  Academy  of  Sciences, 
which  began  as  a  private  society,  was  given  a 
charter  at  the  suggestion  of  Colbert  in  1666. 
Sections  were  organized  for  the  study  of  mathe- 


19 


ACADEMY 


ACADEMY 


matics,  physics,  and  chemistry;  pensions  were 
given  to  nienibcrs  by  the  King,  ami  money 
was  provided  for  instruments.  Descartes  and 
Pascal  were  members  of  tiiis  institution,  and  Sir 
Isaac  Ncvs-ton  became  a  foreign  associate,  and 
after  the  academy  was  reconstituted  in  1099 
every  French  scientist  of  note  was  a  member. 
After  being  abolished  in  1792  the  academy 
was  revived  and  reconstituted  in  1812.  The 
earliest  scientific  academy  in  Clermany  was  the 
Collegium  Curiosum,  founded  by  ,J.  C.  Sturm 
in  1672,  professor  at  Altorff,  for  the  repetition 
and  discu-ssion  of  experiments.  At  the  sug- 
gestion of  Leibnitz,  Frederick  I  established  the  ' 
Roijul  Academy  of  Science  at  Berlin  in  1700. 
It  was  reconstituted  in  1812  with  four  sections, 
physical,  matiiematical,  ijhilosopiiical,  and  his- 
torical. The  regular  meml)ers  are  |)aid.  Among 
its  members  the  academy  has  included  the 
two  lluinboldts,  Savigny,  Schleiermaclu'r  and 
Ranke.  L'nder  the  influence  of  the  prevail- 
ing tendency  a  few  followers  of  Bacon  met  to- 
gether in  104.5  for  the  discu.ssion  of  experimental 
society.  Out  of  these  meetings  arose  the  Royal 
Society  {q. v.),  \\\\\c\\  received  its  charter  in  1002. 
Two  other  developments  of  the  academy  have 
been  for  the  study  of  medicine  and  surgery 
{Naturae  Curiosi  or  Leopoldine  Academy  in 
Germanj-,  f.  1662,  Academy  of  Surgery  in  Vienna, 
and  the  Royal  Academy  of  Medicine  in  France 
are  the  most  important)  and  the  fine  arts  (the 
Royal  Academy  of  Arts  in  England,  f.  1768,  and 
the  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture  in 
Paris,  f.  1648,  are  conspicuous  examples). 

This  type  of  academy  has  developed  in  the 
United  States,  beginning  with  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  of  which  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin was  the  originator  in  1743.  In  17S0  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  came 
into  being  for  the  study  of  American  antiquities 
and  natural  history.  In  1812  was  founded  the 
Philadelphia  Academy  of  Natural  Science,  v:h\ch 
soon  developed  a  library  and  museum  of  con- 
siderable value,  particularly  in  the  fields  of  orni- 
thology and  conchology.  In  1863  the  National 
Academy  of  Science  was  chartered  by  Congress 
as  an  official  organ  for  scientific  investigation. 
In  1898  the  Washington  Academy  of  Science 
was  formed  by  the  incorporation  of  several 
societies  working  in  Washington.  A  further 
development  is  the  America/i  Academy  of 
Political  and  Social  Science,  founded  in  1889 
in  Philadelphia.  Local  academies  also  exist 
for  the  encouragement  of  fine  arts. 

Courtly  Academies.  —  In  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  arose,  under  the  influence 
of  treatises  like  II  Cortegiano  of  Castiglionc  {q.v.) 
the  advocacy  of  a  type  of  school  where  the  sons 
of  nolilemen  and  landed  gentry  could  obtain  the 
courtly  training  which  tlie  public  schools  of  the 
day  did  not  offer.  These  schools  were  known 
as  Academies.  In  the  curriculum  were  included 
e.xercises  in  arms  and  gymnastics,  Latin,  modern 
languages,  practical  mathematics,  and  natural 
philosophy.     Such    a    type    of    education    is 


sketched  by  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  in  Qneen 
Elizabeth's  Academy,  1572,  setting  forth  a  proj- 
ect for  the  education  of  the  wartls  of  the  court 
and  "  others  of  the  youth  of  nobility  and  gentle- 
men." A  conspicuous  feature  in  the  book  is 
the  emphasis  which  is  laid  on  the  training  in 
English.  The  entire  aim  of  this  type  of  educa- 
tion may  be  summed  up  in  (Albert's  own  lan- 
guage, "  For  such  as  govern  commonweals  ought 
rather  to  bend  them.selves  to  the  jiractice 
thereof  than  to  be  tied  to  the  Ijookish  circum- 
stances of  the  same."  The  practical  end  was 
therefore  uppermost  in  the  training  of  the  acade- 
mies. Several  other  works  of  the  same  kind 
appeared  in  the  .sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  The  result  of  the  tendency  was  seen 
in  the  rise  of  academies  at  this  time.  In  Ger- 
many there  was  a  widespread  development  of 
them  under  the  title  of  Ritlcrakademien.  In 
France  they  were  encouraged  by  Richelieu, 
under  whose  patronage  the  Academy  of  Tours 
was  established,  where  the  pujiils  were  taught 
physical  science,  mathematics,  geography, 
French,  Italian,  Spanish,  history,  heraldry, 
and  martial  accomplishments.  At  Tuilly  there 
was  a  similar  academy  under  royal  patronage. 
In  England  the  strongest  advocate  of  this 
type  of  education  was  Milton  (q.r.),  who  in  the 
Tractate  of  Education  (1044)  fully  dcvelojjs  the 
aims  and  ideals  reiircscnted  by  the  academy. 
The  Tractate  is  all  the  more  valuable  as  it  was 
based  on  ISIilton's  practical  experience,  for  a 
short  time,  at  any  rate,  in  keeping  an  academy. 
In  1040  a  proposal  was  made  in  the  House  of 
Lords  "  about  the  erecting  of  an  Academy,  for 
the  breeding  and  training  up  of  young  noblemen 
and  gentlemen."  The  attempt  to  introduce 
academies  into  England  did  not  succeed.  The 
experiments  of  Sir  Balthazar  Gerbier  (1049) 
and  of  Faubert  (1082)  in  London  were  short- 
lived. The  academies  as  developed  in  France 
and  Germany  performed  an  important  function 
in  modernizing  the  curriculum  of  the  secondary 
school.  In  I'^ngland  the  suggestion  contained 
in  Milton's  Tractate  appears  in  a  modified  form 
to  have  been  taken  up  in  the  academies  of  the 
dissenters,  which  arose  as  a  result  of  the  religious 
intolerance  of  the  period.  (See  Ge.ntkv,  Edu- 
cation OF.) 

Nonconformist  Academies.  —  By  the  Act 
of  I'niformity  (1602)  not  only  were  dissenters 
excluded  from  university  privileges,  but  those 
who  by  that  time  had  already  completed  their 
university  education  were  debarred  from  teach- 
ing by  the  necessity  of  obtaining  a  bishop's 
license.  The  <  result  was  that  those  who  did 
attempt  to  teach  did  so  by  stealth  or  were 
compelled  to  move  about  by  the  relentlessness 
of  their  persecutors.  It  was  in  the  north  of 
England  particularly  that  the  need  of  higher 
education  was  most  felt.  Cromwell  had  at- 
tempted to  meet  the  demand  by  establishing  the 
University  of  Durham  (q.v.)  in  1057,  but  the 
patent  was  withdrawn  at  the  Restoration. 
Of  the  two  thousand  nonconformist  ministers. 


20 


ACADEMY 


ACADEIVIY 


who  were  dispossessed  by  the  Act  of  Uniform- 
ity, many  were  driven  by  necessity,  some  by 
choice,  others  by  the  need  of  training  up  suc- 
cessors to  the  nonconformist  ministrj',  to  set 
up  academies.  At  first  many  found  it  difficult 
to  reconcile  it  to  their  consciences  to  give  higher 
instruction,  for  they  felt  restrained  by  the 
graduation  oath  of  Oxford  or  Cambridge  from 
imparting  instruction  of  university  rank. 
Ultimately  the  argument  that  the  oath  only 
applied  to  institutions  which  granted  degrees 
prevailed,  and  the  dissenting  academies  arose 
in  different  parts  of  the  country,  but  more  par- 
ticularly in  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire.  The 
choice  of  the  title  "academy"  for  these  in.stitu- 
tions  may  be  traced  back  either  to  Milton's 
use,  or  better  to  the  application  of  the  term 
by  Calvin  and  the  founders  of  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  to  universities  which  were  es- 
tablished without  the  sanction  of  the  Pope. 
Generally  these  academies  were  taught  by  one 
man,  later  two  or  three  assistant  tutors  were 
engaged.  The  pupils  boarded  in  the  house  of 
the  tutor,  and  often  threw  in  their  lot  with  him, 
when,  owing  to  the  ever-impending  danger  of 
prosecution,  he  found  it  necessary  to  move 
from  one  town  to  another.  Frequently  the 
tutors  continued  as  dissenting  ministers,  and  the 
necessity  of  accepting  calls  involved  the  re- 
moval of  the  academy.  The  students  were  not 
drawn  alone  from  among  the  dissenters,  for  the 
academies  were  set  up  as  a  protest  against  the 
religious  intolerance  of  the  universities  and  as  a 
demand  that  seats  of  learning  should  be  open  to 
all.  Thus  Harley,  Earl  of  Oxford,  who  later 
introduced  the  Schism  Bill,  was  educated  in  an 
academy;  so  too  were  Thomas  Seeker,  later 
Archbisho])  of  Canterbury,  and  Butler,  later 
Bishop  of  Durham  and  author  of  the  Analogy. 
At  first  the  cla-ss  of  students  who  were  drawn 
to  the  academies  were  in  a  position  to  maintain 
themselves;  later,  however,  they  were  drawn 
from  a  poorer  class,  and  funds  for  their  support 
were  established.  The  Independents  of  London 
had  two  such  funds  under  the  charge  of  the 
Independent  Fund  Board  and  the  King's  Head 
Society.  Many  depended  on  and  received  pri- 
vate munificence  and  bequests.  In  addition 
to  classics  and  Hebrew,  lectures  were  given  at 
the  academies  on  theology,  logic,  ethics, 
natural  philosophy,  somatology,  pneumatology, 
and  chronology.  Latin  was  the  language  of 
instruction  and  conversation,  with  only  slight 
exceptions,  until  the  change  to  English  was 
introduced  by  Doddridge.  The  students  did 
not  receive  a  preparation  for  the  ministry  alone, 
but  for  medicine  and  pul.ilic  life.  The  standard 
which  was  attained  in  the  usual  course  of  four 
years  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  on  leav- 
ing the  academies  students  were  permitted 
to  graduate  at  one  of  the  Scottish  universities 
after  one  session. 

The  earliest  academy  was  established  by 
Richard  Frankland  in  his  house  at  Rathmell, 
Yorkshire,    in    1670.     Frankland,    who   was   a 


graduate  of  Cambridge  and  was  selected  for  an 
appointment  at  Durham  University,  was  a 
man  of  strong  personality,  and  had  had  the 
courage  to  beard  Charles  II  on  the  religious 
ciuestion.  In  spite  of  numerous  vicissitudes, 
he  succeeded  in  keeping  his  academy  together 
for  twenty-eight  years.  His  successor  was 
Timothy  Jollie,  who  removed  to  Attercliffe  in 
Yorkshire.  A  large  number  of  other  academies 
soon  followed  in  an  unbroken  series.  Bogue 
and  Bennett  ( History  of  Dissenters,  London, 
lSOS-1812)  enumerate  thirty-five  academies 
from  Frankland's  foundation  to  1780.  Perhaps 
the  teacher  who  had  the  widest  influence, 
particularly  through  his  textbooks,  was  Philip 
Doddridge  (fj.v.),  who  had  charge  of  the  acad- 
emy at  Northampton  for  twenty-two  years 
and  introduced  the  practice  of  lecturing  in 
English.  With  Doddridge  the  persecution  of 
the  dissenting  teachers  came  to  an  end,  through 
the  intervention  of  George  III  on  his  behalf, 
when  an  attempt  was  made  to  bring  him  to 
trial.  Doddridge's  academy  was  moved  by  his 
successor  to  Daventry,  where  Joseph  Priestley, 
who  later  himself  taught  in  the  acadenry  at 
Warrington,  was  a  student.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century  the  activity  of  the 
nonconformist  academies  came  to  an  end, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Manchester  Academy, 
founded  1699  and  later  removed  to  London  and 
now  located  at  Oxford  as  Manchester  College. 

The  service  of  the  nonconformist  academies 
to  English  education  cannot  be  overrated. 
At  a  time  when  a  large  number  of  eager  students 
would  have  been  excluded  from  the  universities 
they  stepped  in  and  very  adequately  filled  the 
breach.  By  their  attention  to  subjects  which 
were  beyond  the  scope  of  the  universities,  they 
contributed  in  assisting  the  modern  branches  of 
learning  to  obtain  a  foothold  in  England. 
Without  the  strong  conservatism  and  de\-otion 
to  forms  of  the  older  universities,  the  academies 
were  eminently  progressive  and  adaptable  to 
new  needs.  Since  there  was  not  any  restriction 
as  to  the  length  of  the  courses,  students  were  in 
a  position  to  go  from  one  academy  to  another 
in  search  of  what  suited  them  best.  The 
earnestness  of  the  teachers  who  were  not  secure 
in  a  lifelong  university  appointment  could  not 
but  fire  the  enthusiasm  of  their  students.  On 
their  services  to  nonconformity  and  the  prin- 
ciple of  toleration  this  is  not  the  place  to  enlarge. 
(See  Dissenters  and  Education.) 

In  America.  —  Secondary  education  in  Amer- 
ica has  appeared,  successively,  under  three  domi- 
nant type  forms,  the  (Latin)  grammar  school 
of  the  colonial  period,  the  academy  of  the  early 
republic,  and  the  public  high  school,  since  the 
Civil  War.  The  colonial  grammar  school  was  a 
close  reproduction  of  its  English  prototype.  It 
tended,  especially  in  New  England,  to  be  local 
in  its  patronage.  Its  prime  function  was  to 
fit  boys  for  the  university.  Its  curriculum, 
accordingly,  consisted  (properly)  of  only  Latin 
and  Greek.     In  theory,  Latin  was  the  exclusive 


21 


ACADEMY 


ACADEMY 


lanKuagc,  not  only  of  the  schoolroom,  but  also 
of  the  plavKiound.  When  the  exigencies  of 
practical  life  did  force  the  grammar  school  to 
provide  English,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  such 
studies  were  looked  ujion  as  extraneous,  in- 
troduced merely  "  in  order  to  (jualify  such  for 
business  as  intended  to  make  no  further  prog- 
ress in  learning."  Moreover,  for  the  most 
part,  the  grammar  school  had  grown  up  within 
some  dominant  religious  establishment  which  it 
in  turn  tended  to  perpetuate.  This  was  as  true 
of  the  Episcopal  aristocracy  of  Maryland, 
Virginia,  and  South  Carolina  as  it  was  of  the 
Puritan  hierarchy  of  New  England. 

As  the  eighteenth  century  progressed,  this 
unity  of  original  control  was  shaken.  White- 
field  and  the  "Xew  Lights"  stirred  the  intrenched 
religious  conservatism  from  Georgia  to  Massa- 
chusetts. A  host  of  Presbyterian  Scotch  and  Irish 
entered  into  the  Middle  and  Southern  colo- 
nies. Baptists  increased  in  numbers,  and  Meth- 
odism bi'gan  to  be  felt.  The  day  of  the  non- 
conformist was  at   hand.     At  the  same   time 


.Vn  Early  New  England  .\cademy. 

there  was  rising  everywhere  an  American  spirit 
which  began  to  be  conscious  of  itself  and  desirous 
of  settling  American  problems  in  an  American 
way.  New  institutions  were  demanded.  It 
has  been  shown  in  the  preceding  section  how 
that  after  the  Restoration  the  academy  arose  in 
England  to  meet,  in  an  individual  fashion,  the 
nonconformist  need  of  education.  Probably 
the  American  academy  is  not  so  much  a  direct 
transplanting  of  the  English  institution  as  it  is 
a  spontaneous  outgrowth  from  somewhat  analo- 
gous circumstances.  The  old  grammar  school 
had  been  exclusive  in  aim  and  curriculum; 
the  university  was  its  raison  d'etre.  The  new 
institution  must  be  democratic,  answering  to  a 
majority  who  are  not  to  go  to  college.  More- 
over, it  must  furnish  a  training  more  evidently 
suited  to  the  demands  of  a  new  country. 
Latin  had  ceased  to  be  the  language  of  practical 
learning;  the  Americans  recognized  the  fact. 
Science  as  an  agency  of  civilization  was  begin- 
ning to  be  felt,  at  least  in  possibility.  An  ever- 
extending  frontier  demanded  a  school  that 
could  care  for  pupils  from  remote  distances. 
Flexibility  to  meet  widely  varying  local  needs 
was  an  essential  rectuisite.  In  this  situation  the 
academy  arose. 


To  state  where  in  America  the  academy  origi- 
nated is  not  easy.  Many  considerations  d(>ny 
that  credit  to  the  free  school  or  "  academy  " 
of  "  Charlestown  "  (S.C.)  in  1712,  although  no 
earlier  api)lication  of  the  term  to  a  secondary 
school  has  been  pointed  out,  and  provision  was 
there  made  for  "  navigation  and  surveying  and 
other  useful  and  practical  parts  of  the  mathe- 
matics." Nor  can  the  credit  be  given  to  Ten- 
nent's  "  Log  College  "  in  Xew  Jersey  (1726), 
which  Whit(>field  in  17.39  called  an  "  academy," 
although  this  was  the  parent  of  the  "  log  col- 
lege "  movement  among  the  Presbyterians; 
and  the  "  log  college  "  did  in  many  respects 
belong  to  the  academy  type.  To  Franklin's 
Philadelphia  academy  (proposed  1743,  estab- 
lished 17,")1)  no  exception  can  be  taken.  (See 
Pennsylv.\ni.\,  LLNn-ERsiTY  OF.)  Type  and 
name  unite,  apparently  for  the  first  time  in 
America.  By  general  consent  this  has  been 
taken  as  the  first  clear  case  of  the  American 
academy.  As  the  Revolution  drew  near,  the 
Presbyterians  and  other  nonconformists  es- 
tablished, especially  in  the  middle  and  southern 
colonies,  secondary  schools  which  they  fre- 
(luently  called  academies.  King.ston,  X.Y., 
and  Newark,  X.J.,  provided  "  academies  "  in 
1773  and  1775  respectively.  By  1790  the  new 
type  of  school  was  definitely  established  in  all 
parts  of  the  nation.  Among  specific  institu- 
tions, the  Phillijis  academies  at  Andover  (1780) 
and  Exeter  (1781)  and  Erasmus  Hall  (1787) 
at  Flatbush,  L.I.,  deserve  especial  notice  for 
their  far-reaching  influence. 

While  the  academies  are  primarily  institutions 
of  semi-private  or  local  origin,  most  of  the 
states  assisted  in  their  founding  and  support. 
Several  states  provided  systems.  Georgia  and 
New  York  furnish  the  most  interesting  early 
legislation,  each  in  turn  curiously  anticipating 
the  other.  Georgia's  constitution  of  1777  called 
for  "  schools  "  in  each  county,  "  supported  at 
the  general  expense  of  the  state."  In  1783  her 
legislature  provided  by  land  endowment  for  a 
system  of  county  academies,  and  on  Feb.  25, 
1784,  similarly  endowed  a  university.  New 
York,  on  May  1,  17S4,  chartered  a  university 
and  provided  for  "  schools  and  colleges  "  to  be 
parts  of  the  university  (the  grade  of  the  schools 
not  being  specified).  Georgia  amended  her 
university  charter  in  1785,  recpiiring  that 
"  all  public  schools  .  .  .  shall  be  considered  as 
parts  or  members  of  the  university."  The 
university  should  "  prescribe  what  branches 
...  be  taught  ...  in  each";  and  should 
"  also  examine  and  recommend  the  instructors 
to  be  employed  in  them."  In  1787  New  York 
amended  her  1784  act  so  as  to  authorize  and 
require  the  regents  "  to  visit  and  inspect  all  the 
colleges,  academies,  and  schools  which  are  or 
may  be  established  in  this  state."  In  1813 
New  York  established  a  "  Literature  Fund," 
the  income  of  which  went  to  the  support  of 
academies.  In  1821  Georgia  established  a 
similar  "  academic  fund  "  of  3250,000.     But  by 


22 


ACADEMY 


ACADEMY 


1840  Georgia  had  abandoned  support  and  con- 
trol of  her  academies  in  favor  of  elementary 
education,  while  at  the  same  time  New  York 
began  to  increase  both  her  support  and  control. 
Many  other  states  adopted  one  or  more  of 
the  features  above  described.  Massachusetts  in 
1797  sets  out  a  policy  of  land  endowments  of 
properly  located  academies.  The  next  year 
Kentucky  does  the  same  for  a  county  system. 
Later  ^iaryland,  Louisiana,  Tennessee,  and 
Indiana  adopt  the  county  system.  To  speak 
generally,  the  states  subsidized  the  academies  by 
one  plan  or  another,  leaving  them,  for  the  most 
part,  to  self-perpetuating  boards  or  other  forms 
of  local  control.  Tuition  charges  were  almost 
invariable.  By  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  when  the  movement  began  its  decline, 
the  academies  were  very  numerous  throughout 


v., 


"/'r' 


An  Academy  Diploma,  giving  the  Curriculmn. 

the  Union,  forming  in  many  localities  the  only 
very  definitely  organized  schools,  and  admitting 
pupils  of  all  grades. 

The  curriculum  of  the  early  academy  has 
already  been  suggested.  Latin  still  remained 
as  the  backbone  of  the  course,  though  taught 
now  in  English  and  for  professedly  different 
reasons.  Greek  was  frequent,  if  not  usual. 
English  grammar  held  an  increasing  place  from 
the  first.  Arithmetic  and  geometry  appeared 
generally,  astronomy  frequently.  _  "  Geography 
with  the  use  of  the  globes  "  was  quite  the  proper 
thing  to  advertise.  Declamation  was  usual, 
as  befitted  a  free  country'  where  oratory  was 
much  in  demand.  Quarterly  oral  examinations 
convinced  patrons  "  of  the  merits  of  the  insti- 
tution and  the  literary  attainments  of  the 
scholars." 

The  academy  was  more  open  to  girls  than  had 
been  the  grammar  school.  In  1780  there  was 
begun  in  Philadelphia  an  academy  for  girls, 


an  example  followed  increasingly.  The  most 
famous  of  such,  Mrs.  Willard's  seminary, 
founded  in  1821  at  Troy,  N.Y.,  may  properly 
be  said  to  be  the  beginning  of  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  women  in  America.  Many  academies 
were  coeducational.  In  the  earlier  days,  this 
was  frequently  effected  by  "female  depart- 
ments." Thus  in  an  1815  advertisement,  "the 
three  departments,  classical,  English,  and  fe- 
male, will  be  furnished  each  with  an  instructor; 
besides  which  the  Rector  will  divide  his  time 
and  exertions  among  them." 

One  of  the  reasons  urged  by  Franklin  for  the 
establishment  of  his  academj^  was  "  that  a  num- 
ber of  the  poorer  sort  will  hereby  be  qualified 
to  act  as  schoolmasters  in  the  country."  The 
argument  might  have  been  generalized  for  the 
whole  country.  The  academy  came  to  be  the 
chief  source  of  supply  of  elementary  teachers, 
a  fact  many  times  recognized  by  general  school 
authorities.  In  1830  specific  preparation  of 
common  school  teachers  was  undertaken  at 
Phillips  Andover,  while  three  years  later 
"  teachers'  classes  "  were  provided  in  many  Xew 
York  academies.  When  the  state  normal  school 
(f/.c.)  came  as  a  distinct  institution,  it  was  in 
fact  but  the  academy  transformed  for  this 
specific  purpose. 

The  decline  of  the  movement  began  toward 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  earlier 
for  the  cities  and  urban  regions,  later  for  the 
rural  communities.  Many  of  the  smaller  acade- 
mics had  never  been  true  secondary  schools; 
such  disappear  amid  improved  common  schools. 
The  better  endowed  of  the  academies,  especially 
those  founded  by  individuals  or  by  churches, 
remain  to-day  as  important  preparatory  schools. 
Many  academies  that  had  been  founded  by 
state  or  local  public  authorities  were  changed 
into  high  schools,  as  in  the  "  county  seminary  " 
system  of  Indiana  and  the  county  academies 
of  Maryland.  In  the  latter  case  the  change 
is  still  in  process. 

Several  reasons  may  be  assigned  for  the 
general  change  from  the  academy  to  the  public 
high  school.  There  had  grown  up  a  much 
stronger  feeling  for  the  public  control  and  sup- 
port of  popular  education.  Beginning  with  the 
common  schools,  the  movement  extended  itself 
later  to  the  field  of  secondary  education.  From 
this  point  of  view  the  high  school  is  the  academy 
brought  into  the  public  school  system.  Again 
the  academy,  with  the  increase  of  wealth  and 
the  growth  of  higher  education,  had  become 
in  large  measure  a  college  preparatory  school. 
From  this  point  of  view  the  high  school  is  a 
recurrence  to  the  democratic  type  which  the 
academy  had  abandoned.  To  speak  generally, 
the  academy  was  the  product  of  the  frontier 
period  of  national  development  and  the  laisscz 
faire  theory  of  government.  When  these  con- 
ditions departed,  the  academy  gave  place  to 
the  high  school  as  the  predominant  secondary 
school  of  the  American  people. 

E.  E.  B.,  L  L.  K.,  AND  W.  H.  K. 


23 


ACADIA 


ACCOMMODATION 


See  Art  Schools  and  Art  Instruction  in 
Europe;  Colonial  Period  in  American 
Education;  Renaissance,  Education  dur- 
ing the;  Calvinism  and  Education. 

References:  — 

Encyclopirdia  Brilannica.     Art.  "Academy." 
Ad.^mso.v.     Pioneers     of     Modern     Education.     (Cani- 

bridBO.    1!I0.5.) 
Bogle   .\ni>   Bennett.     History  of  Dissenters.     (Lon- 
don, lSOS-1812.) 
Brown,   E.    E.     The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools. 

(New  York,  1S)02.) 
Grimm.     Ccf'rr    Schulc,     Univcrsitdt,    und    Akademien. 

(Berlin,  1S.")0.) 
H.\LLAM.      1  ntrodurtion.     to    the    Literature    of    Europe. 
MuLLER,  T.     Die  W issenschaftli.'iche  Vereinc  und  Gcscll- 

schaftcn  in  Dcutsehland.      (Berlin,  lSS-1.) 
P.\ULSEN,     Fh.     Geschichte    des     Gelehrten    Unterrichts. 

(Leipzig,  lS9fl). 
Ru.'^SELL,  J.  E.     German  Higher  Schools.     (New    York, 

1905.) 
yeart>ook  of  the  Scientiftc  and  Learned  Societies  of  Great 

Britain  and  Ireland. 

ACADIA       UNIVERSITY,      WOLFVILLE, 

N.S. —  Founded  by  the  Nova  Scotia  liiijjtist 
Education  Society,  in  1S;JS.  Charter  of  incor- 
poration obtained  in  1839;  given  powers  of  a 
university  in  1840;  adopted  name  Acadia  Col- 
lege in  1841.  A  revised  charter  was  obtained 
in  1891  (an  Act  respecting  Acadia  University). 
The  Board  of  (lovernors  must  report  annually 
to  the  Bapti.st  Convention  of  the  Maritime 
Provinces,  which  ai)])oints  the  governors.  Ad- 
mission to  the  university  is  by  examination  or 
certificate  from  an  approved  high  school.  Two 
courses  are  offered,  leading  to  the  B.A.  and  the 
B.S.  Graduates  in  the  scientific  course  are 
admitted  to  the  third-year  course  of  Applied 
Science  at  McGill  University.  The  Acadia 
Seminary  for  young  ladies  and  the  Horton 
Academy,  which  is  a  preparatory  institution, 
are  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Gov- 
ernors. The  total  annual  income  is  about 
$20,000;  the  value  of  the  productive  endow- 
ment is  §240,000.  There  are  ten  professors 
and  four  instructors.  The  average  salary  of 
professors  i.s  .?1300  a  year.  Rev.  W.  B. 
Hutchinson,  D.D.,  is  the  president. 

ACCESSORY  MUSCLES.  —  See  Funda- 
mental and  Accessory. 

ACCESSORY  SUBJECTS.  —  A  name  some- 
times applied  to  the  more  recent  acquisitions 
to  the  curriculum,  particularly  those  which 
demand  objective  and  active  treatment. 
Drawing,  music,  nature  study,  agriculture,  etc., 
would  be  included  under  this  term. 

See  CuRRicuLu.M,  Theory  of  ;  Values, 
Educational. 

ACCIDENTS    IN    THE     SCHOOL.  —  See 

Injured,  First  Aid  to. 

ACCIPIES.  —  A  term  applied  to  a  woodcut 
which  was  frequently  used  on  the  title-page  of 
schoolbooks  printed   about    1.500  and  bearing 


the  words  Accipies  tanti  doctoris  dogmata  sancti 
(thou  wilt  receive  the  theories  of  a  great  and 
revered  scholar).  The  practice  of  using  as  title- 
page  woodcuts  representing  as  nearly  aspo.ssible 
the  characteristics  of  the  author  and  the  nature 
of  the  contents  of  a  book  was  originatetl 
in  the  Netherlands  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  But  the  first  actual  use  of 
the  Accipies  woodcut  was  made  by  lieinrich 
Quentell,  a  Cologne  publisher,  in  a  book 
issued  in  1490.  This  title-jjage  appears  on  all 
of  his  books  printed  up  to  149(),  and  again  in 
1500.  The  picture  at  once  became  pojiu- 
lar,  and  was  widely  imitated  by  other  ])ublishers, 
and  in  some  cases  was  directly  reproduced, 
either  because  it  was  difficult  to  obtain  the 
services  of  artists  locally,  or  because  of  the 
reputation  enjoyed  by  the  original.  At  least 
five  different  varieties  of  the  Accipies  appeared 
from  149.5  up  to  the  beginning  of  tiie  sixteenth 
century.  The  varieties  are  of  importance,  as 
they  afford  a  clue  to  the  printer. 

The  illustration  given  on  page  391  is  an  accipie.s 
cut  of  1500  with  the  legend  omitted.  The  dove, 
usually  represented  as  whispering  into  the  ear  of 
the  teacher,  is  a  symbol  of  the  Holy  (J host.  From 
the  fact  that  Quentell  used  such  a  cut  as  a  title- 
page  to  books  on  Thomas  Aquinas,  it  seems 
probable  that  he  is  here  represented  as  the 
taittus  doctor. 

References:  — 

Proctor,  R.  The  .^ecipie.?  Woodcut.  Bif>liographica, 
Vol.  ,1.      (London.  1,S(I5.) 

ScHREiBER,  W.  L.,  and  Heitz,  P.  Die  Deutschen  Acci- 
pies und  Magister  cum  Discipulis  Holzschnilte. 
(Strassburg,    1908.) 

ACCOMMODATION.  —  Both   the    process 

and  tlie  resuft  of  the  Adaptation  {q.v.)  of 
the  individual  to  his  surroundings,  natural 
and  social,  are  known  as  accommodation. 
Strictly  speaking,  accommodation  marks  the 
processes  by  which  the  individual  assimi- 
lates and  reproduces  the  existing  environ- 
ment with  a  minimum  of  reaction  against  it 
or  of  effort  to  change  it,  while  adapta- 
tion includes  also  making  over  of  the  en- 
vironment to  meet  the  new  demands  on  the 
part  of  the  living  individual.  In  this  stricter 
sense  accommodation  is  a  form  of  Habit- 
uation iq.v.)  or  "getting  used"  to  ])crsons 
and  things.  It  covers  the  whole  field  of  the 
"  unconscious  influence  of  the  environment," 
and  is,  therefore,  of  primary  importance  to  the 
educator,  since  during  the  early  and  plastic 
years  children  tend  to  take  up  in  themselves 
and  reflect  all  the  characteristic  features  of 
their  social  surroundings.  Its  importance  is 
greatest  in  the  a>sthetic  field,  in  that  of  minor 
morals  and  manners  and  of  habits  of  speech, 
(n)  Conscious  or  delilierate  a'Sthetic  culture 
is  almost  a  contradiction  in  terms.  Indi- 
viduals may  indeed  seek  out  surroundings 
unusually  rich  in  artistic  material,  may  cul- 
tivate opportunities  for  irsthetic  enjoyment, 
and  may  engage  in  practices  which  arouse  sus- 


24 


ACCOMMODATION 


ACCOUNTANCY  EDUCATION 


ceptibility  to  beauty  and  refinement.  But 
such  a'sthetic  nurture  as  occurs  takes  place 
unconsciously  and  spontaneously  as  an  accom- 
modation of  the  individual  organs  to  the 
beautiful  environment. 

(6)  The  same  principle  holds  almost  to  the 
same  extent  in  the  territory  of  manners. 
Although  conscious  effort  is  relatively  of 
greater  importance  than  in  aesthetic  appreci- 
ation, the  most  effective  means  of  securing  a 
correct  bearing,  courteous  demeanor,  and 
observance  of  ordinary  social  conventionalities 
is  contact  with  an  environment  in  which 
models  of  the  desired  result  abound  and  oppos- 
ing influences  are  slight.  While  matters  of 
right  and  wrong  demand,  at  critical  junctures, 
a  larger  measure  of  conscious  reflection  and 
choice,  yet  manners  and  morals  blend  insen- 
sibly into  each  other,  and  the  warp,  if  not  the 
woof,  of  character  is  constituted  by  original 
tendencies  modified  by  habitual  accommo- 
dations to  social  demands  and  relations. 

(f)  That  habits  of  correct  speech  depend 
upon  usage  and  wont  formed  through  uncon- 
scious reproduction  of  good  linguistic  customs 
prevailing  about  one  is  a  commonplace,  but 
a  commonplace  which  illustrates  the  potency 
of  the  principle  of  accommodation.  Even 
educated  persons  are  apt  to  betray  in  occasional 
lapses  into  uncouth  modes  of  speech  any  defi- 
ciencies of  their  early  environment. 

Although  the  phrase  "  unconscious  influence 
of  the  environment  "  gives  an  excellent  popular 
rendering  of  the  technical  term  "accommoda- 
tion," we  are  not  to  infer  that  the  organism  is 
purely  passive  in  the  operations.  Here  as  else- 
where the  initiative  lies  with  the  organism  in 
selecting  certain  congenial  phases  of  the  environ- 
ment as  stimuli  to  which  to  respond.  (See 
Stimulus  and   Response). 

Topics  allied  to  Accommodation  (aside  from 
those  mentioned  in  the  text)  are  Environment, 
Imitation,   Plasticity  (<i.v.).  J.  D. 

ACCOMMODATION. —  The  process  by 
which  objects  at  different  distances  from  the 
eye  are  focused  sharply  on  the  retina.  In 
the  higher  animals  this  is  brought  about  by 
an  increase  in  the  convexity  of  the  lens 
for  nearer  objects  and  by  a  decrease  in  the 
convexity  for  farther  objects.  The  nearest 
point  for  which  one  can  accommodate  lies 
about  12  cm,  from  the  eye  (roughly  deter- 
mined by  moving  fine  print  toward  the  eye 
until  it  becomes  blurred) ;  the  far  point  for 
the  normal  human  eye  is  theoretically  infinity. 

R.  P.  A. " 
References:  — 

HowKLL,    W.    H.     American    Text-hook    of  Physiology- 

(Philadflphi:),  1901.) 
ScHAFER,     E.     A.      Texlhook    of    Physiologt/,     Vol.     II. 

(Edinlmrch,  1808-1000.) 

ACCOUNTANCY  EDUCATION. —  Although 

the  science  and  practice  of  accountancy 
(including  bookkeeping)  is  itself  very  old,  dating 


back  even  to  the  A.ssyrians  and  Babylonians, 
systematic  instruction  in  it  is  of  extremely 
recent  origin.  Even  now  the  school  of  practical 
experience,  which  served  for  so  many  centuries, 
is  almost  the  only  one  in  many  countries.  Even 
in  the  most  progressive  countries,  where  the  pro- 
fession of  accountancy  has  the  official  or  semi- 
official recognition  of  the  governments,  a  large 
proportion  of  the  instruction  consists  in  coaching 
for  the  examinations  which  are  held  from  time 
to  time  as  a  basis  for  the  certification  of  practi- 
tioners. 

The  first  instruction  in  bookkeeping  of  which 
there  is  record  was  in  Italy  in  the  early  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  art  of  bookkeeping 
had  at  that  time  been  pretty  fully  developed  in 
that  country,  and  the  first  treatise  on  the  subject 
had  been  published  by  Luca  Paciolo  in  1491 
at  Venice.  This  treatise  {De  compiitis  ct 
scripturis)  comprised  thirty-six  chapters  in  a 
larger  work  summarizing  the  existing  knowledge 
of  mathematics.  It  served  as  a  basis  for  other 
Italian  treatises.  Private  schools  sprang  up 
to  give  individual  instruction  in  bookkeeping. 
Other  countries  were  also  much  indebted  to 
Paciolo  for  their  first  treatises  on  bookkeeping, 
and  the  instruction  in  these  was  also  in  small  pri- 
vate schools.  By  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  knowledge  of  bookkeeping  had 
spread  to  all  the  important  countries.  Since 
that  time  great  improvement  has  been  made 
in  the  science  of  bookkeeping  and  of  accounts, 
but  the  methods  of  teaching  have  remained 
almost  unchanged  until  comparatively  recently. 
Apprenticeship  to  practitioners  formed  the 
bulk  of  the  preparation,  and  was  indeed  re- 
garded as  the  most  indispensable  part  of  it;  the 
remainder  was  given  in  small  private  schools. 
This  was  .still  the  condition  of  affairs  in  almost 
all  countries  at  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

In  the  United  States  at  that  time  a  few  private 
business  schools  were  in  existence,  with  book- 
keeping usually  as  the  foundational  study. 
Other  branches  of  mathematics  and  penman- 
ship usually  composed  the  remainder  of  the 
curricula.  One  of  the  earliest  schools,  that  of 
James  Bennett  of  New  York,  taught  bookkeep- 
ing and  navigation.  Until  after  1880,  private 
schools  of  this  kind  gave  practically  all  the 
instruction  in  bookkeeping  obtainable  outside 
business  offices.  They  had,  of  course,  vastly 
increased  in  number  and  importance  and  in 
breadth  and  thoroughness  of  instruction. 
About  this  time  the  public  high  schools  began 
to  give  courses  in  bookkeeping  and  other  com- 
mercial subjects.  There  was  still  no  systematic 
instruction  in  the  more  advanced  .science  of 
accounts. 

In  1887  an  important  step  forward  was  taken, 
when  the  American  Association  of  Public 
Accountants  was  incorporated  under  Xew  York 
state  laws.  Under  the  auspices  of  this  associa- 
tion a  school  of  accounts  was  projected  in  1892, 
but  the  attempt  resulted  in  nothing.     In  1896 


25 


ACCOUNTANCY  EDUCATION 


ACCOUNTANCY  EDUCATION 


an  act  "  to  regulate  the  profession  of  Public  Ac- 
countancy "  was  passed  by  the  New  York  state 
legislature  and  the  degree  of  Certified  Public 
Accountant  was  authorized  to  be  given  by  the 
University  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Similar 
legislation  has  since  been  undertaken  by  other 
states,  and  the  movement  is  under  way  to  have 
the  profession  legally  recognized  and  regulated 
by  every  state  in  the  Union.  An  important 
effect  of  this  regulation  has  been  in  improving 
the  form  and  the  (luality  of  education  for  the 
profession.  The  rigor  of  the  requirements  and 
the  severity  of  the  examinations  in  most  states 
have  made  it  necessary  for  the  candidate  to 
obtain  better  instruction  than  that  afforded 
by  his  apprenticeship.  A  large  amount  of 
it  is  still  obtained  in  private  "  coaching " 
schools  (some  of  which  are  conducted  by 
correspondence),  but  an  increasing  propor- 
tion is  given  in  university  and  college  schools 
of  commerce.  One  of  the  first  of  these,  the 
New  York  University  School  of  Commerce, 
Accounts,  and  Finance,  was  established  in  1900, 
largely  through  the  efforts  of  the  New  York 
State  Society  of  Certified  Public  Accountants, 
and  its  prime  purpose  was  to  give  scientific 
preparation  for  the  profession  of  public  ac- 
countancy. It  has  since  broadened  its  scope 
to  include  the  general  field  of  business,  but  in- 
struction in  accounting  still  forms  the  backbone 
of  its  curriculum.  Attention  is  concentrated 
less  on  preparing  students  for  Certified  Public 
Accountants'  examinations  than  on  preparing 
them  for  successful  practice  of  this  and  other 
business  professions.  Most  of  the  sessions  are 
held  in  the  evening. 

The  New  York  University  school  is  practically 
the  only  one  in  which  accountancy  education  was 
of  paramount  importance  in  the  original  ]ilan, 
but  in  most  of  the  other  university  and  college 
schools  of  commerce  instruction  in  accounting 
subjects  forms  a  very  important  part  of  the  cur- 
riculum. There  are  over  sixty  of  these  schools  in 
the  country,  among  the  most  important  of  which 
are  those  in  the  state  universities  of  Pennsj-l- 
vania,  Wisconsin,  California,  Illinois,  and  Iowa, 
Dartmouth  College,  the  University  of  Chicago, 
Harvard  University,  the  University  of  Denver, 
and  Northwestern  University.  Of  these  the 
last  two  named  are  most  like  the  New  York 
University  school  in  holding  evening  sessions 
and  giving  accountancy  instruction  an  impor- 
tant place.  Together  with  the  great  advance 
in  accountancy  education  in  these  schools,  there 
has  been  a  very  marked  advance  since  1900 
in  bookkeeping  instruction  in  the  public 
secondary  schools  and  the  private  business 
schools.  Much  still  remains  to  be  done,  but 
it  may  be  said  that  accountancy  education 
has  had  a  good  beginning  in  the  United  States, 
and  now  rests  on  a  solid  foundation.  There  is, 
in  point  of  fact,  practically  no  country  in  the 
world  where  accountancy  education  itself  is  on 
a  better  foundation. 

In    England    recognition    of    the    profession 


came  much  earlier,  and  instruction  in  it  has 
therefore  had  a  longer  history.  Many  societies 
of  accountants  existed  at  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  ;  in  ISSO  they  were  all 
incorporated  into  the  Institute  of  Chartered 
Accountants  in  England  and  Wales.  Steps 
were  taken  to  protect  the  title  of  Char- 
tered Accountant,  and  to  this  and  other  ends, 
the  Society  of  Accountants  and  Auditors 
was  formed  in  1SS5.  The  original  societies 
in  the  various  cities  preserved  their  original 
organization,  but  their  alliance  in  the  In.sti- 
tute  helped  to  improve  the  sy.stem  of  ex- 
aminations given.  For  these  examinations 
private  coaching  schools  still  give  the  chief  form 
of  preparation.  But  some  of  the  societies  give 
assistance  in  the  form  of  evening  classes  in 
accounting  subjects.  The  articled  clerks  of 
Chartered  Accountants  have  formed  a  number 
of  students'  societies  for  the  advancement  of 
their  professional  knowledge.  At  their  meet- 
ings ]5a])ers  are  read,  examinations  discussed, 
etc.  But  all  this  is  very  unsystematic.  More 
encouraging  is  the  recent  establishment  at  the 
University  of  Birmingham  and  other  universi- 
ties of  accounting  courses  on  a  jiar  with  the 
be.st  in  the  world.  Conditions  in  Scotland  have 
been  much  the  same  as  in  England.  There  has 
generally  been,  however,  more  help  given  to 
apprentices  in  the  way  of  evening  classes. 
They  have  also  been  required  to  attend  certain 
university  law  classes,  in  addition  to  serving 
their  apprenticeship  and  passing  their  account- 
ancy examinations. 

Of  continental  countries,  Italy  is  foremost 
in  accountancy  education.  The  profession  of 
accountancy  is  well  recognized,  and  a  large 
number  of  societies  exist.  Membership  in  them 
is  open  to  graduates  of  the  accounting  courses  of 
the  Royal  Technical  In.stitutes,  of  which  there 
are  more  than  sixty.  The  course  of  study  in 
accounting  extends  over  four  years,  and  includes 
accounting  and  auditing,  law,  political  econ- 
omy, foreign  languages,  and  a  number  of  gen- 
eral branches.  In  Germany,  commercial  educa- 
tion in  general  is  well  developed,  but  as  the 
profession  of  accountant  has  no  official  recogni- 
tion, instruction  in  that  branch  has  received  com- 
paratively little  attention.  In  France,  much 
the  same  state  of  affairs  exists.  Holland  has  a 
number  of  societies  of  accountants,  and  instruc- 
tion in  bookkeeping  is  well  organized.  In  many 
of  the  South  American  Republics,  notably 
Argentine,  accountancy  has  been  legally  recog- 
nized for  some  time,  and  commercial  schools 
prepare  students  for  it.  Japan  gives  a  good 
character  of  instruction  in  bookkeeping  in  the 
higher  schools  of  commerce.  In  other  countries 
accountancy  education  is  in  an  even  less  ad- 
vanced stage,  and  is  practically  neglected.  But 
as  official  recognition  is  more  generally  ac- 
corded, the  profession  will  undoubtedly  reach 
a  higher  level,  and  education  for  it  will  become 
more  thorough  and  systematic  everywhere. 

J.  F.  J. 


26 


ACCREDITED   SCHOOLS 


ACCREDITED   SCHOOLS 


References:  — 

Barber,  E.  M.  .4  Contribution  to  the  History  of  Com- 
mercial Education.     (New  York,  190.3.) 

Brown,  Richard.  A  History  of  Accounting  and  Ac- 
countants.     (Edinburgh,  1905.) 

Herrick,  Cheesman  a.  Meaning  and  Practice  of 
Commercial  Education.  (New  York  and  London, 
1904.) 

Haskins,  Charles  Waldo.  Business  Education  and 
Accountancy.     (New  York  and  London,  1904.) 

Whitfield,  E.  E.  Commercial  Education  in  Theory 
and  Practice.     (London,  1901.) 

ACCREDITED  SCHOOLS. —After  the  or- 
ganization of  public  high  schools,  and  after 
they  had  begun  to  prepare  their  students 
for  entrance  into  the  colleges,  the  fitness 
of  these  students  to  enter  was  for  some  time 
uniformly  tested  by  the  college  and  by  means 
of  an  entrance  examination  in  such  of  the 
high-school  subjects  as  the  college  saw  fit  to 
accept  for  entrance.  Each  college  imposed 
not  only  its  own  entrance  examination,  but  its 
own  set  of  entrance  requirements  as  well. 
High  schools  located  in  a  region  where  colleges 
were  numerous  frequently  had  the  difficult 
task  imposed  upon  them  of  preparing  students 
in  four  or  five  different  sets  of  entrance  subjects, 
to  enable  different  students  to  enter  as  many 
different  colleges.  The  preparation  for  one 
was  of  no  necessity  suitable  for  another.  As 
long  as  the  colleges  were  private  institutions 
no  serious  objection  to  this  method  of  pro- 
cedure could  be  raised,  but  with  the  growth 
of  the  state  universities  as  a  part  of  the  school 
system  of  the  state  the  demand  naturally 
arose  that  the  transition  from  one  part  of  the 
public  school  system  to  another  part  of  the 
same  system  should  be  made  less  arbitrary,  and 
that  teachers  in  secondary  schools  should  be 
permitted  to  concentrate  more  of  their  energy 
on  good  instruction  and  less  upon  cramming 
their  pupils  to  meet  the  peculiarities  or  the 
idiosyncrasies  of  the  college  examiners. 

One  of  the  earliest  as  well  as  one  of  the 
most  noteworthy  attempts  to  meet  this  diffi- 
culty and  to  offer  a  reasonable  solution  of  it 
was  the  introduction  of  an  accrediting  system 
by  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1871.  Under 
this  system  the  university  agreed  to  accept 
into  its  freshman  class  such  graduates  of 
previously  approved  high  schools  as  were 
recommended  to  it  by  the  principals  of  the 
schools  as  in  their  judgment  properly  pre- 
pared to  do  college  work.  This  plan,  with 
minor  modifications,  has  been  retained  by 
Michigan  ever  since.  From  Michigan  the 
plan,  or  some  modification  of  it,  has  spread,  and 
nearly  all  the  state  universities  and  many  of 
the  colleges  of  the  United  States  have  adopted 
some  form  of  an  accrediting  system.  Only  a 
few  of  the  older  institutions  still  insist  on 
students  passing  their  own  special  examination 
tests;  and  a  few  more  insist  on  this,  or  on  the 
passing  of  those  of  an  equivalent  institution, 
or  of  the  College  Entrance  Examination  Board 
iq.v.).  Nearly  all  such  institutions  are  located 
east  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 


The  plan  has  been  variously  modified  by 
different  institutions  and  in  different  states. 
Usually  a  representative  of  the  university, 
and  sometimes  a  committee  of  the  faculty, 
inspects  the  school  on  request,  and  inquires 
into  its  equipment,  scope,  the  personnel 
of  its  teaching  force,  and  the  general  tone 
and  spirit.  The  school  as  a  whole,  rather 
than  the  individual  teachers,  is  approved  or 
disapproved.  In  Indiana  the  State  Board  of 
Education  performs  this  function,  and  an 
accredited  school  is  permitted  to  send  any  of 
its  graduates  to  any  state  institution,  where 
they  must  be  received  without  examination. 
In  California  the  school  is  inspected  by  a 
representative,  and  sometimes  by  a  number 
of  representatives,  of  the  state  university.  It 
must  have  a  reasonably  good  equipment  in 
building,  library,  laboratory,  and  teachers; 
must  provide  a  full  four  years'  course  of  in- 
struction; and  must  be  doing  good  work. 
The  school  may  be  approved  in  whole  or  in 
part,  and  the  part  disapproved  is  only  approved 
after  subsequent  inspection  has  shown  that  the 
work  has  been  brought  up  to  the  required 
standard.  In  many  states,  within  recent  years, 
an  official  known  as  a  high  school  inspector, 
usuallj'  attached  to  the  Department  of  Edu- 
cation of  the  state  university,  though  some- 
times, as  in  Minnesota,  attached  to  the  office 
of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction, has  been  appointed  to  do  the 
greater  part  of  the  work  of  inspection.  Ac- 
crediting is  usually  made  only  for  a  limited 
period  of  years,  and  usually  ceases,  in  certain 
subjects  at  least,  when  new  and  unexamined 
teachers  are  employed.  The  difficulty  as 
well  as  the  expense  connected  with  an  attempt 
on  the  part  of  each  institution  to  inspect  and 
accredit  the  high  schools  of  any  state  or  region 
has  led,  within  recent  years,  to  the  formation  of 
accrediting  associations  for  the  inspection  and 
accrediting  of  the  high  schools  of  certain  definite 
regions.  The  New  England  College  Entrance 
Certificate  Board  is  an  example  of  this.  An 
extension  of  the  idea  to  the  different  areas  of 
the  United  States  would  result  not  only  in  a 
simplification  of  the  work,  but  a  standardizing 
of  the  schools  as  well,  and  may  be  expected 
ultimately  to  take  place. 

In  a  few  states,  where  the  practice  of  ex- 
amining the  town  and  rural  schools  of  the 
county  for  eighth-grade  graduation  prevails, 
County  Boards  of  Education  have  begun  to 
adopt  a  form  of  the  accrediting  system  for 
elementary  schools.  The  plan  is  in  use  in 
certain  California  counties,  as  well  as  in  a  few 
other  states.  The  County  Boards,  after  repeated 
inspection  and  examination  of  the  schools  of 
a  town,  and  sometimes  of  particular  rural 
schools,  accredit  the  school  and  accept  the 
recommendation   of  the   principal,   or   teacher. 

E.  P.  C. 

See  also  Accredited  Teachers;  College 
Entrance  Examinations;  College  Entrance 


27 


ACCREDITED  TEACHERS 


ACLAND 


Boards;  College  Entrance  Requirements; 
College  and  Secondary  Schools,  Relation 
of;  High  School  Inspection. 

References:  — 

Assoriatc'd  Harvard  Clubs.  SccomI  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee, OH  llic  relation  of  Harvard  Cnirersity  to 
schools  for  secondary  education.  8ubruitted  to  tlu' 
Chicago  meeting.  May,  I'JUG.  Contains  mucli 
information,  and  a  bibliography  of  articles,  dealing 
with  the  examination,  inspection,  and  certificate 
systems. 

Canfield,  J.  H.  The  Accredited  School  System  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska  ;  Educational  Review,  \'II, 
1S4-1S6. 

RicH.iRDsoN,  Leon  J.  The  University  of  California 
and  the  Accrediting  of  Secondary  Schools  ;  School 
Remnv,  X,   ()15-(il<). 

The  School  Review  since  1906  has  contained  a  number 
of  good  articles  on  the  subject. 

ACCREDITED  TEACHERS.  —  The  Cali- 
fornia system  of  apcroditiiig  Ijoth  high  and  ele- 
mentary schools  is  in  part  a  system  of  accredit- 
ing teachers.  In  the  high  school  inspection 
the  work  of  certain  able  teachers  becomes 
known  and  the  inspection  of  their  work  is, 
after  a  time,  made  only  once  in  two  or  three 
years.  Sometimes  an  entire  .school  is  retained 
on  the  accredited  list  for  two  or  three  years 
at  a  time  without  an  inspection,  provided  the 
same  principal  remains  and  the  teaching  force 
docs  not  materially  change.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  accrediting  of  elementary  schools  by  the 
California  County  Boards  of  Education.  Cer- 
tain teachers  are  known  to  do  good  conscientious 
work  and  to  recommend  with  care  and  discre- 
tion, and  their  schools  are  accredited  so  long 
as  the  school  authorities  retain  them  as  teachers 
or  principals  of  the  schools.  The  effect  of 
this  is  good  on  both  the  teachers  and  the  school 
authorities.  The  plan  of  accrediting  teachers 
is  partially  in  use  in  a  number  of  other  states, 
and  is  a  more  or  less  conscious  factor  in  the 
accrediting  of  high  schools  under  the  accrediting 
system.  E.  P.  C. 

See  Accredited  Schools. 

ACCREDITING  SYSTEM.  — See  Accred- 
ited Schools;  High  School,  Accrediting  of. 

ACCURACY.  —  See  Error. 

ACHROMATIC  QUALITIES.  —Achromatic 
qualities  in  visual  sen.sation,  as  distinguished 
from  chromatic  qualities  (c/.v.),  are  character- 
ized by  the  absence  of  all  specific  color  tone 
(q.v.),  hue  (q.v.),  tint  (q.p.),  or  shade  (q.v.). 
They  include  therefore  all  the  blacks,  grays, 
and  whites.  Beginning  with  the  deepest  black, 
these  qualities  may  be  arranged  progressively 
by  just  perceptil.ile  differences  in  sensation  in 
a  series  through  the  various  shades  of  gray  to 
the  most  brilliant  white.  Throughout  this  pro- 
gression the  transitions  are  always  like  in  kind 
—  from  a  quality  more  similar  to  black  to  one 
just  perceptibly  more  similar  to  white  —  and  yet 
the  two  end  qualities  —  black  and  white  —  show 
no  similarity  to  each  other  except  their  absence 


of  color.  The  series  of  achromatic  qualities, 
or  the  black-white  series,  may  thus  be  spatially 
represented  by  a  straight  line,  one  encl  repre- 
senting black  and  the  other  white,  with  the 
various  grays  intervening.  The  movement 
from  either  end  to  the  other  is  through  a 
uniformly  graded  series  of  qualities.  In  the 
chromatic  series,  on  the  other  hand,  this  uni- 
formity of  transition  does  not  appear.  There 
are  sharp  transitions.  This  series  is  usually, 
therefore,  represented  as  a  triangle,  a  square,  or 
a  circle  (see  Color  Circle),  the  principal  transi- 
tion points  occupying  the  corners,  or,  in  the 
case  of  the  circle,  the  extremities,  of  certain 
diameters.  Achromatic  qualities  mixed  always 
yield  an  achromatic  quality,  but  mixtures  of 
certain  chromatic  qualities  may  give  an  achro- 
matic quality  (sec  Complementary  Color  and 
Color  jNIixture).  When  an  achromatic  quality 
is  mixed  with  a  chromatic  quality,  it  alters  the 
saturation  and  usually  the  brightness  of  the 
chromatic  quality.  R.  P.  A. 

See  Saturation;  Brightness;  Intensity. 

References:  — 

Baldwin's  Diet,  of  Phil,  and  Psych.  .•   Art.  Vision. 
Ebbinghaus,  Grundziige  d.  Psychologic,  Vol.  I,  pp.  105  fT. 
(Leipzig,  1905.) 

ACKERMANN,  WILHELM  HEINRICH.— 

(17S9-1S4S.)  A  Ccrman  teacher.  ]5orn  in 
Aucrbach,  Saxony,  he  studied  theology  in 
Jena,  and,  as  the  tutor  of  some  young  English- 
men, went  to  Pestalozzi's  Institute  in  Yverdun 
(1811-1813).  From^  181.5  to  1817  he  was 
again  with  Pestalozzi,  and  from  1820  until  his 
death  he  taught  at  the  Musterschule  in  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main.  He  published  Erinncrungen 
aus  meinem  Leben  bei  Pestalozzi  (Reminis- 
cences of  my  Life  with  Pestalozzi). 

ACLAND,  SIR  THOMAS  DYKE,  Baronet. 

—  (1S09-1898.)  One  of  tile  founders  of  Univer- 
sity Local  Examinations  for  Secondary  Schools 
in  England;  eldest  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Dyke 
Acland,  tenth  Baronet;  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  friend  of  F.  D. 
Maurice,  W.  E.  Gladstone,  and  the  leaders  of 
the  Tractarian  Movement  in  Oxford;  Fellow  of 
All  Souls  College,  Oxford  (18.31);  M.P.  for 
West  Somerset  1837-1841,  for  North  Devon 
186.5-188.5,  and  for  the  Wellington  Division  of 
Somerset  188.5-1886;  opposed  (1839)  govern- 
ment plan  for  establishment  of  Education 
Department;  actively  engaged  in  organization 
of  elementary  schools  and  training  colleges 
upon  a  diocesan  basis  in  connection  with  the 
Church  of  England;  hoped  to  develop  the 
work  of  the  National  Society  {q.v.)  (Church  of 
England)  so  as  to  include  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  secondary  schools.  As  a 
country  gentleman  possessing  large  estates  and 
activeh^  interested  in  the  scientific  devclo]-)- 
ment  of  agriculture  in  the  west  of  England, 
he  realized  the  need  for  the  improvement  of  the 


28 


ACLAND 


ACQUIRED   CHARACTERISTICS 


schools  to  which  farmers  sent  their  sons  and 
daughters.  In  1857  he  adapted  the  idea  of 
Local  Examinations  (introduced  shortly  before 
by  the  College  of  Preceptors  and  by  the  Society 
of  Arts)  to  the  educational  needs  of  the  west 
of  England,  being  assisted  in  this  undertaking 
by  Dr.  Temple,  then  on  the  staff  of  the  Educa- 
tion Department  and  subsequently  headmaster 
of  Rugby  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Among  the  first  examiners  were  Professor 
Max  Miiller,  Dr.  Voelker,  Mr.  George  Rich- 
mond, R.A.,  and  Mr.  HuUah.  Acland  was  in- 
clined to  place  these  local  examinations  under 
the  direction  of  the  Education  Department,  but 
the  government  declined  .the  responsibility, 
which,  had  it  been  accepted,  would  probably 
have  led  to  the  establishment  of  state  Leaving 
Examinations  for  secondary  schools.  In  the 
meantime  the  older  universities  (first  Oxford 
and  immediately  afterwards  Cambridge),  anx- 
ious for  the  improvement  of  the  intellectual 
standard  in  secondary  schools  and  distrustful 
of  what  might  lead  to  a  state  monopoly  of 
intellectual  control  in  English  secondary  and 
higher  education,  undertook  the  manage- 
ment of  the  system  of  Local  Examinations 
(1858).  Thus  the  English  universities  for  the 
first  time  took  a  definite  part  in  the  education 
of  persons  who  were  not  matriculated  members 
of  the  university.  From  this  root  have  grown 
the  Local  Examinations  of  Oxford,  Cambridge, 
and  other  universities,  the  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge Schools'  Examination  Board,  and  the 
systems  of  University  Extension  lectures  and 
classes.  Through  his  high  social  position  and 
intimacy  with  influential  friends  at  Oxford  and 
in  London,  Acland  was  able  to  render  indispen- 
sable service  to  a  movement  which  furnished 
an  authoritative  and  independent  test  to  the 
results  of  the  teaching  in  secondary  schools, 
and  which  drew  the  older  universities  into  inti- 
mate relationship  with  secondary  education  at  a 
critical  period  in  its  development  and  reform. 
His  efforts,  combined  with  those  of  Dr.  Temple, 
the  Rev.  J.  L.  Brereton,  Lord  Ebrington  (after- 
wards Earl  Fortescue),  Mr.  Harry  Chester, 
and  others,  provided  through  the  universities  a 
form  of  external  test  of  the  intellectual  work 
of  English  secondary  schools,  which  for  nearly 
forty  years  proved  a  substitute  for  state  inspec- 
tion, and  is  still  concurrent  with  it.  Acland's 
instincts  were  adverse  to  any  educational  mo- 
nopoly on  the  part  of  the  .secular  State.  From 
1864  to  1867  he  served  on  the  Schools'  Inquiry 
Commission,  which  laid  the  basis  for  the  reform 
of  English  secondary  schools  of  the  middle 
grade. 

In  1890  (set.  81),  as  a  stanch  member  of 
the  Liberal  party,  Acland  publicly  declared  in 
favor  of  retaining  religious  instruction  in  ele- 
mentary schools,  and  for  the  maintenance  of 
Voluntary  Schools  (q.v.),  connected  with  the 
various  religious  bodies  (as  alternative  schools 
were  required  by  parents  in  areas  in  which 
choice  of  schools  could  be  allowed),  but  he  was 


emphatically  opposed  to  the  claim  of  subscribers 
(public  funds  finding  most  of  the  mone.y)  to 
dictate  the  whole  of  the  religious  education  to 
a  parish  where  there  was  only  one  school. 
He  advocated  representation  of  the  parents  on 
the  Managing  Committee  of  each  Voluntary 
School.  ^  M.  E.  S. 

References:  — 

Acland,  T.  D.  Account  of  the  Origin  and  Objects  of 
the  New  Oxford  Examinations  for  the  Title  of  As- 
sociate in  Arts  and  Certificates.      (London,   1,S5S.) 

Acland,  A.  H.  D.  Memoir  and  Letters  of  the  Riijht 
Honorable  Sir  Thomas  Dyke  Acland.  (Printed  for 
private  eireulation,  1902.) 

MacKinder,  H.,  and  Sadler,  M.  E.  University  Exten- 
sion, Past,  Present,  and  Future.     (London,  1890.) 

ACOUMETER.  —  See  Audiometer. 

ACOUSTICS.  —  The  science  which  treats  of 
sounds  and  their  relations.  This  science  in- 
cludes a  treatment  of  noise,  sensation,  and  tone 
sensation. 

Reference: — ■ 

Helmholtz.     Tort^  Sensation, 

ACQUIRED  CHARACTERISTICS.— Those 

physical  or  mental  traits  of  any  organism 
which  are  due  to  its  own  life  history  rather 
than  to  its  heredity.  These  traits  include  modi- 
fications due  to  climate,  nutrition,  chemical 
agencies  in  the  environment  or  pressures,  the 
effects  of  use  and  disuse,  mutilations,  habits, 
and  experience.  Since  the  acquired  is  opposed 
to  the  hereditary  characteristic,  the  contrast 
between  the  two  is  essentially  that  between 
education  and  heredity  {q.v.). 

It  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  between 
characteristics  that  are  hereditary  and  those 
that  are  acquired.  The  leading  cause  of  this 
difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  wth  the  higher 
species,  in  the  lives  of  which  infancy  is  the 
first  period,  the  hereditary  traits  are  only 
in  part  displayed  at  birth.  It  follows  that  to 
a  great  extent  they  appear  only  after  educa- 
tional influences  have  had  a  chance  to  work. 
Hence,  one  often  is  at  a  loss  whether  to  ascribe 
them  to  education  or  to  heredity.  For  example, 
the  ability  to  walk  is  plainly  in  part  inherited. 
The  child  is  born  with  the  bodil.v  apparatus 
which  makes  the  act  in  question  possible.  At 
first,  however,  he  cannot  walk.  He  gains  that 
power  usually  through  a  process  of  experimental 
efforts,  such  as  are  involved  in  learning  any 
habit.  It  would  seem,  then,  that  the  abihty  to 
walk  is  in  part  an  acquired  characteristic. 
On  the  other  hand,  children  have  been  observed 
who  for  some  reason  never  tried  to  walk  until 
all  the  apparatus  involved  had  fully  matured. 
Then,  when  they  were  suddenly  moved  to  make 
the  attempt,  they  walked  and  ran  as  perfectl.v 
as  children  of  the  same  age  who  had  learned 
these  arts  b.y  the  ordinarj^  process. 

Such  discoveries  as  this  have  led  many  to 
regard  a  large  part  of  the  training  of  children  as 
merely  an  anticipation  of  heredity,  and  so  labor 


29 


ACQUIRED   CHARACTERISTICS 


ACQUIRED   CHARACTERISTICS 


lost,  as  well  as  a  source  of  vexation  both  to  the 
young  and  the  old.  Hence,  they  have  urged 
with  Rousseau  that  we  should  leave  the  child 
largely  to  nature,  whose  benevolent  provisions 
our  culture  merely  forestalls,  if  it  does  not 
impair.  It  is  evident  that  very  many  of  the 
mental  and  moral  characteristics  of  men  which 
seem  to  be  learned  may  in  reality  be  due  largely, 
if  not  wholly,  to  heredity.  They  are  perfect  or 
nearly  perfect  instincts,  instead  of  being  imper- 
fect ones,  such  as  require  education  to  be  brought 
to  a  condition  for  efficient  functioning.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  physical  traits.  Many 
weak  and  sickly  children  grow  into  strong  and 
healthy  men.  This  is  usually  attributed  to 
regimen,  when  in  reality  it  may  often  be  due 
to  heredity. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  men  often  regard  as  hereditary  wluxt  is  in 
reality  only  an  acquired  characteristic.  Thus 
such  mannerisms  of  children  as  are  to  be  found  in 
parents  or  others  in  the  family  may  be  regarded 
as  inherited,  when  in  point  of  fact  they  are  due 
to  imitation.  There  is  evidence  that  among 
the  lower  animals  many  complicated  instincts, 
such  as  the  building  of  nests  by  birds,  may  be 
not  perfect  by  heredity,  as  has  been  supposed, 
but  may  instead  require  help  from  the  imitation 
of  models  in  order  to  displaj'  their  standard 
efficiency.  So,  too,  diseases  which  have  been 
ascribed  to  hereditj-  are  often  due  to  infection, 
like  tuberculosis,  which  is  not  inherited,  or  to 
sanitary  conditions  similar  to  those  of  the 
parents.  Intemperance  is,  doubtless,  inherited 
to  a  far  less  extent  than  has  been  commonly 
held;  most  cases  of  apparent  inheritance  iie- 
ing  due  to  the  contagion  of  example,  supporteil 
often  by  inherent  neurotic  tendencies.  The 
famous  Jukes  family,  some  1200  of  whom  were 
catalogued  as  belonging  to  the  criminal,  licen- 
tious, or  vicious  class,  would  seem  to  be  a  marked 
illustration  of  hereditary  crime;  yet  some  few 
cases  where  members  of  the  family  were  isolated 
from  the  rest  and  developed  in  quite  a  normal 
way  seem  to  indicate  that  the  characteristics 
for  which  the  stock  was  infamous  were  largeh' 
acquired. 

Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  adult  of 
the  higher  species,  especially  in  the  mature 
man,  there  are  very  few  characteristics  that 
have  not  been  in  a  measure  determined  by  en- 
vironmental influences.  The  infant  is  in  every 
part  so  susceptible  to  such  influences  that  it 
seems  to  be  made  up  largely  of  potentialities 
for  development  rather  than  fixed  forms  of 
adjustment.  Its  dominant  hereditary  trait  is 
caj)acity  for  education,  for  acquiring  charac- 
ters. This  is  true  of  the  body  as  a  whole,  but 
especially  of  the  nervous  system  and  the 
brain.  The  latter  organ  seems  to  exist  solely 
for  the  sake  of  enabling  new  habits  to  be  ac- 
quired. It  consists  of  centers  which  are  con- 
nected with  all  the  sense  organs  and  all  the 
muscles  of  the  body,  together  with  an  aston- 
ishingly   intricate    mass    of    association    fibers 


30 


connecting  these  centers.  Since  these  cerebral 
a.ssociations  are  not,  as  a  rule,  made  definite 
until  experience  has  organized  them  into 
habits,  a  human  being,  in  whom  the  brain 
controls  a  very  large  part  of  the  movements 
of  the  body,  acts  in  an  immature  and  aimless 
manner  until  experience  has  taught  him  other- 
wise. Cerebral  control  means  capacity  to 
acquire  habits,  with  a  corresponding  helpless- 
ness until  these  habits  shall  have  been  formed. 

But  if  with  the  mature  of  the  human  race 
there  are  very  few  characteristics  which  are 
not  in  a  measure  acquired,  so  with  even 
greater  truth  may  it  be  .said  that  there  are 
very  few  which  are  not  in  part  dependent  on 
heredity.  Indeed,  if  we  except  negative  me- 
chanical or  chemical  effects,  such  as  mutila- 
tions or  modifications  of  tissue  by  chemical 
agencies,  it  would  seem  that  all  the  rest  are 
a  result  of  positive  potentialities  for  develop- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  individual,  which  in 
turn  are  due  to  heredity.  The  power  to  learn 
is  made  up  of  the  power  to  develop  in  a  great 
manj^  ways,  each  of  which  is  dependent  upon 
something  in  the  structure  or  other  properties 
of  the  body,  and  is  in  consequence  inherited. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  questions  con- 
cerning acquired  characteristics  is  whether 
they  can  become  hereditary.  So  important  is 
this  issue  that  it  has  split  the  naturalists  who 
are  especially  concerned  in  the  mechanism  of 
evolution  into  two  hostile  camps,  and  although 
the  controversy  does  not  to-da.v  rage  so  fiercely 
as  it  did  in  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  it  is  still  an  issue  for  debate. 

The  natural  belief  of  humanity  is  unques- 
tionably that  the  characteristics  acquired  by 
the  parents  are,  in  part  at  least,  engrafted 
upon  the  heredity  of  the  child.  This  is  es- 
pecially the  view  in  regard  to  evil  traits. 
"  The  sin.s  of  the  fathers  shall  be  visited  upon 
the  children."  "  The  fathers  have  eaten  sour 
grapes  and  the  children's  teeth  are  set  on 
edge."  So  natural  an  assumption  is  this  that 
Lamarck  (q.i\),  a  French  naturalist  (1744- 
1829),  endeavored  to  explain  by  it  the  evolu- 
tion of  species.  One  has  only  to  suppose  that 
the  effects  of  use  and  disuse  upon  the  body 
and  functions  of  the  parent  are  transmitted  in 
part  to  the  child,  who  in  turn  develops  still 
further  in  the  same  direction,  in  order  to  have 
an  agency  by  which  in  a  comparatively  small 
fraction  of  geological  time  extraordinary 
changes  in  structure  and  capacities  might  be 
brought  about.  Thus  Lamarck  conceived  the 
evolution  of  species  to  be  the  outcome  of  the 
individual  activities  that  make  up  its  history. 
The  heredity  of  a  stock  is  thought  to  be,  like 
the  constitution  of  a  nation,  a  product  of 
successive  efforts  in  successive  generations 
to  develop  a  satisfactory  working  organism. 
What  the  fathers  achieve,  the  children  have 
thrust  upon  them.  Evolution  is  a  result  of 
effort,  and,  since  the  efforts  of  different  indi- 
viduals differ  both  in  intensity  and  direction, 


ACQUIRED   CHARACTERISTICS 


ACQUIRED   CHARACTERISTICS 


their  children  are  born  with  different  charac- 
teristics, which  they  in  turn  develop  differently 
owing  to  variety  in  circumstances  and  in 
energy.  Thus  species  are  differentiated,  and 
we  have  the  variety  of  life  seen  in  the  world 
to-day. 

Darwin  (q.v.)  (1S09-18S2)  developed  a  new 
notion  of  the  method  of  evolution.  By  study- 
ing the  methods  by  which  breeders  and  nursery- 
men improve  the  qualities  of  animals  and 
plants  under  domestication,  he  found  that  it 
was  by  breeding  only  from  those  that  showed 
the  most  desirable  qualities  and  destroying  the 
rest.  Tills  process  he  called  artificial  selection. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  qualities  for  which 
the  selected  individuals  are  chosen  are  not 
acquired.  The  breeder  does  not  find  it  neces- 
sary to  train  a  horse  to  run  faster  than  it  would 
naturally  in  order  to  get  a  parent  for  a  better 
stock.  Rather  he  chooses  among  all  his  horses 
the  one  that  is  by  nature  fastest.  Thus  in 
developing  his  improved  stock  he  relies  on 
chance  variations  in  natural  speed  rather  than 
on  the  effects  of  training. 

What  Darwin  saw  going  on  under  the  con- 
trol of  man  he  conceived  to  be  taking  place 
under  the  pressure  of  competition  in  nature. 
Since  animals  and  plants  in  a  state  of  nature 
chance  to  vary  from  each  other  in  numberless 
ways,  and  since  there  is  an  enormous  loss  of 
life  among  them  from  competition,  those  that 
tend  to  survive  and  to  reproduce  their  kind 
will  be  on  the  whole  those  best  adapted  to 
survive,  the  fittest.  The  constant  variation 
in  all  directions  and  the  constant  elimination 
of  the  unfit  will  in  time  break  up  any  stock 
into  varieties  each  of  which  has  become  quite 
well  adapted  to  that  specific  environment 
which  is  most  available  for  it.  Hence,  there 
will  be  differentiation  of  species  into  varieties. 
But  as  these  varieties  separate  more  and  more 
widely  from  others  that  sprang  from  the  same 
parentage,  they  tend  more  and  more  to  evolve 
into  distinct  species. 

Darwin  laid  most  stress  on  evolution  by 
natural  selection  operating  on  chance  varia- 
tions, but  he  did  not  reject  the  idea  that  there 
might  be  evolution  by  the  inheritance  of  the 
effects  of  use  and  disuse.  On  the  contrary,  he 
accepted  this  as  a  genuine  factor  in  the  origin 
of  species.  The  followers  of  Darwin  have, 
however,  in  some  cases  refused  to  believe  in 
the  inheritance  of  acquired  characters.  Those 
who  hold  this  view,  which  places  the  burden 
of  explaining  evolution  almost  if  not  quite 
entirely  upon  natural  selection,  have  been 
called  \eo-Dar\\Tnians.  Their  leader  is  August 
Weismann,  Professor  in  the  University  of  Frei- 
burg. His  contention  that  there  is  no  inherit- 
ance of  acquired  characters  among  multicellular 
animals  is  based  on  his  conviction  that  the 
physiological  mechanism  of  heredity  is  such  as 
to  render  this  transmission  impossible.  The 
germ  from  which  the  new  individual  springs  is 
distinct  from  those  body  cells  of  the  parent 


the  modification  of  which  gives  rise  to  acquired 

characteristics.  That  there  exists  a  mecha- 
nism by  which  the  acquired  traits  of  the  body 
cells  can  be  transported  through  the  body  and 
made  to  influence  the  character  of  the  germ 
cell  is,  according  to  Weismann,  incredible. 
Moreover,  it  is  unnecessary  to  construct  an 
hypothetical  explanation  for  such  transmission, 
since  a  careful  examination  of  the  facts  shows 
that  the  supposed  fact  of  inheriting  acquired 
characteristics  is  a  myth.  All  cases  that  have 
been  held  to  be  illustrations  of  this  turn  out 
on  inspection  to  be  either  traits  not  inherited 
but  rather  acquired  by  the  child,  or  traits  not 
acquired  but  inherited  by  the  parent.  The 
fact  is,  he  maintains,  the  child  inherits  only 
what  the  parent  inherits,  plus  such  variations 
as  chance  or  a  mixture  of  blood  tends  to  produce. 

The  views  of  Weismann  raised  up  a  host  of 
opponents  as  well  as  of  defenders.  Those  who 
maintain  the  genuineness  of  the  inheritance  of 
acquired  characters  have  been  called  the  Neo- 
Lamarckians.  They  have  devoted  themselves 
to  a  search  for  cases  that  would  incontestably 
prove  such  inheritance.  Opinions  differ  as  to 
whether  they  have  succeeded.  The  case,  re- 
ported by  Brown-Sequard,  of  the  inheritance 
in  guinea  pigs  of  epilepsy  that  originally  was 
caused  by  mutilations  has  been,  perhaps,  the 
most  convincing  instance  that  they  have 
offered.  Mutilations  are  demonstrably  not 
inherited.  No  evidence  exists  to  support  the 
notion  that  habits  or  acquired  mental  traits 
can  become  hereditary.  Where  the  effects  of 
climate,  nutrition,  or  mode  of  life  are  so  general 
as  to  be  capable  of  affecting  the  germ  as  well 
as  the  body  cells,  there  we  may  seem  to  have 
some  evidence  of  what  might  be  taken  to  be 
the  inheritance  of  acquired  traits,  but  such 
cases  are  few,  and  the  effects  are  rather  in- 
definite. Professor  James  characterized  this 
evidence  as  "  a  beggarly  array."  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Neo-Lamarckians  have  raised  up  to 
face  the  Neo-Darwinians  two  formidable  objec- 
tions. One  is  that,  if  we  reject  the  inheritance 
of  acquired  characteristics,  we  have  discarded 
the  only  intelligible  account  of  the  origin  of 
the  variations  on  the  ba.sis  of  which  the  progress 
of  evolution  is  made,  and  have  left  only  the 
mysterious  chance  variation.  The  other  is 
that  such  slight  variations  as  originate  by 
chance  can  hardly  be  supposed  to  give  their 
possessor  any  such  substantial  advantage  in 
the  struggle  for  existence  as  will  enable  him  to 
survive  when  others  perish.  In  that  event, 
there  remains  no  "  survival  of  the  fittest,"  and 
hence  no  evolution. 

The  first  of  these  objections  has  been  met 
by  a  counter-objection.  It  is  maintained  that 
the  acquired  characteristics,  so  far  from  ex- 
plaining evolution  in  the  powers  of  living  beings, 
are  themselves  based  on  hereditary  possibilities 
of  development.  The  acquired  characteristic 
cannot  be  used  to  explain  a  potentiality  for 
growth  upon  which  it  itself  is  based.     The  in- 


31 


ACQUIRED   CHARACTERISTICS 


ACTION   WORK 


crease  in  powers  which  evolution  has  Ijrought 
about  cannot,  then,  be  cxphxincd  by  the  uses 
to  which  these  powers  have  liecn  put,  but 
only  by  an  inherent  tendency  for  living  tissue 
to  vary,  to  develop  new  possibilities  for  growth. 
This  view,  it  will  be  noted,  is  substantially  in 
accord  with  the  notion  of  the  relationshi]) 
between  acquired  characteristics  and  heredi- 
tary powers  which  was  outlined  earlier  in  this 
article. 

The  second  objection  has  threatened  the 
whole  Darwinian  notion  of  evolution  by 
natural  selection.  It  may  be  well  to  note  one 
ingenious  attempt  to  explain  how  slight 
chance  variations  might  prove  more  useful 
than  is  at  first  apparent.  Professors  Baldwin 
and  Osborn  in  America  and  Morgan  in 
England  have  suggested  a  factor  that  they 
have  called  organic  selection.  Slight  chance 
variations  in  themselves  of  no  significance 
may,  these  writers  affirm,  be  a  basis  for 
the  development  through  educative  influ- 
ences of  perfected  habits  which  are  of  the 
greatest  advantage.  The  organism  selects,  as 
it  were,  these  apparently  insignificant  factors 
in  its  equipment.  It  develops  them  by  use 
until  they  become  genuine  sources  of  strength. 
A  slight  tendency  to  build  a  nest  would  result 
in  so  imperfect  a  product  that  the  eggs  would 
fail  of  protection  and  the  species  gain  no  ad- 
vantage. On  the  other  hand,  it  might  afford 
a  basis  from  which  through  imitation  and  ex- 
perience the  bird  might  build  a  very  safe 
home  for  its  unhatchcd  brood.  The  slight 
variation  would  thus  assist  in  the  survival  of 
its  possessor.  In  subsequent  generations  it 
might  grow  greater,  and  thus  in  the  long  run 
heredity  would  gain  a  substantial  improve- 
ment. In  singling  out  and  improving  the 
slight  variation,  the  organism  would  have 
selected  the  path  along  which  its  heredity 
should  improve.  Thus  the  acquired  character, 
while  it  is  not  inherited,  woul<l,  nevertheless, 
determine  the  pathway  of  improvement  in 
inheritance. 

It  is  evident  to  any  one  that,  whatever  we 
say  about  the  inheritance  of  any  acquired 
characteristics,  at  any  rate  relativel_y  very  few 
of  them  are  so  transmitted.  The  vast  mass  of 
the  acquisitions  of  the  human  parent  have  to 
be  acquired  by  the  child.  Language,  man- 
ners, ideals,  vocational  skill,  experience,  each 
generation  must  get  for  itself.  It  would  seem 
like  a  great  misfortune  that  the  inheritance  of 
acquired  characteristics  should  not  have  pre- 
vailed more  extensively.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  little  reflection  will  convince  us  that  nature, 
in  shutting  us  off  from  this  easy  method  of 
sharing  in  the  outcome  of  the  development  of 
our  parents,  has  been  beneficent  rather  than 
the  opposite.  For  we  are  saved  from  the  in- 
cubus of  an  enormous  number  of  habits  useful 
to  our  fathers,  but  useless  or  a  positive  detri- 
ment to  us,  and  of  habits  useless  or  injurious 
even    to    those    ancestors    who   formed    them. 


At  the  price  of  having  to  learn  for  ourselves 
the  valuable  habits  and  ideas  of  our  parents, 
we  gain  immunity  from  those  that  would  im- 
pair our  own  efficiency.  When  one  considers 
the  rapidit.y  with  which  in  the  recent  history 
of  man  the  manners,  institutions,  and  ideals  of 
society  have  changed,  the  non-inheritance  of 
acquired  characters  becomes  in  his  mind  in- 
evitably correlated  with  progressiveness. 

B.  N.  H. 
See  also  Child  Psychology;  Culture  Epoch 
Theory;     D.\rwi.\;      Evolution;      Infancy; 
Habit;   Heredity;    Lamarck;  Mendelianism. 

References:  — 

,Sce  the  reference  list  to  the  above  articles. 
Baldwin,    J.    M.     Development  and   Evolution.     (New 

York  and  London,  190J.) 
B.^TESON,  W.     Mendel's  Principles  of  Heredity.     (Lon- 
don, 1902.) 
Biomctrika,     Cambridge,      England,      contains      many 

articles  on  the  question. 
Galton,   Sir  Francis.     Hereditary  Genius.     (London, 
1892.) 
Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty.      (London,  1S83.) 
Xatural  Inheritance.      (London,   ISSO.) 
Lo.MBRoso,  C.     The  Heredity  of  Acquired  Characteris- 
tics, Forum,  XXIV,  200. 
Romanes,      G.      J.     Examination     of     Weismannism. 

(London,   1893.) 
Thorndike.     E.     L.     Educational     Psychology.     (New 

York,  1903.) 
Weismann,  a.     Studien  zur  Descendenz-Thcorie.     (Jena, 
1902.) 
Essays  on  Heredity.      (London,  1889.) 
Vortrdge  ilber  Descendenz-Theoric.     (Jena,  1902.) 

ACQUISITIVENESS.— Animals  as  well  as 

human  beings  show  an  instinctive  tendency  to 
acquire  and  retain  those  objects  which  attract 
them,  either  because  of  the  stimulation  offered 
to  their  .senses,  or  because  of  the  satisfaction 
which  these  objects  afford  to  instinctive  desires. 
Acquisitiveness  has  accordingly  been  described 
as  a  fundamental  instinct. 
See  Instinct. 

ACTION  WORK.  — A  phrase  applied  to  a 
special  method  or  device  used  in  teaching  read- 
ing to  young  beginners,  particularly  foreign  chil- 
dren with  little  comprehension  of  oral  English. 
The  child  converts  the  print  on  the  page  into 
spoken  English,  with  or  without  the  aid  of  a  pho- 
netic system  or  diacritic  marks,  and  then  acts 
out  the  statement  to  prove  he  possesses  its 
meaning.  The  device  has  many  variations,  all 
intended  to  avoid  a  mere  mechanical  reading 
of  sounds  without  meaning.  One  of  the  most 
frequent  variations  is  for  the  teacher  to  write 
a  command  upon  the  blackboard,  which  is  read 
silently  by  the  children,  one  of  whom  is  desig- 
nated to  carry  out  the  command.  The  neces- 
sity of  some  action  as  the  outcome  of  the  read- 
ing focuses  attention  on  meaning  rather  than 
on  mere  visual  form  or  pronunciation,  and  re- 
veals at  once  any  failure  of  the  child  to  get 
the  thought  of  the  sentence.  Lessons  where 
action  work  is  dominant  are  frequently  called 
"  action  lessons." 

See:  Reading,  Teaching  of. 


32 


ACTIVITY 


ACTIVITY 


ACTIVITY  —  Psychological  Significance  of. 

—  This  is  the  most  general  term  applied  to  all  or- 
ganic processes.  In  ordinary  use  it  is  employed 
to  describe  the  contractions  of  the  muscles.  In 
physiology  it  is  used  to  describe  the  processes 
that  go  on  in  all  living  cells.  In  psychological 
literature  it  is  used  cither  as  synonymous  with 
the  general  term  "  consciousness,"  which  is 
very  frequently  referred  to  as  mental  ac- 
tivity, or  as  synonymous  with  the  particular 
term,  "  volition,"  which  is  regarded  as  the 
dynamic  side  of  consciousness.  The  term 
is  of  special  significance  in  educational  discus- 
sions because  of  the  contrast  which  is  some- 
times drawn  between  receptivity  as  the  passive 
phase  of  mental  life  and  self-activity  as  the 
aggressive  or  dynamic  side.  In  technical  psy- 
chological studies  emphasis  has  of  late  been 
placed  upon  the  active  processes.  Thus  Pro- 
fessor James  has  laid  great  emphasis  in  his 
theory  of  the  emotions  upon  the  bodily  activi- 
ties which  are  related  to  these  emotions  (see 
Emotions).  The  processes  of  perception  have 
been  recognized  as  intimately  related  to  bodily 
activities.  Thus  Wundt  lays  great  stress  upon 
eye  movements  as  important  elements  in  visual 
perception  (see  Visu.\l  Perception).  Both  of 
these  writers  treat  activities  as  important  be- 
cause of  their  contribution  to  new  incoming 
impressions  either  from  the  muscles  or  from  the 
joints  or  from  other  active  organs.  This 
formula,  whereby  activity  is  treated  as  im- 
portant for  mental  life  because  of  the  impres- 
sions which  it  produces,  has  of  late  been  sub- 
jected to  severe  criticism.  Photographs  of  the 
eye  do  not  support  fully  the  contentions  of 
writers  who  have  emphasized  eye  movements 
as  important  sources  of  visual  sensation.  The 
other  movement  sensations  of  the  body  are 
far  too  gross  to  explain  the  precision  with 
which  we  perceive  our  relations  in  .space  to 
objects  in  the  world  about  us.  A  series  of 
theories  have  accordingly  been  developed 
which  promise  to  throw  great  light  upon  the 
psychological  problems  connected  with  all 
forms  of  education,  especially  with  manual 
training  and  constructive  work.  Professor 
Miinsterberg  holds  that  mental  life  is  con- 
ditioned by  the  openness  of  motor  channels  in 
such  a  way  that  clearness  and  vividness  of 
impressions  depend  upon  the  openness  of  these 
motor  channels.  Stout,  after  criticizing  James' 
theory  of  the  emotions,  calls  attention  to  the 
fact  that  emotions  are  agreeable  when  the 
motor  tendencies  present  in  any  given  situation 
are  harmonious,  and  disagreeable  when  the 
motor  tendencies  are  inharmonious.  The  gen- 
eral principle  of  coordination  of  motor  tenden- 
cies may  verj'  advantageously  be  employed  to 
explain  many  of  the  processes  of  perception. 
Wherever  we  recognize  an  object,  there  is  an 
elaborate  active  reaction  of  the  individual  as 
well  as  a  sensory  impression.  C.  H.  J. 

See    Sympathy,   Imitation,    and   Self   Ac- 
tivity. 


Activity ;  Logical  Theory  and  Educational 
Implication  of.  —  For  educational  purposes  this 
concept  may  be  defined  as  a  series  of  changes 
definitely  adapted  to  accomplishing  an  end. 
Hence  it  is  opposed  to  restless  and  random 
changes,  as  well  as  to  mere  quiescence  and  pas- 
sive absorption.  Dictated  exercises,  "  bu.sy 
work,"  etc.,  when  not  accompanied  by  any 
sense  of  a  result  to  which  they  naturally  con- 
tribute, are  not  activity  in  its  genuine,  or 
intellectual,  significance;  neither  is  undirected 
overflow  of  motor  impulse.  By  way  of  em- 
phasizing the  conscious  share  of  the  individual 
in  the  initiation  and  execution  of  a  series  of 
changes  directed  to  an  end,  activity  generally 
appears  in  educational  literature  as  self-activitij. 
Under  the  influence,  however,  of  a  dualistic 
philosophy  (see  Dualism),  self-activity  has 
usually  been  conceived  not  as  all  chances  con- 
sciously directed  toward  an  end  with  the 
attainment  of  which  the  self  has  become 
identified,  but  as  purely  mental  or  psychical. 
The  mind  having  been  separated  from  the 
external  world  and  from  the  body,  its  activity 
had  to  be  conceived  quite  independenth'  of 
any  changes  effected  among  objects  or  through 
the  body. 

The  result  in  education  was  to  give  higher 
education  a  one-sided  direction.  Abstract 
studies,  since  they  in^•olve  a  minimum  of  overt 
action,  were  regarded  as  the  appropriate  ma- 
terial of  self-activity.  Owing  to  the  influence 
of  Aristotle,  pure  activity  was  identified  with 
the  operation  of  pure  reason,  a  process  begin- 
ning and  ending  exclusively  in  the  mind  and 
expressed  wholly  in  logical  terms.  This  type 
of  activity  characterized  liberal  or  free  educa- 
tion, which  was  then  contrasted  with  profes- 
sional and  mechanical  education,  as  concerned 
with  arts  that  took  effect  in  some  modification 
of  the  body  (such  as  medicine)  or  external 
objects,  such  as  the  fine  and  the  industrial 
arts.  This  lower  (base)  type  of  activity  and 
the  education  concerned  with  it  had  not  to  do 
with  mind  in  its  integrity  and  purity,  but  with 
mind  as  affected  by  want  or  lack,  —  appetite 
and  external  physical  circumstances. 

Although  this  dualistic  and  exclusively  in- 
tellectualistic  philosophy  is  rarely  openly  pro- 
fessed to-day,  it  has  had  great  historic  in- 
fluence, much  of  which  still  survives.  Em- 
bodied in  the  schola.stic  theory  of  the  su- 
periority of  the  contemplative  to  the  practical 
life,  it  was  revived  in  another  form  in  the  hu- 
manism of  the  Renaissance;  and  finds  an 
echo  to-day  in  the  assumption  that  all  profes- 
sional and  even  useful  education  must  be 
illiberal  and  noncultural.  While  the  school  prac- 
tices in  question  were  due  not  to  the  theory, 
but  to  social  conditions  which  put  the  stamp 
of  the  ignoble  and  menial  upon  all  economic 
concerns,  yet  the  theory  gave  a  convenient 
formulation  and  seeming  justification  for  the 
practice  of  divorcing  education  for  culture  and 
for  vocation  from  each  other. 


33 


ACTIVITY 


ADAMS 


At  the  present  time,  many  forces  are  co- 
operating to  give  to  the  notion  of  activity  a 
wider  and  less  exclusive  content;  and,  by 
relieving  it  of  its  excessive  intellectual  asso- 
ciations, to  make  it  a  central  principle  of  all 
sound  educational  methods.  In  other  words, 
"  self-activity  "  is  losing  its  purely  iihilosophi- 
cal  meaning,  and  is  becoming  identified  with 
all  types  of  directed  action  in  which  the  pur- 
pose, choice,  and  reflection  of  the  indi\itlual 
take  a  part. 

Some  of  the  causes  of  this  change  are  as 
follows:  (1)  The  development  of  democracy 
has  tended  to  break  down  the  association  of 
higher  culture  with  economic  leisure,  and  to  em- 
phasize the  necessity  of  active  social  service. 
(2)  jNIodern  industry  has  become  more  and 
more  dependent  upon  the  a])i)lication  of  science. 
so  that  it  has  lost  its  purely  material  and  me- 
chanical character  by  gaining  an  intellectual 
content.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sharp  bound- 
ary between  pure  and  applied  science  has 
given  way  through  the  increase  of  facilities  for 
putting  even  remote  and  abstract  branches  of 
knowledge  to  some  social  service.  (3)  Modern 
psychology  has  substituted  the  notion  of  a 
unified  psychophysical  activity  for  the  older 
dualism  of  soul  and  body.  In  multitudes  of 
ways,  it  has  demon.strated  the  cooperation  of 
mind  and  body  to  be  indispensable.  Hence 
physical  activity,  instead  of  being  considered 
an  intruder  or  accidental  annex  in  the  training  of 
mind,  is  seen  to  plav  an  organic  part.  (4)  ^lod- 
ern  dynamic  or  functional  logic  has  shown  that 
reflective  thinking  is  called  forth  by  the  need 
of  coordinating  conflicting  activities  into  a 
harmony,  and  that  the  main  lines  of  the 
organization  of  thoughts  are  set  by  the  model 
of  practical  activities.  (See  Conflict  and 
Control.) 

The  single  fact  that  all  conclusive  scientific 
thinking  requires  experimentation  involving  the 
production  of  physical  change  is  enough  in 
itself  to  destroy  the  older  notion  that  the 
highest  mental  activity  is  purely  self-inclosed 
and  self-sufficient. 

Some  of  the  effects  of  the  increased  impor- 
tance of  the  principle  of  activity  in  education 
may  also  be  noted:  (1)  The  kindergarten  rests 
professedly  upon  this  notion.  The  rediscovery 
by  Froebcl  of  the  significance  of  play  and  of 
occupation  (Plato  having  been  the  original 
discoverer)  marked  an  epoch  in  education. 
(2)  The  introduction  into  elementary  educa- 
tion of  various  forms  of  constructive  and  ex- 
pressive activity.  While  the  arts  (like  drawing) 
and  manual  training  (cooking,  sewing,  work 
with  wood  and  metal)  were  first  introduced 
mainly  for  utilitarian  reasons,  when  once  in- 
troduced they  were  found  to  serve  important 
intellectual  and  moral  ends.  The  introduction 
of  school  gardens,  excursions,  etc.,  mark  further 
tendencies  in  the  same  direction,  as  do  also  the 
greater  attention  to  games  and  to  physical 
culture.     (3)  The    recognition    that   scientific 


34 


study  in  education  is  incomplete  without  pro- 
vision of  laboratories  and  other  opportunities 
for  active  work  is  another  aspect  of  the  same 
principle.  That  the  best  thinking  involves 
research,  personal  intiuiry,  and  is  not  to  be 
secured  by  amassing  and  absorbing  stores  of 
information  is  a  notion  destined  ultimately  to 
revolutionize  methods  of  instruction.  (4)  The 
increasing  interest  in  vocational  education, 
the  feeling  that  education  comes  short  of  its 
proper  function  unless  it  assists  the  individual 
in  his  choice  and  pursuit  of  a  right  calling  in  life, 
is  another  evidence  of  the  fundamental  signifi- 
cance attached  to  the  principle  of  activity. 
See  article  on  Function.  J.  D. 

References:  — 

Bradley,   F.     Appearance  and  Reality.      (London  and 

New  Yorli.  l.S(t.3  ) 
Dewey,  J.     Studies  in  Logical  Theory.     (Chicago,  1!)09.) 
Child    and     Curriculum,    edited     by    J.    J.    Findlay. 
(London,  1906.) 
HoBHODSE,  L.  T.     Mind  in  Evolution.     (London,  1901). 
James,    W.     Principles    of   Psychology.     (New    York, 
1890.) 
Talks  to  Teachers.     (New  York,  1899.) 
JuDD,  C.  H.     Genetic  Psychology  for  Teachers.     (New 
York,  190.3.) 
Psychology.  General  hitroduction.     (New  York,  1907.) 
Ladd,  G.  T.     a  Theory  of  Reality.      (New  York,  1899.) 
MtiNSTERBERCi,     H.     Psychology    and    Life.      (lioston, 

1899.) 
Stout,    G.    E.     Analytical   Psychology.     (London    and 
New  York,  1896.) 
Manual  of  Psychology.     (New  York,  1899.) 

ADAMS,  CHARLES  KENDALL.  —  Histo- 
rian and  educator,  born  at  Derby,  Vt.,  Jan. 
24,  1835;  educated  in  the  public  schools, 
at  Derby  Academy,  and  the  University  of 
Michigan;  professor  of  history  and  Latin  at 
Cornell  Cniversity  (1863-1867)  and  of  history 
at  the  University  of  Michigan  (1867-188.5); 
president  of  Cornell  Universitv  (188.5-1892) 
and  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  (1892-1902) ; 
author  of  Higher  Education  in  Germany  and 
of  several  historical  works.  His  Manual  of 
Historical  Literature  (New  York,  1889)  is 
important  as  a  general  historical  bibliographv. 
Died  July  26,  1902.  W.  S.  M." 

ADAMS,  DANIEL  (1773-1864).  —  School- 
man and  text  book- writer,  educated  in  the 
schools  of  New  Hampshire  and  at  Dartmouth 
College:  principal  of  a  private  school  in  Boston 
(1803-1813);  author  of  textbooks  in  arithmetic, 
grammar,  and  reading  which  were  widely  used 
in  the  schools  of  New  England  for  many  j'ears. 

w.  s."m. 

ADAMS.  HERBERT  BAXTER.  —  Histo- 
rian, born  at  Shutcslnn'y,  Mass.,  A])ril  16, 
1850;  educated  at  Phillips  Exeter  Academy, 
Amherst  College,  and  the  University  of  Hciilel- 
berg;  instructor  and  professor  of  history  at 
Johns  Hopkins  University  (1876-1901);  author 
of  Study  of  History  in  American  Colleges  and 
Universities,  College  of  William  and  Mary, 
Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of  Virginia, 


ADAMS 


ADAPTATION 


and  of  numerous  historical  works;  also  editor 
of  Contribxdions  of  American  Educational  His- 
tory published  bv  the  Bureau  of  Education; 
died  July  30,  1901.  W.  S.  M. 

ADAMS,  JOHN  (1772-1863).— Schoolman 
educated  in  private  schools  and  at  Yale  College; 
instructor  in  Canterbury  (Conn.)  Academy; 
principal  of  Phillips  Academy  at  Andover 
(1810-1833);  during  his  closing  years  actively 
engaged  in  Sunday  school  work  in  Illinois; 
author  of  numerous  pamphlets  on  education. 

W.  S.  M. 


ADAMS,  JOHN  QUINCY  (1769-1848).— 
Sixth  president  of  the  United  States,  educated 
in  private  schools  in  Paris,  at  the  University 
of  Leyden  and  Harvard  College;  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  belles  lettres  at  Harvard  College 
(180.5-1809);  author  of  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and 
Oratonj.  W.  S.  M. 

ADAMS,  WILLIAM  TAYLOR  (1822-1897). 
—  Schoolman  and  story-writer,  educated  in 
the  public  and  private  schools  of  Boston; 
teacher  and  principal  in  the  schools  of  Boston 
for  26  years;  editor  of  Student  and  Schoolmate 
(1858-1866);  wrote  under  the  pseudon>in 
"  Oliver  Optic  "  numerous  stories  for  the 
young.  W.  S.  M. 

ADAPTATION.  —  The  maintenance  of  life 
requires  an  adaptation  of  the  organism  to  its 
surroundings,  of  the  human  individual  to  the 
natural  and  social  medium  in  which  he  is  placed. 
Disturbance  of  adaptation  means  disease  — 
physical,  mental,  moral;  and  though  the 
capacity  of  human  beings  to  adapt  themselves 
to  abnormal  conditions  is  very  great,  malad- 
justment, if  extreme  and  long  continued, 
results  in  death  or  arrest  of  growth.  The  en- 
tire process  of  education  {q.v.)  may  properly 
be  regarded  as  a  process  of  securing  the  condi- 
tions that  make  for  the  mo.st  complete  and 
effective  adaptation  of  individuals  to  their 
physical  and  moral  environment. 

Adaptation  is  of  two  types,  passive  and  active, 
though  the  distinction  is  one  of  degree,  not  of 
kind.  Passive  adaptation  is  discussed  under 
the  caption  of  accommodation  (q.v.).  As  there 
noted,  the  accommodations  in  which  the  individ- 
ual takes  on  the  coloring  of  his  surroundings 
depend  upon  his  own  primary  native  activities. 
In  progressive  societies,  then,  activities  are  to 
an  extent  directed  toward  securing  an  adapta- 
tion of  the  environment  to  the  individual's 
needs  and  ends,  rather  than  vice  versa.  Lower 
forms  of  life  have  only  a  limited  power  to  adjust 
themselves  to  changes  in  their  surroundings; 
if  their  conditions  vary  markedly  or  suddenly, 
they  die.  Under  ordinary  conditions  they 
reach  a  stable  equilibrium,  which  means  arrest 
of  growth.     Continued  growth  means  that  the 


individual  does  not  accommodate  himself  to  his 
environment,  but  takes  the  initiative  in  modify- 
ing it  to  make  it  over  into  accord  with  his  own 
desires  and  purposes.  Only  when  the  environ- 
ment develops  by  the  active  initiative  and  plan- 
ning of  individuals  is  progress  secured.  AH 
invention  and  discovery  are  cases  of  active 
adaptation. 

Spencer's  influence  is  largely  responsible  for 
the  popular  misconception  by  which  both  edu- 
cation and  evolution  are  construed  as  the 
molding  of  pliable  and  passive  organic  beings 
into  agreement  with  fixed  and  static  environing 
conditions.  This  view  leads  to  a  perversion, 
practical  and  theoretical,  of  education,  since  it 
makes  its  aim  the  accommodation  of  individuals 
to  the  existing  type  of  social  polity  and  customs, 
a  method  which  may  train  followers,  but  not 
leaders.  To  avoid  this  error,  it  is  necessary 
to  realize  that  adaptation  is  a  case  of  control 
(q.v.)  involving  the  subordination  of  the  en- 
vironment to  the  life  functions  of  individuals. 
The  North  American  Indians  accommodated 
themselves  to  their  surroundings  on  our 
Western  plains  and  deserts,  and  the  result  was  a 
low  and  precarious  culture.  Civilized  man 
employs  migration,  machinery,  means  of 
transportation  and  communication;  and  by 
adapting  these  same  surroundings  to  his  own 
ends  controls  the  environment  instead  of  having 
his  development  controlled  by  it.  Herein  lies 
the  difference  between  stationary  and  progres- 
sive societies,  between  civilization  and  savagery, 
between  higher  and  lower  forms  of  animal  life. 
(See  besides  Accommod.\tion  and  the  references 
there  given,  Evolution  and  Function.) 

J.  D. 

Biological  Adaptation.  —  Besides  its  general 
philoso])hical  and  social  significance,  the  term 
"adaptation"  has  definite  biological  and  sen- 
sory connotations  that  have  significance  edu- 
cationally. 

Biologically  the  term  refers  to  the  fact 
that  every  organism  tends  to  undergo  through 
natural  selection  or  individual  modification  a 
succession  of  changes  whereby  its  functions  are 
rendered  more  harmonious  with  the  demands 
of  the  environment.  Thus  plants  which  live 
in  an  arid  region  adapt  themselves  to  the  en- 
vironment by  developing  organs  for  the  reten- 
tion of  moisture.  Animals  that  live  in  a  cold 
climate  develop  coverings  which  protect  them 
against  the  cold.  The  term  has  been  employed 
in  connection  with  mental  development  to 
indicate  that  the  mental  processes  are  more  ad- 
vantageous as  means  of  fitting  an  individual  to 
the  environment  than  mere  organic  changes. 

Sensory  Adaptation  occurs  when  any  organ 
of  the  body  is  acted  upon  by  external  energy 
which  then  undergoes  a  change  such  that 
subsequent  processes  in  that  organ  show  the 
effect  of  the  earlier  excitation.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  organs  of  sense.  When  the  eye  has 
been  exposed  to  light  for  a  time,  it  is  less  sensi- 


35 


ADDISON 


ADDITION 


tive  than  when  it  has  been  exposed  in  darkness. 
These  states  of  the  eye  are  defined  respectively 
as  daylight  adaptation  and  darkness  adaptation. 
The  sense  of  smell  and  the  temperature  sense 
are  especially  affected  by  earlier  excitations. 
The  phenomenon  is  akin  to  fatigue  (q.v.)  and 
after-image  (q.v.).  C.  H.  J. 


ADDISON,  JOSEPH  (1672-1710).  —  Son 
of  Lancelot  Addison,  Dean  of  Lichfield;  edu- 
cated at  Charterhouse  and  Queen's  and 
Magdalen  colleges,  Oxford;  established  the 
Spectator  in  1711.  In  this  periodical,  which 
had  a  wide  circulation,  he  used  his  influence 
to  secure  reforms  in  English  education.  In 
No.  157,  August  30,  1711,  the  writer  states: 
"  I  have  very  often  with  much  sorrow  bewailed 
the  misfortune  of  the  children  of  Great  Britain, 
when  I  consider  the  ignorance  and  undiscern- 
ing  of  the  generality  of  schoolmasters.  The 
boasted  liberty  we  talk  of  is  but  a  mean  reward 
for  the  long  servitude,  the  many  heartaches 
and  terrors,  to  which  our  childiiood  is  exposed 
in  going  through  a  grammar-school.  Many  of 
these  stupid  tyrants  exercise  their  cruelty  with- 
out any  manner  of  distinction  of  the  capacities 
of  children,  or  the  intention  of  parents  in  their 
behalf.  There  are  many  excellent  tempers 
which  are  worthy  to  be  nourished  and  cultivated 
with  all  i^ossible  diligence  and  care,  that  were 
never  designed  to  be  acquainted  with  Aristotle, 
Tully  or  Virgil;  ...  I  am  confident  that  no 
boy  who  will  not  be  allured  to  letters  without 
blows,  will  ever  be  brought  to  anything  with 
them.  ...  It  is  wholly  to  this  dreadful 
practice  "  (i.e.  of  indiscriminate  corporal 
punishment  in  schools)  "  that  we  may  attribute 
a  certain  hardiness  and  ferocity  which  some 
men,  though  liberally  educated,  carry  about 
them  in  all  their  behaviour.  .  .  .  But  since 
this  custom  of  educating  by  the  lash  is  suffered 
by  the  gentry  of  Great  Britain,  I  would  prevail 
only,  that  honest  heavy  lads  may  be  dismissed 
from  slavery  sooner  than  they  are  at  present, 
and  not  whipped  on  to  their  fourteenth  or 
fifteenth  year  whether  they  expect  any  progress 
from  them  or  not.  Let  the  child's  capacity  be 
forthwith  examined,  and  he  sent  to  some  me- 
chanic way  of  life,  without  respect  to  his  birth,  if 
nature  designed  him  for  nothing  higher.  .  .  . 
I  would  not  here  be  supposed  to  have  said  that 
our  learned  men  who  have  been  whipped  at 
school,  are  not  still  men  of  noble  and  liberal 
minds;  but  I  am  sure  they  had  been  much 
more  so  than  they  are,  had  they  never  suffered 
that  infamy." 

The  influence  of  the  Spectator,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  read  as  a  classic  throughout  Eng- 
land, was  a  strong  factor  in  mitigating  the 
tradition  of  severity  among  English  school- 
masters. In  the  Spectator,  Xo.  215,  November  6, 
1711,  the  writer  strongly  urges  universal 
education:  "  I  consider  a  human  soul  without 
education   like   marble   in   the   quarry,    which 


shews  none  of  its  inherent  beauties,  until  the 
skill  of  the  polisher  fetches  out  the  colours, 
makes  the  surface  shine,  and  discovers  every 
ornamental  cloud,  spot,  and  vein  that  runs 
through  the  body  of  it.  Education,  after  the 
same  manner,  when  it  works  upon  a  noble  mind, 
draws  out  to  view  every  latent  virtue  and  per- 
fection, which  without  such  helps  are  never  able 
to  make  their  appearance.  .  .  .  What  sculpture 
is  to  a  block  of  marble,  education  is  to  a  human 
soul.  Tiic  philosopher,  the  saint,  or  the  hero; 
the  wise,  the  good,  or  the  great  man,  very  often 
lie  hid  and  concealed  in  a  plebeian,  which  a 
proper  education  might  have  disinterred,  and 
have  brought  to  light." 

It  should  be  noted  that  Addison's  father 
was  a  native  of  the  County  of  Westmoreland, 
in  which  part  of  England  throughout  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  education 
was  much  more  highly  valued  by  and  generally 
accessible  to  the  masses  of  the  people  than 
elsewhere  in  the  country.  Thus  Addison  grew 
up  with  a  knowledge  of  the  benefits  of  popular 
education  which  doubtless  affected  his  point 
of  view.  He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  the  edu- 
cational movement  which,  in  the  early  years 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  led  the  Church  of 
England  to  develop  charity  schools  (q.v.)  for 
the  children  of  the  poor,  and  thought  the 
foundation  of  these  schools  one  of  the  most 
beneficent  undertakings  of  the  age.  He 
describes  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley,  his  type  of 
an  English  country  gentleman,  as  employing  an 
itinerant  singing-master,  who  goes  about  his 
estate  to  instruct  the  people  rightly  in  the  tunes 
of  the  Psalms,  so  as  to  improve  the  singing  in 
church.  Sir  Roger  follows  the  public  cate- 
chism in  church,  and,  when  pleased  with  the 
boy  who  has  answered  well,  orders  a  Bible  to  be 
sent  him  next  day  for  his  encouragement,  some- 
times accompanying  it  with  a  flitch  of  bacon 
for  the  lad's  mother.  Addison's  influence  was 
strong  in  forming  the  code  of  public  duty  to 
w-hich  enlightened  landholders  endeavored  to 
conform  in  England  from  the  beginning  of  the 
Hanoverian  period.  This  code  was  further 
popularized  by  Samuel  Richardson  in  his  novel 
Sir  Charles  Grandison  (1753).  Its  religious 
earnestness  was  deepened  by  the  Evangelical 
movement  followed  by  the  Tractarian  move- 
ment. In  all  its  stages  it  included  the  duty 
of  providing  a  humble,  but  by  no  means  ineffec- 
tive, form  of  elementary  education  for  the 
laboring  poor.  M.  E.  S. 

References:  — 

Dictionary  of  Xational  Biography. 
Essaj'S  in  the  Speclalor. 

ADDITION.  —  A  term  used  in  mathematics 
to  indicate  the  joining  of  two  quantities  to  form 
a  single  quantity.  In  particular,  in  elementary 
arithmetic  we  add  2  and  3  and  say  that  the  result 
is  5;  in  advanced  arithmetic  we  add  2  and  —  3 
and  say  that   the    result  is  —  1 ;    in    complex 


36 


ADDITION 


ADELPHI   COLLEGE 


numbers  we  add  a  +  hi  and  a  +  h'i  and  say  that 
the  result  is  (a  +  a)  +  (6  +  h')i,  where  i  =  '^  —  1. 
Similarly  we  have  sin-  a  +  cos"  a  =  1,  and  other 
forms  capable  of  reduction  in  various  parts  of 
mathematics,  all  developments  of  the  idea  of 
addition  in  elementary  arithmetic. 

The  name  of  this  process  has  had  various 
vicissitudes.  Johannes  Hispalensis  (John  of 
Seville,  John  of  Luna),  a  Spanish  Jew  of  c.  1140, 
called  it  "aggregation":  "  Aggregare  est  quos- 
libet  duos  numerosvel  plures  inunum  colligere." 
The  earliest  French  treatise  on  algorism  (c.l275) 
uses  "assemble  "  for  add  :  "  Se  tu  veus  assamble 
1.  nombre  a  autre."  The  first  printed  arith- 
metic (Treviso,  Italy,  1478)  uses  "join"  in  the 
same  sense.  "  Summation  "  has  long  been  a 
rival  of  "addition,"  a  trace  of  this  use  being 
preserved  in  the  expression  "  to  sum  up,"  and 
"to  sum  these  numbers."  Grammateus  (ISlcS) 
speaks  of  "  Additio  oder  Summierung,"  and 
Rudolff  (1526)  of  "Addirn  odcr  Summirn." 
The  Germans  also  used  "  Zusammenthuung," 
the  French  "  aiouster,"  and  the  Italians 
"  recogliere,"  "  summare,"  and  "  acozzare." 

The  numbers  to  be  added  had  no  special 
names  in  the  earlier  books  of  the  people.  The 
theoretical  books,  written  in  Latin,  commonly 
spoke  of  them  as  "  numeri  addendi,"  numbers  to 
be  added,  from  which  came  the  word  "  addendi," 
or  our  "  addends."  FinaBus  used  this  term  as 
early  as  1525,  and  Gemma  Frisius  (1540) 
probably  did  more  than  any  one  else  to  make 
it  popular.  Sometimes  only  the  lower  of  two 
numbers  to  be  added  was  called  a  "  numerus 
addendus,"  as  in  the  work  of  George  of  Hungary 
(1499). 

The  result  of  addition  has  had  a  variety  of 
names,  although  "  sum"  has  been  the  favorite. 
"  Product"  has  also  been  used,  as  by  John  de 
Muris  (c.  1320),  and  etymologically  it  has  as 
much  reason  for  being  used  in  addition  as  in 
multiplication.  Even  as  late  as  1563  Savonne 
writes,  "  Adiouster  est  mettre  plusieurs  nombres 
ou  sommes  ensemble,  pour  en  s^auoir  le  produit," 
thus  following  a  common  custom  of  using  "sum" 
for  number,  and  "product"  for  the  result  of 
addition.  "  Numerus  collectus  "  has  also  been 
used,  which  might  naturally  have  led  to  the 
use  of  "  collect."' 

The  method  of  adding  numbers,  when  me- 
chanical aids  (see  Abacu.?)  were  not  employed, 
has  changed  but  little.  A  commentator  of  un- 
known date,  writing  on  the  Lilfivati  (see 
Bh.^skara),  gives  this  method  for  adding  2,  5, 
32,  193,  18,  10,  and  100. 


Sum  of  the  units,  2,  5,  2,  3,  S,  0.  0 
Sum  of  the  tons,  3,  9,  1,  1,  0 
Sum  of  the  hundreds,  1,  0,  0,  1 

Sum  of  the  sums 


20 
14 
2 

360 


In  the  fourteenth  century  Maximus  Planudes 
iq.v.),  whose  work  was  much  influenced  by  the 
Arabs,  placed  the  sum  at  the  top,  checking 
(see    Checks    on    Operations)   his    result   by 


8030 

2 

5687 
i34:5 

8 
3 

05391 

3279 

10-120 

7>sp^0 
909 


casting  out  nines,  as  here  shown.  The  method 
was  purely  Arabic.  The  Hindus,  ou  the  other 
hand,  seem  to  have  commonly 
written  their  results  below,  begin- 
ning at  the  right  as  we  do,  but  can- 
celing unnecessary  figures.  They 
also  had  what  they  called  a  retro- 
grade method,  beginning  at  the 
left. 

The  expression  "to  carry"  in 
addition  is  very  old,  being  derived 
from  the  carrying  of  counters  on 
the  line  abacus.  (See  Abacus.) 
It  is  found  in  most  if  not  all 
European  languages.  In  English  it 
has  been  perhaps  less  popular  than 
in  some  other  languages,  Recorde 
{c.  1540)  using,  for  example,  the  expression 
"  keepe  in  mynde,"  and  Baker  (156S)  using 
"keepe  the  other  in  your  minde." 

D.  E.  S. 

ADDITION,  Psychology  of.  —  See  Number, 
Psychology  of. 

ADELHARD,  or  ^THELHARD,  of  Bath.  — 

A  monk  of  the  twelfth  centurj',  probably 
born  at  Bath,  England.  At  one  period  of 
his  life  he  traveled  widely,  visiting  Spain, 
Greece,  North  Africa,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor. 
He  may  have  lived  for  a  time  in  Sicily.  In 
his  travels  he  came  into  contact  with  Arabian 
thought,  to  which  are  due  some  of  his  works 
on  mathematics,  medicine,  and  philosophy. 
His  most  important  work  was  a  translation 
into  Latin  of  Euclid's  Elements  from  the 
Arabic  (though  some  claim  without  justification 
that  it  was  from  the  Greek).  This  work  was 
used  extensively  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries.  About  1260  Giovanni  Campano 
issued  the  translation  as  his  own  work.  The 
first  printed  edition  appeared  at  Venice  in 
1482.  His  most  Jmportant  philosophical  works 
are  Perdifficiles  Quaestiones,  which  is  represent- 
ative of  his  acquaintance  with  Arabic  teachings, 
and  De  Eodem  et  Divcrso  {Of  Identity  and 
Difference),  an  attempt  to  reconcile  the  theories 
of  Plato  and  Aristotle  on  universals. 

Reference:  — 

JoURD.-iiN.      Recherches  sur  les    Traductions   d'Aristote. 
(Paris,  1843.) 

ADELPHI   COLLEGE,  BROOKLYN,  N.  Y. 

—  A  coeducational,  nonsectarian  institution, 
incorporated  by  the  Regents  of  the  State  of 
New  York  (see  University  of  the  State  of 
New  York),  June  24,  1896.  Besides  the 
usual  undergraduate  courses,  admission  to 
which  is  by  examination  or  certificate  from 
high  school,  the  college  maintains  a  Normal 
School  for  Kindergartners  with  a  two-years' 
course  organized  in  1893,  a  Normal  School 
for  Art  Teachers,  formed  in  1903,  and  a 
School  of  Fine  Arts  developed  from  the  art 
courses    in    Adelphi   Academy,  a    preparatory 


37 


ADELUNG 


ADJUSTMENT 


school  founded  in  1863,  which  was  the  parent  of 
the  college,  and  which  remains  an  important  part 
of  its  system.  The  college,  wliicli  has  always 
emphasized  preparation  for  teaching,  offers 
also  extension  courses  that  enable  ijublic  school 
teachers  to  make  progress  toward  a  degree 
without  giving  up  their  positions.  Peda- 
gogical studies  may  be  taken  as  part  of  the 
work  of  the  college  proper,  and,  if  satisfac- 
torily completed,  admit  to  the  New  York  City 
examinations  for  licenses  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools  and  make  the  student  eligible  to 
receive  the  College  Graduate  Professional 
Certificate  issued  by  the  State  Education 
Department  at  Albany.  Adelphi  College  is 
tiie  only  institution  in  Brooklyn  from  which  a 
woman  may  obtain  a  bachelor's  degree.  There 
are  no  fraternities.  The  students  are  organized 
in  self-government  associations,  and  the  "honor 
system"  is  maintained.  Adelphi  College  is 
a  member  of  the  Association  of  Colleges  in 
the  Middle  States  and  Maryland  (q.v.)  (see 
College  E\'tr.\nce  Boards).  There  are  about 
500  students;  in  1908  the  degrees  conferred 
were,  M.A.,  3  (all  for  educational  researches), 
A.B.,  45.  The  college  is  controlled  by  a 
self-perpetuating  board  of  trustees;  three 
of  the  members  (1909)  are  women.  The 
instructing  staff  numbers  36,  of  whom  16 
are  full  ])rofessors.  The  grounds,  buildings, 
and  equipment  were  valued  (1906)  at  S530,055. 
The  total  annual  income  is  854,000.  The 
average  salary  of  a  professor  is  S2000.  Charles 
H.  Levermore,  Ph.D.,  is  president.        C.  G. 

ADELUNG,  JOHANN  CHRISTOPH  (1732- 
1806). —  A  German  lexicographer  and  gramma- 
rian, born  in  Spantekow,  Pomerania.  After 
studying  theology  at  the  University  of  Halle, 
he  taugiit  at  the  evangelical  gymnasium  in 
Erfurt  (1759-1761),  but  had  to  leave  because 
of  his  rationalism.  The  next  sixteen  years  he 
spent  in  literary  work  in  Leipzig,  and  in  1787 
was  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  electoral 
library  in  Dresden,  which  position  he  filled 
until  his  death.  Adelung's  great  work  is  his 
dictionary  of  the  German  language  (Gram- 
malisch-kritisches  Worterbuch  der  hochdeutschen 
Mundart,  5  v.,  Leipzig  1774-86),  by  far  the 
most  important  work  of  its  kind  before  Grimm. 
His  German  grammar,  written  1781  by  the 
order  of  Minister  von  Zedlitz,  remained  for 
a  long  time  the  standard  of  Germari  schools. 
Among  his  other  works  are:  "IJber  den 
deutschen  SHI  (On  German  Style,  3  v.  1785-1786), 
Aeltere  Geschichte  der  Deutschen,  ihrer  Sprache 
und  Literatur  (Ancient  History  of  the  Germans, 
their  Language  and  Literature,  Leipzig,  1806); 
and  Mithridates  oder  aUgemeine  Sprachen- 
Kunde  (General  Linguistics,  Berlin,  1806),  in 
which  the  conception  of  a  science  of  com- 
parative philology  is  foreshadowed.  Besides 
these,  he  made  valuable  contributions  to 
the  study  of  medieval  Latinity  and  of  the 
history   of  Saxony.     From    1772   to    1774,    he 


published  the  Leipziger  Wochenblatt  fiir  Kinder 
(Leipzig  Weekly  for  Children),  the  first  German 
periodical  for  young  people.  F.  M. 

ADENOIDS.  —  (Greek  d«e^of<S^s,  glandular.) 
The  so-called  adenoid  growth  is  really  an 
hypertrophy  of  the  nasopharyngeal  tonsil,  or 
what  is  sometimes  called  the  third  tonsil, 
situated  in  the  cavity  between  the  nose  and 
throat.  Many  different  causes  have  been 
assigned  for  such  growths,  but  no  specific  cause 
has  yet  been  established.  There  is,  however, 
a  consensus  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  fact 
that  this  hypertrophy  is  connected  with  the 
great  activity  of  the  lymphoid  tissue  in  early 
life.  This  is  a  common  defect  among  school 
children,  and  its  early  recognition  and  treat- 
ment is  extremely  desirable  for  pedagogical 
as  well  as  hygienic  reasons.  An  operation  in 
childhood  is  usually  successful.  The  adenoid 
growth  interferes  with  the  nutrition  of  the  brain, 
and  results  in  linguistic  defects,  mental  con- 
fusion, dullness,  and  often  in  mental  irritabil- 
ity and  perversity  as  regards  school  discipline. 
A  special  form  of  inattention  due  to  this  de- 
fect has  been  distinguished,  called  aproscchia 
nasalis.  Many  investigations  of  this  defect 
among  school  children  in  different  countries 
have  shown  a  number  of  cases,  varying  from 
perhaps  5  per  cent  to  25  per  cent  or  30  per 
cent.  Tests  for  this  defect  should  always  be 
included  in  the  physical  examination  of  school 
children.  For  further  details  see  the  article 
on  the  Hygiene  of  the  Nose.  W.  H.  B. 

References:  — 

BuRNH.vM,  William  H.  The  Hygiene  of  the  Nose- 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  June,  1908,  Vol.  XV,  pp. 
15.5-169.     Contains  tiiblioRraphy. 

Chockett,  E.  a.  Some  Diseases  of  the  Nose  and 
Throat  of  Interest  to  Teachers.  Addresses  and 
Proceedings  of  the  N.  E.  A.,  Boston,  Mass.,  1903, 
pp.  102.s-10.31. 

GuLicK.  L.  H.,  and  Ayres,  L.  P.  Medical  Inspection 
of  Schools.     (New  York,  1908.) 

ADJUSTMENT.  —  This  term  is  often  used 
as  a  synonym  for  Accommod.^tign  and  Ad.\p- 
T.\TioN  (q.v.).  Strictly  speaking,  the  term 
denotes  the  result  of  equilibrium  which  may 
be  effected  by  either  of  these  processes.  Ad- 
justment to  society  is  at  present  a  favorite 
way  of  conceiving  the  end  of  education;  while 
containing  an  obvious  truth,  it  is  in  danger  of 
being  interpreted  in  the  direction  of  class 
education,  i.e.  fitting  individuals  to  fill  specific 
predetermined  positions  in  the  social  order, 
instead  of  securing  to  them  such  a  develop- 
ment of  their  own  powers  as  will  enable  them 
to  make  their  own  adjustments  in  a  changing 
social  order.  Where  economic  and  social 
changes  are  as  great  and  rapid  as  they  are  in 
contemporary  life,  it  is  disastrous  to  try  to 
fix  by  education  the  forms  which  the  social 
adjustments  of  individuals  shall  take.  A 
chief  cause  of  incompetency  and  poverty  often 
lies  in  the  fact   that   individuals   are   so  edu- 


38 


ADLER 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


cated  only  to  a  special  line  of  activity  which 
is  transformed  or  even  eliminated  by  social 
progress.  J.  D. 

ADLER,  GEORGE  J.  (1821-1868).— A  Ger- 
man-American linguist  and  lexicographer.  He 
was  born  in  Leipzig,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve 
came  to  New  York.  After  graduating  from 
New  York  University  in  1844,  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  German  in  that  institution  (1846- 
1854).  For  the  last  eight  years  of  his  life 
he  was  insane.  His  German-English  Dic- 
tionary, the  first  edition  of  which  appeared  in 
1848,  is  still  used.  He  also  published  a 
German  Grammar  (New  York,  1868),  and  other 
te.xtbooks,  a  lecture  on  the  Poetry  of  the  Arabs 
in  Spain  (New  York,  1868),  an  essay  entitled 
Wilhelm  von  Humboldt's  Linguistic  Studies 
(New  York,  1868),  and  a  translation  of  Fauriel's 
History  of  Provencal  Poetry. 

ADMINISTRATION,  SCHOOL.  —  This 
topic  covers  the  work  of  so  many  different 
officers  and  so  many  different  types  of  schools 
that  the  subject  has  been  treated  under  a 
number  of  heads.  For  the  state  aspect  of  the 
work  see  St.\te  School  Administr.a.tion', 
and  State  Bc^rds  of  Education.  For  the 
county  aspect  of  the  work  see  County  Syste.m 
OF  School  Administration,  County  Boards 
OF  Educatio.v,  and  Rural  Supervision. 
For  the  city  aspect  of  the  work  see  City 
School  Organization,  City  School  Systems, 
Business  Manager,  City  Boards  of  Edu- 
cation, and  the  articles  on  the  various  city 
school  sy.stems,  to  be  found  under  the  cities, 
as  Albany,  Buffalo,  etc.  Other  articles 
relating  to  all  phases  of  school  administra- 
tion, state,  county,  city,  and  district,  are 
Boards  of  Education,  Superintendent  of 
Schools,  Supervisors  and  Inspectors,  Ex- 
a.mi.nation  Boards,  Apportionment  of  School 
Funds,  and  Certification  of  Teachers. 
Rural  Supervision  deals  with  the  work  of 
county  and  district  authorities.  School 
Funds,  and  Taxation  for  Educ^-Tion,  deal 
with  the  financial  aspect  of  administrative 
work.  For  administration  in  Europe  see 
under  the  various  national  systems.    E.  P.  C. 

ADMISSION,  EXAMINATION  FOR.— See 

College  Entrance  E.xami.n.ations  and  Col- 
lege Entrance  Boards. 

ADMISSION  OF  PUPILS,  AND  THEIR 
DEPARTURE  FROM  THE  SCHOOL.  — See 

School  Census;  Compulsory  Attendance; 
Elimination  of  Pupils;  Retard.^tion  of 
Pupils. 

ADOLESCENCE    AND     YOUTH.  —  The 

period  of  life  included  within  these  terms  ex- 
tends from  pubescence  to  the  attainment  of 
relatively  complete  maturity.  The  age  varies, 
being  earlier  in  hot  climates  than  in  cold.     In 


temperate  zones,  and  especially  in  America,  it 
usually  extends  from  the  fourteenth  to  the 
twenty-fifth  years  for  boys  and  one  or  two 
years  earlier  for  girls,  but  Crampton  found  a 
range  of  four  years  in  the  attainment  of 
pubescence. 

Physiologically  the  general  characteristic  of 
adolescence  is  more  rapid  growth  of  all  parts 
of  the  body  than  at  any  time  since  the  first 
year  of  life,  most  rapid  in  the  earlier  stage  and 
lessening  toward  the  end.  This  usually 
begins  at  11  or  12  in  girls  and  about  two  years 
later  in  boys,  and  its  culmination  is  passed  by 
17  or  18  years.  Except  from  11  or  12  to  14 
or  15  years,  boys  excel  girls  slightly.  Growth 
in  height  precedes  growth  in  weight,  and 
is  usually  complete  by  18,  while  growth  in 
weight  may  continue  to  the  fiftieth  year  or 
later.  Not  all  parts  of  the  body  grow  with 
equal  rapidity  or  proportions,  but  as  yet 
statements  as  to  details  must  be  especially 
tentative.  The  bones  begin  to  grow  rapidly 
just  at  puberty,  and  after  the  twelfth  year  in 
girls  and  fifteenth  in  boys  the  trunk  skeleton 
increases  more  than  the  legs,  so  that  sitting 
height  becomes  greater  relative  to  total  height. 
Between  the  twelfth  and  nineteenth  years  the 
thorax  increases  from  .62  to  .76  meter,  and  the 
skeleton  is  completed  in  many  minor  details. 
In  girls  especially  the  pelvic  region  is  modified, 
the  iliac  arches  broaden,  and  various  bones 
unite,  to  give  better  support  and  balance. 
This'growth  is  probably  not  complete  before  the 
twenty-fifth  year.  Coincident  with  this  ttie 
hip  measure  increases  relatively  more  for  girls 
than  for  boys.  The  length  and  width  of  the  face 
increase  especiaDy  between  the  twelfth  and 
sixteenth  years,  but  the  skuU  changes  little, 
though  there  is  a  very  slow  increase  both  in 
length  and  breadth,  as  well  as  a  clo.sing  of  the 
sutures.  The  muscles  probably  grow  more 
rapidly  at  this  time  than  do  any  other  tissues, 
but  we  know  little  of  the  details.  The  main 
growth  in  bulk  is  completed  bj'  the  nineteenth 
year,  but  for  some  time  afterwards  the  working 
power  increases.  They  constitute  by  weight 
43  per  cent  of  the  body  and  are  estimated  to 
expend  about  one  fifth  of  its  total  energy.  The 
cortical  centers  for  the  voluntary  muscles  cover 
most  of  the  lateral  brain  zones,  so  that  training  of 
the  voluntary  muscles  is  brain-building.  Involun- 
tary muscles  form  the  heart  and  digestive  tract. 
Muscles  thus  are  a  higlily  significant  factor  in  de- 
termining both  physical  and  psychical  efficiency, 
and  their  proper  development  at  the  ])eriod  of 
most  ra]5id  growth  is  one  of  the  most  important 
tasks.  In  general,  motor  development  seems 
to  proceed  from  fundamental  to  accessory,  the 
finer  accessory  movements  and  control  being 
pretty  well  developed  by  the  eleventh  year. 
But  with  puberty  there  comes  a  period  of  les- 
sened motor  control,  —  usually  placed  during 
the  twelfth  year  for  girls  and  thirteenth  for 
boys,  —  in  which  the  adolescent  should  not  be 
expected  to  do  as  fine  work  as  before,  and  liim- 


39 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


self  has  the  inclination  to  activities  demanding 
strength  rather  than  delicacy.  The  demands 
frequently  made  at  this  time  upon  boys,  and 
still  more  upon  girls,  probably  lay  the  basis  for 
various  forms  of  nervousness,  automatisms, 
and  ties.  Hall  believes  that  at  this  time  the 
basal  muscles  of  legs,  .back,  shoulders,  heart, 
lungs,  and  chest  should  be  developed,  and  the 
finer  ones  involved  in  reading,  writing,  and 
school  work  generally,  should  be  somewhat  re- 
lieved, at  least  to  this  extent,  that  the  adolescent 
should  not  be  expected  to  improve  in  any  of  the 
manual  aspects  of  his  work,  nor  blamed  if  he 
retrogrades,  but  should  be  given  just  enough 
practice  so  that  in  the  development  of  accessory 
muscles,  which  comes  a  year  or  two  later,  he 
will  not  have  to  form  new  habits  again.  The 
chief  desideratum  here  is  not  to  acquire  bad 
habits  by  over-forcing  and  not  to  lose  through 
disuse  the  good  habits  already  formed.  But 
in  the  last  half  of  the  teens,  and  still  more  in 
the  early  twenties,  the  love  of  skill  develops, 
the  accessory  muscles  should  be  trained  to  the 
highest  degree,  and  the  youth  raised  from  the 
blundering  apprentice  to  the  master  workman. 

The  heart  in  its  growth  keeps  a  constant  pro- 
portion to  the  total  bodily  weight,  remaining 
about  .48  per  cent  of  it,  but  at  adolescence  the 
frequency  of  its  beats  seems  to  lessen,  while  their 
strength  is  greater.  The  arteries  grow  less 
relatively  than  the  heart,  so  that  at  adolescence 
the  blood  pressure  is  greatly  increased.  The 
ratio,  as  given  by  Truslow,  of  the  volume  of  the 
heart  to  the  width  of  the  ascending  aorta  is  56 
to  20  before  puberty  and  97  to  20  after.  With 
this  alteration  goes  a  slight  increase  in  tempera- 
ture of  the  bod5%  of  about  one  half  degree  F. 
The  number  of  red  corpuscles  reaches  its  maxi- 
mum in  the  later  teens,  and  specific  gravity  at 
about  14  for  girls  and  17  for  boys.  The  lungs 
grow  most  rapidly  in  girls  between  the  twelfth 
and  fourteenth  years,  and  in  boys  about  two 
years  later.  By  the  fifteenth  year  the  number 
of  respirations  is  approximately  that  of  the 
adult.  While  the  brain  is  increasing  slightly 
in  weight  at  this  time,  its  weight  relative  to  that 
of  the  entire  body  is  diminishing,  that  is,  it  does 
not  form  so  large  a  percentage  of  the  total 
weight  as  before.  Kaes,  with  others,  however, 
believes  that  after  the  seventeenth  year  the  brain 
is  increasing  greatly  in  complexity,  and  with 
Vulpius  he  places  the  development  of  the  middle 
layer  of  the  cortex  in  the  later  teens,  the  parietal 
and  central  regions  developing  first,  then  the 
temporal,  and  lastly  the  frontal.  This  growth 
probably  lasts  at  least  until  the  fortieth  year. 
It  may  also  be  that  the  two  thirds  of  the  brain 
which  Flechsig  believes  to  be  in  general  uncon- 
nected with  sensory  and  motor  centers,  as  well 
as  the  highest  level  described  by  Hughlings 
Jackson,  develop  at  adolescence,  though  this  is 
only  theoretical.  As  yet  very  little  is  known 
about  the  development  of  the  digestive  tract, 
glands,  and  kidneys,  though  the  composition  of 
the  urine  is  greatly  modified   at  adolescence. 


Liver  growth  is  probably  relatively  complete 
at  1.5,  but  the  pancreas  and  spleen  seem  to 
continue  to  grow  until  the  fiftieth  year  or  later. 
The  salivary,  sebaceous,  and  sweat  glands  in- 
crease in  activity,  while  the  thymus  atrophies. 
Fatty  tissue  diminishes  in  boys  and  increases  in 
girls. 

The  sense  organs  also  undergo  characteristic 
alterations.  Carman  and  Gilbert  believe  that 
the  pain-pressure  sensibility  lessens  at  adoles- 
cence, but  their  experiments  do  not  seem  to 
eliminate  the  factor  of  greater  endurance  of 
pain  by  the  adolescent.  Their  conclusions  as 
to  pain-pressure,  however,  are  indirectly  sup- 
ported by  the  fact  that  touch-discrimination 
lessens,  because  the  dermal  surface  is  constantly 
increasing  while  the  number  of  tactile  end 
organs  remains  constant.  Hall  notes  in  connec- 
tion with  this  a  touch  hunger  at  adolescence, 
manifesting  itself  in  the  desire  to  scratch,  rub, 
pinch,  or  even  abrade  the  skin.  The  heightened 
activity  of  the  sebaceous  and  sweat  glands  and 
the  more  rapid  growth  of  hair,  doubtless  make 
the  skin  more  the  focus  of  sensations  than 
before,  and  so  lead  to  this  increased  attention  to 
it.  The  tendency  to  skin  eruptions  at  this  time 
would  have  the  same  effect.  There  is  also 
increased  sensitiveness  to  temperature  in  the 
later  teens.  The  adolescent's  taste  alters.  The 
appetite  is  capricious,  new  likes  and  dislikes  to 
food  appear,  but  soon  change.  Animal  food 
and  decided  sweets  and  sours  are  more  desired. 
A  craving  for  stimulants  may  appear.  Fashion 
becomes  a  strong  motive  in  regulating  what  is 
eaten,  the  adolescent  often  forcing  himself 
to  eat  food  highlj'  disagreeable,  if  he  believes 
that  it  is  the  correct  thing.  Smell  also  becomes 
more  acute  at  puberty,  and  seems  to  be  closely 
connected  with  the  development  of  the  sexual 
instinct,  but  sufficient  returns  on  this  point  are 
lacking.  The  love  of  perfumes,  especially  rather 
strong  ones,  is  characteristic  of  adolescence. 
Sight  and  hearing  will  be  discussed  later,  since 
they  are  closely  bound  up  with  the  intellectual 
characteristics  of  adolescents. 

These  investigations  are  few  and  unsatisfac- 
tory, and  it  is  even  impossible  to  say  at  present 
how  far  the  greatly  heightened  sensitiveness  to 
all  sorts  of  stimuli  is  due  to  the  further  develop- 
ment of  the  sense  organ  and  how  far  to  the 
growth  of  brain  centers.  Further  studies  are 
greatly  needed  here.  Whichever  it  may  be,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  adolescent  now  as  never 
before  is  open  to  the  broadening  influences 
of  new  stimuli,  from  the  grossest  to  the  most 
refined.  This  is  the  decisive  age  for  fixing  taste 
in  both  its  literal  and  figurative  senses.  Food, 
skin,  and  temperature  habits,  to  say  nothing  of 
interests  in  sounds,  colors,  and  forms,  receive 
now  their  life  trend.  Even  if  the  early  environ- 
ment of  the  child  has  been  unfavorable,  it  can 
be  largely  counteracted,  if  now  the  adolescent  is 
surrounded  by  and  chooses  for  himself  the 
true,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good,  because  his 
brain  is  still  plastic  enough  to  admit   much 


40 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


modification.  Hence  we  so  often  see  in  liigh 
schools  transformations  of  children  from  poor 
homes  who  have  come  under  the  influence  of  some 
teacher  or  comrade  with  better  esthetic  or 
hygienic  standards.  Equally  we  often  see  a 
perverted  taste  spread  through  a  school,  for 
adolescence  is  preeminently  the  time  of  fads,  of 
purely  artificial  social  judgments  on  everything 
in  life,  from  cooking  a  beefsteak  or  wearing  a  tie 
to  reading  and  pictures. 

Psychological  and  Sociological.  —  The  rapid 
growth  of  the  body  already  roughly  indicated 
is  paralleled  by  a  similarly  rapid  psychic 
growth,  which  perhaps  manifests  itself  most 
characteristically  in  alterations  of  moods,  and 
especially  in  a  heightened  sense  of  self.  The 
adolescent  longs  for  excitement,  contrast,  move- 
ment, psychically,  just  as  his  body  longs  for 
exercise  and  tensions.  So,  instead  of  a  steady 
effort,  he  tends  to  spurt,  periods  of  intense 
work  being  followed  by  complete  idleness,  with 
long  hours  of  sleep.  Moods  rule  the  youth, 
dejection  so  deep  as  to  suggest  genuine  melan- 
cholia being  followed  by  equally  great  elation. 
Thoughts  of  suicide  are  common,  but  alternate 
with  dreams  of  greatness.  Both  these  are 
undoubtedly  motivated  by  the  highly  increased 
sense  of  self,  which  is  itself  pushed  into  the 
foreground  by  the  many  sensations  accompany- 
ing the  bodily  growth.  So  conceit  and  humility 
in  their  most  exaggerated  forms  may  be  seen  in 
adolescence,  as  well  as  an  amour  propre  which 
shows  itself  in  great  sensitiveness  to  insults. 
All  the  social  instincts  come  to  the  fore,  and  the 
youth  alternates  from  extreme  individuation  to 
mere  slavishness  in  following  his  mates;  from 
quixotic  generosity  to  selfishness;  from  the 
highest  ideals  of  social  self-sacrifice  to  absurd 
notions  of  his  rights.  The  deepest  and  most  far- 
reaching  alteration  is  naturally  in  the  feelings 
toward  the  opposite  sex,  which  probably  is 
responsible  for  many  of  the  other  alterations  of 
both  feeling  and  thought,  not  ordinarily  recog- 
nized as  sexual.  In  the  early  teens  many 
students  believe  that  there  is  first  a  tendency 
between  the  sexes  to  withdraw  from  each  other's 
company,  though  this  theory  still  lacks  any  ade- 
quate confirmation.  There  does,  however,  seem 
to  be  at  least  a  period  when  both  boys  and  girls 
complain  of  the  other  sex,  the  girls  of  the 
masculine  coarseness  and  roughness,  the  boys 
of  the  feminine  softness  and  foolishness.  Fol- 
lowing this,  at  about  15  years,  the  opposite 
sex  becomes  excessively  attractive,  so  that  it  is 
highly  probable  that  at  this  period  the  desire  to 
appear  attractive  to  the  opposite  sex  is  an  im- 
portant motivating  influence  in  the  adolescent. 
This  is  of  course  much  covered  to  the  youth's 
own  consciousness,  and  is  often  the  last  thing 
he  would  willingly  admit.  In  boys  it  manifests 
itself  especially  in  the  showing-off  instinct,  which 
seems  especially  stimulated  by  the  presence  of 
girls.  Both  girls  and  boys  develop  pronounced 
tastes  with  regard  to  eyes,  hair,  voice,  teeth, 
etc.      Girls,  though   they   do   show   off,   tend 


more  to  the  development  of  reserves,  taking  the 
role  of  judges  or  choosers  of  those  who  please 
them,  thus  favoring  the  selection  of  some  manly 
characteristics  and  the  atrophy  of  others,  and 
so  finally  shaping  the  youth  to  their  desires. 
The  whole  process  of  selection  and  mating 
normally  reaches  a  climax  between  20  and  25 
for  women  and  perhaps  five  years  later  for  men, 
when  what  Hall  calls  nubility  or  the  marriage- 
able age  is  attained. 

But  at  the  same  time  that  the  opposite  sex 
becomes  so  attractive,  friendship  and  hero  wor- 
ship also  deepen,  and  the  social  instinct  is 
enlarged  in  all  directions.  Before  pubescence 
games  and  plays  are  largely  competitive;  after 
it  team  work  is  the  most  marked  characteristic, 
and  with  it,  the  gang  and  the  club  appear. 
While  the  youth  is  even  more  egoistic  than 
before,  while  he  is  excessively  self-conscious  and 
perhaps  aggressive  toward  the  opposite  sex,  he 
also  lays  aside  his  personal  likes  and  dislikes 
to  work  with  his  team  and  his  school,  and  adopts 
almost  slavishly  the  fads  and  frills  dictated  by 
those  whom  he  elects  as  his  socii.  He  now 
develops  pride  in  his  family,  class,  city,  and 
nation,  and  not  only  civic  and  national  patriot- 
ism can  be  most  effectively  taught,  but  also 
love  for  humanity. 

Closely  connected  with  the  social  instinct  is 
the  religious  instinct.  From  the  earliest  times 
the  entrance  to  adult  life  has  been  marked  by 
rites  and  ceremonies  designed  to  test  the  mettle 
of  the  adolescent  and  to  prepare  him  for  the 
duties  of  life.  Among  savage  peoples  these  are 
usually  severe  tests  of  the  power  to  endure  pain 
and  overcome  fear.  In  Greece  the  boy  was 
put  through  a  training  of  years  in  serving  the 
state,  and  in  Rome  the  same  was  true.  The 
medieval  youth  of  noble  descent  from  14  to  21 
served  as  squire,  and  at  21  was  knighted 
at  the  end  of  long  ceremonies  of  fasting 
and  watching.  The  Jews  also  had  and  have 
a  careful  training  for  adolescents  and  a  ritual 
used  when  the  boy  assumes  responsibility  for 
his  own  acts.  Among  modern  Christian  nations 
these  rites  are  perpetuated  only  in  confirmation, 
which  usually  occurs  at  between  12  and  15  years, 
and  has  assumed  a  wholly  religious  character. 
The  enlargement  of  the  social  sense  occurring 
at  adolescence  is  inevitably  accompanied  by  a 
deepening  of  the  moral  and  religious  natures,  a 
questioning  of  one's  relations  not  only  to  society, 
but  to  the  universe  itself  and  its  Final  Cause. 
The  irreligious  adolescent  is  abnormal.  The 
particular  form  which  his  newly  awakened 
instinct  will  take  will  largely  depend  upon  his 
milieu,  and  the  age  of  culmination  also  varies 
considerably.  Most  authorities  agree,  how- 
ever, that  between  16  and  17  the  largest 
number  of  conversions  is  recorded  for  boys, 
and  a  year  or  two  younger  for  girls.  There 
is  still  some  uncertainty  in  the  curves,  but  it 
seems  probable  that  this  period  is  followed 
by  one  of  backsliding,  and  that  at  20  interest 
in   religion  again  culminates,    this  time  on  a 


41 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


more  reasonable  and  less  purely  emotional  basis 
than  at  first.  The  normal  development  of 
this  instinct  is  obscured  by  the  artificial  forcing 
of  the  religious  sense  and  of  conversion  still  too 
prevalent,  which  is  likely  to  cause  the  later  back- 
sliding. V\'e  can  hardly  sujipose  that,  if  the 
original  conversion  were  a  normal,  natural  one, 
the  painful  reconstruction  later  would  be  neces- 
sary in  so  many  cases. 

Intellectual.  —  The  intellectual  character- 
istics of  adolescence  are  ecjually  marked, 
and  are  motivated  by  the  underlying  feelings 
and  the  rapid  growth.  Let  us  first  consider 
those  most  closely  connected  with  the  height- 
ened sensory  and  motor  development.  In 
the  early  teens  probably  hearing  is  over-acute 
for  a  time,  making  the  adolescent  keenly 
sensitive  to  voices,  inflections,  etc.  At  the 
same  time  the  temporary  loss  of  control  accom- 
panying the  change  in  voice  makes  girls  and 
especially  boys  disinclined  to  sing  as  nmch  as 
before.  Not  infrequently  the  general  awkward- 
ness of  this  age  leads  to  disliking  instrumental 
practice,  the  boys  and  gii'ls  feeling  their  lack 
of  control  and  their  inability  to  express  what 
perhaps  they  appreciate  deeply.  At  present 
studies  are  entirely  lacking  to  show  what  sorts 
of  music  most  appeal  to  adolescents.  We  can 
only  say  in  a  general  way  that  rhythm  is  loved, 
and  that  the  passion  for  music  seems  to  decline 
somewhat  after  the  sixteenth  year.  We  may 
also  add  that,  as  with  other  forms  of  art.  appre- 
ciation is  farther  beyond  expression  now  than 
at  any  other  time,  and  that  to  demand  too  much 
expression  now  may  affect  the  love  of  the  art 
disastrously. 

This  has  been  better  worked  out  in  drawing. 
Studies  of  children's  drawings,  especially  those 
of  Barnes,  show  that  from  12  on,  tlrawing  be- 
comes distasteful,  largely  because  children 
become  conscious  of  their  defects,  i.e.  can 
appreciate  better  real  art.  At  14  or  15,  with 
some  children,  the  love  of  drawing  maj'  again 
increase,  and  with  a  few  it  may  rise  steadily, 
ending  in  artistic  creation.  Gilbert  found  that 
the  interest  in  and  accuracy  of  form  perceptions 
begins  a  new  increase  between  15  and  16  years, 
and  that  the  maximum  number  of  letters 
grasped  at  one  glance  continues  to  increase 
through  high  school  and  college.  These  facts 
also  would  indicate  that  between  12  and 
15  years,  appreciation  should  probably  be  em- 
phasized rather  than  expression,  expression 
having  its  turn  when  motor  control  is  better. 
The  color  sense  seems  to  be  fairly  developed 
in  girls  by  the  eleventh  year,  but  in  boys  not 
until  the  seventeenth.  At  adolescence  both 
sexes  crave  strong  color  stimuli  and  have 
decided  likes  and  dislikes. 

Manual  and  industrial  training  problems 
should  be  solved  by  a  knowledge  of  normal 
growth,  but  as  yet  we  know  too  little  of  the 
details  of  adolescent  muscular  growth.  Boys 
and  girls  nearly  double  their  dynamometer 
right-hand    grip    between    11    and    16    years; 


finger  and  wrist  control,  as  indicated  by  tap- 
ping, is  on  the  rapid  increase  at  16  in  boys, 
while  it  declines  from  12  to  13  for  boys  and 
from  12  to  14  for  girls.  Judging  of  lifted 
weights  decreases  in  accuracy  at  between 
15  and  10  for  both  boys  and  girls,  but  then 
begins  to  increase  again.  Power  to  endure 
muscular  fatigue  increases  greatly  from  12  to 
18,  with  maximal  increase  from  14  to  17  for 
boys  and  from  12  to  14  for  girls.  From  12 
to  14  both  boys  and  girls  improve  little  in  reac- 
tion times;  from  14  to  16  they  improve  steadily, 
and  then  gain  little  the  next  year.  Obviously, 
such  scattered  experiments,  which  also  show 
deviations  in  the  results  obtained  by  different 
observers,  are  a  totally  insufficient  basis  for  any 
scheme  of  motor  education.  At  best,  if  taken 
in  connection  with  the  other  facts  of  general 
growth,  they  seem  to  indicate  certain  danger 
points  or  tendencies  in  present  methods.  The 
youth  tends  to  exercise  of  the  larger  muscles, 
but  much  of  our  industrial  education  necessi- 
tates the  use  of  the  finer  muscles  in  handling 
tools,  and  perhai)s  bad  attitudes  and  the  steady 
use  of  some  sets  of  muscles  while  others  are 
neglected.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  manual 
training,  which  neglects  the  trunk  and  leg 
muscles  as  a  rule,  while  it  may  develop  the 
hand  more  than  shoulil  l)e  done  at  this  age. 
Sloyd  aims  at  a  more  all-round  development, 
but  it  too  trains  only  the  hand,  and  neglects 
much  material  even  for  that.  The  best  all- 
round  development  is  obtainable  from  the 
varied  and  outdoor  occupations  of  a  farm, 
and  next  to  that.  Hall  declares  that  we  can  find 
it  in  some  of  our  institutions  for  negroes, 
Indians,  and  juvenile  delinciuents. 

Gymnastic  training  has  great  opportunities 
at  this  time,  not  only  in  counteracting  any  bad 
effects  from  industrial  training,  but  in  rousing 
youth  to  a  tremendous  enthusiasm  for  perfect 
bodies.  The  love  of  exercise,  so  strong  at  this 
age,  may  be  made  the  impetus  for  the  best 
possible  regimen  —  cold  baths,  swimming,  walk- 
ing, temperance  in  eating,  etc.  Not  only  this, 
but  the  increased  body  consciousness  of  adoles- 
cence leads  naturally  to  a  strong  interest  in  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  bodil.v  organs, 
so  that  physiology  and  hygiene  —  in  which  sex 
hygiene  should  not  be  neglected  —  can,  if 
properly  presented,  be  one  of  the  most  fasci- 
nating subjects. 

The  love  of  exercise  and  of  manipulation, 
together  with  the  heightened  sensory  activities, 
give  the  basis  for  new  interests  in  nature.  The 
rapidly  increasing  brain  connections  make 
possible  many  new  associations  with  their  effects 
upon  imagination  and  reason,  so  that  for  the 
first  time  there  is  now  a  possibility  of  the  youth 
seeing  tlie  universe  as  a  universe,  and  feeling  it 
as  divine.  In  the  later  teens  most  youths  and 
maidens  love  to  think  of  infinity  both  in  space 
and  time.  They  try  to  picture  it,  and  become 
filled  with  the  sense  of  their  own  littleness  and 
the  vastness  of  the  universe.     Most  often  these 


42 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


reflections  attach  themselves  to  the  heavenly 
bodies  and  the  sky,  toward  all  of  which  the 
feelings  are  greatly  deepened  at  adolescence. 
Now  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  become  foci  for  all 
sorts  of  symbolism  and  fancies,  sometimes  senti- 
mental and  sometimes  mythological  and  reli- 
gious. Clouds  also  become,  in  Ruskin's  opinion, 
one  of  the  greatest  stimulants  to  imagination,  as 
well  as  the  most  beautiful  in  their  color  and 
form  and  variations.  The  wind  now  echoes  the 
restlessness  of  the  youth,  and  the  sea  attracts 
him  with  its  suggestions  of  eternity.  If  it 
really  is  true  that  nature  appeals  to  the  youth 
primarily  in  this  poetical  way,  then  it  is  little 
wonder  that  he  has  no  love  for  high  school  and 
college  science.  To  turn  from  the  lovers'  moon 
to  the  burned-out,  cold,  dead  moon  of  science; 
from  Shelley's  cloud  to  a  mass  of  cold  aqueous 
vapor  with  a  long  Latin  name;  from  a  glowing 
opal  symbolic  of  faith  and  hope  to  a  dry  record 
of  geologic  ages;  from  a  heaven  full  of  heroes, 
hunters,  and  maidens  to  estimates  of  the  lengths 
of  time  necessary  for  a  ray  to  reach  us  from  one 
of  them,  all  this  must  kill  the  spontaneous 
interest  in  nature  and  at  the  very  best  sub- 
stitute for  it  utilitarian  motives.  Similarly 
with  animate  nature.  The  love  of  flowers 
increases  markedly  at  adolescence,  and  through 
the  care  of  them  and  study  of  their  life 
histories  the  fundamental  facts  of  reproduc- 
tion could  be  naturally  learned.  Interest  in 
animals  also  has  another  increase  at  about  14, 
but  an  interest  in  them  in  the  concrete. 

That  is,  high  school  youth  are  not  developed 
enough  to  understand  or  to  assimilate  scientific 
exactness  and  details.  They  tend  both  to 
poetical  views  and  to  applied  science,  and  so, 
e.g.  physics  at  this  time  should  be  closely  con- 
nected with  making  toys  and  machines  to 
illustrate  its  laws;  botany  to  gardening  and 
forestry;  astronomy,  etc.,  to  weather  on  one 
side  and  to  poetry  and  mythology  on  the  other. 
Hall  gives  four  stages  in  the  normal  adolescent 
development  toward  nature:  (1)  the  sentimen- 
tal, with  a  love  of  myth,  poetry,  and  religions 
of  nature;  (2)  love  of  popular  science  and  the 
lives  of  inventors;  (3)  interest  in  industrial  pro- 
cesses on  a  larger  scale;  (4)  pure  science,  a  stage 
seldom  reached  before  the  end  of  the  college 
course. 

Adolescent  interests  in  literature  and  lan- 
guage are  closely  akin  to  those  in  art.  Most 
youths  seem  to  pass  through  a  period  of  inability 
to  express  themselves  in  words,  like  that  in 
drawing.  This  does  not  indicate  lack  of  in- 
terest in  words,  but  rather  a  sense  of  their  own 
shortcomings.  So  Williams,  Conradi,  Bullock, 
Henderson,  and  Kirkpatrick  all  find  a  great 
increase  in  the  reading  curve  at  adolescence, 
culminating  at  14  or  15,  between  the  sixth  and 
eighth  grades,  and  then  steadily  falling.  With 
boys  stories  of  adventure,  travel,  and  biography 
culminate  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades,  and 
fiction  at  11  for  both  sexes,  but  there  is 
much   variation   both   in   the   sort   of   reading 


preferred  and  the  age  when  any  one  sort  is  most 
enjoyed.  Judging  from  lists  of  preferred  books, 
classic  writers  are  not  the  favorites,  but  this 
maj'  be  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  inaccessible 
to  .youth. 

How  far  the  study  of  literature  should  deal 
with  details  of  style,  grammar,  and  the  formal 
aspects  of  the  subject  we  cannot  say  at  present. 
It  is  suggestive,  however,  that  the  few  studies 
made  indicate  that  the  love  both  of  slang  and  of 
precision  in  the  use  of  words  culminates  at  about 
the  same  age  as  the  reading  passion.  Studies 
of  reading  also  indicate  that  a  considerable 
percentage  of  youth  at  this  time  spontaneously 
set  about  enlarging  their  vocabulary  —  indeed, 
the  use  of  slang  seems  to  be  a  crude  attempt  in 
this  direction  —  and  study  the  dictionary  for 
new  words.  Sentences  also  become  more 
complicated  at  this  time.  All  this  may  indicate 
that  a  study  of  rhetoric  is  now  in  place,  though 
probably  not  of  grammar.  Rhetoric  also,  in 
dealing  with  figures  of  speech,  may  set  free  the 
riches  of  imagination  hidden  in  much  of  our  daily 
speech  and  too  often  never  seen  by  those  who 
use  it.  An  attentive  consideration  of  the  literal 
meanings  of  such  words  as  "  spirit,"  "  animate," 
"  lady,"  not  only  aids  expression,  but  greatly 
quickens  imagination,  thought,  and  feeling. 
Again,  the  study  of  foreign  languages  may  and 
should  aid  in  all  these  ways,  but  it  can  do  so  only 
if  the  root  meanings  of  words  and  the  elements 
common  to  various  tongues  are  emphasized  and 
the  grammatical  aspects  somewhat  left  in  the 
background.  There  is  a  keen  delight  in  dis- 
covering a  word  common  to  four  or  five  lan- 
guages, with  the  variations  of  meaning  which  it 
has  attained  in  each  that  has  nothing  in  common 
with  its  parsing  and  declination. 

The  expressive  side  of  language,  i.e.  composi- 
tion and  theme  work,  is  again  a  much  mooted 
one,  and  we  lack  returns  upon  which  to  base 
authoritative  recommendations.  This  much, 
however,  seems  probable:  Before  adolescence 
far  more  oral  expression  should  be  cultivated 
than  is  now  the  case,  and  during  the  time  w'hen 
the  reading  craze  culminates,  expression  should 
be  encouraged,  but  not  forced,  nor  too  severely 
criticised  for  its  crudities.  Young  people  not 
infrecjuently  try  to  write  stories,  novels,  and 
poetry,  but  they  abhor  the  usual  theme  sub- 
jects, and  are  too  dependent  upon  their  moods 
for  inspiration  to  submit  well  to  set  times  for 
composition. 

Of  historical  interests  we  can  say  still  less, 
and  of  mathematical  practically  nothing. 
Mrs.  Barnes'  studies  seem  to  indicate  that  even 
at  15  interest  in  the  truth  of  any  narrative 
is  very  slight,  while  interest  in  name  and  place 
is  strong  throughout.  Miss  Patterson  con- 
cluded that  the  historical  sense,  as  shown  by 
understanding  what  a  date  means,  is  slight  up 
to  the  age  of  12,  and  that  before  that  age  his- 
tory should  be  biography  and  story,  while  after 
that  concrete  antl  rather  complete  pictures  of 
any  given  time  should  be  presented. 


43 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


Hancock's  returns  indicate  that  aliility  to 
reason  in  arithmetic  increases  greatly  between 
13  and  1.5,  while  Lindley  found  the  interest 
in  arithmetical  puzzles  culminating  somewhat 
after  this  age.  But  we  have  nothing  at  all  as 
yet  to  indicate  the  growth  of  interests  in  geom- 
etry and  algebra,  and  so  can  only  note  our 
ignorance.  Indeed,  the  insufficiency  of  our 
knowledge  of  all  the  intellectual  characteristics 
of  adolescence  should  be  very  evident  from  the 
above  account.  Until  much  more  detailed  and 
exact  material  is  at  hand  it  is  both  illogical  and 
wasteful  to  make  over  our  high  schools.  That 
they  need  to  be  reformed  every  one  will  admit, 
but  until  the  adolescent  mind  has  been  much 
more  closely  studied,  any  reform  is  likely  to  be 
a  makeshift  as  unsuited  to  the  real  needs  of 
vouth  as  the  present  system. 

A.  E.  T.  AND  G.  S.  H. 

Hygiene  of  Adolescence.  —  The  hygiene  of 
adolescence  differs  little  from  the  pedagogy 
of  adolescence.  One  must  regard  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  school  hygiene,  and 
adapt  education  to  this  stage  of  develop- 
ment. It  is  not  always  easy,  however,  to 
determine  an  individual's  stage  of  develop- 
ment. The  adaptation  of  education  must  be 
to  physiological  age  rather  than  to  chrono- 
logical age.  Dr.  Crampton  and  others  have 
shown  such  great  individual  variations  in 
growth  and  development  that  there  appears 
to  be  no  direct  correlation  between  phj-sio- 
logical  age  and  age  in  years. 

The  characteristics  of  the  period  of  adoles- 
cence have  been  described  above.  It  is  the 
period  of  rapid  physical  change  and  rapid 
mental  development.  It  is  a  time  of  nervous 
and  emotional  instability;  and  modification  of 
function  and  habit  is  now  easy.  It  may  be 
specially  characterized  as  a  time  of  functional 
development  and  readjustment,  as  shown  ob- 
viously in  such  changes  as  these  occurring  at 
the  advent  of  puberty,  for  example,  the  change 
of  voice,  and  especially  the  physical  characteris- 
tics of  sex.  On  the  mental  side  it  is  a  time  of 
many  potential  and  actual  interests,  and  the 
youth  often  exhibits  peculiarities  of  behavior 
and  may  hold  bizarre  and  erratic  opinions. 
In  a  word,  the  advent  of  puberty  is  a  period 
of  increased  rate  of  physical  growth  and  of  in- 
creased vitality,  as  shown  apparently  by  Key's 
investigation,  w-hich  indicated  that  correlated 
with  the  increased  rate  of  growth  was  a  de- 
creased percentage  of  chronic  disease,  and  by 
Dr.  HartweU's  study  of  the  death  rates  of 
Boston  children,  which  indicated  that  this 
period  of  increased  rate  of  growth  is  a  period 
of  decreased  mortality.  Further  the  studies 
of  Crampton  indicate  that  after  the  physio- 
logical changes  of  puberty  have  occurred  pupils 
are  better  fitted  to  do  school  work,  while 
those  who  have  not  reached  this  stage  of 
development  are  at  a  disadvantage,  although 
of  the  same  chronological  age.  Although  the 
later  period  of  adolescence  is  not  characterized 


by  such  marked  changes  as  the  early  period 
of  puberty,  it  is  throughout  a  period  of  rela- 
tive instability  and  of  rapid  change  and  develop- 
ment. 

As  might  naturally  be  supposed,  such  a 
period  of  instability  and  of  rapid  development 
is  not  only  the  opportunity  for  educational 
and  moral  development,  but  liable  in  certain 
respects  to  be  a  time  of  especial  danger  to 
health.  Certain  physical  diseases  and  certain 
psychoses  {q.v.)  often  occur  as  incidents  of  this 
development.  While  serious  symptoms  may 
appear,  the  prognosis  is  usually  favorable,  and 
there  is  good  hope  of  improvement  or  recovery 
if  a  thoroughly  hygienic  environment  can  be 
insured. 

To  take  a  concrete  illustration,  Dr.  Frances 
Berry  of  London  has  reported  on  some  15S0 
cases  of  girls  in  the  elementary  schools  of  Lon- 
don, of  ages  ranging  from  11  to  15.  The  ex- 
amination included  a  test  of  the  urine  with 
the  surprising  result  that  10  per  cent  of  the 
cases  showed  evidence  of  alljuminuria.  Ap- 
parently this  symptom  was  usually  an  incident 
of  development.  In  most  eases,  although 
albumen  was  more  or  less  permanent,  no  evi- 
dence was  found  of  anj'  detrimental  effect  on 
the  general  health,  and  only  a  small  percentage 
of  these  girls  appeared  to  be  in  delicate  health; 
and  after  16  or  17  years  of  age,  the  albumen 
tended  to  disappear  in  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  the  cases. 

Such  symptoms,  which  would  be  serious  in 
case  of  adults,  and  likewise  cardiac  disturb- 
ances and  sometimes  hysterical  neuroses,  are 
often  to  be  looked  upon  merely  as  incidents  of 
development;  and  it  is  the  gravest  mistake  to 
treat  such  cases  in  the  same  manner  that 
similar  symptoms  would  be  treated  in  the 
case  of  adults.  The  chief  dependence  should 
be  upon  furnishing  a  healthful  environment 
and  an  opportunity  for  the  individual  to  out- 
grow the  trouble. 

Especially  important  for  the  teacher  is  a 
word  of  warning  against  the  danger  of  mis- 
taking incidents  of  development  at  this  period 
for  signs  of  degeneration.  Just  as  there  are 
many  physical  disorders,  cardiac  disturbances, 
and  the  like,  incident  to  development  at  this 
period,  in  which  the  prognosis  is  favorable,  and 
such  neuroses  should  not  be  treated  as  the 
same  symptoms  are  in  the  case  of  adults,  so 
there  is  good  hope  of  recovery  from  all  sorts 
of  mental  and  moral  perversities  and  aberra- 
tions if  they  are  treated  as  incidents  of  develop- 
ment and  not  as  stigmata  of  degeneration. 
With  suitable  environment  and  education, 
sanity  and  morality  are  both  likely  to  develop, 
whereas  a  diagnosis  of  incipient  insanity,  or 
degeneration,  or  of  criminality,  followed  by 
drastic  punishment,  especially  arrest  and  im- 
prisonment, is  liable  to  develop  a  real  pervert  or 
criminal.  In  such  cases,  as  with  all  adolescents, 
what  is  usually  needed  is  the  example  and  com- 
panionship of  friends  of  normal  character  and 


44 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


ADOLESCENCE  AND  YOUTH 


an  environment  which  gives  the  largest  oppor- 
tunity for  vigorous  expenditure  of  energy,  for 
activity  in  many  lines,  and  the  development  of 
manifold  interests,  rather  than  instruction 
however  thorough  or  preacliing  however  elo- 
quent. 

Many  investigations  have  shown  that  the 
physical  changes  incident  to  puberty  come 
one  or  two  years  earlier  in  case  of  girls  than  in 
case  of  boys.  Thus  the  girl  of  13  or  14  is 
likely  to  be  taller  and  heavier  than  the  boy 
of  tiie  same  age,  and  in  general  to  be  both 
physically  and  mentally  more  mature.  Hence 
it  is  argued  by  some  that  in  coeducational 
institutions  hke  the  American  high  school, 
where  girls  and  boys  have  the  same  tasks  and 
are  intimately  associated,  although  later  there 
may  be  too  great  demands  on  the  girls,  there 
is  danger  at  this  period  of  overpressure  on  the 
boys  because  of  the  stimulus  coming  from  girls 
in  the  same  classes  who  are  more  mature; 
and  thus  an  unwholesome  precocious  develop- 
ment intellectually  and  morally  is  liable  to 
occur.  This  problem  should  be  further  inves- 
tigated, but  meanwhile  from  the  point  of 
view  of  hygiene  it  seems  desirable  that  whether 
coeducation  prevails  or  not  there  should  be  at 
this  period  a  differentiation  in  the  education 
of  the  two  sexes. 

Especially  important  for  hygiene  are  not 
only  the  physical  characteristics  of  this  period, 
but  also  the  development  of  the  emotional 
life,  the  awakening  of  manifold  interests  and 
tendencies,  the  nascency  of  the  altruistic  im- 
pulses, and  the  general  mental  awakening. 
This  period  presents  the  great  opportunity  for 
education,  but  with  this  opportunity  great 
clanger  is  connected,  and  great  care  is  required 
to  preserve  the  mental  as  well  as  the  physical 
health.  Mental  hygiene  is  of  vital  importance. 
Among  the  habits  of  health  that  should  be 
developed  at  this  time  are  three  great  groups, 
as  follows:  1st,  normal  reactions  to  feeling; 
2d,  normal  relations  to  society;  3d,  proper 
mental  balance. 

Especially  emphasized  by  hygiene  is  the 
need  of  developing  at  this  period  normal  habits 
of  reaction  to  feeling  and  emotion.  The  most 
important  contribution  to  hygiene  here  i.s  that 
made  by  psychiatry.  Anything  which  inter- 
feres with  the  normal  reaction  to  feeling, 
whether  individual  habit  or  social  convention, 
is  dangerous  to  the  mental  health.  But  on 
the  other  hand  self-control  is  necessary  in 
the  interests  of  health  as  well  as  of  morality. 
Psychology  shows  the  kind  of  self-control  that 
is  "normal.  Self-control  by  repression  seems 
always  liable  to  be  dangerous,  but  normal  self- 
control  consists  in  the  inhibition  of  one  form 
of  reaction  by  a  different  reaction.  More 
concretely,  if  it  is  necessary  for  the  youth  to 
control  the  reaction  to  feehng  or  emotion  in 
one  direction,  this  may  be  brought  about  by 
developing  a  habit  of  reacting  in  a  different 
way.     Among  the  manifold  interests  and  im- 


pulses of  this  period  some  would  bring  upon 
the  individual  serious  injury,  physically,  men- 
tally, and  morally,  but  here  protection  lies  in 
the  development  of  manifold  interests  and 
varied  forms  of  activity.  Every  interest  is  in 
fact  potentially  a  means  of  self-control,  and 
psychology  shows  that  the  normal  method  of 
self-control  is  the  inhibition  of  interest  and 
impulse  in  one  direction  by  turning  attention 
to  something  else.  Thus  it  is  not  a  matter  of 
indifference  to  hygiene  what  interests  are 
developed.  Among  the  habits  distinctly  con- 
ducive to  health  must  be  reckoned  active  in- 
terests in  nature,  in  outdoor  sports,  in  varied 
forms  of  manual  work  and  skill,  and  the  varied 
forms  of  artistic  activity,  in  social  life,  and 
social  institutions. 

The  period  of  adolescence  is,  as  Rousseau 
long  ago  pointed  out,  the  new  birth  of  the 
individual  in  relation  to  society.  And  here 
again  it  is  distinctly  important  for  the  mental 
health  that  social  interests  should  be  developed. 
Anything  which  tends  to  repress  or  arrest  the 
social  development  of  the  individual  is  liable 
to  be  injurious,  and  it  is  a  noteworthy  charac- 
teristic of  many  borderline  neuroses  that  the 
social  relations  and  social  interests  are  re- 
pressed or  perverted. 

Again,  it  is  important  for  the  health  of  the 
individual  that  a  group  of  habits  representing 
an  adaptation  to  one's  environment  should  be 
developed.  This  may  be  conveniently  termed 
the  acquisition  of  balance.  The  individual 
must  find  his  own  level,  and  apparently  many 
cases  of  nervous  disorder,  even  perhaps  cases 
of  dementia  praecox  (q.v.),  may  be  ameliorated 
if  not  prevented  by  bringing  about  this  indi- 
vidual adaptation,  by  decreasing  the  demands 
of  school  and  society  to  a  level  that  balances 
the  individual's  powers;  hence  the  need  of  a 
better  system  of  grading  than  that  usually 
adopted  and  of  more  careful  choice  of  calling 
than  is  frequently  made. 

The  negative  side  of  the  hygiene  of  adoles- 
cence should  be  noted,  although  it  is  of  less 
importance  than  the  positive  side.  In  the 
case  of  boys  the  avoidance  of  injurious  habits, 
vice  in  its  different  forms;  and  on  the  one 
hand,  excess  in  any  form,  or  on  the  other, 
habits  of  indolence  and  inertia;  and  in  case  of 
girls,  especially  the  avoidance  of  shock  and 
the  Hke,  which  are  liable  to  cause  hysterical 
neuroses.  Suitable  instruction  should  of  course 
be  given  at  this  period  in  regard  to  morals  and 
especially  in  sex  hygiene;  but  teachers  and 
parents  should  be  warned  not  to  substitute  the 
easy  road  of  instruction  for  the  difficult  one  of 
training.  W.  H.  B. 

See  articles  on  Adolescence;  Dex-elopment; 
Dementi.^;  Coeducation;  Coeducation,  Hy- 
giene of;  High  Schools;  and  Sex  Hygiene. 

References:  — 

BuRK     F     S.     Growth    of    ChUdren   in    Height    and 
Weight.      (.4m.  Jour.  Psy.,   1S9S,  pp.  253-230.) 


45 


ADRIAN 


ADULT-SCHOOLS   IN   ENGLAND 


Berry,  Fraxces  May  D.  On  the  Physical  Exam- 
ination of  London  Sfhool  Children  and  the  Prc\a- 
lence  of  Albuminuria.  I.  Internationale  Kotujnss 
Jilr  SchuUiyuiene,  Nlirnberg,  April,  l'J04,  Band  III, 
pp.  421-425. 

BuR.\HAM.  ^VILLIA^f  H.  Thc  Study  of  Adolescence. 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  1891,  Vol.  I,  No.  2,  pp.  174- 
195. 

Clouston,   Thomas   S.     Hygiene  of  Mind.     (London, 
1900.)    2,S4  pp. 
Neuroses    of   Development ;    being    the   Morison    lec- 
tures for  1890.     (London,  1891.)     138  pp. 

C'rampton,  C.  Ward.  Anatomical  or  Physiological 
Age  I'fcT.v^s  Chronological  Age.  Pedagogical  Semi- 
nary.     (June,   1908.)      Vol.   15,  pp.  2.'iO-237. 

Hall,   G.   Stanley.     Adolescence,  2  vols.   (New  York, 
1907.)      This  is  the  only  work  covering  all  phases 
of  this  subject. 
Youth.      (New  York,    1906.)      A  rcsumiS  of  the  peda- 
gogical aspects  of  adolescence. 

Lancaster.  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Adoles- 
cence.    Ped.  Sem.,   1897,  p]>.  61-12S. 

Lem.\itre.  La  Vie  Menlalc  de  I' Adolescent,  et  scs 
Anomalies.     (Paris,  1910.) 

Marro,  A.  La  Puberla.  507  pp.  (Bocca,  Torino, 
1897.)  French  transl.ation.  La  Puherti.  (Paris, 
1902.)  Tliis  deals  chiefly  with  the  physiloogical  side 
of  the  subject. 

Meyer,  Adolf.  What  do  Histories  of  Cases  of  In- 
sanity Teach  L's  Concerning  Preventive  Mental 
Hygiene  during  the  Years  of  School  Life  ?  Psy- 
chological Clinic.  (.June  15,  1908.)  Vol.  2,  No.  4, 
pp.  89-101. 

Moll,  A.     Das  Sexnellehcn  des  Kindes.      (Berlin,  1909.) 

Scott,  Colin.     Social  Education.      (Boston,  1908.) 

Starbcck,  E.  H.  Psychology  of  Religion,  especially  the 
sections  dealing  with  conversion.  (New  York, 
1901.) 

Swift,  E.  J.  Mind  in  the  Making.  329  pp.  (New 
York,  1908.) 

Tyler,  J.   M.     Thc  Laws  of  Growth  and  Development. 
(New  York,  1906.) 
For  physiological  and  abnormal  phases  of  the  sul)- 
ject,  the  reader  should  also  refer  to  the  works  of 
Havclock  Ellis  and  Freud. 

ADRIAN.  —  In  664  Deusdedit,  the  sixth 
Aii.'libi.shop  of  Canterbury,  died,  and  the  priest 
"Wighard  (a  jiupil  of  the  school  in  Kent  founded 
by  Augustine)  was  sent  to  Pope  Vitalian  for 
ordination  as  Archbishoi).  He  died  of  the 
pestilence  in  Rome,  and  Vitalian  thereupon 
offered  the  see  to  the  Abbot  Adrian  (or  Ha- 
drian), an  African  monk  in  the  monastery  of 
Xiridanum  near  Xaples.  Adrian  refused,  and 
suggested  in  his  place  first  Andrew,  the  offi- 
ciating priest  of  a  neighboring  nunnery,  and  on 
his  refusal  the  monk  Theodore  of  Tarsus,  a  monk 
of  the  Greek  Church.  Theodore  was  accepted 
by  the  Pope,  and  consecrated  on  March  20, 
6G8;  and  on  May  27,  Theodore  and  Adrian 
set  out  for  Britain  with  Benedict  Biscop  (e/.f.) 
as  their  interpreter  and  guide.  They  went  by 
sea  to  Marseilles  and  on  to  Aries,  and  were 
detained  for  some  time  by  Ebroin,  the  Alayor 
of  the  Palace.  King  Egbert  sent  for  them,  but 
Adrian  was  still  detained  for  a  time,  as  Ebroin 
feared  that  he  was  engaged  on  a  political  mis- 
sion that  might  affect  Caul.  He  was  after 
some  delay  allowed  to  follow  Theodore,  and 
was  at  once  placed  over  the  mona.stery  of 
St.  Peter  and  Paul  (St.  Augustine's)  at  Canter- 
bury which  Biscop  had  governed  until  Adrian's 
arrival  in  the  year  670.  Probably  these 
scholars  brought  with  them  the  Manuscript  of 


the  AcU  of  the  Apostles  now  at  Oxford  (Laud,  Gr. 
3.")).  The  school  of  Theodore  and  Adrian  at 
once  became  famous.  They  taught  tiie  metri- 
cal art,  astronomy,  and  ecclesiastical  arithmetic, 
and  "  there  are  still  living  at  this  day  (732)  some 
of  these  scholars,  who  are  as  well  versed  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin  tongues  as  in  their  own,  in 
which  they  were  born"  (Bede,  E.  H.,  IV,  2). 
Albinus,  the  disciple  of  Adrian,  "  who  suc- 
ceeded him  in  the  go\-ernmcnt  of  his  monastery, 
was  so  well  instructed  in  literary  .studies,  that 
he  had  no  small  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
tongue,  and  knew  the  Latin  as  well  as  the 
English,  which  was  his  native  language  " 
(E.  H.,  V,  20).  A  more  famous  jiupil  of  Adrian 
was  Aldhelm  (q.v.),  the  first  in  the  long  line 
of  English  scholarship.  Adrian's  educational 
work  was  of  prime  importance  in  the  history 
of  English  education.  The  school  at  Canter- 
bury seems  to  have  been  under  his  control. 
Aldhelm  (in  his  letter  to  Eahfrid:  see  Corre- 
spondence of  St.  Boniface)  tells  us  that  the 
scholarship  of  Theodore  and  Adrian  routed 
and  put  to  shame  that  of  the  scholars  of  Ire- 
land; an  exaggeration,  but  nevertheless  a  very 
significant  exaggeration.  Adrian  assisted  Theo- 
dore in  his  official  jjerambulation  of  Britain. 
He  was  (says  Bede)  "  everywhere  assisted  and 
attended  by  Adrian."  Tiieodore  died  in  690, 
but  Adrian  lived  on  till  709  or  710,  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  his  mona.stery. 

J.  E.  O.  DE  M. 

ADRIAN  COLLEGE  (Adrian,  Michigan).— 

A  coeducational  institution,  organized  JMarch 
22,  1859,  maintains  a  College  of  Literature  and 
Arts,  a  School  of  Music,  a  School  of  Fine  Arts, 
a  department  of  Manual  Training,  a  School  of 
Theology,  and  a  School  of  Business.  Admission 
to  the  College  of  Literature  and  Arts  is  by 
examination  or  certificate  from  an  approved 
high  school;  the  School  of  Theology  is  open  to 
college  graduates  or  to  "those  intending  to 
complete  a  college  cour.se."  The  other  depart- 
ments admit  without  examination.  The 
seventy-four  members  of  the  board  of  trustees 
arc  elected  by  the  General  Conference  of  the 
Methodist  Protestant  Church.  College  frater- 
nities at  Adrian  College  have  been  established 
as  follows:  Sigma  Al])ha  Ejisilon,  Kappa 
Kappa  Gamma,  Delta  Delta  Delta;  the  last 
two  are  women's  societies.  The  college  has 
five  buildings,  valued  (1906),  with  grounds  and 
equipment,  at  $175,000;  the  total  annual 
income  is  about  .S20,000.  The  average  salary 
of  a  professor  is  S700.  There  are  twenty  mem- 
bers on  the  instructing  staff,  of  whom  nine  arc 
full  professors.  The  College  of  Liberal  Arts 
enrolls  105  students.  The  student  body  has 
always  included  many  prospective  ministers. 
The  Rev.  Brayman  William  Anthonj%  D.D.,  is 
president.  C.  G. 


ADULT  SCHOOLS  IN  ENGLAND. 

Adults,  Education  of. 


See 


46 


ADULTS 


ADULTS 


ADULTS,  EDUCATION  OF:  In  England- 
Adult  schools,  for  the  education  of  nicii  and 
women  whose  previous  education  had  been 
neglected  or  who  had  no  access  to  other  forms 
of  continued  instruction,  were  in  their  origin 
closely  connected  both  in  England  and  Wales 
with  the  Sunday  school  movement  (q.v.). 
In  Wales  the  Sunday  schools  were  from  the 
first  (1730)  largely  attended  by  adults  as  well 
as  by  children.  In  England  the  Sunday 
schools  (largely  developed  through  the  in- 
fluence of  Robert  Raikes  iq.v.)  and  Thomas 
Stock  of  Gloucester  in  1780)  were  mainly 
confined  to  children.  The  first  adult  school 
in  England  was  opened  at  Nottingham  in 
1798  by  William  Singleton,  a  Methodist,  aided 
by  Samuel  Fox,  a  tradesman  belonging  to  the 
Society  of  Friends.  It  was  originally  started 
for  the  instruction  of  working  women,  but  a 
men's  class  was  soon  added.  It  has  continued 
without  lapse  to  the  present  day.  Great 
impetus  to  the  establishment  of  adult  schools 
was  given  by  the  discovery,  on  the  foundation 
of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (q.v.) 
in  1804,  that  a  great  number  of  the  poorer 
classes  could  not  read.  Adult  schools  were  in 
consequence  established  at  Bristol  in  1812, 
chiefly  by  the  efforts  of  William  Smith,  a 
Methodist,  and  with  the  aid  of  members  of 
the  Society  of  Friends.  The  movement  soon 
spread  to  other  parts  of  the  country  —  Plym- 
outh, London,  Yarmouth,  Sheffield,  Brighton, 
Buckinghamshire  and  Berkshire,  Ipswich,  York, 
Leeds,  and  Birmingham.  These  schools  were 
an  outcome  of  Evangelical  philanthropy,  and, 
though  providing  secular  instruction,  were 
religious  in  their  associations.  Parallel  with 
these,  but  of  independent  origin,  were  classes 
in  scientific  and  civic  subjects,  arranged  for 
working  upon  a  secular  basis  and  without  any 
religious  connection.  These  began  in  Birming- 
ham (1789)  and  in  Glasgow  (1796).  Spread- 
ing to  E(_linburgh,  Liverpool,  London,  and 
Manchester,  they  developed  into  the  ^Mechanics' 
Institutions  (q.v.).  Thus  the  English  adult 
schools,  which  were  an  important  factor  in 
the  social  movements  generated  by  the  Indus- 
trial Revolution,  developed  in  two  separate 
groups,  the  one  deriving  its  ideals  from  the 
Evangelical  movement,  the  other  from  political 
and  industrial  democracy,  the  growth  of  which 
was  stimulated  bj'  the  French  Revolution. 

In  1845  the  former  group  of  adult  schools, 
which  had  been  falling  into  decay,  was  revived 
and  greatly  extended  by  Joseph  Sturge  and 
William  White  of  Birmingham.  Their  labors 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  First-Day 
Schools'  Association  of  the  Society  of  Friends. 
Adult  schools,  largely,  but  not  exclusively,  in 
connection  with  the  Society  of  Friends,  are 
now  one  of  the  most  important  educational 
agencies  among  English  workingmen,  especially 
in  the  Midlands  and  the  industrial  districts  of 
the  North. 

The  Mechanics'  Institutions  spread  rapidly 


from  1824  to  1848,  with  the  active  assistance 
of  Henry  Brougham  (q.v.)  and  Edward  Baines 
(q.v.),  but  thejf  relied  too  much  on  lectures 
unaccompanied  by  class  instruction,  and  be- 
came largely  identified  with  the  class  of  small 
tradesmen  whose  political  and  social  ideals 
were  micongenial  to  workingmen  inspired  by 
socialistic  propaganda.  William  Lovett  and 
other  Chartists  published  in  1837  a  scheme  of 
national  education  including  colleges  to  be  open 
every  evening  to  adults  of  both  sexes  for 
mutual  instruction  and  all  forms  of  higher  and 
recreative  education.  The  first  People's  Col- 
lege was  established  at  Sheffield  in  1842  by 
the  Rev.  R.  S.  Bayley,  an  Independent  minister. 
The  program  of  the  Shcflield  People's  Col- 
lege suggested  in  1853  to  Frederick  Denison 
Maurice  (q.v.)  and  his  Christian  Socialist  friends 
(among  whom  were  Charles  Kingsley,  Ed- 
ward ^'ansittart  Neale,  Thomas  Hughes,  John 
Ruskin,  Dr.  F.  J.  Furnivall,  Dante  Gabriel 
Rossetti,  and  others)  the  establishment  of 
the  Working  Men's  College  in  London.  The 
plan  of  this  college  (which  was  followed  by 
more  evanescent  institutions  in  Manchester, 
Liverpool,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  elsewhere) 
brought  the  spirit  of  the  older  universities,  with 
its  regard  for  corporate  life  and  for  a  religious 
element  in  higher  education,  into  fruitful 
union  with  the  more  secularistic  movement 
among  Socialist  workingmen.  Its  work  effected 
the  union  between  three  separate  educational 
traditions  —  the  Evangelical,  the  Tractarian, 
and  the  Socialistic,  the  latter  having  derived 
much  of  its  force  from  the  propaganda  of 
Robert  Owen   (q.v.). 

In  1851  the  English  government  first  made 
pecuniary  grants  to  evening  schools  in  con- 
nection with  elementary  day  schools.  These 
grants  were  increased  in  1855  and  1858,  and 
were  supplemented  by  furtlier  grants  from  the 
Science  and  Art  Department  in  1859  and  1861. 
In  1893  (in  consequence  of  recommendations 
made  by  Lord  Cross's  Commission  of  Inquiry 
into  the  work  of  Education  Acts,  1886),  Mr. 
Arthur  Acland,  then  ^'ice-President  of  the 
Committee  of  Council  on  Education,  intro- 
duced a  new  code  for  evening  schools  which 
encouraged  by  grants  the  attendance  of  students 
over  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  introduced  a 
liberal  curriculum  of  civic  and  general  education 
in  evening  classes.  The  government  grants, 
given  through  the  Science  and  Art  Department, 
had  in  the  meantime  stimulated  evening  classes 
in  scientific  and  technical  subjects.  In  1883, 
largely  through  the  exertions  of  Mr.  James 
Bryce,  an  Act  of  Parliament  appropriated 
money  belonging  to  obsolete  charities  in  the 
City  of  London  to  the  establishment  of  Poly- 
technics in  different  parts  of  the  metropolis. 
These  institutions  combine  technical  and 
general  education  ^ith  collegiate  life  and 
popular  forms  of  recreative  instruction.  They 
are  the  outcome  of  an  experiment  made  by 
I\Ir.    Quintin    Hogg,    who   converted   at   great 


47 


ADULTS 


ADVENTURE  SCHOOLS 


expense  a  derelict  place  of  popular  scientific 
instruction  and  amusement  (the  Regent  Street 
Polytechnic)  into  a  social  and  educational 
Institute  for  Young  Men.  The  movement 
had  also  been  stimulated  in  1882  by  Sir  Walter 
Besant,  who,  in  his  novel,  .4//  Sorts  and  Con- 
ditions of  Men,  described  a  plan  for  a  Palace  of 
Delight  for  the  East  End  of  London.  There 
are  now  in  London  twelve  polytechnic  insti- 
tutes, which  are  powerful  factors  in  higher  adult 
education  in  the  metropolis. 

Li  1889  the  Technical  Instruction  Act  em- 
powered the  County  and  County  Borough 
Councils  (established  in  18SS)  to  expend  local 
rates  upon  technical  education.  Large  addi- 
tional funds  were  made  available  for  this 
purpose  by  the  Local  Taxation  (Customs  and 
Excise)  Act  (1890).  These  acts,  supplemented 
by  the  Education  Act  (1902),  have  given  a  great 
stimulus  to  adult  education  throughout  England 
and  Wales.  At  first  this  movement  was  almost 
exclusively  technological,  but  of  recent  years 
there  has  been  a  rapid  increase  of  interest  on 
the  part  of  workingmen  in  the  development 
of  civic  and  liberal  education  through  evening 
classes  for  adult  students  (men  and  women). 
At  the  present  time,  out  of  every  1000  of  the 
population  in  England  and  Wales,  about  23  per- 
sons voluntarily  attend  some  form  of  evening 
class  on  week  days.  Several  agencies  have  been 
influential  in  the  development  of  this  move- 
ment, e.g.  the  university  extension  system, 
the  National  Home  Reading  Union,  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association,  the  Recreative 
Evening  Schools'  Association,  and  (during  the 
last  few  years)  the  Workers'  Educational 
Association.  The  latter  is  in  close  alliance 
with  the  universities,  and  is  rapidly  developing 
tutorial  classes  in  which  higher  instruction 
in  history  and  economics  is  being  given  by 
university  teachers  to  small  groups  of  working- 
men  and  women,  with  remarkable  results. 

M.  E.  S. 

In  America.  —  Beyond  some  efforts  for 
negroes  and  foreigners,  little  adult  education 
in  America  has  been  directed  toward  the  re- 
moval of  illiteracy,  as  was  the  case  in  England. 
A  wide  variety  of  private,  philantliropic,  and 
public  schools  have  arisen,  having  as  their 
object  the  special  or  further  education  of  adults. 
The  special  types  of  this  adult  education  will 
be  discussed  under  the  following  heads:  — 

Univ'ersity  Extension;  Chautauqua 
Movement;  Sumjier  Schools;  Mechanics' 
Institutes;  Y.M.C.A.  and  Y.W.C.A.;  Cor- 
respondence Schools;  E\'ening  Schools; 
Continuation  Schools;  Cooper  Union; 
Lyceums;   Lecture  Systems,  etc. 

An  examination  of  these  agencies  will  show 
that  four  distinct  types  of  education  have  been 
involved  in  them.  In  some  the  aims  have 
been  mainly  practical,  or  vocational,  as  the 
mechanics'  in.stitutes  and  correspondence 
schools;  in  others  civic  training  has  been  a 
controlling  object;   in   still   others   a  combina- 


tion of  cultural  and  civic  training  has  been 
sought,  as  in  the  lyceums,  Chautauqua  move- 
ment, and  university  extension.  Some  of 
these  types  of  adult  education  have  approxi- 
mated the  nature  of  clubs  in  that  they  have 
provided  library  facilities  and  opportunities 
for  physical  exercise. 

For  detailed  discussion  see  topics  referred  to 
above. 

Adult  education  forms  an  important  part  of 
the  educational  work  of  one  other  European 
country,  namely  Denmark.  For  this,  see 
Denmark,  Education  in. 

In  Germany  similar  work  is  done  largely 
by  the  type  of  schools  termed  Continuation 
schools  iq.v.);  see  also  the  article  on  Germany, 
Education  in. 

References  (for  English  experience):  — 

Hogg,  Ethel  M.     Quinlin  ffogn.     (London,  1000.) 

HUD.SON.  J.  W.  History  of  Adult  Education.  (London, 
1,S51.)  _ 

LovETT,  William.  Address  from  the  Working  Men's 
Association  to  the  Working  Class  on  the  Subject  of 
National  Education.      (London,  1837.) 

Ludlow,  J.  M.  Llewchm  Dorics.  Edited  by  the 
Working  Men's  College  1854-1907.  (London, 
1904.) 

Pole,  Dr.  History  of  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Adult 
Schools.      (Bristol,  1,S14.) 

Regulations  of  the  Board  of  Education  for  Technical 
Schools,  Schools  of  Art,  and  other  Forms  of  Pro- 
vision of  Further  Education  in  England  and  Wales. 
(Issued  annually,  London.) 

RowNTHEE,  J.  W.,  and  Binns,  H.  B.  History  of  the 
Adult  School  Movement.      (London,  1902.) 

Sadler,  M.  E.  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and 
Elsewhere.      (Manchester,  1907.) 

W'ebb,  Sidney.     London  EdueatioJi.     (London,  1904.) 

WiLLiAJi.'i,  J.  E.  Hodder.  Life  of  Sir  George  Williams. 
(London,  1906.) 

ADVENTURE     SCHOOLS,     PRIVATE.  — 

Schools  opened  by  private  persons  as  a  specu- 
lative investment.  This  type  of  school  has 
had  a  history  almost  as  continuous  as  that  of 
educational  institutions.  Wherever  there  was 
an  insistence  by  any  authority  —  church, 
state,  or  municipal  —  that  no  school  should  be 
opened  without  a  license,  private  schools  were 
sure  to  be  found.  After  the  Church  had  lost 
its  power  to  license  teachers  this  devolved  to 
the  towns,  which  guarded  the  right  ciuite  as 
jealously.  Germany  is  perhaps  the  single 
instance  where  state  license  is  universal;  where 
private  schools  are  opened  it  is  necessary  that 
the  teachers  have  at  least  the  sameciualifications 
as  those  in  the  state  schools.  The  Winkel- 
schulen  (q.v.)  and  dame  schools  (q.v.)  are  the 
main  types  of  private  adventure  .school  in  the 
elementary  field;  until  recently  the  kindergarten 
schools  were  entirely  in  private  hands.  The 
rise  of  .state  intervention  in  education,  the  new 
public  interest  in  and  establishment  of  free 
schools,  have  largely  done  away  with  private 
adventure  in  elementary  education.  In  the  field 
of  secondary  education  the  piivate  adventure 
schools  have  played  a  very  important  part,  par- 
ticularly in  Great  Britain  and  America.  In 
Great  Britain  the  private  schools  are  modeled 


48 


AEGROTAT 


iELFRIC 


almost  entirely  on  the  great  public  schools,  while 
ill  America  they  serve  to  satisfy  class  interests. 
A  new  scope  has  been  found  by  the  private 
adventure  schools  as  centers  of  experimentation 
and  reform.  In  this  direction  there  is  undoubt- 
edly room  in  the  educational  field  for  private 
schools.  The  necessity  of  competition  as  well 
as  the  development  of  public  intelligence  in 
education  must  gradually  weed  out  those  pri- 
vate schools  which  place  the  financial  above 
the  educational  interests,  while  to  these  factors 
a  certain  amount  of  governmental  inspection 
and  restriction  will  serve  to  regulate  what  seems 
to  be  a  public  need  and  at  the  same  time  to  do 
away  with  the  abuses  which  Dickens  jsilloried. 
See  Abecedari.e  ;  Academies  ;  Boarding 
Schools  ;  Landerziehungsheime  ;  Private 
Schools. 

AEGROTAT.— Literally,  he  is  ill.  There 
is  a  practice  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  uni- 
versities of  granting  a  degree  to  a  candidate 
who  presents  himself  for  honors  in  a  non- 
professional subject,  and  is  unable  to  complete 
the  examination  through  illness.  If  the  papers 
which  the  candidate  has  already  completed 
approach  the  requisite  standard,  he  is  granted 
a  degree  with  honors.  Otherwise  the  authori- 
ties may  reserve  the  power  to  themselves  of 
either  granting  an  ordinary  degree  or  per- 
mitting the  candidate  to  receive  the  ordinary 
degree  only  after  taking  a  part  of  the  necessary 
examination. 

iELFRIC.  —  (c  940-1006.)  Schoolbook  writer 
and  abbot.  ^Elfric's  life  was  wholly  un- 
eventful. All  that  is  known  of  it  is  derived 
from  liis  own  writings.  He  "spent,"  he  told  the 
monks  of  Eynsham,  "many  years  in  the  school 
of  Ethelwold,  the  venerable  priest  who  taught 
many  for  their  good."  Ethelwold  became 
Bishop  of  Winchester  and  c.  962  turned  out 
the  secular  canons  of  the  cathedral,  replacing 
them  by  monks,  except  such,  among  whom 
appears  to  have  been  ^Elfrie,  as  would  become 
monks  themselves.  Ethelwold's  successor, 
jElfheah,  sent  /Elfric  to  Cerne  Abbey  in  Dorset- 
shire, where  in  994,  he  wrote  or  translated 
his  Homilies  or  Sermons  on  the  Saints'  Days, 
one  of  the  chief  Anglo-Saxon  books  we  possess. 
In  996  he  composed  the  Lives  of  the  Saints,  a 
tranislation  from  the  Latin.  Between  those  dates, 
he  wrote  a  Latin  grammar  and  glossary  in 
English,  cliiefly,  as  he  says,  "excerpts  from  the 
smaller  and  larger  Priscian."  "  I  know  many 
will  blame  me,"  he  says,  "for  having  occupied 
my  time  with  such  small  matter  as  turning 
the  art  of  grammar  into  English,  but  I  intend 
the  lessons  for  ignorant  small  boys,  not  for  their 
elders."  If  any  one  blames  his  translation, 
they  may:  "  I  am  content  to  do  it  as  I  learnt 
it  in  the  school  of  Ethelwold."  The  grammar 
is  chiefly  interesting  philologically.  The 
colloquies  which  were  seemingly  intended 
to  accompany  it  as  a  First  Latin  Book  are  a 

VOL.  I. — E  49 


Dialogue  in  Latin  with  an  interlinear  literal 
translation  in  English,  for  the  author  never 
calls  it  Saxon,  intended  to  provide  a  copious 
vocabulary  of  all  words  in  common  use.  For 
this  purpose  the  boys  are  made  to  belong  to 
every  occupation  and  questioned  about  their 
business,  —  plowboy,  shepherd,  cowherd, 
huntsman,  fisherman,  merchant,  shoemaker, 
Salter,  baker,  cook,  smith,  falconer,  wood- 
wright  and  oblate  in  a  monastery.  Many  of 
the  words  would  puzzle  the  best-read  scholar 
of  to-day,  for  the  vocabulary  was  wanted  for  use 
in  everyday  life.  As  the  boys  put  it,  "  We  ask 
you,  master,  to  teach  us  to  speak  Latin,"  not 
to  read  it  or  write  it.  Highly  interesting  is 
the  account  each  gives  of  his  life.  At  the  end, 
they  discuss  which  occupation  is  the  highest  and 
most  nece.ssary,  and  a  "counsellor"  is  intro- 
duced to  sum  up  the  discussion.  He  decides 
formally  in  favor  of  the  monk,  but  really  in 
favor  of  the  plowboy,  as  agriculture  was  the 
foundation  of  society.  But  when  each  claims 
that  his  trade  is  equally  necessary,  it  is  allowed 
that  each  does  well  who  does  his  work  well. 
A  sort  of  appendix  by  jElfric  Bata,  a  pupil  of 
yElfric's  and  perhaps  a  Briton,  gives  the  day 
of  the  oblate  in  the  monastery.  In  1005, 
iElfric  wrote  a  Life  of  Ethelwold,  when  he 
was  abbot  of  Eynsham,  which,  like  Winchester, 
had  been  converted  by  Ethelwold  from  a 
church  of  canons  to  one  of  monks.  Until 
recently  he  was  confused  with  another  jElfric, 
who  died  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1005. 
The  date  of  our  jElfric's  death  is  unknown. 

A.  F.  L. 
Reference:  — • 

Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

jELFRIC,  ARCHBISHOP  OF  CANTER- 
BURY. —  This  .Elfric  (see  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  on 
this  point)  was  almost  certainly  the  tenth  abbot 
of  St.  Albans.  He  was  later  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Ramsbury,  and  died  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  100.5.  His  importance  in  the  history  of 
education  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  promulgated 
the  canons  (which  have  been  various!}'  dated, 
but  almost  certainly  belong  to  the  year  994-995) 
which  laid  the  basis  of  the  parochial  system  of 
education  in  England.  The  canons  of  King 
Edgar  (960)  iq.v.)  had  foreshadowed  this 
system,  but  Elfric  adopted  the  parochial  sy-stem 
which  had  been  formulated  (in  imitation  of  the 
small  elementary  municipal  schools  that  existed 
under  the  Empire  from  the  first  century,  cf .  Pliny 
the  Younger's  school  at  Comum)  by  Bishop 
Theodulf  of  Orleans  at  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century  in  pursuance  of  the  ideas  of  Alcuin  and 
Charles  the  Great,  and  given  universal  signifi- 
cance by  Pope  Eugenius  II  in  826.  Canon  20 
of  the  laws  promulgated  by  .Elfric  is  a  docu- 
ment of  the  first  importance.  It  nms  as  follows: 
"  Let  Priests  have  schools  in  the  townships 
(parishes)  and  small  villages  (Prexbi/tcri  per 
villa.s  et  vicos  scholas  habeaut),  and  if  any  of  the 
faithful   wish  to  commend  to  them   his  little 


.ENEAS  SYL\1US 


^SOP 


children  for  the  learning  of  letters,  let  them  not 
refuse  to  receive  and  teach  them;  but  with  the 
greatestlove  teach  them  renienil)ering  that  which 
was  written :  those  who  shall  be  learned  shall  shine 
as  the  splendour  of  the  heaven  and  those  who 
shall  teach  many  the  right  way  shall  shine  as  the 
stars  for  ever  and  ever  (Dan.  xii,  3).  When 
therefore  they  teach  them,  let  them  demand 
nothing  from  them  in  the  way  of  reward 
for  this  nor  accept  anything  from  them  ex- 
cept what  parents  freely  give  to  them  out 
of  a  charitable  desire."  This  provision  brings 
education  into  touch  on  the  one  hand  with 
local  government,  since  the  prie.st  was  the 
"mass-thane"  and  with  four  villagers  rep- 
resented the  township,  and  on  the  other  with 
the  Bishop,  who  about  this  date  created  the 
official  known  as  the  M agister  Scholarum  (q.v.) 
and  so  controlled  the  parochial  schools. 

J.  E.  G.  DE  M. 
See  Canon  Law  in  Education. 

Reference:  — 

Dictionnru  oj  \ational  Biography. 

^NEAS  SYLVIUS  BARTOLOMEUS  PIC- 
COLOMINI.  —  (Pope  Pius  II.)  A  typical 
humanist  of  the  Reuais.sance  period,  born  at 
Corsignano  in  1405.  Beginning  as  a  student 
of  law  at  Siena,  he  gave  up  this  study  for  literary 
pursuits  and  studied  for  a  time  under  Filelfo 
(fj.v.)  at  Florence.  Throughout  a  very  versatile 
life,  directed  by  an  overpowering  and  selfish 
ambition,  his  interests  were  mainly  literary. 
His  early  days  were  spent  in  the  company  of 
humanists,  and  he  was  not  exempt  from  the  sen- 
suahties  of  the  time.  But  it  is  characteristic  of 
him  that  he  never  apologized  for  his  life  at  this 
time,  and  as  pope  republished  some  of  his  more 
questionable  writings.  His  life  career  as  a 
cliplomatist  was  begun  at  the  Council  of  Basle, 
where  he  became  a  secretary  of  the  antipope, 
Felix  V.  Sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  imperial 
court,  he  accepted  an  offer  to  enter  the  imperial 
service,  where,  however,  he  remained  in  obscurity 
for  some  time.  Gradually  he  won  the  favor 
of  the  Imperial  Chancellor,  and  was  advanced  to 
important  positions.  At  this  time  he  found  it 
convenient  to  change  his  views,  and  decided 
that  the  best  way  to  further  advancement  would 
be  to  enter  the  Church.  He  now  supported 
Pope  Eugenius  IV,  and  in  return  for  his  services 
in  restoring  the  allegiance  of  Germany  to  the 
Papacy  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Trieste.  He 
continued  for  several  more  years  in  the  Emper- 
or's service,  and  devoted  himself  to  an  agitation 
against  the  Turks.  In  1456  he  became  cardinal, 
and  returned  to  a  life  of  intrigue  at  Rome, 
which  resulted  in  his  elevation  to  the  Papacy  in 
1458,  when  he  took  the  title  of  Pius  II.  He 
died  in  1464,  engaged  to  the  end  in  political  ac- 
tivity. 

>Encas  Sylvius  was  a  product  of  the  time  in 
which  he  lived.  Deeply  imbued  with  an  intense 
love  for  literary  pursuits,  he  gave  a  literary  turn 


to  everything  which  he  undertook.  His  works, 
which  were  not,  however,  complete,  were  ])ub- 
lished  in  1571,  and  filled  eleven  folio  volumes. 
They  include  a  few  poems,  a  large  number  of 
letters,  writings  on  theology,  philosophy,  and 
history.  He  found  time  in  the  midst  of  his 
activities  and  intrigues  to  write  On  the  Xatiire 
of  the  Horse,  and  a  Treatise  on  the  Geography 
of  Asia.  For  the  history  of  education  the 
interest  in  jEneas  Sylvius  centers  in  a  treatise 
on  A  Liberal  Education  (De  Liberorum  Edu- 
catione)  written  to  Ladislas,  King  of  Bohe- 
mia and  Hungary,  with  whom  he  came  into 
contact  at  the  imperial  court.  This  treatise 
represents  the  educational  ideals  of  the  Renais- 
sance, which  may  be  summed  up  in  "  the 
cultured  gentleman."  "  Nature,  training,  and 
practice  are  the  three  factors  of  education." 
Importance  must  be  attached  to  the  choice 
of  a  teacher  and  companions.  "  In  the  right 
training  of  the  boy  lies  the  .secret  of  the  in- 
tegrity of  the  man."  He  lays  emphasis  on  the 
importance  of  physical  training,  the  early 
guidance  of  a  mother,  and  training  in  philosophy 
and  letters.  The  curriculum  is  that  which  is 
typical  of  the  Renaissance,  and  centers  round 
grammar.  Although  a  strong  advocate  of  the 
cultivation  of  good  style  and  expression,  .Eneas 
Sylvius'  writings  cannot  be  compared  for 
Latinity  and  polish  with  those  of  many  of  his 
contemporaries.  As  he  himself  wrote,  "  My 
style  of  writing  is  bold  and  unpolished,  but  it  is 
frank  and  without  trappings." 

References:  — 

CREI1.-.HTCIX,  M.WDELL.  Htslorical  Essays  and  Reviews. 
(London.  11102.) 

S.iXDYs,  J.  E.  .4  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  Vol. 
II.      (Cambridge.  190.S.) 

WooDW.\RD.  W.  H.  Viltorino  da  Felire  and  other  Hu- 
manist Educators.      (Cambridge.  1905.) 

iEPINUS    (HOCK)    JOHANNES.— (1499- 

1553.)  A  CJerman  schoolmaster,  born  in  Ziesar 
(Brandenburg),  rector  of  the  school  in  Stralsund 
(1524-152S),  from  where  he  was  called  to 
Hamburg  to  carry  out  Bugenhagen's  School 
Regulations  iq.v.).  He  drew  up  church  regu- 
lations for  Stralsund,  Hamburg,  and  other 
north  German  cities. 

.SSOP.  —  The  reputed  author  of  a  collection 
of  fables,  which  was  certainly  popular  in  Athens 
in  and  before  the  time  of  Pericles,  is  said  to 
have  been  born  at  Samos  (though  other  cities 
claimed  his  origin),  and  to  have  been  brought 
to  Athens  while  young  as  a  slave.  The  date 
of  his  birth  may  have  been  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventh  century  B.C.  Plutarch,  Herodotus, 
and  Phopdrus  describe  .Esop  as  being  enfran- 
chised, visiting  Croesus,  rebuking  Solon,  visiting 
Athens,  where  he  is  said  to  have  composed  the 
fable  of  Jupiter  and  the  frogs  during  the  t\Tanny 
of  Pisistratus,  and  being  finally  cast  from  a  pre- 
cipice by  the  Delphians  while  on  an  embassy  to 
them  from  Croesus.  The  fables  originated  by 
jEsop   may  not   have  been   at  first  put  into 


50 


^STHESIOMETER 


.ESTHETICS 


writing,  but  had  a  great  vogue  among  the 
ancients  as  oral  tales.  Socrates  as  a  prisoner 
turned  some  of  them  into  elegiac  verse,  and 
Demetrius  Phalereus  and  Phiedrus  followed 
his  example.  The  modern  fables  known  as 
.iEsop's  are  spurious,  and  apparently  of  oriental 
origin. 

P.  R.  C. 
References:  — 

La  Fontaine.    Fables.      (Biography  of  .Esop  in   ed.  of 

1S8S,  pp.  19-34.) 
.^sop.      Fables,    with   a    history    of    the   JSsopic  Fable. 

(London,  1SS9.) 
Sandys.     History  of  Classical  Scholarship,     (Cambridge, 

19U.3-190S.) 

^STHESIOMETER.  —  An  apparatus  for 
measuring  the  distance  between  two  points  on 
the  skin  which  can  be  just  recognized  as  separate 
from  each  other.  A  pair  of  ordinary  drawing 
compasses  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  or  a 
horizontal  bar  with  adjustable  points.  The  ends 
should  be  made  of  hartl  rubber  or  bone  so  as  to 
avoid  excessive  stimulation  of  the  temperature 
spots.  E.  H.  Weber,  who  was  the  first  to  use 
such  an  apparatus,  found  that  the  distances 
which  could  be  just  recognized  vary  from  one 
miUimeter  or  less  on  the  end  of  the  finger,  to  six 
centimeters  in  the  middle  of  the  back.  The 
apparatus  is  recommended  by  Griesbach  as  a 
means  of  measuring  fatigue.  German  and 
others  have  rejected  this  recommendation  on 
the  basis  of  elaborate  series  of  tests. 

References:  — 

JnoD,   C.   H.     Laboratory  Equipment  for  Psychological 

Experiments. 
Griesbach.     Archiv  fur  Hygiene.    (Munich,  1895.) 

vESTHETICS.  —  The  philosophy  of  the 
beautiful  in  nature  or  art.  —  -Esthetics  began 
in  the  earliest  speculations  of  the  Greeks  con- 
cerning the  nature  of  beauty  and  of  art.  Soc- 
rates raised  the  question  of  the  relation  between 
use  and  beauty,  and  tended  to  identifv  the  two. 
In  his  discussions  of  the  various  arts  he  a.ssumes 
that  art  is  imitation,  and  that  the  artist  can 
imitate  even  qualities  of  character.  A  success- 
ful imitation  somehow  gives  pleasure.  In  dis- 
cussing the  art  of  the  sculptor  he  tells  us  that 
the  artist  selects  the  best  features  from  the 
various  objects  he  has  seen  and  combines  them 
in  a  work  which  he  is  making. 

Plato  followed  Socrates  in  the  belief  that  art 
is  essentially  imitative.  This  fact  alone  was 
sufficient  to  condemn  it  in  Plato's  mind,  for 
he  held  that  the  object  which  the  artist  imitates 
is  itself  merely  a  copy  of  the  true  ideal  object. 
The  work  of  art  is,  therefore,  thrice  removed 
from  the  truth.  Plato  also  condemns  art  on 
ethical  grounds.  Homer  and  the  other  poets 
misrepresent  the  gods,  and  their  influence  is 
almost  entirely  bad.  The  imitation  of  bad 
models  and  the  exercise  of  most  of  the  emotions 
to  which  art  appeals  are  injurious  to  strength  of 
character  and  good  citizenship.  Plato  is,  how- 
ever, a  worshiper  of  beauty,  and  he  places  it 


upon  an  equality  with  truth  and  goodness. 
Beauty  in  the  physical  realm  is  akin  to  the 
useful  or  the  purposeful,  but  it  has  also  harmony 
and  measure  as  essential  qualities.  It  possesses, 
in  addition,  unity,  purity,  completeness,  and 
perfection.  Pure  beauty  is  to  be  found  in 
straight  lines  and  curves,  in  simple  and  per- 
fectly regular  figures,  in  smooth  and  clear 
sounds,  in  pure  colors.  Spiritual  beauty  is 
identical  with  the  virtues.  Absolute  beauty 
belongs  to  the  world  of  ideas.  The  pleasure 
which  beauty  gives  is  pure  and  unmixed  with 
pain. 

Aristotle,  like  his  predecessors,  adheres  to  the 
imitative  theory  of  art,  but  he  broadens  the 
application  of  the  term  "imitation."  Art  imi- 
tates nature,  but  nature  is  not  made  up  simply 
of  objects;  it  has  also  inner  principles,  and  the 
artist  imitates  these  as  well  as  objects  and  activi- 
ties. Music  is,  for  Aristotle,  the  most  imitative 
of  the  arts.  Aristotle  differs  widely  from  Plato 
in  his  estimate  of  the  ethical  bearings  of  art. 
He  regards  art  as  a  valuable  source  of  relaxa- 
tion, and  an  important  means  to  education. 
The  exercise  of  the  emotions  of  pity  and  fear 
occasioned  by  tragedj'  effects  a  purgation  of 
these  emotions.  Plato  held  that  the  exercise 
of  such  feelings  tended  merely  to  strengthen 
them.  The  impulse  to  the  production  of  art 
is  to  be  found  in  the  instinct  of  imitation.  The 
pleasure  occasioned  by  the  perception  of  a 
successful  imitation  is  the  pleasure  of  recogni- 
tion. Aristotle  did  not  cUscuss  at  length  the 
nature  of  beauty,  but  he  did  assert  that  a 
beautiful  object  must  have,  in  addition  to  an 
orderly  arrangement  of  parts,  a  magnitude 
which  shall  be  neither  too  small  nor  too  great 
for  ea.sy  comprehension  in  a  single  glance. 

There  is  no  conception  among  the  Greek 
thinkers  of  a  separate  science  or  a  separate 
field  of  study  such  as  we  think  of  under  the 
name  of  aesthetics.  With  Socrates  and  Plato 
the  discussion  of  the  problems  of  aesthetics  is 
usually  incidental.  Aristotle  devoted  a  work  to 
poetry,  but  apparently  even  he  had  no  concep- 
tion of  aesthetics  as  a  subject  distinct  from  other 
subjects.  It  is  true,  however,  that  the  Greeks 
did  discuss  most  of  the  important  problems  of 
{esthetics.  They  discussed  the  nature  of 
beauty,  its  relation  to  utility,  the  reason  why  it 
gives  pleasure.  These  problems  have  persisted 
through  the  whole  history  of  aesthetics.  They 
cUscussed  the  nature  of  art,  the  impulses 
which  give  rise  to  art,  the  ethical  significance 
of  art.  These,  too,  have  been  constantly  in  the 
foreground  up  to  the  present  time.  Plato 
raises  the  question  as  to  the  kind  of  pleasure 
which  beauty  gives,  and  this  again  is  a  question 
which  is  still  awaiting  a  final  answer.  Plato 
attempts  also  to  state  the  characteristics  pos- 
sessed by  those  Unes  and  simple  geometrical 
figures  which  are  regarded  as  beautiful.  This 
we  are  usually  inclined  to  think  of  as  a  modern 
problem,  and  indeed  the  attempt  at  a  genuinely 
scientific   .solution  of   it  began  only  after  the 


51 


.ESTHETICS 


ESTHETICS 


beginning  of  experimental  psychology  in  modern 
Germany. 

The  hiter  Greek  thinkers  contributed  little 
to  the  discussion  of  the  problems  of  a?sthetics. 
Plotinus,  the  Nco-Platonist,  had  much  to  say  of 
beauty,  and  gave  to  it  a  mystical  significance. 
He  was  the  first  important  thinker  to  hold  the 
view  that  art  has  as  its  purpose  the  representa- 
tion of  the  beautiful.  The  contributions  made 
by  the  Roman  writers,  by  the  Church  Fathers, 
by  medieval  thinkers,  were  very  small.  The 
most  important  contribution  between  the  time 
of  Aristotle  and  modern  times  was  made  by 
Longinus  in  his  book  On  the  Sublime. 

There  was  a  revival  of  interest  in  beauty  and 
art  in  the  Renaissance,  but  this  interest  was  not 
speculative  and  did  not  lead  to  anj-  important 
contributions  to  tcsthetic  theory.  Later  on 
artists  and  critics  began  to  be  interested  in 
a-sthetic  problems,  and  thej%  as  well  as  the 
philosophers,  began  to  discuss  aesthetic  theories. 
In  England,  Shaftesbury  revived  certain  of  the 
doctrines  of  Plato.  Hutchinson,  a  professor 
in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  brought  forward 
a  conception  which  has  since  been  influential. 
This  was  the  conception  of  a  "  sense  of  beauty." 
Beauty  is  perceived  by  an  internal  sense,  as 
colors  are  perceived  by  the  ej'e. 

Edmund  Burke,  in  his  Essay  on  the  Origin  of 
our  Ideas  of  the  Beautiful  and  the  Sublime, 
attempted  to  enumerate  the  qualities  which 
characterize  such  objects  as  can  be  called  either 
beautiful  or  sublime.  His  contribution  on  this 
head  was  not  very  valuable  nor  very  original, 
but  another  feature  of  his  work  entitled  him  to 
credit  as  the  forerunner  of  present-day  physio- 
logical aesthetics.  His  physiology  was  crude 
and  his  conclusions  of  historical  value  only,  but 
he  did  conceive  the  possibiUty  of  correlating 
a-sthetic  feelings  with  certain  physiological 
activities.  According  to  his  notion  the  feelings 
aroused  by  beauty  were  dependent  upon  a 
general  physiological  relaxation,  wiiile  the 
feelings  aroused  ijy  the  sublime  resulted  from 
strain  and  tension.  Among  the  writers  of  this 
period  Hogarth  should  be  mentioned.  He 
attempted  to  discover  the  qualities  of  beauti- 
ful objects,  and  described  what  he  called  the 
"  line  of  beauty,"  and  the  "  line  of  grace."  He 
formulated  these  after  much  experimentation 
and  the  examination  of  a  great  many  works  of 
art,  but  his  conclusions  were  not  fruitful. 

The  early  Greek  doctrine  that  beauty  is 
dependent  upon  utility  was  to  some  extent 
adopted  and  broadened  by  many  of  the  British 
thinkers.  They  frequently  distinguished  be- 
tween original  or  intrinsic  beauty  and  derived 
beauty.  Hume  and  other  thinkers  of  his  type 
formulated  and  developed  the  doctrine  of  the 
association  of  ideas.  This  doctrine,  by  show- 
ing how  a  given  quality  might  give  pleasure  by 
being  associated  wth  utility,  or  indeed  with 
any  other  pleasure-giving  quaUty,  w-as  offered 
as  a  means  for  accounting  for  derived  beauty. 
This  was  one  of  the  most  important  contribu- 


tions of  the  British  scliool.  Such  character- 
istics as  those  of  grandeur,  of  gracefulness,  and 
the  like  began  to  receive  attention,  and  Henry 
Home,  Lord  Kames,  contributed  much  to  the 
discussion  of  these  i)roblcnis  and  indirectly  to 
the   thought  of   many  later  writers. 

But  no  one  of  the  writers  already  mentioned, 
whether  ancient  or  modern,  liad  used  the  term 
"  aesthetics  "  in  its  modern  meaning.  Its  first 
use  in  this  sense  is  to  be  found  in  the  .Esthetica 
of  Baumgarten,  Professor  in  the  L'niversity  of 
Frankfort  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Ms- 
thetics  is  derived  from  the  Greek  aiV^Tjo-is,  a 
word  meaning  "sensation,"  and  Baumgarten 
used  it  in  this  connection  because  he  believed 
that  in  beauty  perfection  is  revealed  to  the 
bodily  senses.  Baumgarten  not  only  em- 
ployed the  term  "  testhetics,"  he  also  marked 
off  the  theory  of  the  beautiful  as  a  separate 
and  distinct  subject  of  study. 

Most  of  the  great  German  philosophers, 
critics,  and  poets  of  the  eighteenth  and  early 
nineteenth  centuries  contributed  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree  to  wstlietic  theory.  In  many 
respects  the  contribution  made  by  Kant  is  the 
most  important  in  the  whole  history  of  the 
subject.  He  gave  to  aesthetics  a  status  like 
that  occupied  by  ethics  and  logic.  In  the 
philosophy  of  Kant  the  a'sthetic  experience 
is  that  which  unites  the  divergent  elements  of 
sense  and  reason.  The  aesthetic  experience  is, 
therefore,  in  a  certain  sense,  the  focus  of  his 
thought.  Beauty  he  defined  as  that  which  is, 
first,  the  object  of  a  disinterested  satisfaction; 
our  enjoyment  of  it  is  not  dependent  upon  its 
relation  to  any  private  interest  of  our  own,  or 
indeed  to  anything  else  whatsoever.  It  is 
intrinsically  pleasing.  Second,  the  judgment 
that  a  given  object  is  beautiful  is  "  subjec- 
tively universal";  we  feel  that  all  others  should 
agree  with  us  in  this  judgment,  and  this  de- 
mand for  agreement  is  not  based  upon  any 
logical  premises  or  concepts,  but  is  based  upon 
our  own  immediate  disinterested  enjoyment  of 
the  object.  Third,  we  feel  that  the  beautiful 
object  has  the  "  form  of  purposiveness  "  with- 
out any  definite  purpose;  it  is  not  based  upon 
any  definite  suggestion  of  utility,  but  there  is 
a  general  suggestion  of  adaptation  to  purpose. 
Kant  gave  to  the  sublime  an  importance  equal 
to  that  of  the  beautiful.  The  sublime  im- 
presses us  through  boundlessness  of  extent,  or 
of  power.  It  is  that  which  we  feel  to  be  great 
beyond  all  comparison.  We  feel  respect  for  it. 
Kant  also  contributed  to  that  department  of 
aesthetics  which  deals  with  the  nature  of  art; 
art  was  for  him  the  production  of  beauty. 

Schiller  regarded  himself  as  a  disciple  of 
Kant,  and  worked  out  some  important  doc- 
trines on  the  basis  of  suggestions  which  he 
found  in  Kant's  writings.  One  of  the  most 
important  of  these  is  the  doctrine  that  the 
impulse  to  the  production  of  art  is,  in  its 
nature,  akin  to  play.  That  is  to  say,  it  is 
free,    spontaneous    activity    with    no    ulterior 


52 


.ESTHETICS 


ESTHETICS 


purpose.  This  doctrine  was  revived  and  made 
much  of  by  the  Spencerian  school.  Schiller 
made  a  very  important  contribution  to  the 
literature  of  a?sthetics  in  his  letters  on  The 
/Esthetic  Education  of  Man.  In  these  he 
brings  forward  ssthetic  education  as  a  most 
important  factor  in  the  progress  of  civilization. 

Hegel  made  a  complete  system  of  a'sthetics, 
the  most  complete  that  history  has  seen.  In 
this  system,  art  aims  at  the  creation  of  the 
beautiful,  and  the  beautiful  is  the  concrete 
embodiment  of  the  idea.  The  idea  is  the  very 
essence  of  things,  the  ultimate  reality.  Con- 
temporary and  later  thinkers  added  their 
quota  to  the  development  of  the  subject. 
Schopenhauer,  in  direct  opposition  to  the  intel- 
lectualism  of  Hegel,  made  art  the  embodiment 
of  the  will. 

A  distinctly  new  line  of  development  was 
set  under  way  by  Fechner,  who  applied  to  the 
study  of  a?sthetic  objects  the  experimental 
method.  The  speculations  of  Plato  regarding 
the  qualities  of  those  geometrical  figures  which 
are  beautiful,  the  conclusions  of  Hogarth  re- 
garding the  "  line  of  beauty,"  and  the  specu- 
lations of  Zeising,  a  predecessor  of  Fechner,  on 
the  subject  of  sesthetic  proportions  in  simple 
geometrical  figures  had  not  led  to  investiga- 
tions which  could  be  described  as  strictly 
scientific.  Fechner's  method  was  scientific, 
and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  his  conclusion 
in  one  respect  coincided  with  that  of  Zeising. 
Zeising  had  described  the  "  golden  section." 
This  was  a  method  of  dividing  a  line  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  its  division  most  pleasing 
aesthetically.  The  proportions  were  such  that 
the  shorter  segment  of  the  line  bore  to  the 
longer  segment  the  same  ratio  as  the  longer 
segment  to  the  line  as  a  whole.  The  rectangle 
of  most  pleasing  proportions  was  one  con- 
structed with  these  two  segments  as  dimen- 
sions. Fechner's  experiments  seemed  to  estab- 
lish this  theory.  Much  time  and  labor  have 
been  devoted  to  experimental  aesthetics,  but 
this  branch  of  the  subject  is  still  in  its  infancy. 

Another  department  of  the  subject  w'hich 
has  recently  become  fruitful  is  that  which  is 
based  upon  the  study  of  the  art  of  primitive 
peoples.  Studies  in  this  field  have  tended  to 
broaden  theories  of  art  beyond  the  concep- 
tions arrived  at  by  a  study  of  European  art 
alone.  Many  recent  writers  have  added  to  the 
literature  of  the  subject  in  their  various  fields. 
Ps.ychology,  general,  experimental,  and  physio- 
logical, sociology,  and  anthropology  have  been 
the  fields  in  which  most  recent  writers  have 
worked. 

The  problems  of  aesthetics  may  be  grouped 
as  follows:  first,  those  that  have  to  do  with 
art,  its  nature,  origin,  and  relations  to  other 
products  of  human  activity;  second,  those 
which  have  to  do  with  the  beautiful,  the  sub- 
lime, the  ludicrous,  the  picturesque,  and  related 
qualities.  The  theories  of  the  nature  of  art 
arc  many.     They  include  the  ancient  theory 


that  art  is  imitation,  the  theory  that  art  is  the 
production  of  the  beautiful,  various  intellec- 
tualistic  theories  of  art,  and  the  theory  that 
art  is  emotional  expression.  Hegel's  doctrine 
that  art,  in  creating  the  beautiful,  embodies 
the  idea,  which  is  the  essence  of  things,  the 
theory  that  art  presents  that  which  is  signifi- 
cant in  an  object,  or  that  which  is  characteris- 
tic either  of  the  individual  or  of  the  type,  or 
that  which  is  the  dominant  feature,  or  that 
which  is  essential  or  universal  to  the  exclusion 
of  that  which  is  unessential  or  accidental,  are 
all  intellectualistic  theories.  The  theory  that 
art  is  emotional  expression  holds  that  beauty, 
imitation,  and  the  presentation  of  ideas  of 
whatever  sort,  are  simply  means  toward  the 
expression  of  feeling.  Theories  of  the  impulse 
to  the  production  of  art  are  numerous,  in- 
cluding the  theory  that  the  art  impulse  is  to 
be  found  in  the  imitative  instinct,  or  in  the 
play  instinct,  or  in  the  desire  to  attract  by 
pleasing,  or  in  the  desire  to  give  concrete  em-, 
bodiment  to  ideas,  or  to  feelings. 

Material  for  the  study  of  these  problems  is 
found  in  the  history  of  art  and  of  artists,  in 
criticism,  in  the  psychology  of  art  appreciation, 
in  the  study  of  the  arts  of  primitive  peoples. 
The  problems  which  relate  to  the  beautiful, 
sublime,  etc.,  fall  into  two  groups  —  those 
which  are  concerned  with  the  characteristics 
of  the  beautiful  objects,  and  those  which  are 
concerned  with  the  qualities  of  feelings  aroused 
by  such  objects.  The  answer  to  the  first 
question  is  sometimes  stated  in  metaphysical 
terms,  sometimes  in  terms  which  are  not 
metaphysical.  The  theory  that  the  beautiful 
is  the  concrete  embodiment  of  the  True,  the 
Good,  the  Divine,  the  Idea,  or  the  Universal, 
are  metaphysical  in  character. 

The  so-called  "  exact  aesthetics  "  has  at- 
tempted to  discover  by  experimental  methods 
the  qualities  or  proportions  of  objects  which 
are  found  to  be  £esthetically  pleasing.  This 
mode  of  approaching  the  subject  has  not  yet 
given  rise  to  any  important  independent 
generalizations.  Usually  the  reaction  against 
the  metaphysical  solution  of  these  problems 
leads  to  one  which  is  stated  in  psychological 
terms  and  in  terms  of  the  asthetic  experience. 
The  question  as  to  what  a  beautiful  object  is 
is  answered  by  saying  that  it  is  the  kind  of 
object  which  occasions  a  given  kind  of  experi- 
ence. There  is  no  universal  agreement  as  to 
the  terms  in  which  this  experience  shall  be 
described.  Kant's  description  has  already 
been  mentioned.  The  Spencerian  school  holds 
that  an  a-sthetic  pleasure  is  a  pleasure  which  is 
free  from  all  suggestion  of  life-serving  functions. 
^Esthetic  feeling  has  been  defined  as  pleasure 
which  is  objectified  or  thought  of  as  a  quality- 
of  the  object  (Brown  and  Santayana),  as  pleas- 
ure which  is  relatively  permanent  in  revival 
(Marshall),  etc.  Physiological  aesthetics  attempts 
to  state  the  differentia  of  esthetic  enjoyment  in 
terms  of  bodily  activity  or  bodily  states. 


53 


ESTHETICS 


AFTER-IMAGE 


Since  the  time  of  Kant  iBsthetics  has  occu- 
pied a  prominent  place  in  the  curricula  of 
German  universities.  Within  ten  years  most 
of  the  more  important  of  the  older  American 
universities  have  established  courses  in  this 
subject,  but  in  only  a  very  few  did  a-sthetics 
have  explicit  recognition  a  decade  ago. 
Courses  in  literary  criticism  have  frequently 
introduced  a  few  of  the  problems  of  lesthetics: 
courses  in  metaphysics  have  occasionally  con- 
tained some  reference  to  the  beautiful,  and 
courses  in  psychology  have  sometimes  called 
attention  to  the  a'sthetic  experience,  but  out- 
side of  Germany  the  study  of  a-sthetic  theory 
has  only  recently  become  the  object  of  wide 
interest. 

The  question  of  Eesthetic  education  is  a 
matter  which  has  received  comparatively  little 
attention  from  those  who  have  contributed  to 
the  advance  of  a'sthetic  theory.  Schiller's 
interest  in  the  subject  of  esthetic  education 
has  already  been  noted,  but  he  was  an  excep- 
tion. The  importance  of  a'sthetic  education 
has  not  yet  received  the  attention  it  deserves, 
nor  have  the  means  for  its  attainment  been 
supplied.  Public  art  galleries,  free  concerts, 
and  training  in  drawing  have  furnished  some 
basis  for  such  culture,  but  until  the  proper  use 
of  such  means  has  been  more  completely 
worked  out,  and  until  the  oesthetic  elements 
provided  .by  many  of  the  present  subjects  of 
study  in  the  ordinary  school  curriculum  have 
been  utilized,  esthetic  education  must  pro- 
ceed very  slowly.  The  significance  of  such 
education  from  the  standpoint  of  ethics,  and 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  most  complete 
development  of  the  individual,  has  frequently 
been  mentioned,  Ijut  there  is  no  general  move- 
ment toward  an  adequate  provision  for  it.  A 
serious  difficulty  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
such  education  cannot  be  conveyed  by  pre- 
cept, and  an  infectious  example  is  not  always 
to  be  found.  A.  L.  J. 

See  Arts  in  Education  ;  Art  in  the 
School;  Art,  Methods  of  Te.\ching;  Mu- 
seums, Music  in  the  School,  etc. 

References:  — 

Allen,  Grant.     Physiological  /Esihelics.     (New  York, 

1877.) 
BosANQUET.     History  of  ^Hslhelics.      (London,  1892.) 
Brown,    G.    Baldwin.      The  Fine  Arts.     (New  York, 

1901.) 
BnRKE.     Inquiry   into   the   Origin    of  our   Ideas   of  the 

Sublime  and  Beautiful.      (New  York,  1SS9.) 
Botcher,  S.  H.     Aristotle's  Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine 

Art.     (London,  1902.) 
Croce,  Benedetto.    /Esthetic  as  Science  of  Expression 

and  general  Linguistic,  tr.  from  Italian  Ijy  D.  Ainslic. 

(London.  1909.) 
Fechner.      Vorschule  d.  /Esthctik.      (Leipzig,  lS7fi.) 
Gaylet,    C.    M.,  and   Scott,    F.    N.     A    Guide   to   the 

Lilernlure   of  .■E.'ithetics.     (Berkele.v,  Cal..   1N9(>.) 
Gordon.  Kate.      .Esthetics.      (New  York,  1909.) 
Gurnet.      Pouu^r  of  Soutul.      (London.  IS.SO.) 
Hegel.     Intrortuction    to     HrqcVs    Philosophy    of    Fine 

Art,  ed.  bv  B.  Bosanquet.      (London.  l<S,Sfi.) 
HiRN,  Yrjo.      The  Origins  of  Art.      (London,  1900.) 
Hogarth.      Analysis     of    Beauty.      (Pittsfield,     Mass., 

1909.) 


Hutcheson,  F.  Inquiry  info  the  Original  of  our  Ideas 
of  Beauty  and  Virtue.      (Glasgow,  1772.) 

K.AMES  (Home).  Elements  of  Criticism.  Ed.  by  Abr. 
MUls.     (New  York,  1857.) 

Kant.  Kritik  of  the  Judgment.  Ed.  by  .1.  H. 
Bernard.  (London.  1892.)  Observations  on  the 
Feeling  of  the  Beautiful  and  the  Sublime. 

Knight.  W.  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful.  (New  York, 
1891.) 

Lalo,  C.     L' Esthitique  Experimenlale.     (Paris,  1908.) 

Lessing,  G.  E.  Laocoon.  Hamhurgische  Dramaturgic. 
(1766.) 

Lipp.s,  T.  Rauniaesthrtik  und  Geometrischoptische  Tau- 
schungen.     (Leipzig,  1.S97.) 

LoNGiNDS.  Oti  the  Sublime.  Ed.  by  A.  O.  Prickard. 
(Oxford,  1906.) 

Mar-shall,  H.  R.  .Esthetic  Principles.  (New  York, 
1895.) 

Price,  Sir  Uverdalb.  The  Picturesque.  (Edinburgh, 
1842.) 

PoFFER,  Ethel  D.  The  Psychology  of  Beauty.  (Bos- 
ton, 1906.) 

Santayana.  The  Sense  of  Beauty.  (New  York.  1896.) 
The  Life  of  Reason.      (New  York,   1906.) 

Schiller.  ^Esthetic  Letters.  Tr.  bv  Weiss.  (Boston, 
1845.) 

Schopenhauer.     Works. 

Shaftesbury.  Characteristicks  of  men,  manners, 
opinions,  times,  etc.  Ed.  bv  .J.  B.  Robertson. 
(London,  1900.) 

Spencer,  H.  Essays,  Scientific,  Political  and  Specula- 
tive. 

Sully,  James.  Art.  .i?5sthetics  in  Encyclopedia  Britan- 
nica. 

Tolstoi.     What  is  Art?     (New  York,  1898.) 

AESTHETIC  ELEMENT  IN  EDUCA- 
TION.—  See  Arts  in  Education. 

AFFECT.  —  This  term  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
synonym  for  emotion.  The  German  term  Affekt 
is  the  exact  equivalent  of  the  English  term 
"emotion." 

Sec  Emotion. 

AFFECTION. —In  common  parlance  this 
word  is  used  to  designate  a  strong  personal  at- 
tachment or  love  for  another.  In  technical 
writing  it  is  used  to  designate  the  process  referred 
to  by  the  term  "affect"  (q.v.),  or  the  term 
"emotion"  (q.v.),  and  sometimes  the  term 
"  feeling." 

AFFECTIVE.  —  There  is  no  adjectival  form  of 
the  word  "  feeling."  The  lack  of  such  a  form  has 
led  to  the  adoption  in  technical  writing  of  the 
term  "affective"  to  express  that  characteristic 
of  consciousness  which  belongs  to  a  state  of 
feeling.  Thus  pleasure  is  described  as  an 
agreeable   affective  experience. 

See  Feeling;  Emotion. 

AFTER-IMAGE.  — When  an  organ  of  scn.se, 
especially  the  retina,  has  been  stimulated,  the  or- 
ganic processes  set  up  by  the  action  of  the  exter- 
nal energy  continue  after  the  cessation  of  the 
stimulus.  In  some  cases  the  process  in  the 
organ  of  sense  will  be  reversed  so  as  to  restore 
the  organ  to  a  normal  condition.  Thus  if 
one  fixates  for  a  period  of,  say,  30  or  40  seconds 
anj-  bright  light  and  then  closes  the  eyes,  or 
looks  upon  a  medium  gray  or  dark  surface, 
without    moving   the    eyes,  a    so-called    after- 


54 


AGASSIZ 


AGENCIES 


image  is  observed.  This  image  has  the  shape 
of  the  light  looked  at,  and  may  be,  especially 
if  the  light  be  bright,  for  an  instant  of  the 
same  general  color  and  intensity.  The  color, 
however,  soon  changes.  If  the  light  fixated 
be  ordinary  white  light,  such  as  a  white  surface 
reflecting  the  rays  of  the  sun,  or  an  incan- 
descent lamp,  the  second  type  of  the  after- 
image will  be  dark,  although  retaining  the 
general  shape  of  the  source  of  light.  If  the 
object  fixated  be  colored,  the  second  form  of 
the  after-image  will  be  the  complementary 
color  to  that  of  the  source  of  light.  A  red 
object  will,  for  instance,  become  bluish  green 
in  the  after-image;  a  yellow  object,  blue;  a 
green  object,  purple,  etc.  The  first  type  of 
the  after-image  is  called  positive;  the  second, 
negative.  Positive  after-images  are  un- 
doubtedly due  to  the  fact  that  the  nervous 
apparatus  concerned  in  vision  retains  for  a 
while,  even  after  the  stimulus  of  light  has  been 
removed,  the  physiological  effects  of  such 
stimulus.  The  negative  after-image  is  prob- 
ably due  to  some  sort  of  reversal  of  this  physio- 
logical process  in  the  eye.  R.  P.  A. 

After-images  of  hearing  do  not  appear;  there 
are  after-images  in  all  other  spheres  of  sensa- 
tion. 

Sec  also  Ad.4.ptatiox,  Sen'sory. 

References  :  — 
B.iLDwrN's    Dictionary    of    Philology    and    Psychology: 

Art.  Vision. 
ScHAFER,     E.     A.      Textbook    of    Physiology.     Vo\.    II. 

(Edinburgh,  1898-1900.) 
Howell,    W.    H.      American    Textbook    of    Physiology. 

(PhUadelphia,  1901.) 

AGASSIZ,     LOUIS     (JOHN    RUDOLPH) 

(1807-1873).  —  The  tlistinguished  naturalist  and 
science  teacher  was  born  at  iMotier,  in  the 
canton  of  Fribourg,  Switzerland,  May  28,  1807, 
and  received  his  elementary  and  secondary 
education  in  the  gymnasium  at  Bienne  and 
the  college  at  Neuchatel.  It  was  the  purpose 
of  his  parents  that  he  should  follow  commer- 
cial pursuits,  but  his  keen  interest  in  scientific 
studies  led  them  to  allow  him  to  take  up  the 
study  of  medicine  —  first  at  the  University  of 
Ziirich,  and  later  at  Munich  and  Heidelberg. 
He  was  first  professor  of  natural  history  in  the 
college  at  Neuchatel  and  director  of  a  scientific 
observatory  in  the  Alps.  He  visited  France 
and  England  to  acquaint  himself  with  scientific 
men  and  movements,  and  in  1846  he  accepted 
an  invitation  to  give  a  course  of  lectures  before 
the  Lowell  Institute  in  Boston.  The  year  fol- 
lowing he  accepted  the  professorship  of  zoology 
and  geology  in  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School 
which  Harvard  University  had  just  organized. 
In  1873  he  organized  on  the  island  of  Penikese 
a  summer  school  of  marine  zoology  for  teachers, 
which  brought  most  of  the  foremost  instructors 
of  science  under  his  instruction.  He  was  a 
natural  teacher,  says  one  of  his  students,  fond 
of  .giving  instruction,  patient  and  synii)athetic, 
overflowing  with  an  earnest  love  of  his  subject, 


and  having  a  mind  replete  with  stores  of  in- 
formation. The  title  of  which  he  was  proudest 
was  that  of  the  instructor  rather  than  the  in- 
vestigator, and  he  took  real  pleasure  in  in- 
scribing himself  as  "  Louis  Agassiz,  teacher." 
He    gave    great   impetus   to    the    teaching   of 


Louis  Agassiz. 

science  in  secondary  schools,  and,  besides  his 
textbooks  on  physiology  and  natural  history, 
he  published  a  work  on  methods  of  teaching 
natural  history,  and  made  notable  contribu- 
tions to  the  literature  of  ichthyologj'.  He  died 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Dec.  14,  1873. 

W.  S.  M. 
Reference:  — 

Ag.^ssiz.  Eliz.^beth.     Louis  Agas^s:  his  Life  and  Cor- 
respondence.     (Boston,  1893.) 

AGE,  SCHOOL.  —  See  Attendance,   Com- 
pulsory. 

AGE  OF  COLLEGE  AND  HIGH  SCHOOL 

STUDENTS.  —  See  Students,  Age  of. 

AGENCIES,  TEACHERS'  EMPLOYMENT. 

—  In  an  informal  manner,  academies,  colleges, 
and  normal  schools  in  their  early  history 
in  America  acted  as  employment  agencies,  to 
the  extent  of  receiving  applications  for  teachers 
and  making  recommendations  for  vacancies. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
this  work  within  educational  in.stitutions  was 
much  systematized,  and  now  it  is  usually 
directed  by  a  special  secretary  or  agent,  who 
systematically  compiles  estimates  of  can- 
didates, obtains  information  regarding  possible 
sources    of    employment,    and    directs    eligible 


AGENCIES 


AGRAM 


teachers  to  the  right  positions.  As  a  rule, 
this  service  in  institutions  is  gratuitous  to 
teacher  and  employing  body. 

Private  agencies  on  a  commercial  basis  have 
existed  since  1855,  but  the  period  of  their  ex- 
tensive development  was  from  1S70  to  1890. 
During  that  time  more  than  fifty  different 
agencies  were  established,  some  of  which,  of 
course,  performed  a  purely  local  service.  In 
recent  years  there  has  been  a  tendency  to 
consolidate  agencies  and  to  expand  the  more 
successful  of  those  already  existing.  At  present 
the  best  of  the  private  agencies  fill  a  positive 
place  in  the  American  educational  scheme, 
though  it  cannot  be  denied  that  many  agencies 
have  allowed  commercial  considerations  to  out- 
weigh professional  standards  in  the  filling  of 
places.  The  private  agency  is  of  most  service 
in  filling  the  exceptional  positions  —  excep- 
tional in  type  of  work,  or  efficiency  demanded. 
The  unassisted  teacher  of  special  preparation 
has  few  opportunities  of  finding  vacancies 
suited  to  him;  the  agency  with  its  machinerj' 
for  locating  places  can  make  valuable  adjust- 
ments. For  this  service  the  agencj'  usually 
charges  a  registration  fee,  and  assesses  the 
candidate  for  a  certain  percentage  of  his  salary 
in  case  of  election.  The  assessment  varies 
from  5  per  cent  to  10  per  cent  of  the  salary 
for  the  first  year,  or  it  may  be  half  of  the  first 
month's  salary. 

From  time  to  time  it  has  been  proposed  that 
state  teachers'  associations  or  state  boards 
of  education  should  conduct  agencies,  but, 
so  far  as  known,  the  only  move  in  this  direction 
has  been  the  law  passed  by  Massachusetts:  — 

"  Any  person  desiring  to  teach  in  the  public 
schools  of  this  commonwealth  may  file  with  the 
state  board  of  education  an  application  in 
writing  .stating  the  kind  and  grade  of  school 
desired  and  the  experience  and  training  of 
the  applicant,  and  may  file  with  such  appli- 
cation any  evidence  of  the  applicant's  character 
and  qualifications. 

"  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board  to  receive 
such  applications,  to  make  lists  of  the  same 
arranged  for  convenient  reference,  and  on  re- 
quest of  the  superintendents  of  schools  and  school 
committees  of  cities  and  towns  to  furnish  all 
reasonable  information  about  such  applicants. 
The  board  may  make  reasonalile  rules  and 
regulations  relating  to  the  filing  of  applications 
and  the  giving  of  information  as  above  pro- 
vided." (Chap.  399,  Acts  of  190G,  as  amended. 
Chap.  213,  Acts  of  1907.) 

The  private  agency  in  England  exists  to  a 
far  greater  extent  than  in  this  country,  since 
the  great  majority  of  educational  positions  are 
filled  by  selection  "from  a  number  of  applications 
rather  than  by  direct  recommendation  from  a 
college  or  other  institution.  The  universities 
have  recently  instituted  appointment  boards 
under  the  charge  of  a  secretary,  but  it  is  too 
early  to  make  any  statement  as  to  their  success. 
Teachers'  associations   have   also   within  very 


recent  times  established  agencies  with  special 
terms  to  members.  The  percentage  usually 
charged  varies  from  2\  to  5  per  cent  of  the 
first  year's  salary.  The  university  agencies 
make  no  charge  at  all,  as  a  rule. 

See  Uxn^ERSiTY  Appointments  Boards  and 
Secretaries. 

References:  — ■ 

Nothing  exists  in  the  way  of  general  references. 
Private  agencies  have  issued  various  papers  which  serve 
to  indicate  the  historical  backgrounds. 

AGENTS.  —  See  Supervisors. 

AGGREGATE  IDEA.— This  term  is  em- 
ployed by  Wundt  (Uiitlincs  of  P.vjchology) 
and  other  writers  to  refer  to  the  first  stage  of 
experience  in  which  an  individual  looking  at  a 
complex  situation  gets  a  complex  experience 
which  is  not  analyzed  into  its  elements.  Later 
development  in  the  presence  of  such  an  expe- 
rience will  consist  in  breaking  up  of  this  idea 
into  clearly  defined  parts  which  in  turn  will 
be  combined  into  more  definitely  organized 
experiences.  "  Aggregate  "  in  this  case  indicates 
that  the  first  stage  of  the  complex  experience  is 
dependent  upon  chance  complexity  rather  than 
upon  definite  order  of  the  arrangement.  Thus 
the  child's  first  view  of  a  picture  is  a  complex 
or  aggregate  idea.  His  later  experiences  with 
the  same  picture  dift'er  from  this  original  ex- 
perience in  clearness  and  organization. 

AGNES  SCOTT  COLLEGE,  DECATUR.  GA. 

—  A  female  college,  founded  by  Presliy- 
terians,  in  1889,  as  a  grammar  school.  Four- 
teen units  are  now  required  for  admission. 
Courses  are  offered  up  to  the  B.A.  degree  after 
four  years'  study.  There  are  in  the  college 
12  professors,  1  associate  professor,  and  4  in- 
structors and  assistants.  In  connection  with 
the  institution  are  a  School  of  Jlusic,  Art,  and 
Expression  and  an  Academy,  each  with  its  own 
faculty.  There  were,  in  1909, 146  students  in  the 
college.     F.  H.  Gaines,  D.D.,  is  the  president. 

AGNOSIA.  —  The  inability  to  understand 
speech.     See  Apha.si.\. 

AGRAM,  THE  ROYAL  FRANCIS  JOSEPH 
UNIVERSITY  OF.  — This  in.stitution  in  the 
province  of  Croatia,  Hungary,  was  not 
established  until  1874,  although  as  early  as 
1776  the  old  Jesuit  school  in  Agram  had 
been  transformed  by  the  Empress  Maria 
Theresa  into  a  regia  scienUarum  academia, 
comprising  faculties  of  philosophy  and  law. 
The  faculty  of  theology  was  organized  in  1874, 
and  in  the  following  year  a  division  of  mathe- 
matics and  natural  sciences  was  added  to  the 
faculty  of  philoso]>hy.  A  school  of  forestry 
is  affiliated  with  the  latter  faculty,  and  a 
school  of  pharmacy  has  also  been  established 
recently.  The  language  of  instruction  is 
Croatian.     The   annual   expenditures   amount 


56 


AGRAPHIA 


AGRICOLA 


to  about  §100,000;  the  library  contains  about 
125,000  volumes  and  almost  800  manuscripts. 
1059  students  were  in  attendance  during  the 
winter  semester  of  1909-10,  of  whom  more  than 
half  were  enrolled  in  the  faculty  of  law,  the 
institution  not  supporting  a  medical  faculty.  All 
of  the  departments  of  the  Croatian  National 
Museum,  founded  in  1846,  are  closely  affiliated 
with  the  university,  as  is  the  South  Slavic 
Academy  of  the  Sciences  and  Arts,  organized 
in  1866,  which  has  a  collection  of  about  400 
paintings,  2650  manuscripts,  30,000  documents, 
and  40,000  books.  The  university  also  stands 
in  close  relationship  to  the  Royal  Meteorological 
Observatory,  established  in  1801,  which  is  the 
central  station  for  Croatia  and  Slavonia;  a 
seismological  station  is  connected  with  the 
observatory. 

AGRAPHIA.  —  A  disorder  of  the  associa- 
tions of  speech,  in  which  there  is  a  partial  or 
complete  inability  to  express  ideas  by  means 
of  written  symbols,  in  an  individual  who  had 
previously  acquired  this  mode  of  speech  ex- 
pression. Often  associated  with  apraxia  (q.v.), 
and    with   the   so-called    motor   aphasia. 

See  Aph.\sia.  S.  I.  F. 

References:  — 

Dejerine,  J.  Contribution  k  I'^tude  des  troubles  dc 
I'ecriture  chez  les  aphasiques.  C.  R.  Soc.  Biol., 
1891. 

Wernicke,  C.  Ein  Fall  von  isolierter  Agraphie.  AIo- 
nalsch.  f.  Psychiat.  u.  Neurol.,  XIII,  1903,  241-265. 

Westph.1L.  Ueber  einen  Fall  von  amnestischer 
Aphasie,  Agraphie  and  Apraxie  nebst  eigenartigeu 
Stbrungen  des  Erkennens  und  eklamptische 
Psyehose.  Deutsche  Med.  Wochenschr.,  XXXIV, 
1908,  2320. 

Wolff,  G.  Ziir  Pathologie  des  Lesens  und  Schreibens. 
Alio.  Ztseh.  f.  Psychiat,  LX,  1903,  509. 

AGREGATION.  — The  highest  teacher's  di- 
ploma of  the  French  secondary  schools,  re- 
quired of  all  full  professors  in  the  lycees  (q.v.). 
In  the  boys'  schools  there  are  eight  orders  of 
agreges,  viz.  philosophy,  letters,  grammar, 
history  and  geography,  mathematics,  physical 
sciences,  natural  sciences,  and  modern  languages 
(English,  German,  Italian,  Spanish).  The 
candidates  for  the  agregation,  the  examination 
for  which  comes  generally  at  the  completion 
of  the  course  in  the  higher  normal  school, 
although  it  is  not  restricted  to  students  of  that 
institution,  must  already  hold  the  bachelor's  and 
the  master's  degree  and  the  diploma  of  higher 
studies.  The  difficulty  of  this  examination  is 
still  further  increased  by  the  fact  that  it  does 
not  depend  upon  attaining  a  certain  standard 
of  intellectual  power,  but  is  a  competitive 
examination,  the  number  of  appointments 
to  be  made  in  each  group  being  determined 
by  the  Minister  one  year  in  advance  in  accord- 
ance with  the  probable  needs  of  the  service. 
The  possession  of  the  agregation  carries  with  it 
five  hundred  francs  per  year  over  and  above 
the  regular  salary  attached  to  the  position. 
There    are    five   agregations   for  women,    viz. : 


letters,  history,  mathematics,  physical  and 
natural  science,  and  modern  languages.  There 
are  likewise  agregations  in  the  various  fields 
of  professional  education:  law,  medicine,  and 
pharmacy. 
See  France,  Education  in. 

AGRICOLA       (SNEIDER)       JOHANNES 

(1492-1566). — A  German  schoolmaster.  He 
was  born  in  Eisleben,  wherefore  he  is  also  known 
as  Magister  Eisleben.  In  1525  he  was  rector 
of  the  newly  established  school  in  Eisleben, 
for  which  he  wrote  a  textbook  for  religious 
in.struction.  In  1527  he  composed,  by  Luther's 
direction,  a  catechism  for  small  children.  He 
also  made  a  collection  of  German  proverbs. 

AGRICOLA,  RUDOLPH  (1444-1485).— One 
of  the  most  influential  of  the  northern  human- 
ists.     Born    near    Groningen  in    Holland,    he 


RODOLPHVJ'   AGRllCOLA   GR.0ENINGV5'. 
Si  tibi  nmturis  tautum  Ucuifiet  ab  amis, 

Quod  medium  Hatuis  perficere  cAgncoh; 
tAuUore^  aljj  poierant  tacuijie  diferti: 

Quidcjuia  enm  ratio  poflulat.ipfe  dahas. 

Rudolph  Agricola. 

attended  the  school  in  that  town.  It  is  im- 
possible to  verify  the  tradition,  which  is  of 
late  origin,  that' he  attended  the  schools  of 
the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  (q.v.).  At 
the  age  of  14  he  obtained  his  bachelor's  degree 
at  Erfurt,  and  at  17  his  master's  atLouvain. 
His  main  interests  at  that  time  were  in  mathe- 
matics and  philosophy.  In  1468  he  went 
to  Italy  and  began  a  .study  of  law  at  Pavia, 
which  he  soon  abandoned  to  study  Greek 
under    Battista  Guarino    (q.v.)    and   'Theodore 


57 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


Gaza  (f/.t'.),  who  intcrosted  him  strongly  in 
Aristotle.  Unlike  the  majority  of  his  contem- 
poraries, Agricola  paid  considerable  attention 
to  the  vernacular  language.  He  had  already 
a  knowledge  of  French  and  German,  and  he 
now  took  up  Italian  in  order  to  enter  into  the 
spirit  of  the  movement  which  he  saw  going 
on  around  him.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
accomplished  of  the  northern  humanists,  and  is 
reputed  to  have  been  a  great  musician  and  an 
ardent  lover  of  the  fine  arts.  In  1479,  he  re- 
turned to  Holland,  and  although  he  had  several 
offers,  he  refused  to  accept  any  appointment 
which  would  fetter  him  too  much  and  inter- 
fere with  his  studies.  In  1484,  he  accepted 
an  invitation  from  a  former  pupil  of  his, 
von  Dalberg,  then  Bishop  of  Worms,  to  move 
to  Heidelberg.  Although  he  delivered  some 
lectures  at  the  university,  it  is  probable  that 
he  did  not  hold  a  chair  there.  At  this  time 
his  inclinations  turned  to  theology,  and  he 
took  up  the  study  of  Hebrew.  His  career 
was,  however,  cut  short  by  his  early  death.  Of 
his  writings  the  most  important  arc  the  De 
Inventionc  Dialectica,  a  treatise  on  the  impor- 
tance of  logic  as  a  factor  in  good  style.  His  ed- 
ucational treatise,  De  Formando  Sluilio,  shows 
Agricola  to  belong  to  the  school  of  humanistic 
realists.  Nothing  was  to  be  taught  which  had 
not  the  sanction  of  the  ancient  writers.  All 
wisdom,  all  phases  of  experience  for  present 
guidance,  are  found  in  the  classics.  Theophras- 
tus  and  Aristotle  are  the  best  exponents  of  ge- 
ography and  natural  science.  Like  Erasmus, 
he  held  that  the  true  end  of  a  liberal  education 
was  moral  conduct,  and  that  knowledge  with- 
out expression  was  worthless. 

Although  only  41  at  the  time  of  his  death, 
Agricola  seems  to  have  exercised  a  remark- 
able influence  on  the  humanistic  movement 
in  Germany,  particularly  in  the  direction  of 
a  study  of  Greek.  He  is  mentioned  with  the 
highest  esteem  and  respect  by  the  foremost 
German  humanists,  and  Erasmus  is  said  to 
have  confessed  to  Agricola's  superiority.  In 
view  of  the  fact  that  Agricola  wrote  but  little, 
his  position  must  have  been  due  to  a  remarkably 
strong  personality. 

I.  L.  K. 
References:  — 
Schmidt,     K.     Oeschiclitr    der    Padagogik,     Vol.     III. 

(Cothen,  187S.) 
Woodward,    W.    H.     Sliidies   in   Education   during  the 

Age  of  the  Renaissance.      (Cambridge,  1900.) 

AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION.  —  Late  in 
the  eighteenth  century  and  immediately  follow- 
ing the  American  Revolution,  great  popular 
interest  in  agriculture  arose.  Essays  and  books 
began  to  appear,  agricultural  papers  sprang  into 
existence,  and  the  profession  of  farming  com- 
menced to  have  a  literature.  The  immediate 
result  of  this  awakened  interest  was  the  forma- 
tion of  agricultural  societies  in  many  sections  of 
the  eastern  United  States.  These  organizations 
,at  once  became  centers  of  agitation  for  agri- 


cultural schools,  and  a  goodly  number  of  such 
schools  of  different  grades  were  actually  opened; 
notably  one  established  in  Maine,  1821,  and  one 
in  Connecticut,  1824,  which  latter  flourished  for 
a  number  of  years  and  was  obliged  to  increase 
its  capacity  for  students.  The  natural  con- 
ditions, however,  seemed  to  be  against  fruitage 
of  this  early  movement  in  the  East.  With 
the  development  of  the  great  West,  and  with 
the  enormou.sly  profitable  slave  labor  of  the 
South,  interest  in  agriculture  was  transferred 
to  the  newer  sections  of  the  country.  In  the 
Northern  states,  particularlv,  history  repeated 
itself.  With  their  development  came  again 
agricultural  societies  and  the  agitation  for  agri- 
cultural schools;  but  this  was  a  generation 
afterward,  characterizing  the  late  forties  and 
fifties.  Here,  again,  agitation  developed  at 
different  points,  namely.  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland,  and  Michigan. 

PubUclij  Endowed  Education.  —  At  this  time 
college  education  was  primarily  the  business 
of  the  Church,  and  colleges  subsisted  upon 
private  subscription.  Accordingly  the  early 
efforts  toward  financing  colleges  of  agriculture 
assumed  their  support  by  private  endowment, 
and  only  later  did  it  occur  to  farseeing  men 
that  this  new  and  expensive  form  of  education 
would  need  to  be  supported  by  public  endow- 
ment if  it  were  to  succeed.  Much  difficulty 
was  encountered  in  turning  over  to  the  public 
what  had  been  started  as  pi'ivate  enterjirises. 

Pennsylvania  Agricultural  College  underwent 
a  long  and  ])athetic  struggle  with  poverty,  and 
it  was  more  than  a  generation  before  the  state 
fully  equipped  it  to  do  the  work  for  which  it 
was  founded.  The  movement  in  New  York 
and  elsewhere  came  to  an  abrupt  end  with  the 
oncoming  of  the  Civil  War.  Michigan  was  more 
fortunate.  A  constitutional  convention  was  in 
session  in  the  early  days  of  agitation,  and  some 
farsighted  member  succeeded  in  introducing 
into  the  new  constitution,  adopted  in  1850,  a 
clause  making  it  obligatory  upon  the  state  at 
an  early  date  to  establish  and  maintain  a  college 
or  school  of  agriculture  either  in  connection 
with  the  state  university  or  separated  from  it. 
Under  this  provision  the  Michigan  Agricultural 
College  was  opened  for  students,  in  1857,  or  five 
years  before  the  Morrill  Land  Grant  Act  of 
1862.  In  this  state,  therefore,  the  agricultural 
college  was  from  the  outset  a  state  institution, 
and  was  accordingly  freed  from  the  long  starva- 
tion period  suffered  by  others  during  their 
transformation  away  from  the  plan  of  the 
private  endowment. 

The  Land  Grant  Act.  —  Not  only  the  earlier 
movements  in  Maine  and  Connecticut,  but  the 
later  in  Penn.sylvania,  Maryland,  and  Michigan, 
were  distinctively  for  agricultural  education, 
with  no  reference  whatever  to  other  industries. 
In  New  York  the  movement  for  agricultural 
education  began  early,  and  by  the  middle  of 
last  century  became  associated  with  a  move- 
ment for  education  in  mechanic  arts. 


58 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


About  this  time,  however,  another  move- 
ment arose.  It  developed  in  Illinois,  and  was 
headed  by  Professor  Jonathan  B.  Turner  of 
Illinois  College.  Its  immediate  purpose  was 
to  secure  the  funds  arising  from  the  old  terri- 
torial land  grant  (Northwest  Territory)  for  the 
establishment  of  an  "Industrial  University."  ' 
The  teachers  of  the  state  desired  these  funds  for 
a  normal  school.  The  teachers  won  and  Tur- 
ner lost,  whereupon  he  advocated  a  national 
policy  of  a  grant  of  laud  to  each  .state  for  the 
establishment  of  at  least  one  college  which 
should  be  conducted  in  the  interests  not  only 
of  agriculture,  but  of  the  mechanical  arts  as 
well.  This  plan  of  Turner's  was  adopted  by 
the  General  Assembly  of  Illinois  as  a  joint 
resolution,  and  in  this  form  transmitted  to  Con- 
gress in  1853. 

Nothing  seems  to  have  come  of  this  memorial 
to  Congress  at  this  time,  but  four  years  later 
(1857)  Justin  P.  Morrill,  then  a  member  for 
Vermont  serving  his  first  term  in  the  Lower 
house,  introduced  a  bill  providing  a  grant  of 
land  to  each  state  for  the  identical  purpose 
advocated  by  Professor  Turner.  The  exact 
relations  between  Professor  Turner  and  Con- 
gressman, afterward  Senator,  Morrill  have 
never  been  definitely  established,  because  much 
correspondence  was  burned  during  the  Civil 
War,  but  it  is  known  that  they  conferred. 

The  bill  had  the  usual  experience  of  new 
projects,  complicated  by  the  feeling  that 
too  free  use  was  being  made  of  the  public  lands 
in  too  many  grants,  both  public  and  private. 
Once  the  bill  passed  both  houses,  but  it  was 
promptly  vetoed  by  President  Buchanan. 
It  passed  again,  however,  and  was  approved 
by  President  Lincoln,  July  22,  1862.  Thus 
did  the  United  States  in  the  early  days  of  the 
greatest  civil  war  of  history  lay  the  foundation 
for  a  national  system  of  industrial  education 
with  but  one  alteration  in  the  original  scheme, 
namely,  a  provision  that  military  instruction 
should  be  given  in  all  the  colleges  to  be  estab- 
lished under  the  new  grant. 

The  Land  Grant  Colleges.  —  The  pro- 
visions of  the  land  grant,  or,  as  it  is  commonly 
called,  the  Fir.st  Morrill  Act,  donated  to  each 
state  in  the  Union  public  land  scrip  to  the 
amount  of  30,000  acres  for  each  senator  and 
representative  then  in  Congress,  the  income 
from  the  sale  of  which  should  be  "for  the 
endowment,  support,  and  maintenance  of  at 
least  one  college,  whose  leading  object  shall 
be,  without  excluding  other  scientific  and 
classical  studies,  and  including  military  tactics, 
to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are  re- 
lated to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts 
...  in  order  to  promote  the  liberal  and 
practical  education  of  the  industrial  cla.sses 
in  the  several  pursuits  and  professions  of  life." 
It  was  clearly  the  purpose  of  the  Morrill  Act 
to  establish  a  new  type  of  college,  and  one  that 

'  See  "A  Plan  for  an  Industrial  University,"  United 
States  Patent  Office  Report,  1852. 


should  be  distinctlj^  industrial.  The  objects 
in  view  were  unique  in  another  particular, 
namely,  they  aimed  primarily  at  community 
development  rather  than  the  benefit  of  the 
individual  student. 

Children  from  industrial  families  had  been 
freely  admitted  to  college,  but  only  to  be 
drawn  from  the  industries  into  the  learned 
professions,  which  were  the  only  activities 
recognized  by  the  then  existing  colleges. 
While  this  answered  well  enough  the  purposes 
of  individuals,  it  was  held  by  the  promoters  of 
the  laud  grant  act  to  be  against  the  general 
welfare  that  a  great  system  of  public  education 
should  always  draw  from  the  industries,  and 
particularly  from  the  farm,  without  restoring 
an  equivalent,  either  in  men  or  in  educational 
advantage.  They  held  that  this  was  universal 
education  only  in  a  personal  sense,  and  that 
what  was  then  needed  was  a  new  kind  of  col- 
lege that  should  educate  all  who  were  so  in- 
clined as  directly  for  industrial  pursuits  as  the 
old-time  colleges  had  educated  for  the  learned 
professions.  The  primary  purpose  was  clearly 
the  development  of  the  industries  through  the 
applications  of  science  and  the  activities  of 
educated  men,  all  of  which  was  held  to  be  the 
more  important  as  the  industries  were  at  the 
basis  of  all  civilization  and  would  always  engage 
the  lives  and  activities  of  some  90  or  95  per 
cent  of  the  people. 

Each  state  accepted  the  lands  and  proceeded 
to  establish  its  new  college  according  to  its  local 
conditions  and  its  peculiar  interpretation  of 
the  Morrill  Act.  From  the  fact  that  the  new 
states  were  not  yet  well  organized,  and  that  in 
the  old  states  many  privately  endowed  in- 
stitutions were  languishing  for  lack  of  funds, 
it  is  hardly  strange  that  they  agreed  in  but 
one  respect,  and  that  was  to  accept  the  grant, 
often  without  much  regard  to  the  peculiar 
injunctions  of  the  bill.  Accordingly,  in  the 
East,  speaking  broadly  and  wherever  there  were 
struggling  colleges,  the  land  grant  was  turned 
over  to  existing  institutions,  whose  faculties 
knew  little  and  apparently  cared  less  about  what 
the  law  intended  to  accomplish.  They  had 
troubles  of  their  own,  and,  without  really  getting 
into  the  situation,  they  too  frequently  met  the 
conditions  of  the  act  in  a  perfunctory  way  by 
offering  an  agricultural  and  a  mechanical  course 
very  largely  made  up  of  existing  offerings.  In 
the  West  the  funds  were  quite  generally  used  to 
start  state  universities  that  too  often  operated 
in  the  interest  of  general  education,  without 
devoting  much  energy  to  the  propagation  of  the 
peculiar  educational  ideals  which  the  Morrill 
Act  was  supposed  to  establish. 

In  the  Middle  West  an  intermediate  course 
was  pursued.  Michigan  and  Pennsylvania 
already  possessed  each  an  agricultural  college. 
In  both  cases  the  proceeds  of  the  land  grant 
were  at  once  turned  over  to  these  institutions, 
and  all  energies  were  devoted  to  agriculture, 
ignoring  for  many  years  the  mechanical  inter- 


59 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


ests  provided  for  in  the  act.  In  still  other 
cases  in  the  Middle  West  and  in  the  Southern 
states,  no  college  like  those  of  Michigan  and 
Pennsylvania  being  in  existence,  it  was  quite 
general  to  recognize  the  mechanical  clause  and 
put  in  both  agricultural  and  mechanical  courses, 
sometimes  frankly  calling  them  agricultural  and 
mechanical  colleges,  but  often  ignoring  entirely 
in  the  name  all  reference  to  mechanics  and 
calling  the  institution  simply  an  agricultural 
college,  a  name  that  some  still  retain,  though 
offering  both  courses. 

Of  all  the  separate  agricultural  colleges  so 
named,  that  of  Massachusetts  alone  is  strictly 
agricultural.  In  some  cases  the  new  name, 
"State  College,"  has  been  chosen  by  these  insti- 
tutions so  inappropriately  named  at  the  outset. 
In  still  other  cases  the  state  from  the  first  sup- 
plemented the  land  grant  funds  and  broadened 
the  educational  purpose  under  the  term,  "State 
University,"  a  class  of  institution  which  in  these 
latter  days  is  not  only  satisfying  the  provisions 
of  the  Morrill  Act,  but  is  ministering  to  the  edu- 
cation and  the  development  of  the  .state  in  all 
its  important  activities. 

In  this  heterogeneous  way  did  the  country 
begin  to  execute  its  mixed  and  uncertain  policy 
of  industrial  education  of  college  grade.  Very 
little  serious  study  was  given  to  the  new  and 
far-reaching  policies  introduced  thus  suddenly 
into  the  educational  arena,  and  it  may  bo  said  to 
the  credit  of  some  educators  and  to  the  discredit 
of  others  that  few  of  them  indeed  realized  that 
anything  new  had  really  happened  beyond  an 
attempted  union  of  impossible  things,  and  some 
even  fancied  they  were  rendering  a  real  service 
in  helping  to  remove  this  educational  anomaly, 
whose  powers  for  evil  seemed  gigantic  and 
whose  powers  for  advance  were  not  understood. 

Neither  agriculture  nor  mechanics  was  at 
first  prepared  to  prosper,  educationally.  Neither 
had  approved  courses  of  study,  neither  had 
a  literature,  neither  had  skilled  teachers,  and 
both  were  destitute  of  the  matter  and  the 
methods  of  instruction.  Added  to  this,  there 
was  no  definite  call  for  instruction  in  the  indus- 
tries. Many  people  from  the  industrial  masses 
desired  education,  it  is  true,  but  not  to  increase 
their  industrial  efficiency.  It  was  rather  to 
escape  from  the  industries  into  what  they 
regarded  as  a  life  of  ease -in  the  professions. 

Without  teachers,  without  matter,  methods, 
or  ideals,  and  above  all  without  an  enthusiastic 
clientele,  —  for  farmers  generally  scouted  at 
"  book  farming,"  —  it  is  not  strange  that  the 
"  new  education  "  languished.  Mechanics,  or, 
as  it  later  came  to  be  called,  engineering,  fared 
better  than  agriculture.  The  basis  of  its  sub- 
ject matter  is  mathematics.  Its  material  was 
thus  from  the  start  more  exact  than  were  the 
chemical  and  biological  principles  on  which 
agricultural  science  was  later  to  develop. 

Added  to  this  was  the  impetus  given  to 
invention  and  con.struction,  especially  of  trans- 
portation facilities  and  manufacturing  plants, 


by  the  conditions  prevailing  immediately  upon 
the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  Moreover,  the  first 
results  of  engineering  in.struction  were  stimu- 
lating and  unexpectedly  successful,  whereas 
the  earlier  efforts  in  agriculture  were  pitifully 
unsuccessful,  because  from  the  lack  of  scientific 
data  they  were  mainly  directed  to  the  handicraft 
of  the  profession.  By  18.S0  engineering  courses 
were  fairly  established,  fully  twenty  years  aheail 
of  courses  equally  successful  in  agriculture. 
The  universities  soon  learned  to  tolerate  en- 
gineering and  a  little  later  to  respect  it,  but 
for  forty  years  they  had  little  but  contempt  for 
agriculture  and  agricultural  courses. 

It  was  during  those  dark  days  that  the  serv- 
ices of  Michigan  Agricultural  College  stand 
out  clearly.  It  was  the  work  of  that  pioneer  in- 
stitution, which  graduated  its  second  cla.ss  in  the 
j^ear  the  Morrill  Act  was  passed,  that  did  more 
than  all  other  influences  combined  to  demon- 
strate that  there  really  is  such  a  thing  as  edu- 
cation for  the  affairs  of  country  life,  and  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  through  the  sixties 
and  seventies,  or  for  more  than  twenty  years, 
it  was  the  only  experiment  of  the  new  order 
worth  mentioning.  Following  in  its  footsteps, 
Massachusetts  came  on,  as  did  Kansas  and 
Iowa,  both  to  a  large  extent  founded  on  the 
"  Michigan  idea,"  as  it  was  called.  Pennsyl- 
vania emerged  from  its  financial  embarrassment 
and  joined  the  ranks,  but  Michigan  and  Massa- 
chusetts must  be  regarded  as  the  two  centers 
from  which  the  later  development  in  agricul- 
tural education  chiefly  emanated. 

Influence  of  the  Experiment  Stations.  —  In 
1887  Congress  passed  a  bill  providing  that 
$15,000  in  money  be  appropriated  to  each  state 
for  the  organization  and  conduct  of  an  experi- 
ment station  in  connection  with  its  agricultural 
college.  Two  facts  had  become  painfully  ap- 
parent. One  was  that  the  lands  of  the  original 
grant  had  been  largely  wasted,  and  the  other 
that  agriculture  lacked  a  body  of  exact  scientific 
data  on  which  to  establish  courses  of  reliable 
instruction.  Accordingly  the  Hatch  Act  ajjjiro- 
priated  money  instead  of  lands,  and  made  rigid 
provisions  for  its  expenditure  along  strictly 
agricultural  lines  and  for  research  only.  In 
spite  of  the  utmost  precautions,  some  of  those 
funds  were  absorbed  in  teaching  by  institutions 
still  embarrassed  for  funds,  and  by  men  who 
scarcely  know  the  meaning  of  research,  or,  if 
they  did,  were  ignorant  of  how  to  conduct  it. 

But  in  time,  and  even  in  a  surprisingly  short 
time,  results  began  to  appear.  There  were 
men  who  knew  iiow  to  discover  the  laws  on 
which  plant  and  animal  growth  depend,  and 
those  on  which  the  soil  produces,  and  gradually 
the  scientific  principles  underlying  agricultural 
practice  began  to  be  established.  Moreover, 
these  principles  worked  when  tested  out  in  prac- 
tice, and  for  the  first  time  young  men  fresh  from 
college,  but  in  possession  of  those  principles, 
succeeded  better  than  had  their  fathers,  though 
to  the  art  and  the  manner  born.     That  was 


60 


AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION 


AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION 


what  made  agriculture  respectable  in  the  uni- 
versities, and  about  1905  this  subject  had  gained 
a  permanent  standing  in  some  of  the  best  of  the 
state  institutions,  which  means  that  at  last  it 
was  alongside  other  great  fields  of  inquiry  chal- 
lenging the  abilities  of  the  best  scholars  of  the 
times.  Its  further  progress  was  greatly  stimu- 
lated by  the  "Second  Morrill  Act "  of  1890, 
which  was  a  cash  appropriation  of  §25,000 
annually  for  teaching  purposes;  and  this  is  now 
supplemented  by  the  Nelson  Amendment  of 
1907  for  a  similar  amount. 

Different  Kinds  of  Agriculturnl  Colleges.  — 
Roughly  speaking,  and  allowing  overlapping 
more  or  less,  there  are  nine  kinds  of  agricultural 
colleges,  as  follows:  (1)  The  agricultural  college 
that  offers  agricultural  courses  onlj',  of  which 
Massachusetts  is  about  the  only  example. 
(2)  The  college  that  offers  courses  in  both  agri- 
culture and  engineering,  some  being  known  as 
agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  as  in 
Mississippi;  some  as  state  colleges,  as  in  Iowa 
and  Pennsylvania;  and  a  few  as  agricultural 
colleges,  though  not  confining  themselves  to 
agricultural  courses,  as  in  Michigan  and 
Kansas.  (3)  The  agricultural  college  that  is 
connected  with  a  state  university  and  consti- 
tutes one  of  a  half  dozen  or  more  separate 
colleges,  of  which  engineering  is  a  coordinate 
member,  as  in  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Missouri. 
(4)  The  agricultural  college  that  has  a  similar 
connection  with  a  university  not  a  state  institu- 
tion, as  in  New  York  at  Ithaca  (Cornell).  (5) 
The  college  that  is  organized  in  intimate  rela- 
tion with  its  experiment  station,  as  in  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Michi- 
gan, Kansas,  etc.  (6)  The  college  that  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  experiment  station,  which  exists 
as  a  separate  organization  in  a  distant  part  of 
the  state,  as  in  Ohio  and  Georgia,  and  to  some 
extent  in  Connecticut  and  Louisiana.  (7)  The 
college  that  is  distinct  from  the  station,  but 
which  has  its  offices  and  laboratories  upon  the 
same  campus,  and  perhaps  within  the  same 
buildings,  and  therefore  under  the  same  board  of 
management,  as  in  Maine.  (8)  Colleges  that 
conduct  schools  of  agriculture  of  secondary 
grade  in  connection  with  the  college  organiza- 
tion, notably  Minnesota  and  Nebraska.  (9) 
Colleges  that  conduct  "  short  courses  "  of  ten 
to  twelve  weeks  in  the  winter  and  for  one  or 
more  years  for  students  not  able  to  take  the 
regular  academic  work.  Such  courses  are  se- 
verely technical,  and  are  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  so-called  convention  week  or  farmers' 
week  observed  in  most  of  these  colleges  of  all 
classes. 

Courses  of  Instruction.  —  In  general,  the  ag- 
ricultural colleges  undertake  to  teach  not  the 
art  but  the  science  of  agriculture  and  the 
meaning  of  country  life.  To  this  end  they 
generally  insist  that  approximately  one  half  the 
time  be  devoted  to  technical  courses,  and  the 
other  half  to  the  humanities  and  to  the  sciences 
related    to    agriculture.      In  the  colleges  con- 


nected with  universities  the  technical  work  only 
is  given  by  the  agricultural  organization,  the 
sciences  and  other  nontechnical  subjects  being 
taken  with  other  students  in  the  general  uni- 
versity departments.  In  the  separate  colleges, 
perforce,  scientific  and  literary  departments 
must  be  added.  But  few  set  courses  are  in 
use,  but  in  general  the  technical  instruction  is 
divided  into  many  units,  leaving  large  liberty 
of  election,  with  definite  prerequisites  for  diffi- 
cult courses  and  with  certain  specific  require- 
ments for  graduation.  Students  graduate  from 
the  agricultural  colleges  with  the  degree  of  B.S., 
sometimes  with  B.S.A.  Speaking  generally, 
the  colleges  connected  with  universities  main- 
tain the  same  standards  for  graduation  as  do 
the  other  colleges  of  the  institution,  and  are 
somewhat  above  those  of  the  separated  colleges. 
Matriculation  is  generally  based  upon  14  to  15 
units  of  high  school  work,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, and  with  more  or  less  liberal  provisions 
as  to  special  students  temporarily  admitted  to 
classes  pending  the  completion  of  their  matricu- 
lation. 

Origin  of  the  Short  Course.  —  The  earlier 
attempts,  especially  of  the  universities,  failed 
because  they  erred  in  assuming  that  technical 
instruction  in  agriculture  should  follow  and 
not  precede  or  accompany  the  work  in  related 
sciences.  They  erred  also  in  forgetting  that  no 
traditions  existed  whereby  young  men  expected 
to  fit  themselves  for  college  instruction  in  agri- 
culture. Accordingly,  admission  was  mostly 
beyond  the  reach  of  even  the  few  who  ventured 
to  enter  the  new  courses,  and  for  these  technical 
instruction  was  so  long  deferred  that  interest 
waned  and  died  out.  For  these  and  other  rea- 
sons, the  attendance  everywhere  was  nominal, 
and  the  experiment  was  tried  first  in  Wis- 
consin of  opening  classes  in  technical  instruc- 
tion for  10  to  12  weeks  during  the  most  favor- 
able season,  the  winter,  and  admitting  without 
condition  and  without  credit.  This  is  the  short 
course.  It  drew  large  numbers,  and  has  been 
conducted  by  most  though  not  all  the  colleges 
connected  with  universities,  and  by  many  not 
so  connected. 

Attendance.  —  For  years,  as  has  been  stated, 
the  attendance  of  genuine  agricultural  students 
upon  the  strictly  college  course  was  exceedingly 
limited,  but  latterly,  with  the  increased  value 
of  land  and  the  new  interest  in  agriculture,  the 
number  of  students  is  rapidly  increasing. 
The  following  list  shows  the  increased  attendance 
of  one  of  the  larger  agricultural  colleges,  which 
is  by  no  means  exceptional,  and  at  the  time  of 
writing  for  the  first  time  one  of  the  largest  and 
best  equipped  agricultural  colleges  has  been 
obliged  to  turn  away  students,  even  though  five 
years  ago  it  had  but  a  normal  registration: 
1898-1899,25;  1899-1900,90;  1900-1901,159; 
1901-1902,  232;  1902-1903,  284;  1903-1904, 
339;  1904-1905,  406;  1905-1906,  430;  1906- 
1907,  462;  1907-1908,  528;  1908-1909,  531; 
1909-1910,  660. 


61 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


Househohl  Science  in  Agricultural  Colleges-. 
—  Under  the  above  term,  or  its  equivalents, 
domestic  science  or  home  economics,  the  agri- 
cultural colleges  in  most  of  the  states  have  done 
much  to  develop  the  study  of  household  affairs 
upon  a  strictly  scientific  basis.  For  the  most 
part  the  departments  are  succeeding  from  the 
standpoint  both  of  college  instruction  and  of 
public  gatherings,  such  as  farmers'  institutes. 
Just  why  this  subject  should  have  become  the 
special  proteg^  of  the  agricultural  colleges  it  is 
difficult  to  see,  except  as  we  discover  that  these 
colleges  are  peculiarly  likely  to  function  as 
public  service  institutions.  (See  Household 
Economics.) 

Extension  Work.  —  Either  under  this  head  or 
that  of  institute  work,  or  both,  all  of  the  land 
grant  colleges  of  agriculture,  whether  connected 
with  universities  or  distinct,  are  doing  an  im- 
mense and  rapidly  growing  work.  It  is  a  dis- 
tinct attempt  to  take  the  results  of  new  discover- 
ies and  advanced  practice  direct  to  the  people 
by  avenues  outside  the  classroom,  a  proceeding 
quite  consistent  with  the  theory  that  the  state 
university  and  the  state  college  exist  primarily 
for  the  community  benefit. 

Result.':.  —  Does  the  instruction  given  in  the 
agricultural  colleges  influence  agriculture?  and 
do  the  colleges  educate  toward  oraway  from  the 
farm?  The  answer  is  clear  to  both  questions. 
Under  the  influence  of  the  college,  and  its 
co-worker,  the  experiment  station,  a  new  agri- 
culture is  developing  in  this  country  in  the 
hands  of  an  educateil  and  progressive  people 
who  will  mostly  live  in  the  open  country.  The 
keynote  of  this  new  agriculture  is  business 
organization  and  a  knowledge  of  the  scientific 
principles  underlying  successful  practice.  Under 
new  influences  land  is  rapidh'  rising  in  price,  and 
for  the  first  time  its  fertility  content  is  valued  at 
its  true  significance  and  is  being  considered  from 
its  bearing  on  a  permanent  agriculture. 

Statistics  show  that  approximately  55  per 
cent  of  the  graduates  from  the  colleges  con- 
nected with  universities  are  actively  engaged 
in  farming,  and  that  95  per  cent  are  in  agricul- 
ture in  some  form.  The  45  per  cent  in  agricul- 
tural activities  other  than  farming  are  accounted 
for  by  the  large  and  growing  call  for  teaching 
either  in  colleges  or  schools  and  for  service  in  the 
experiment  stations,  —  indeed,  so  popular  is  the 
new  demand  that  professional  teachers  and 
students  are  now  attracted  to  the  field  quite 
independent  of  the  consideration  of  the  practice 
of  farming. 

Of  the  still  larger  body  who  do  not  graduate, 
practically  all  are  engaged  in  farming,  and  to 
the  credit  alike  of  the  instruction,  the  subject, 
and  the  men,  it  may  be  said  that  the  percentage 
of  failures,  whether  of  graduates  or  otherwise, 
is  remarkably  low.  Education  in  and  for  agri- 
culture seems  to  be  remarkably  successful,  and 
with  the  improvements  that  are  bound  to  come 
in  the  very  near  future,  it  will  stand  as  one  of  the 
most  efficient  of  all  forms  of  education.    E.  D. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Stations.  —  The  first 
institution  of  the  kind  was  established  in  his 
private  capacity  by  i\Ir.  John  Bennett  Lawes  in 
1843  at  Rothamstcd  near  London,  England. 
In  1851  the  first  public  station  was  organized 
at  Mockern,  Ciermany,  with  Dr.  Emil  Wolff  as 
director.  So  efficient  and  useful  has  scientific  re- 
search proved  to  be  in  promoting  the  art  of  agri- 
culture that  agricultural  experiment  stations, 
and  agencies  having  a  like  function,  have  in- 
creased rapidly  throughout  the  entire  civilized 
world,  the  total  luimber  in  existence  at  the 
present  time  i)robably  exceeding  800.  In 
1904  the  number  was  798.  In  the  United 
States  such  stations  now  number  61,  of  which 
every  state  and  territory  has  one  or  more. 
The  foundations  of  these  institutions  were 
really  laid  in  the  act  of  Congress  approved 
July'  2,  1862,  known  as  the  First  Morrill  Act, 
which  donated  public  lands  to  the  several  states 
for  the  purpose  of  establishing  colleges  whose 
main  purpose  should  be  to  teach  such  branches 
of  learning  as  are  related  to  agriculture  and 
the  mechanic  arts.  These  colleges,  nearly  all 
of  which  began  an  active  existence  in  the  late 
sixties,  through  their  influence  on  the  public 
mind  and  their  training  of  young  men  inclined 
to  enter  the  field  of  agricultural  science,  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  later  organization  of  ex- 
periment stations.  Indeed,  many  of  the  colleges 
themselves  encouraged  members  of  their  facul- 
ties to  enter  upon  the  work  of  inquiry  in  the 
interests  of  agriculture,  some  institutions  going 
so  far  as  to  more  or  less  formally  organize 
efforts  for  agricultural  research. 

The  development  of  experiment  stations  in  the 
United  States,  briefly  expressed,  has  been  as 
follows:  There  was  first  more  or  less  agricul- 
tural inquiry  carried  on  by  the  colleges  estab- 
lished under  the  terms  of  the  Morrill  Act  of 
1862;  these  efforts  undoubtedly  led  to  the 
formal  establishment  of  experiment  stations 
by  the  states,  the  first  of  these  being  organized 
at  Connecticut  in  1875,  the  number  rising  to 
about  20  by  1887;  the  passage  in  1887  of  an  act, 
approved  IVIarch  2,  of  that  year  known  as  the 
Hatch  Act,  granting  federal  aid,  .815,000  per 
annum,  to  each  state  and  territory  for  the  inir- 
pose  of  establishing  an  agricultural  experiment 
station  in  order  "  to  promote  scientific  investi- 
gation and  experiment  respecting  the  principles 
and  applications  of  agricultural  science  ";  fur- 
ther legislation,  approved  INIarch  10,  1906, 
known  as  the  Adams  Act,  appropriating  addi- 
tional money  to  each  state,  ultimately  amount- 
ing to  815,000  per  annum,  for  the  more  complete 
endowment  and  maintenance  of  agricultural  ex- 
periment stations,  this  money  "to  be  applied 
only  to  paying  the  necessary  expenses  of  con- 
ducting original  researches  or  experiments  bear- 
ing directly  on  the  agricultural  industry  of  the 
United  States."  In  this  connection  recognition 
should  be  given  to  the  influence  of  a  few  men 
connected  with  the  older  colleges  and  universi- 
ties, including  Professors  Brewer  and  Johnson  of 


62 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


Yale  University,  Professor  Storer  of  Harvard 
University,  Dr.  Evan  Pugh,  President  of  the 
Pennsylvania  State  College,  and  Dr.  W.  O. 
Atwater  of  Wesleyan  University,  who  were 
potent  factors  in  promoting  a  study  of  science 
in  its  relations  to  agriculture. 

Under  the  stimulus  of  the  provisions  of  the 
Hatch  Act  the  majority  of  the  stations  now 
e.xisting  were  organized  in  1887  and  1888, 
and  with  a  few  exceptions  are  established  as 
departments  of  the  colleges  of  agriculture  and 
mechanic  arts.  The  total  income  of  the  .sta- 
tions from  all  sources  is  now  approximately 
three  millions  of  dollars,  more  than  one  half 
of  which  is  outside  of  federal  aid,  the  direct  ap- 
propriations by  state  governments  amounting 
to  nearly  a  million  of  dollars.  Each  station  has 
an  administrative  officer  known  as  the  director, 
with  whom  is  associated  a  staff  of  scientific 
experts  and  such  clerical  help  as  is  necessary 
for  administration  purposes.  In  1908  the 
stations  employed  1143  persons  in  the  work  of 
administration  and  inquiry,  more  than  one 
third  of  whom  were  also  teaching  members  of 
the  faculties  of  the  colleges  to  which  the  sta- 
tions are  attached. 

It  is  provided  in  both  the  Hatch  and 
Adams  acts  that  the  national  Department 
of  Agriculture  shall  exercise  an  advisory,  and 
within  certain  limits  a  supervisory,  relation  to 
the  experiment  stations  established  under  the 
provisions  of  these  acts.  It  is  made  the  duty  of 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  "  in  general,  to 
furnish  such  advice  and  assistance  as  will  best 
promote  the  purpose  of  this  [Hatch]  act." 
Beginning  with  the  agricultural  appropriation 
act  of  1904,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  is  also 
directed  to  ascertain  whether  the  appropriations 
to  the  stations  are  expended  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  the  federal  law.  The  Adams 
Act  contains  a  similar  provision.  In  1888  the 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations  was  established 
in  the  Department  of  Agriculture  as  an  agency 
through  which  to  deal  with  the  stations,  and 
each  year  a  representative  of  this  office  visits 
each  station  and  inquires  into  its  work.  This 
in  no  way  interferes  with  the  autonomy  of 
the  states  in  organizing  and  directing  the 
activities  of  the  stations  in  conformity  to  the 
federal  laws. 

The  subjects  to  which  the  stations  are  giving 
attention  are  numerous,  but  are  chiefly  included 
under  the  heads  of  agricultural  engineering,  agri- 
cultural technics,  agronomy,  animal  husbandry 
including  poultry,  animal  nutrition,  animal 
pathology,  agricultural  and  pathogenic  bacteri- 
ology, economic  entomology,  forestry,  horticul- 
ture, mycology,  plant  nutrition,  and  plant 
pathology.  In  the  pursuance  of  their  investiga- 
tions the  stations  use  both  laboratory  methods 
and  observations  in  the  realm  of  practice.  For 
instance,  the  problem  of  the  influence  of  particu- 
lar fertilizers  upon  a  given  crop  requires  that 
the  field  experiments  shall  be  supplemented  by 
chemical  determinations;  a  new  insect  pest  can 


be  most  successfully  attacked  after  its  life 
history  is  known;  the  life  processes  of  a  patho- 
genic organism  affecting  either  animals  or 
plants  must  be  known  before  intelligent  pre- 
ventive measures  are  possible;  problems  in  the 
nutrition  of  animals  require  elaborate  chemical 
study  of  metabolic  processes,  the  technics  of 
dairying  are  largely  based  on  chemical  and 
bacteriological  research;  and  so  on  through 
the  whole  list  of  agricultural  problems.  This 
means  that  inquiries  in  the  field  of  so-called  pure 
science  must  be  coordinated  with  a  study  of  the 
utilitj'  to  agriculture  of  the  knowledge  that  is 
acquired. 

The  results  which  the  stations  reach  are  given 
to  the  public  mostly  in  publications  known  as 
bulletins,  which  vary  in  type  from  those  purely 
technical  to  those  of  a  popular  character.  Some 
stations  issue  an  annual  report  which  contains 
a  complete  account  of  the  work  and  operations 
for  a  year.  Station  investigators  frequently 
publish  articles  in  scientific  journals.  Circulars 
and  press  bulletins  are  also  sent  out.  For  1904 
the  stations  issued  499  annual  reports,  bulletins, 
and  circulars,  to  889,000  addresses  on  the  regular 
mailing  lists.  Under  the  terms  of  the  Hatch 
Act  these  various  publications  are  distributed 
through  the  mail  without  the  payment  of 
postage.  An  extensive  correspondence  with 
farmers  has  grown  up,  amounting  to  thousands 
of  letters  annually  from  a  single  institution. 
Members  of  station  staffs  assist  in  maintaining 
farmers'  institutes,  which  were  attended  in  1908 
by  nearly  2,500,000  persons. 

The  experiment  stations  should  be  regarded 
as  agencies  created  to  exercise  a  distinct  function 
that  is  fundamental  to  the  progress  of  agricul- 
tural science,  viz,  scientific  research  along  lines 
related  to  agricultural  practice.  This  function 
does  not  properly  include  academic  or  popular 
teaching  or  the  administration  of  laws.  But  it 
can  scarcely  be  said  that  so  far  any  American 
experiment  station  has  devoted  its  energies 
entirely  to  the  work  of  inquiry,  and  some  sta- 
tions have  not  confined  their  efforts  even 
chiefly  to  the  field  of  real  investigation.  In 
several  states  the  stations  have  not  only  been 
charged  with  the  scientific  service  incidental  to 
inspection  laws,  but  also  with  the  duty  of  initiat- 
ing and  maintaining  prosecutions  for  the  viola- 
tion of  the  pro\'isions  of  such  laws.  Other 
causes  have  operated  to  minimize  the  extent  and 
efficiency  of  research  efforts.  First  of  all,  not 
far  from  two  fifths  of  the  members  of  stations 
are  also  college  teachers,  an  arrangement  said  to 
have  the  advantages  of  economy  of  effort  and 
of  associating  research  with  teaching,  but  which 
under  conditions  that  have  existed  has  un- 
doubtedly often  reacted  seriously  upon  the 
station  activities.  It  cannot  be  said  that  in  the 
matter  of  available  time  or  in  the  range  of  sub- 
jects taught  the  teaching  conditions  in  our 
American  colleges  are  generally  favorable  to 
the  spirit  of  inquiry.  Again,  demands  of  the 
agricultural  public  for  the  solution  of  problems 


63 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


and  the  means  provided  by  national  and  state 
governments  have  been  greatly  in  excess  of  the 
supply  of  men  adequately  trained  for  the 
expenditure  of  funds  in  cajiable  investigation. 
More  than  this,  members  of  station  staffs  have 
done  a  large  amount  of  publicity  work  incident 
to  the  necessary  legislative  support  and  the 
cultivation  of  public  understanding  and  good 
will.  A  most  serious  influence  has  been  the 
practical  coercion  of  station  workers  into  super- 
ficial iiujuiry  and  immature  conclusions  in  an 
attempt  to  promptly  justify  tlie  expenditure  of 
public  funds  for  scientific  aid  to  agriculture. 
This  has  been  accompanied  by  such  a  diffusion 
of  effort  in  a  great  variety  of  directions  as  to 
preclude  the  severe  study  of  very  many  prob- 
lems. But  notwithstanding  these  untoward 
conditions,  the  experiment  stations  have  worked 
out  many  results  greatly  valuable  to  both 
science  and  practice,  and  have  exerted  a  marked 
and  helpful  influence  in  enlarging  and  modifying 
the  subject  matter  of  the  classroom  and  in  ele- 
vating the  standards  of  farm  management.  As 
time  goes  on  there  will  undoubtedly  come  about 
on  the  part  of  these  institutions  a  closer  adher- 
ence to  their  special  functions  which  will  un- 
doubtedly make  possible  results  of  higher  scien- 
tific and  practical  value.  W.  H.  J. 

Agricultural  Instruction  in  the  Lower  Schools. 
—  The  agricultural  colleges  have  done  much, 
during  the  past  forty  years,  to  prepare  the  way 
for  an  extension  of  agricultural  instruction  and 
to  stimulate  an  interest  in  the  subject,  and  the 
very  important  work  which  they  have  done  in 
laying  a  foundation  of  sound  agricultural  knowl- 
edge was  a  necessary  prereciuisite  to  any  general 
movement  for  the  extension  downward  of 
agricultural  instruction.  Knowledge  had  to 
be  accumulated,  extended,  and  popularized  be- 
fore agricultural  instruction  below  the  colleges 
could  become  possible.  The  recent  activity  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
in  stimulating  and  encouraging  the  many  efforts 
looking  toward  the  extension  of  agricultural 
knowledge  and  agricultural  instruction  have 
been  of  great  service.  The  movement  has  also 
been  greatly  aided  by  the  knowledge,  which  has 
come  to  us  within  recent  years,  of  what  Euro- 
pean states  and  nations  have  been  and  are 
doing  in  agricultural  instruction,  and  the 
success  which  has  attended  their  efforts.  The 
work  of  France  in  particular  has  been  an  in- 
spiration to  us.  Another  influence  which  has 
greatly  aided  the  movement  has  been  the 
growing  realization  that  this  nation  must, 
ultimately,  be  a  great  agricultural  nation,  and 
that  our  present  wasteful  and  unintelligent 
methods  of  agriculture  will  not  do  for  the 
future.  To  find  a  means  of  disseminating 
proper  ideas  as  to  how  best  to  conserve  and  to 
improve  our  great  national  resource  has  been  a 
strong  motive  underlying  the  movement. 

Certain  movements  within  the  schools  them- 
selves have  fitted  in  with  and  helped  to  prepare 
the  way  for  the  development  of  agricultural  in- 


struction. The  general  introduction  of  nature 
study  into  our  schools,  which  came  with  the 
popularization  of  science,  has  been  of  very 
material  value  in  preparing  the  way  and  in 
developing  teachers  capable  of  taking  up  the 
agricultural  work.  The  still  more  recent  school 
garden  movement  (q.r.)  and  the  general  demand 
for  more  ])ractical  instruction  in  the  public 
schools,  both  elementary  and  secondary,  have 
also  contributed  their  share  in  preparing  the 
way  for  the  somewhat  general  introduction  of 
agricultural  instruction.  As  the  movement  has 
grown  in  importance  and  definiteness,  the  far- 
reaching  results,  both  economic  and  educational, 
have  come  more  clearly  into  view,  and  the 
movement  has  in  turn  begun  materially  to 
change  our  conceptions  of  the  methods  of  pro- 
cedure, purposes,  and  needs  of  the  rural  scliool 
and  of  the  high  school  in  particular,  and  bids 
fair  to  modify  for  good  our  whole  educational 
work. 

Agriculhirnl  High  Schools.  — Schools  of  second- 
ary grade  for  theoretical  and  practical  train- 
ing in  agriculture  exist  in  France,  Germany, 
Austria,  Sweden,  and  Japan.  The  ecoles 
pratiques  of  France,  first  established  in  1875,  and 
of  which  there  are  now  about  50  in  existence, 
are  in  reality  secondary  schools  for  the  training 
in  agriculture  of  the  sons  of  peasant  proprietors 
or  small  farmers,  and  with  a  two  years'  course 
of  instruction.  In  Germany  many  agricultural 
schools  have  been  established,  beginning  at  the 
close  of  the  RealschMlcn  course,  or  at  the  end  of 
iintcr-!iccun(la  of  the  Gymnasia  or  Realgjjmnasia, 
in  which  natural  sciences  and  agriculture  take 
the  place  of  the  languages  and  mathematics 
of  the  gymnasial  course.  In  Japan  any  city, 
town,  or  village  may  establish  a  secondary 
school,  if  the  local  finances  will  permit  of  so 
doing  without  detriment  to  the  elementary 
schools  of  the  place.  By  1904  there  were  57 
such  schools  in  Japan,  and  the  number  is  in- 
creasing every  year. 

It  was  thirty  years  after  the  establishment  of 
agricultural  colleges  in  this  country  before  the 
first  successful  agricultural  high  school  was 
established.  This  one,  established  in  1888, 
was  in  connection  with  the  University  of  Minne- 
sota, and  its  success  was  pronounced  from  the 
first.  By  1898,  however,  the  number  of  agricul- 
tural high  schools  had  only  increased  to  10, 
and  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  normal 
schools  and  the  elementary  schools  of  the 
country  had  only  begun.  Since  then  the  de- 
velopment of  secondary  instruction  in  agricul- 
ture has  been  much  more  rapid,  though  the  de- 
velopment has  not  been  so  fast  as  in  the  case 
of  agricultural  instruction  in  the  elementary 
schools. 

To  provide  instruction  in  agriculture  in  the 
high  schools  is  a  very  much  easier  problem  than 
to  provide  such  instruction  for  elementary 
schools.  The  age  and  mental  capacity  of  the 
I)upils,  the  nature  of  the  school,  and  the  char- 
acter of  its  work  and  equipment,  all  tend  toward 


64 


AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION 


AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION 


a  specialization  in  subject  matter,  and  spe- 
cialized agricultural  subjects  are  much  better  or- 
ganized and  are  easier  to  teach  than  the  more 
generalized  work  of  the  elementary  school. 
The  equipment  needed,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
more  extensive,  few  good  textbooks  of  second- 
ary grade  have  as  yet  been  provided,  just 
what  is  to  be  taught  has  not  as  yet  been  defi- 
nitely decided  upon  and  put  into  practice, 
and  the  number  of  properly  equipped  teachers 
is  relatively  small,  and  probably  will  continue 
to  be  much  less  than  the  demand  for  some 
time  to  come. 

Statistics  collected  in  May,  1909,  showed 
that  the  number  of  agricultural  high  schools, 
or  colleges  offering  dQfinite  secondary  agricul- 
tural courses,  had  increased  to  60;  that  346 
public  high  schools  were  teaching  agriculture 
as  a  part  of  the  high  school  course  ;  that  119 
state  and  county  normal  schools  and  16  agri- 
cultural colleges  were  training  teachers  to  teach 
agriculture  in  the  schools  ;  that  a  number  of 
private  secondary  schools  were  aiding  in  the 
work  ;  and  that  16  institutions  offered  corre- 
spondence or  reading  courses  of  .secondary 
grade.  In  all  about  500  institutions  were 
giving  secondary  instruction  in  agriculture 
in  May,  1909,  and  the  number  has  materially 
increased  since  then.  Some  instruction  in 
agriculture  is  now  being  added  to  secondary 
school  courses  so  fast  and  in  so  many  parts  of 
the  country  that  it  is  difficult  to  know  in  how 
many  schools  and  where  it  is  given. 

The  schools  giving  secondary  work  in  agri- 
culture may  be  classified  as  follows:  — 

(a)  Secondary  schools  of  agriculture  in  con- 
nection with  the  colleges  of  agriculture.  The 
Minnesota  school  is  of  this  type,  and  similar 
schools  of  agriculture,  or  two-year  or  three- 
year  practical  courses,  are  now  maintained  in 
connection  with  the  colleges  of  agriculture  in 
Alabama,  Arkansas,  California,  Colorado, 
Connecticut,  Delaware,  Florida,  Idaho,  Ken- 
tucky, Louisiana,  Maine,  Maryland,  Alinne- 
sota,  Mississippi,  Montana,  Nebraska,  Nevada, 
New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  ^Mexico, 
North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  Oregon,  Penn- 
sylvania, Porto  Rico,  Rhode  Island,  South 
Dakota,  Texas,  Utah,  Virginia,  Washington, 
West  Virginia,  Wisconsin,  and  Wyoming.  In 
addition,  a  number  of  the  agricultural  colleges 
are  giving  instruction  which  is  secondary  in 
nature,  though  it  may  not  be  organized  as  such. 
The  16  land-grant  colleges  for  the  colored 
race  in  the  Southern  states  are  in  large  part 
secondary  schools  ;  their  sub-college  work 
representing  at  least  two  thirds  of  their  work. 
These  institutions  have  chosen  to  produce  a 
large  body  of  practical  negro  farmers  for  the 
South  rather  than  to  produce  a  few  highly 
trained  negro  experts. 

(6)  Agricultural  high  schools  located  in  large 
districts,  such  as  those  in  Alabama,  Georgia, 
Virginia,  and  Minnesota.  Alabama  was  the 
first  state  to  organize  such  schools,  and  now 

VOL.  I  —  F  65 


has  9,  one  located  in  each  congressional 
district.  Each  school  has  a  branch  experi- 
mental station  connected  with  it;  it  is  provided 
with  land  for  experimental  and  instructional 
purposes  ;  has  an  equipment  of  buildings, 
animals,  and  machinery  ;  and  receives  a  state 
appropriation  of  S4500  a  year  for  mainte- 
nance. Georgia  has  11  such  schools,  similarly 
located.  Land,  buildings,  and  equipment  were 
furnished  almost  entirely  by  local  contribu- 
tions, and  the  state  grants  from  the  income 
from  fees  and  taxes  about  $7500  a  year  to 
each  school  for  maintenance.  Each  school 
has  not  less  than  200  acres  of  land.  The 
schools  in  each  state  give  a  four  years'  course. 
Other  states  having  somewhat  similar  schools 
are  California  and  Minnesota,  where  one  state 
school  is  provided  ;  New  York,  with  three  such 
schools  ;  Oklahoma,  with  one  such  school 
provided  for  each  of  the  five  judicial  districts 
of  the  state  ;  and  Virginia,  where  it  is  proposed 
to  establish  one  in  each  of  the  ten  congres- 
sional districts  of  the  state.  In  Massachusetts 
a  comprehensive  scheme  of  specialized  agricul- 
tural high  schools  has  been  planned  by  the 
State  Industrial  Commission,  the  plan  being  to 
locate  ten  schools  at  different  places  in  the 
state,  and  to  divide  the  .state  into  ten  large 
agricultural  districts.  (For  a  statement  of  the 
work  of  this  commission  see  a  special  article 
on  Massachusetts  Cojimission  on  Indus- 
trial AND  Technical  Education.)  The  dis- 
trict plan  is  perhaps  the  be.st  arrangement  for 
such  schools,  as  the  state  can  then  be  divided 
into  natural  agricultural  districts,  and  a  school 
located  in  each. 

(c)  County  agricultural  high  schools,  as  in 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  The  first  of  these 
was  established  in  Wisconsin  in  1902,  and  four 
are  now  in  existence.  These  schools  are  built 
and  equipped  at  the  expense  of  the  counties 
where  located,  but  the  state  makes  a  grant  of 
$4000  a  year  for  each  school.  The  Marathon 
County  school  at  Wausau,  and  the  Dunn 
County  school  at  Menomonee  were  opened  in 
1902,  and  similar  schools  have  since  been  opened 
at  Marinette  and  Winneconne.  The  course  of 
study  in  each  is  two  years  in  length,  and  con- 
tains much  practical  and  little  academic  work. 
There  is  a  county  agricultural  high  school  also 
at  Menominee,  Michigan  ;  and  Mississippi 
has  recently  provided  for  state  aid  of  $1000 
a  year  to  county  agricultural  high  schools,  one 
to  be  located  in  each  county  in  the  state. 
County  agricultural  high  schools  are  also  to 
be  found  in  Marj'land.  Experience  so  far 
seems  to  indicate  that  the  county  is  too  small 
a  unit  for  the  proper  equipment  and  mainte- 
nance of  a  good  agricultural  high  school. 

(d)  State  and  county  normal  schools.  Over 
100  normal  schools  in  the  United  States  were 
giving  instruction  in  agriculture  in  1909.  In 
some  schools  a  regular  course  is  given  by  a 
trained  agricultural  teacher;  while  in  others 
the  work  is  done  as  a  part  of  the  science  work. 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


In  all  such  schools  the  aim  of  the  work  is  to 
prepare  teachers  of  the  subject  for  work  in  the 
elementary  schools. 

(e)  Regular  high  schools  offering  instruction 
in  agriculture  as  a  part  of  their  course  of  in- 
struction. In  such  schools  no  uniform  j)lan  is 
followed.  In  some  the  work  consists  of  but 
one  or  two  courses  ;  in  others  a  number  of 
elective  agricultural  studies  are  offered;  while 
in  still  others  a  regular  agricultural  course  is 
given  parallel  with  the  other  courses  of  the 
school.  In  a  few  schools  the  work  is  somewhat 
limited  and  specialized  along  such  lines  as 
horticulture  or  floriculture.  Something  like 
400  schools  were  offering  such  in.struction  at  the 
close  of  the  school  year  in  1909,  and  the  number 
has  increased  since  then.  In  Missouri  alone 
over  200  high  schools  reported  some  instruction 
in  agriculture.  In  some  places,  and  even  in 
some  states,  the  existing  high  schools  are  being 
reorganized  so  as  to  make  them  in  large  part 
agricultural  high  schools.  Circular  No.  91, 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  gives  detailed  courses  of 
instruction  in  horticulture  and  agriculture,  as 
these  have  been  adopted  by  the  Association  of 
American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experi- 
ment Stations. 

(/)  Private  schools  or  semi-private  schools. 
In  this  class  should  be  placed  the  National 
Farm  School,  at  Doylestown,  Pa.,  established  in 
1896  to  provide  instruction  and  practical  form 
work  for  about  40  boys  ;  the  agricultural 
department  of  the  Mount  Hermon  School,  near 
Northfield,  Mass.,  where  instruction  was 
begun  in  1903  ;  the  Smith  Agricultural  School 
and  Northampton  School  of  Technology,  at 
Northampton,  Mass.,  opened  in  1908  ;  the 
Winona  Agricultural  and  Technical  Institute 
at  Winona  Lake,  Indiana,  cstal)lished  in  1902; 
Tuskegee  (f/.c.)  in  Alabama;  and  a  number  of 
privately  endowed  colleges,  which  afford  second- 
ary instruction  in  agriculture  as  a  part  of 
their  work,  and  nearly  all  of  which  are  located 
in  the  upper  Mississippi  valley.  The  schools 
at  Doyleston,  Northampton,  and  Tuskegee 
also  receive  some  state  aid.  At  Groton,  Mass., 
a  school  of  horticulture  and  landscape  garden- 
ing for  women  has  been  opened,  and  a  course  in 
horticulture  is  now  given  at  Wellcsley  College. 

What  is  the  best  way  to  develop  secondary 
instruction  in  agriculture  is  as  yet  a  somewhat 
unsettled  question.  Whether  it  is  better  to 
aid  the  present  school  system  to  evolve  agri- 
cultural instruction  out  of  the  present  work, 
anil  thus  make  agricultural  instruction  an 
integral  part  of  the  regular  school  system  ;  or 
whether  it  is  best  to  establish  special  and  inde- 
pendent schools  for  the  teaching  of  agriculture 
and  domestic  subjects,  —  has  not  as  yet  been 
decided.  The  latter  method  at  present  seems 
to  meet  W'ith  the  greatest  favor  from  practical 
men,  but  many  educators  favor  the  former  plan, 
believing  that  the  inclusion  of  agricultural 
instruction  into  the  regular  work  of  the  second- 


ary schools,  rather  than  setting  it  off  as  a  special 
kind  of  eilucation  for  which  special  and  inde- 
pendent schools  need  to  be  established,  is  best 
for  us  as  a  nation.  It  was  this  conception  of 
the  unity  of  all  education  wdiich  led  to  the  oppo- 
sition, from  educational  workers,  to  the  con- 
gressional proposal  of  190S  to  grant  aid  from  the 
national  treasurj'  toward  the  establishment  of 
separate  secondary  schools  of  agriculture  in 
the  different  states.  It  is  probable  that  lioth 
types  of  schools  will  be  needed,  and  will  exist 
side  by  side,  the  larger  and  more  specialized 
schools  being  organized  for  agricultural  dis- 
tricts, as  was  proposed  for  Massachusetts,  and 
some  agricultural  instruction  being  introduced 
into  most  of  the  towni  and  rural  high  schools. 

Agriciilliire  in  the  Elementary  Schools.  —  In- 
struction in  the  elements  of  agriculture  began 
in  Europe  long  before  it  began  in  this  country, 
and  in  certain  European  states  such  instruction 
is  a  general  reciuirement  for  all  rural  elementary 
schools  and  for  all  training  schools  for  teachers. 
In  France  the  work  is  oldest,  and  is  very 
thoroughly  provided  for.  In  1879  every  normal 
school,  and  in  1882  every  rural  primary  school, 
was  required  to  give  a  place  in  the  course  of 
study  to  elementary  agriculture.  For  some  time 
the  work  was  indefinite  and  general,  but  in  1896 
the  course  of  study  in  agriculture  was  revised 
and  the  instruction  made  very  definite  and 
practical.  Since  that  time  progress  has  been 
very  marked.  At  the  present  time  agriculture 
is  taught  in  every  rural  primary  school  in 
France.  The  work  begins  with  object  lessons 
in  the  primary  grades,  changes  to  nature  study 
of  a  practical  kind  in  the  intermediate  grades, 
and  changes  further  to  agriculture  and  hygiene 
in  the  upper  grades,  with  practical  exercises  in 
the  experimental  plot  in  cultivation,  and  in 
grafting.  In  some  departments  girls  receive 
the  same  instruction  as  boys  ;  in  others  the 
courses  are  partly  parallel,  but  with  special  em- 
phasis for  girls  on  those  aspects  of  home  life 
and  work  which  in  France  are  the  work  of 
women,  such  as  butter-  and  cheese-making, 
poultry-raising,  and  gardening.  Almost  every 
rural  school  has  a  garden  attached  to  it,  where 
intensive  work  is  carried  on.  A  regular  text  in 
agriculture  is  used.  In  the  higher  primary 
schools  a  further  theoretical  course  in  agricul- 
ture is  given,  and  in  rural  sections,  or  where 
demanded  by  parents,  this  is  further  supple- 
mented by  practical  exercises. 

Many  other  European  countries  provide 
instruction  in  agriculture  in  their  elementary 
schools,  lielgium  has  one  of  the  best  systems  of 
elementary  agricultural  instruction  in  Europe. 
Beginning  about  twenty  j-ears  ago,  and  after 
the  plan  of  the  French,  Belgium  has  since 
developed  an  excellent  and  an  individual 
sy.stem  of  its  own.  The  theory  and  practices 
of  agriculture,  closely  adapted  to  local  needs, 
are  now  taught  in  nearly  all  of  the  rural  pri- 
mary schools  of  the  kingdom.  The  course  of 
instruction    in  all  of  the  state  normal  schools 


66 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


includes  agriculture,  and  summer  agricultural 
normal  schools  for  the  instruction  of  teachers 
in  service  have  been  held.  Germany,  Austria, 
and  Switzerland  have  developed  special  agri- 
cultural schools,  rather  than  general  work  in 
agriculture  in  connection  with  the  elementary 
schools.  In  Sweden  the  elements  of  agricul- 
ture and  forestry  are  taught  in  all  the  rural 
schools,  and  most  of  the  Swedish  schools  possess 
school  gardens.  The  English  colonies,  in  par- 
ticular the  West  Indies,  Canada,  and  Australia, 
have  provided  for  agricultural  instruction  in 
certain  grades,  but  in  Great  Britain  little  has 
been  done.  Japan  has  recently  introduced 
agricultural  instruction  into  the  schools  of  the 
empire,  and  so  marked  have  been  the  advances 
that  Japan  has  at  present  one  of  the  most  com- 
plete systems  of  agricultural  education  to  be 
found.  A  comprehensive  scheme  of  instruc- 
tion involving  nature  study,  school  gardens, 
and  agricultural  instruction  is  being  provided 
as  an  integral  part  of  the  elementary  school 
system  of  the  empire. 

Practicall.v  nothing  was  done  toward  the 
introduction  of  instruction  in  elementar}'  agri- 
culture in  the  United  States  before  1900,  but 
since  1900,  and  particularly  since  1905,  very 
rapid  progress  has  been  made.  At  present  the 
movement  for  agricultural  education  is  awaken- 
ing very  great  interest  in  all  parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  many  states  have  included  such 
instruction  as  a  part  of  the  elementary  course 
of  study  and  as  a  part  of  the  requirements 
for  certificates  to  teach  in  the  schools.  The 
South  and  the  Middle  West  have  done  most  in 
this  direction.  By  October,  1908,  Alabama, 
Georgia,  Mississippi,  Mi.ssouri,  Nebraska,  New 
York,  North  Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Virginia, 
and  Wisconsin  had  added  agriculture  to  the  list 
of  teachers'  examination  subjects,  and  agri- 
culture had  been  added  to  the  list  of  subjects 
to  be  taught  in  the  common  schools  of  Ala- 
bama, Arkansas,  California,  Georgia,  Louisiana, 
Maine,  Maryland,  Mississippi,  North  Carolina, 
Oklahoma,  South  Carolina,  South  Dakota, 
Texas,  and  Wisconsin.  The  state  normal 
schools  in  nearly  all  of  these  states,  and  in  a  ' 
number  of  others,  have  added  courses  of  instruc- 
tion intended  to  prepare  teachers  of  the  subject, 
and  the  state  normal  schools  of  Wisconsin, 
Illinois,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  and  North  Dakota 
have  done  conspicuous  work  in  preparing 
teachers  of  agriculture.  Nearly  one  half  of 
the  agricultural  colleges  of  the  country  have 
also  joined  in  the  movement  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  agricultural  teachers,  the  work  of  Cor- 
nell University,  the  University  of  Illinois, 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  and  the 
Ohio  State  University  being  especially  note- 
worthy. The  state  experiment  stations  and 
the  national  Department  of  Agriculture  have 
cooperated,  many  bulletins  have  been  issued 
by  these  and  by  state  educational  departments, 
and  good  textbooks  for  the  use  of  teachers 
and  pupils  are  now  beginning  to  appear.     No 

67 


new  movements,  looking  to  the  vitalizing  of 
the  work  of  instruction  in  the  elementary 
school,  has  ever  met  with  so  ready  a  response 
on  the  part  of  the  people  or  been  adopted  with 
such  ease  and  such  rapidity.  There  is  every 
promise  that  the  movement  will  spread  until 
agricultural  instruction  in  some  form  becomes 
a  part  of  the  course  'of  instruction  for  the  rural 
schools  and  small  town  schools  of  aU  of  the 
agricultural  sections  of  the  country. 

An  important  accompaniment  of  the  move- 
ment, in  many  places,  has  been  the  organiza- 
tion of  boys'  agricultural  clubs,  and  the  interest 
taken  in  their  work  by  the  farmers  themselves. 
In  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
Ohio,  and  Texas  especially  noteworthy  results 
have  been  attained  through  these  clubs.  Seeds 
have  been  distributed,  prize-winning  gardens 
have  been  planted  and  cared  for,  exhibitions  of 
products  and  judging  contests  have  been  held, 
and  deep  community  interest  has  been  awak- 
ened. Farmers'  institutes  have  taken  on  new 
life,  excursions  to  agricultural  colleges  have 
been  run,  and  special  lecturers  have  been  sent 
out  to  talk  to  the  boys  and  girls.  In  Illinois 
the  college  of  agriculture  arranged  a  two  weeks' 
cour.se  of  instruction  in  agriculture,  suitable 
for  boys,  and  the  first  premium  offered  in  a 
number  of  counties  was  a  trip  to  the  agricul- 
tural college  to  receive  this  instruction. 

As  to  the  nature  and  content  of  agricultural 
instruction  for  elementary  schools  there  seems 
to  be  a  somewhat  general  agreement  among 
students  of  the  subject  as  to  what  should  and 
should  not  be  done,  though  the  practice  in 
different  states  is  not  always  in  harmony  with 
the  best  theory.  The  main  effort  in  all  ele- 
mentary instruction  is  to  be  put  on  the  pupil 
himself  rather  than  on  subject  matter,  to  open 
his  eyes  to  the  vegetable  and  animal  life  about 
him,  and  to  relate  him  to  his  environment.  To 
be  a  good  farmer  he  must  be  a  good  naturalist. 
Good  farming  demands  sensitiveness  to  the 
phj'sical  environment.  The  imparting  of  in- 
formation about  agricultural  objects  and  prac- 
tices is  of  little  value  compared  with  opening 
the  eyes  of  the  child  to  the  things  in  nature 
about  him.  Whatever  agricultural  instruction 
is  given  must  be  of  a  kind  that  is  useful  and 
educative  to  the  child  ;  subjects  are  not  to  be 
introduced  because  grown-up  farmers  think 
them  useful. 

The  best  opinion  is  that  up  to  the  sixth  year 
the  instruction  in  agriculture  should  be  gener- 
alized nature  study,  though  closely  related 
to  the  school  environment.  After  the  sixth 
year  the  work  is  to  be  directed  more  toward 
agricultural  topics.  The  plan  recommended 
by  the  Committee  on  Industrial  Education  in 
Schools  for  Rural  Communities  is  that  the  first 
five  years  should  be  devoted  to  generalized 
nature  study,  and  that  concrete  and  applied 
nature  study  be  given  in  the  sixth,  seventh, 
and  eighth  grades,  as  follows:  first  half 
of  the  sixth  year,   the  affairs  of    agriculture; 


AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


second  half,  the  soil;  seventh  year,  farming 
schemes  and  crops;  eighth  year,  animals;  all 
formal  and  technical  agriculture  to  be  deferred 
until  the  high  school.  The  Committee  on 
Instruction  in  Agriculture  of  the  Association  of 
American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experi- 
ment Stations,  which  is  a  high  authority  in 
this  country  on  matters  relating  to  agricultural 
education,  recommends  a  course  of  instruction 
consisting  of  generalized  nature  study,  with 
school  gardens,  in  the  first  three  grades;  nature 
study  with  school  and  home  gardens  in  the 
fourth,  fiftii,  and  sixth  grades;  and  elementary 
agriculture  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 
This  committee  has  prepared  a  syllabus  of  a 
course  in  elementary  agriculture  which  it 
recommends  for  elementary  schools  (Circular 
No.  60,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations),  and  a 
series  of  exercises  in  elementary  agriculture 
for  the  seventh  grade  in  these  schools  (Bulletin 
No.   ISG,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations). 

E.  P.  C.  AND  L.  H.  B. 
A  fuller  discussion  of  agricultural  instruc- 
tion in  the  elementary  and  secondary  school 
will  be  found  under  such  topics  as  Gardens, 
School;  Nature  Study;  and  Rural  Schools 
(q.V.). 

References :  — 

(Agricultural  Colleges) 

Annual  Reports  of  the  \-arious  Agricultural  Colleges. 

Congressional  Record,  1857-1862. 

Davenpuht,  E.  Address  upon  The  History  of  Col- 
legiate Education  in  Agriculture,  licfore  the  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Agricultural  Science,  1907. 

Department  of  Agriculture  Year  Book  :  — 

1899,  p.  157.     Agricultural  Education  in  the  United 

States.     By  A.  C.  True. 
1898,  p.  63.     Some  Types  of  American  Agricultural 

Colleges.     By  A.  C.  True. 
1897,  p.  279.     Popular  Education  for  the  Farmer  in 

the  United  States.     By  A.  C.  True. 
1894,  p.  81.     Education  and  Research  in  Agriculture 
in  the  United  States.     By  A.  C.  True. 

History  of  the  Foutiding  of  tkc  College  of  Agriculture, 
State  College,  Pennsylvania. 

Memorial  Volume.  The  Semi-Centennial  Celebration  of 
Michigan  Agricultural  College. 

Xcw  York  Triljune,  1S57. 

Patent  Office  Record,  1852. 

Organization  List  of  the  Agricultural  Colleges  and 
Experiment  Stations  in  the  United  States,  pub- 
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(Experiment  Stations  and  Colleges) 

Allen,  E.  W.  Some  Ways  in  which  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  the  Experiment  Stations  supplement 
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the  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  for  1901  to   1908,  inclusive. 

Beal,  W.  H.  Some  Practical  Results  of  Experiment 
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Crosby,  D.  J.  Organization  and  Work  of  Agricultural 
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De  Vdyst,  p.  Agricultural  Instruction  and  its  Methods. 
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Experiment  Station  Record.  Office  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, U.S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Washington,  D.C. 

The  Record  contains  numerous  atjstracts  of  the 
publications  of  the  agricultural  experiment  stations  and 
kindred  institutions  in  this  and  other  countries  ;  articles 
and  editorials  on  topics  of  special  interest  in  agricul- 
tural science  by  American  and  foreign  experts  ;  and 
notes  on  the  experiment  stations. 

Suljscribers  can  procure  this  publication  regularly 
from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington, 
D.C,  at  SI  per  volume,  payable  in  advance,  two  volumes 
of  eight  numbers  each  being  issued  in  a  year. 

Experiment  Station  Work.  Office  of  Experiment 
Stations,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Washington,  D.C. 

Experiment  Station  Work  is  published  periodically 
in  the  Farmers'  Bulletin  series  of  this  department,  and 
gives  a  popular  summary  of  some  of  the  more  salient 
practical  results  of  the  work  of  the  experiment  stations. 

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No.  77,  True,  .\.C.   A  Secondary  Course  in  Agronomy. 

44  pp.      (1908.) 
No.  83,  True,  A.  C.  and  Crosby,  D.  J.     The  Ameri- 
can System  of  Agricultural  Education.     27  pp.     lUd. 
(1909.) 
No.  84,   Hays,  W.   M.    Education  for  Country  Life. 

40  pp.      (1909.) 
No.  90,  Abbey,  M.  J.     Normal  School  Instruction  in 

Agriculture.     31  pp.      (1909.) 
No.  91,  True,  A.  C.     Secondary  Education  in  Agricul- 
ture in  the  United   States.    11  pp.    (1909.)      Outline 
courses  of  study  in  Horticulture  and  in  Agriculture. 
U.S.  Dept.  of   Agriculture,  Office   of   Experiment  Sta- 
tions, Bulletin  :  — 
No.    186,  Crosby,    D.    J.     Exercises    in    Elementary 
Agriculture.     48  pp.      (1907.) 
U.S.  Com.  of  Educ,  Annual  Reports:  — 

The  Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  Schools  of  France 
and  Belgium  ;  in  Rept.  for  1905,  Vol.  I,  pp.  87-96. 
Agricultural  High  Schools  ;  in  Rept.  for  1909,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  146-150. 


68 


AGRONOMY 


AIR  OF  THE   SCHOOLROOM 


Since  about  1904  the  magazines  have  contained  many 
articles  on  this  topic.  See  Poole 's  A  n  n  ual  Index.  Also 
consult  the  Index  to  the  U.S.  Com.  Educ.  Reports.  1867- 
1907:  the  Index  to  IheProc.  N.E.A.,  1S57-1906:  and  the 
Annual  Bibliographies  of  Education  since  1904.  (See 
article  on  Bibliographies  op  Education.) 

AGRONOMY.  —  See  Agricultural  Educa- 
tion ;    EOTAXY. 

AHMES. —  An  Egyptian  scribe,  Aahmesu 
("the  moon-born"),  who  wrote  in  the  reigu  of 
Ra-a-us  (Apepa  or  Apophis),  probably  about 
1700  B.C.  He  copied  a  papyrus  written  some 
centuries  earlier,  entitled  Directions  for  Obtain- 
ing the  Knowledge  of  all  Dark  Things,  and  this 
copy  is  still  preserved  in  the  Rhind  collection 
in  the  British  Museum.  It  is  the  oldest 
extant  manuscript  on  mathematics,  although 
we  have  a  few  Babylonian  cylinders  containing 
numerical  tables  and  directions  for  mensura- 
tion. The  work  is  largely  devoted  to  an  elabo- 
rate treatment  of  unit  fractions.  It  also  gives 
some  crude  work  in  linear  equations  and  in 
mensuration.  A  facsimile  of  the  manuscript 
has  been  published  by  the  British  Museum,  and 
the  treatise  has  been  translated  into  German 
by  Eisenlohr.  D.  B.  S. 

AHN,  JOHANN  FRANZ. —(1796-1865). 
A  German  teacher  and  textbook  writer. 
Born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  he  first  started  in 
business,  but  soon  turned  to  teaching.  From 
1843  to  1863  he  taught  modern  languages  at 
the  Realschule  in  Neuss,  Rhine  province.  He 
acquired  a  great  reputation  as  the  author  of  a 
textbook  for  the  study  of  French,  Prakti.scher 
Lehrgang  zur  schnellen  und  leichten  Erlernung 
der  franzosischen  Sprache,  Koln,  1834  (Practical 
Method  for  the  quick  and  easy  acquisition  of  the 
French  language),  which  has  passed  through  over 
100  editions.  His  method  was  widely  imitated 
and  applied  to  the  study  of  English  and  other 
modern  languages. 

AID    FOR    COMMON    SCHOOLS.  —  See 

Apportionment    of   School    Funds. 

AID  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  —  See  High 
Schools,  Support  of. 

AID  FOR  POOR   COMMUNITIES.  —  See 

Apportion.ment  of  School  Funds. 

AIDS,  VISUAL. —  See   Visual    Aids;    Ap- 

PAKATCS. 

AIM  OF  EDUCATION.  —  See  End  in  Edu- 
cation; Course  of  Study,  Theory  of;  Cul- 
ture; Humanism;  Naturalism;  Philosophy 
of  Education. 

AIM,  STATEMENT  OF  THE,  IN  METHOD 
OF  THE  RECITATION.  —  In  the  contem- 
porary treatment  of  the  method  of  the  recita- 
tion, more  particularly  the  "  inductive  develop- 
ment   lesson,"    a    preliminary  or  sub-step    in 


the  lesson  procedure,  additional  to  the  usual 
"  five  formal  steps."  According  to  the  view 
of  Rein  it  is  a  preliminary  "  step,"  accord- 
ing to  others  it  is  usually  a  "  sub-step  "  found 
between  the  stages  of  "  preparation  "  and  "  pres- 
entation." Logically  speaking,  the  "state- 
ment of  the  aim "  is  the  equivalent  of  the 
"statement  of  the  problem"  to  be  solved, 
and  appears  at  the  beginning  of  the  teaching 
process  in  both  inductive  and  deductive  lessons. 
The  object  of  this  preliminary  "step"  is  to 
focus  the  attention  upon  the  situation  to  be 
solved,  and  to  vitalize  the  situation  for  the 
pupils.  The  "  aim  "  determines  the  scope  of 
the  lesson  and  the  purpose  of  the  teaching. 

It  frequently  occurs  that  the  statement  of 
the  "  teacher's  aim  "  will  vary  from  that  of 
the  "  pupil's  aim."  The  "  teacher's  aim  " 
may  be  more  extensive,  including  more  than 
one  end,  and  extending  over  many  lesson  units. 
A  series  of  "  teacher's  aims  "  and  one  of  "  pupil's 
aims  "  will,  in  the  long  run,  tend  to  coincide. 
The  "  pupil's  aim  "  will  necessarily  be  stated 
in  terms  that  are  sufficiently  definite,  attractive, 
and  pertinent  to  him,  so  as  to  provide  an  ade- 
quate motive  for  his  activity.  Any  deliberate 
"  aim "  stated  at  the  begiiming  of  a  lesson, 
by  no  means  exhausts  the  purposes  or  ends 
which  may  be  properly  served  during  the  lesson 
period.  Every  lesson  acquires  supplementary 
aims  provoked  by  the  incidents  of  the  lesson; 
these  are  usually,  though  not  always,  properly 
subordinated  to  the  "  aim  "  which  initiates 
the  class  exercise.  There  are  cases  where 
opportunity  provides  or  demands  new  aims  or 
motives  which  may  properly  supplant  those 
that    have    been    planned.  H.  S. 

See  Recitation,  Method  of. 

AIR  OF  THE  SCHOOLROOM,  THE.  — If 

we  divide  the  total  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
air  in  a  private  dwelling  room  by  the  number 
of  persons  who  occupy  it  and  then  make  the 
same  calculations  with  a  schoolroom,  we  see 
immediately  that  the  conditions  which  obtain 
in  schoolrooms  are  unfavorable.  Various 
causes  help  to  contaminate  the  air  in  a  school- 
room ;  for  example  —  sundry  chemical  sub- 
stances which  are  unfit  to  be  inhaled  again  are 
thrown  off  from  the  body  by  respiration  and 
perspiration,  and  these  two  functions  also  cause 
additional  moisture  in  the  atmosphere,  so 
that  the  presence  of  people  is  alone  sufficient 
cause  to  render  a  room  warm  and  "  stuffy." 
Conditions  of  imperfect  health  in  individuals, 
such  as  decayed  teeth,  also  contribute  to  render 
the  air  of  a  room  foul.  Children  often  bring 
more  or  less  dirt  from  the  streets  into  the  room, 
containing  organic  and  nonorganic  substances; 
they  leave  behind  in  the  room  minute  particles 
of  their  clothes,  their  shoes,  their  skin;  they 
rub  such  particles  off  the  surface  of  the  floor, 
the  walls,  the  desks.  Different  kinds  of 
artificial  lighting  also  produce  gases,  moisture, 
and  warmth. 


69 


AIR  OF  THE  SCHOOLROOM 


AIX-MARSEILLES 


Outdoor  air  contains  20.94  per  cent  of  oxy- 
gen and  0.04  per  cent  of  carbon  dioxide  (car- 
bonic acid  gas),  exhaled  air  16.03  per  cent 
oxygen  and  4.38  per  cent  of  carbon  dioxide; 
if  the  air  which  is  to  be  inhaled  contained  the 
same  proportions  of  oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide 
as  the  air  which  has  been  exhaled,  interchange 
of  these  gases  in  the  lungs  would  be  impossible; 
therefore  the  change  in  the  composition  of  the 
air  is  of  importance.  When  children  are  sitting 
at  their  lessons  the  energy  of  breathing  is  not 
the  same  as  it  is  when  they  are  moving  about, 
and  in  sitting  still  the  children  always  reinhale 
a  good  deal  of  the  air  just  exhaled  by  them. 

Different  investigations  have  been  made  to 
find  specific  noxious  (poisonous)  substances  in 
the  air  exhaled.  Weichardt  has  at  last  found 
his  fatigue  toxine  in  the  exhaled  air  also.  We 
may  await  the  results  of  further  research.  The 
foul  smell  of  air  in  a  crowded  room  is  not  in 
an  exact  relation  to  the  percentage  of  carbon 
dioxide  produced  by  the  people  in  that  room, 
because  such  odor  depends  in  a  large  degree 
upon  the  cleanliness  of  the  body  and  clothing. 
Therefore  the  maximum  of  carbon  dioxide 
in  a  room  (in  consequence  of  the  presence  of 
people  only),  as  allowed  by  Pettenkofer,  that 
is  to  say,  0.1  per  cent  (one  pro  mille),  is  a  state- 
ment not  sufficiently  based  on  facts;  but  we 
have  up  to  the  present  time  no  better  means  of 
judging  of  the  deterioration  of  the  air  of  a 
schoolroom  as  far  as  the  proportions  of  the 
gases  are  concerned,  and  investigations  have 
proved  the  presence  of  carbon  dioxide  in  school- 
rooms in  as  large  quantities  as  14.8  pro  mille. 

The  human  body  has  to  get  rid  of  a  good 
deal  of  the  warmth  which  is  continually  being 
produced  afresh  by  vaporization,  radiation, 
and  convection;  and  this  is  a  difficult  matter 
in  a  crowded  schoolroom.  The  Breslau  labora- 
tory experiments  of  Fliigge's  school  have  shown 
that  a  man  inclosed  in  a  case  under  changing 
conditions  of  air  felt  well  if  temperature  was 
below  68°  and  relative  moisture  below  72  per 
cent,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  carbon  dioxide 
increa.sed  to  a  large  extent;  but  in  highly 
heated  and  moist  air  symptoms  like  giddiness 
and  so  on  arose;  therefore  such  conditions 
should  be  avoided  in  crowded  rooms.  But 
on  the  other  hand  low  temperatures  would  not 
be  good,  especially  if  there  are  antemic,  feeble 
children,  and  air  which  is  too  dry  is  not  agree- 
able for  teachers  who  are  obliged  to  speak  for 
a  long  time  w-ith  raised  voice. 

As  to  dust,  enormous  numbers  of  organic 
germs  have  also  been  found  in  the  air  of  the 
schoolroom;  the  numbers  are  in  general  higher, 
for  instance,  in  old  dirty  schoolhouses  than  in 
new  and  clean  ones;  higher  if  the  children  are 
out  of  poor  families  and  if  they  move  about  in 
the  room,  and  so  on ;  in  every  case  schoolrooms 
contain  many  more  germs  than  less  crowded 
rooms.  The  greatest  number  of  those  germs 
are  not  at  all  infectious,  but  certainly  a  propor- 
tion of  them  can  be  malignant.     The  tender 


mucous  membranes  are  also  liable  to  be 
scratched  by  sharp  particles  of  dust,  and  by 
this  means  an  easy  entrance  for  dangerous 
germs  is  formed.  Teachers  often  suffer  from 
catarrh  of  the  respiratory  organs;  pupils 
from  inflammations  of  the  conjunctiva.  Dust 
must  be  carried  away  from  the  respiratory 
organs  by  the  ciliary  motion  of  certain  epithe- 
liums whose  power  is  limited,  if  indeed  they  are 
not  already  partly  destroyed.  Therefore  intro- 
duction, production,  and  stirring  up  of  dust 
is  to  be  avoided.  (For  jireserving  healthy  con- 
ditions of  air  in  the  schoolroom,  see  V'entil.\- 
Tiox  and  Cle.^ning.)  L.  B. 

References:  — 

FliJgge,      C.      Ubcr      Luftverunreinigung,       Wiirme- 

stauung    unci    Luftung   in  geschlossenen    Raunicn. 

Zcitschr.     /.    Hygiene     u.    Infektions     kraJikhi  iten. 

(Leipzig,  1905).      Vol.  XLIX  ;  in  the  .'^anie  volume 

the  investigations  of  L.  Paul  and  \V.  Ercklentz. 
GiLLERT.   E.     Luftprufungen   auf  Kohlensiiure,  ausgef. 

in   Berliner   Gemeindeschulen.     Zeitschr.  f.   Scliul- 

gcsuiidheilspflege.  Vol.  VI.      (Hamburg,  1S93.) 
Hesse,  F.  W.  und  W.     Ein  Vorsehlag,  die  exorbitante 

Verunreinigung      dcr      Schulluft      hintanzuhalten. 

Deutsche    Vierleljal-rschrift  f.    offentl.     Gesuntiheits- 

pflege.  Vol.  X.      (Brunswick,  1S7S.) 
Meyrich,   O.     Die   Staubplage   in   d.   Schule   u.   Vor- 

schliige  zu  ihrer  Bckampfung.     Zeitsehr.  f.   Schul- 

gesundheilspflegc.  Vol.  VII.      (Hamburg,   1N94.) 
Pettenkofer,    M.     Bcziehungen  d.   Luft  zu   Kleiduiig, 

Wohnung  iirid  Boden.     (Brunswick.  1872.) 
RiETSCHEL,  H.     IJber  die  Bestimmung  der  Grenzen  des 

Luftwcchsels,   etc.     Deutsehe     Vierteljahrsehrift.    f. 

offentl.  Gesundheilspflege ,  \'ol.  XXII.      (Brunswick, 

1890.) 
ScHLicK,  H.     Beeinflussung  d.  Feuchtigkeit  d.  Schul- 
luft durch  Verdampfungsschalen,  etc.     Zeitschr.  f. 

Schulgesundheilspflege,     Vol.     XXII.       (Hamburg, 

1909.)      .. 
Stern.   R.      Ub.  d.  Einfluss  der  Ventilation  auf  die  in 

der  Luft  suspendierten  u.  s.  w.      Mikroorganismen. 

Zeitschr.     f.      Hygiene      w.      I  nfcktionskrankheiten. 

Vol.  VII.      (Leipzig,   1889.) 
Weichardt,    W.     Uber   Ausatmungsluft.      Archiv  fiir 

Hygiene,  Vol.  LXV.     (Munich,  1908.) 

As  to  methods  of  examination  of  air  and  so  on  : 
Em.merich,    E..    und   Trillich.    H.     Anleilung    zu  hy- 
gienischen  V ntersuchungen.    3d  ed.    (Munich.  1902.) 

(A  new  edition  is  in  preparation  and  will  probably  ap- 
pear in  1910.) 

Much  literature  upon  the  whole  subject  treated  above 
is  quoted  in  detail  in  : 

Burgerstein.  L.,  and  Netolitzkt.  Handbuch  der 
Schulhygiene,  pp.  269-272.  2d  T.  A.  ed.  (Jena, 
1902.) 

AIX-MARSEILLES,    UNIVERSITY    OF.  — 

Whether  an  educational  institution  existed 
in  the  town  of  Aix-en-Provence  continuously 
from  the  Roman  period  or  not  is  doubtful.  It 
is  probable,  however,  that  schools  of  law  and 
theology  existed  before  the  papal  bull  estab- 
lishing a  fttudium  generale  was  issued  in  1409. 
The  faculty  of  medicine  was  added  some  time 
later.  Like  other  universities  of  France,  the 
university  fell  into  decay  and  was  closed  in 
1789.  In  1806  Aix-en-Provence  became  an 
academy  of  the  Imperial  University.  In  1896 
the  university  was  reestablished  as  a  state 
institution.     At  present  only  the  faculties  of 


70 


AKHMIM  PAPYRUS 


ALABAMA   INSTITUTE 


law  and  letters  are  maintained  at  Aix  itself, 
while  the  faculties  of  sciences,  medicine,  and 
pharmacy  are  conducted  at  Marseilles.  In  1909 
there  were  enrolled  1261  students. 

See  article  on  France,  Education  in. 

AKHMIM  PAPYRUS.  —  A  papyrus  of  edu- 
cational significance,  found  in  Akhmim,  in 
Upper  Egypt.  It  was  written  in  Greek, 
probably  between  500  and  800  a.d.  It  is 
on  arithmetic,  and  it  treats  the  subject  sul> 
stantially  as  it  was  treated  in  the  Ahmes  {q.v.) 
papyrus,  written  more  than  two  thousand  years 
earlier.  The  papyrus  was  first  described  by 
Baillet  in  1892.  D.  E.  S. 

ALABAMA  AGRICULTURAL  AND  ME- 
CHANICAL  COLLEGE,    NORMAL,    ALA. — 

An  institution  organized  in  1875  for  negroes, 
with  an  annual  appropriation  of  .SI 000  and  a 
faculty  of  two  teachers.  In  1882  through  self- 
sacrifice  of  the  teachers  a  lot  was  acquired  and 
buildings  were  erected  by  Huntsville.  Indus- 
trial work  was  added  to  the  literary.  In  1885 
the  legislature  appropriated  .$4000  a  year  and 
made  the  institution  the  Industrial  School  for 
the  negroes  of  Alabama.  In  1891  the  school 
received  a  share  in  the  endowment  given  by 
Congress  "  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  and 
mechanic  arts."  The  property  of  the  school 
was  sold  and  the  school  removed  to  a  more 
accessible  site  four  miles  from  Huntsville.  Ten 
large  buildings  and  6  small  ones,  including 
a  Carnegie  Library,  have  been  erected  with  a 
barn  and  dairy,  while  some  older  buildings  on 
the  site  were  retained  and  renovated.  The 
college  receives  state  and  federal  aid.  The 
institution  aims  to  give  "  instruction  in  agri- 
culture, the  mechanic  arts,  English  language, 
and  various  branches  of  mathematical,  physical, 
natural,  and  economic  science  with  special 
reference  to  their  apjilication  in  the  industries 
of  life."  The  industrial  work  is  turned  to  the 
advantage  of  the  college.  In  addition  to  the 
schools  of  Mechanic  Arts  and  Agriculture, 
there  are  schools  of  Music,  Domestic  Science, 
Business,  Biblical  Literature;  the  Scientific- 
Literary,  Normal,  and  Preparatory  schools. 
The  college  confers  degrees.  The  value  of  the 
grounds  is  $10,000;  the  buildings  .$75,000; 
equipment  $15,000.  The  total  annual  income 
is  $15,000.  There  are  10  professors,  4  assist- 
ant professors,  and  25  instructors  and  assistants. 
The  average  salary  of  professors  is  .$556  a 
year.     W.  H.  Councill,  Ph.D.,  is  the  president. 

ALABAMA  BAPTIST  COLORED  UNIVER- 
SITY, SELMA,  ALA. —The  outcome  of  a 
proposal  made  by  the  Colored  Baptist  State 
Convention  of  Alabama  in  1873  to  establish 
a  theological  school;  not  opened  until  1878 
at  Selma,  as  "  The  Baptist  Normal  and 
Theological  School."  The  property  is  now 
worth  about  $75,000.  The  total  annual 
income  from  tuition  and  denominational  con- 


tributions is  $17,000.  There  is  a  faculty  of 
19  teachers.  Literary,  theological,  and  indus- 
trial courses  are  offered.  About  seven  units  are 
required  for  admission.  Degrees  are  conferred 
in  the  college  and  theological  courses. 

ALABAMA  BRENAU  COLLEGE,  EU- 
FAULA,  ALA.  —  A  school  for  the  higher  edu- 
cation of  women,  opened  at  Eufaula  in  1854 
as  the  Union  Female  College.  It  was  reopened 
under  its  present  title,  in  1905,  after  a  period 
of  decline.  The  college  is  maintained  bj'  fees 
and  contributions  from  citizens  of  Eufaula. 
The  institution  confers  degrees,  although  the 
entrance  requirements  hardly  represent  more 
than   five   units.       There    are    10    instructors. 

ALABAMA  CENTRAL  FEMALE  COL- 
LEGE, TUSCALOOSA,  ALA. —An  institution 
for  the  higher  education  of  women,  established 
in  1858.  In  addition  to  a  Collegiate  Depart- 
ment, there  arc  also  Sub-Collegiate,  Music, 
Art,  Elocution,  and  Business  de])artments. 
Althougli  the  entrance  requirements  are  vague, 
degrees  are  conferred  after  a  four  years'  course. 
There  are  11  instructors. 

ALABAMA  CONFERENCE  FEMALE  COL- 
LEGE, TUSKEGEE,  ALA,  —An  institution  for 
the  higher  education  of  women,  founded  in 
1854  and  opened  in  1856  as  the  Tuskegee 
Female  College.  The  Board  of  Trustees  is 
nominated  by  the  Alabama  Conference  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South.  The  plant 
is  valued  at  $125,000.  Degrees  and  diplomas 
are  conferred ;  four  to  eight  points  of  high  school 
work  are  required  for  admission  to  collegiate 
department.  There  is  a  faculty  of  11  profes- 
sors and  2  associate  professors. 

ALABAMA  NORMAL  COLLEGE,  LIVING- 
STON, ALA.  —  A  coeducational  institution 
since  1900;  the  normal  department  was  opened 
in  1883  with  an  annual  state  appropriation  of 
.$2500,  gradually  increased  up  to  $15,000  in 
1907.  Pupils  admitted  at  the  age  of  14;  16 
for  first-grade  certificate.  Tuition  is  free 
except  for  special  lessons  in  music  and  art, 
provided  the  pupils  on  graduation  enter  the 
teaching  profession.  Diplomas  are  awarded 
in  normal  classical,  normal  English,  and  pro- 
fessional courses.  A  four-year  course  is  offered 
in  the  normal  school.  There  is  a  faculty  of 
14  teachers. 

ALABAMA  POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE, 
AUBURN,  ALA. —A  .state  college  for  the 
benefit  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts 
established  by  the  state  in  1872  with  an 
endowment  from  the  land  grant  appropria- 
tion made  by  Congress  in  1862.  The  in- 
stitution is  open  to  women.  The  Board  of 
Trustees  consists  of  the  Governor  and  State 
Superintendent  of  Education,  ex  officio,  and 
ten  members  from  nine  congressional  districts, 


71 


ALABAMA 


ALABAMA 


appointed  by  the  Governor  with  the  consent  of 
the  Senate.  Courses  are  offered  in  academic, 
engineerinp  and  mines,  and  aKricultural  science 
departments.  There  is  an  annual  ajjpropria- 
tion  from  the  state  of  about  $.'{0,()00.  Tlie 
plant  includes  8  buildings.  In  1<»()S-1<,H)<) 
there  were  enrolled  ~U0  students.  Candidates 
are  admitted  at  1.5  years  of  age  by  examina- 
tion or  certificate  from  approved  schools  with 
supplementary  examination  where  necessary. 
About  seven  units  are  recpiired  for  admission. 
The  faculty  includes  22  jirofessors,  5  associate 
and  assistant    professors,    and.  12    instructors. 

ALABAMA.  STATE  OF.  —  First  organized 
by  Congress  as  a  part  of  the  Territory  of 
Mississippi  in  170S.  Organized  as  the  separate 
Territory  of  Alabama  in  1817,  and  admitted 
to  the  I'nion  as  the  twentv-second  state  in 
1819.  It  is  located  in  the  South-Central 
Division,  and  has  a  land  area  of  51,540  scpiare 
miles.  In  size  it  is  about  as  large  as  Arkansas, 
or  Wisconsin,  and  a  little  larger  than  the  state 
of  New  York.  For  administrative  purposes 
the  state  is  divided  into  G7  counties,  and  these 
in  turn  into  cities  and  school  liistricts.  In  1000, 
Alabama  had  a  population  of  1,823,097,  and 
a  density  of  population  of  35.5  per  square 
mile.  Its  estimated  population  in  1910  was 
2.14:^,'i<)3. 

Educational  History.  —  The  first  constitution 
of  Alabama,  adopted  at  the  time  of  the  admis- 
sion of  the  state  into  the  Union,  declared  tiiat 
"schools,  and  tiie  means  of  education,  shall 
be  forever  encouraged  in  this  State."  This 
mandate  of  the  constitution  remained  inef- 
fective for  a  long  time.  Xothing  whatever 
was  done  toward  carrying  it  into  effect  before 
1826,  when  the  first  school  law,  special  in  its 
nature  and  applyingonly  to  Mobile,  was  adopted. 
For  the  next  28  years  the  history  of  educa- 
tion in  Alabama  is  the  history  of  the  schools 
of  Mobile. 

The  first  attempt  to  organize  a  system  of 
schools  for  the  state  as  a  whole  was  made 
in  1854.  A  Superintendent  of  Education  for 
the  state,  three  Commissioners  for  each  county, 
and  Trustees  for  each  township  were  pro- 
vided for.  An  appropriation  of  .§100,000  an- 
nually was  ma<le  from  tiie  treasury,  to  be  added 
to  the  interest  arising  from  the  school  fund, 
which  fund  in  1855  amounted  to  874,087.60. 
By  1850,  reports  show  that  2200  schools  were 
kept,  with  an  average  of  six  months  of  school. 
Kone  of  these  schools  were  free  schools,  how- 
ever, and  few  were  real  public  schools,  the  com- 
mon practice  being  to  grant  private  teachers  a 
part  of  the  public  funds  to  enable  them  to 
lower  their  tuition  charges  or  to  prolong  their 
term.  In  1857  the  total  income  for  schools 
was  §281,847.41,  but  this  was  only  50  per  cent 
of  the  amount  expended,  the  remainder  being 
made  up  from  contributions  and  tuition  fees. 
In  1856,  County  Superintendents  of  Schools 
were  substituted  for  the  County  Commission- 


ers. A  few  other  advances  were  made  during 
the  next  few  years,  but  the  Civil  War  put  an 
end  to  this  school  system. 

A  provisional  constitution  was  adopted 
in  I8()5,  which  contained  about  the  same 
educational  provisions  as  those  found  in  the 
constitution  of  1819,  but  no  schools  were 
organized  under  its  authority.  In  November, 
1807,  the  oflice  of  Superintendent  of  Education 
was  abolished,  and  the  duties  of  the  office  were 
performed  by  the  State  Comptroller  until 
July,  18(i8.  The  constitution  of  November, 
1807,  which  went  into  operation  in  July,  1808, 
made  very  definite  provisions  for  a  highly 
centralized  state  school  system.  A  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  and  a  State 
Board  of  Education  were  provided  for,  the 
latter  to  meet  annually  and  to  have  independent 
authority  to  legislate  for  the  schools.  One 
fifth  of  the  annual  revenue  of  the  state,  and 
certain  corporation  taxes,  were  to  be  devoted 
entirely  to  the  support  of  the  schools,  and 
schools  were  to  be  free  to  all  children  of  the 
state  between  the  ages  of  5  and  21.  Between 
1808  and  1875,  the  annual  api)ropriations 
averaged  a  little  over  half  a  million  dollars  a 
year,  and  the  number  of  schools  was  increased 
to  3898  by  1874,  though  the  revenues  were  not 
sufficient  to  maintain  more  than  about  three 
and  one  half  months  of  school. 

In  1875  a  new  constitution  was  adopted 
which  radically  changed  the  nature  of  the  school 
system,  and  established  one  much  more  in 
harmony  with  what  the  people  of  the  state 
desired.  The  State  Board  of  Education  with 
legislative  authority  was  abolished;  for  the 
definite  percentage  of  the  state's  taxes  re- 
(piired  for  schools  an  annual  approi)riation 
was  substituted;  the  title  of  Superintendent 
of  Education  was  restored;  separate  schools 
for  the  two  races  were  made  mandatory; 
aid  to  sectarian  and  denominational  schools 
was  forbidden;  and  the  independent  status 
of  Mobile  was  perpetuated  by  exempting 
Mobile  County  from  the  operation  of  all  school 
laws  except  those  relating  to  the  apportionment 
of  school  funds,  the  making  of  school  reports, 
and  the  maintenance  of  separate  schools  for 
the  two  races.  The  legislation  of  1875-1876 
carried  these  provisions  into  effect.  Teachers' 
Institutes  were  organized  in  1875,  and  in  1879 
the  examination  of  all  teachers  was  required 
for  the  first  time.  As  late  as  1872  it  was 
estimated  that  one  third  of  all  money  for  the 
schools  still  came  from  donations  and  sub- 
scriptions. 

In  1901,  a  new  constitution  was  adopted 
which  continued  most  of  the  educational 
provisions  of  the  constitution  of  1875,  but 
changed  the  method  of  state  aid  from  an  annual 
appropriation  to  a  state  tax  of  30  cents  on 
the  SlOO,  authorized  the  voting  of  a  county 
tax  of  10  cents,  and  reaffirmed  the  independent 
position  of  the  schools  of  Mobile.  In  1901 
a  state  system  for  the  examination  of  teachers 


72 


ALABAMA 


ALABAMA 


was  substituted  for  the  previous  unsatis- 
factory county  systems.  In  1903  a  law  pro- 
viding for  the  adoption  of  a  state  series  of  uni- 
form textbooks,  a  law  substituting  school 
districts  under  a  centralized  county  system 
of  administration  for  the  previous  less-central- 
ized township  system,  and  a  law  making  the 
county  the  unit  in  the  apportionment  of 
school  funds  by  the  state,  were  adopted.  In 
1907  a  permissive  county  high  school  law, 
by  which  state  aid  may  be  given  to  such 
schools  as  may  be  formed,  and  a  law  known 
as  "The  Rural  School  House  Act,"  by  which 
$67,000  is  appropriated  annually  to  help  rural 
districts  in  building  and  repairing  rural  school 
houses,  were  enacted. 

Present  School  System.  —  The  school  system 
of  Alabama  as  at  present  organized  is  as  follows: 
At  the  head  of  the  system  is  a  Superintendent 
of  Education,  elected  by  the  people  for  four- 
year  terms,  and  ineligible  as  his  own  successor. 
His  salary  is  $3000  per  year.  He  has  general 
supervision  of  the  schools  of  the  state;  appor- 
tions the  state  school  fund  to  the  counties; 
prepares  all  blanks  and  forms  used;  must 
visit  the  counties  and  hold  at  least  one  insti- 
tute in  each  congressional  district  each  year; 
must  report  annually  to  the  Governor;  ap- 
proves the  monthly  pay  roll  of  each  county, 
and  remits  the  state  money  accordingly;  ap- 
proves all  grants  for  aid  in  building  and  re- 
pairing schoolhouses  and  all  plans  for  new 
school  buildings;  and  signs  all  teachers' 
certificates  and  revokes  the  same  for  cause. 
He  is  also  president  of  the  State  Board  of 
Examiners,  has  charge  of  the  sale  and  preser- 
vation of  all  school  lands,  and  is  a  member 
of  the  State  Text-Book  Commission,  the 
State  High  School  Commission,  and  of  the 
Board  of  Trustees  for  the  state  university 
and  the  different  state  institutions. 

For  each  county  there  is  a  County  Superin- 
tendent of  Education,  also  elected  by  the  people 
for  four-year  terms,  who  receives  as  salary  4  per 
cent  of  all  state  school  money  disbursed  by  him. 
He  oversees  the  schools  of  his  county,  keeps  all 
records,  looks  after  the  school  funds  and  lands, 
pays  all  teachers  except  in  cities,  and  reports  to 
the  Superintendent  of  Education  for  the  state. 
Each  county  also  has  a  County  Board  of 
Education,  consisting  of  the  County  Superin- 
tendent of  Education  and  four  others  elected 
by  the  Chairmen  of  the  District  Boards  of 
Trustees,  not  more  than  one  of  whom  shall 
be  a  teacher.  This  Board  holds  the  title 
to  all  school  property,  employs  all  teachers  for 
the  school  districts  of  the  county,  and  has  en- 
tire control  of  the  public  schools  of  the  county, 
subject  only  to  the  provisions  of  the  school 
law.  Their  compensation  is  limited  to  $20 
a  year. 

For  each  school  district  three  School  Trustees 
are  elected  for  four-year  terms.  They  are 
required  to  take  the  school  census  ;  care  for 
the   school    property  ;   nominate   teachers   for 


election  by  the  County  Board  of  Education; 
visit  the  schools;  and  make  reports  to  the 
County  Superintendent.  The  independence 
of  the  combined  city  and  county  of  Mobile 
is  provided  for  in  the  constitution  and  the  law, 
and  cities  of  6000  inhabitants  or  over  are 
given  similar  privileges,  except  in  the  matter 
of  textbooks.  Smaller  cities  and  towns  are 
governed  by  Boards  of  Education,  but  are 
subject  in  all  matters  to  the  general  school  law. 
A  State  Board  of  Examiners  examines  all 
candidates  for  teachers'  certificates,  including 
all  graduates  from  the  state  normal  schools, 
and  issues  all  certificates  to  teach  in  the  schools 
of  the  state.  A  State  Text-Book  Commission 
adopts  uniform  textbooks  for  the  schools  of 
the  state,  on  five-year  contracts. 

School  Support.  —  The  state  originally  re- 
ceived 902,744  acres  of  land  from  the  sixteenth 
section  grants  made  to  the  states  by  Congress 
for  schools.  The  first  state  constitution, 
adopted  in  1819,  directed  that  the  legislature 
should  preserve  these  lands  and  apply  the 
funds  "in  strict  conformitv  to  the  object  of 
such  grant."  By  1855  the  sum  of  Sl,244',793.36 
had  been  realized  from  the  sales  of  this  land. 
The  state  also  received  $669,089.78  from  the 
U.S.  Surplus  Revenue  Fund  {rj.v.)  deposited 
with  the  states  in  1837,  all  of  which  was  put  into 
the  permanent  school  fund.  There  have  been 
some  losses  and  some  additions,  the  total 
value  of  the  permanent  school  fund  being 
$2,135,313  when  last  reported.  The  annual 
state  appropriation  for  education  consists  of 
the  interest  on  these  funds,  at  the  rate  of  6 
per  cent  on  the  sixteenth  section  fund  and 
4  per  cent  on  the  Surplus  Revenue  fund; 
all  rents  and  incomes  from  the  school  lands; 
escheats;  poll  taxes  (retained  in  the  county 
where  paid);  certain  license  taxes;  the  sum  of 
$350,000  from  the  treasury  of  the  state;  and 
the  state  school  tax  of  30  cents  on  the  .SI 00 
authorized  by  the  state  constitution.  About 
70  per  cent  of  the  expenditure  for  education 
at  present  comes  from  state  sources.  All 
state  money  is  apportioned  to  the  counties 
solely  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  7  and  21.  Within  the  county 
all  state  and  county  money  must  be  distributed 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  provide  "  as  nearly  as 
practicable,  school  terms  of  equal  duration,"  and 
the  state  money  can  be  used  only  for  teachers' 
salaries.  About  two  thirds  of  the  counties  also 
vote  the  one-mill  tax  authorized  by  the  constitu- 
tion of  1901.  Local  district  taxation  has  not  as 
yet  been  authorized. 

The  total  amount  expended  for  schools  during 
the  last  year  for  which  reports  are  available  was 
$2,620,355.  Based  on  the  total  population 
of  the  state  this  was  equal  to  a  per  capita  ex- 
penditure of  $1.26  a  year,  the  state  standing 
third  from  the  bottom  of  the  list,  Miss- 
issippi and  South  Carolina  alone  lieing  lower. 
The  average  daily  expenditure  per  pupil  was  9.3 
cents  and  the  total  yearly  expenditure  per  pupil 


73 


ALABAMA' 


ALABAMA 


in  average  daily  attendance  was  SI  0.52. 
From  the  bottom  of  the  hst  Alabama  has  re- 
cently raised  itself  to  si.xth  place  in  these  items. 
In  the  amount  raised  per  child  5-18  years  of 
age  (.S3. 30),  the  state  stands  third  from  the 
bottom  of  the  list,  the  average  for  the  United 
States  as  a  whole  being  .$15.52.  The  relative 
poverty  of  the  state  and  the  large  numlicr  of 
children  are  evident  from  the  fact  that  it 
takes  SI. 47  from  each  adult  male  to  raise  .SI. 00 
for  each  child,  5-18  years  of  age,  an  amount 
exceeded  by  but  four  states,  and  against  an 
average  for  the  United  States  as  a  whole  of 
$1.02.  In  the  total  amount  of  school  money 
raised  per  adult  male  of  the  total  population 
($4.87),  Mississippi,  with  $4.84,  alone  was 
lower,  and  the  average  for  the  United  States 
was  $15.79.  These  figures  reveal  the  meager 
equipment,  the  relative  poverty,  the  large 
numbers  of  children,  and  the  low  expenditure 
for  education  in  the  state.  The  state  has  made 
much  ])rogress  within  the  past  five  years,  the 
ex]ienditure  in  most  items  having  almost 
doubled  during  that  time. 

Educational  Conditions.  —  Of  the  popula- 
tion in  1900,  45.2  per  cent  were  negroes,  and 

99.2  per  cent  were  native  born.  In  one 
third  of  the  counties  the  negroes  outnumbered 
the  whites,  in  one  sixth  of  the  counties  they 
outnumbered  the  whites  three  or  more  to  one, 
and  in  six  counties  they  outnumbered  the 
whites  more  than  five  to  one.  The  relative 
increase  in  the  two  races  between  1890  and 
1900  was  20.1  per  cent  for  the  whites  and  21.9 
per  cent  for  the  negroes.  Of  the  total  popula- 
tion, 33.4  per  cent  are  between  the  ages  of  5  and 
18,  a  percentage  exceeded  by  but  five  states,  the 
highest  being  South  Carolina  with  34.6  per  cent, 
and  the  average  for  the  United  States  being 

28.3  per  cent.  The  state  is  essentially  rural 
and  agricultural,  as  88.1  per  cent  of  the  popu- 
lation lived  in  country  districts  and  only 
7.3  ]icr  cent  lived  in  cities  of  8000  inhabitants 
in   1900. 

The  average  length  of  term  provided  in 
Alabama  was  113.3  days.  North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina,  Florida,  and  Arkansas  alone 
provided  less,  the  lowest  being  Arkansas  with 
93.9  days.  Of  the  school  population,  5-18 
years  of  age,  55.77  per  cent  were  enrolled  in 
the  public  schools.  Louisiana  with  49.26  per 
cent  alone  enrolled  a  lower  percentage  in 
the  public  schools,  while  the  average  for  the 
United  States  was  69.32  per  cent.  Of  the 
number  enrolled  but  64.44  per  cent  was  in 
daily  attendance,  the  state  standing  eleventh 
from  the  lowest  in  this  respect.  This  was  equal 
to  an  average  daily  attendance  of  73  days  for 
each  child  enrolled  and  of  40.7  days  for  each 
child  in  the  state,  5-18  of  age,  as  against  75.7 
and  49.0  days  for  the  South-Central  Division 
and  109.8  and  76.1  days  for  the  United  States 
as  a  whole.  No  .statistics  are  available  to  enable 
one  to  separate  the  above  percentages  for  white 
and  for  colored  schools. 


The  state  has  no  compulsory  attendance 
law,  and  no  means  of  enforcing  one  or  of 
regulating  truancy  are  provided.  In  1903, 
a  child  labor  law  was  enacted,  and  in 
1907  this  was  revised  and  made  effective. 
Chihlren  under  12  are  forbidden  to  work 
in  mills  or  factories,  and  children  are  permitted 
to  work  between  12  and  16  only  after  8  weeks 
of  attendance  at  school.  Hours  and  condi- 
tions of  labor  are  defined,  penalties  are  pro- 
vided, and  the  inspector  of  jails  and  alms- 
houses is  charged  with  the  duty  of  enforcing 
the  law. 

According  to  the  census  of  1900,  the  per- 
centage of  illiterates  in  the  total  poi)ulation, 
10  years  of  age  and  over,  was  34.0  per  cent. 
The  percentage  of  illiteracy  among  the  colored 
population  was  57.4  per  cent. 

In  material  conditions  the  schools  of  the  .state 
make  little  better  showing.  As  local  taxation 
has  not  been  authorized  as  yet,  schoolhouses 
and  repairs  must  be  provided  for  by  donations 
and  subscriptions.  Despite  rapid  advances 
within  recent  years,  about  one  third  of  all 
the  school  buildings  in  use  for  public  school 
purposes  are  still  owned  by  individuals,  and 
the  estimated  average  value  of  all  school 
buildings  in  use  is  only  about  $450.  The 
Rural  School-House  Act  of  1907,  whereby 
.$67,000  annually,  or  $1000  for  each  county, 
is  appropriated  to  be  spent  under  the  direction 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Education,  to  assist 
rural  communities  to  obtain  better  school 
buildings,  will  in  time  do  something  to  relieve 
the  present  objectionable  conditions.  The 
rural  schools  of  Alabama,  however,  leave 
much  to  be  desired,  being  taught  for  but  a 
short  time  and  by  poorly  paid  teachers,  and 
having  practically  no  teaching  equipment 
with  which  to  work.  The  elementary  school 
system,  as  a  whole,  is  ju.st  now  in  the  process 
of  being  rounded  out  and  classified,  but  the 
work  is  .slow,  due  in  large  part  to  the  inertia 
develoijed  by  a  period  of  fifty  years  under 
the  old  conditions.  Agricultural  instruction 
and  temperance  physiology  are  required  to 
be  taught  in  all  the  schools  of  the  state,  but 
little  else  than  these  and  the  staple  elementary 
school  subjects  is  provided  in  any  of  the  schools. 
But  9  schools  in  the  state  are  listed  as  offering 
manual  training. 

Teachers  and  Training.  —  The  state  em- 
ployed 7757  teachers  at  the  date  of  last  report, 
about  one  third  of  whom  were  men,  and 
about  one  third  were  colored.  As  nearly 
as  can  be  calculated  from  the  very  imperfect 
statistical  tables  available,  the  average  yearly 
salary  for  all  teachers,  based  on  the  average 
monthly  salary  and  the  average  length  of  term, 
was  approximately  $200  a  year  for  men  and 
$150  for  women,  and  about  $240  a  year  for 
teachers  in  white  schools  and  $100  a  year  for 
teachers  in  colored  schools.  No  statistics  are 
available  from  which  the  percentage  of  teachers 
who  have  had  any  kind  of  professional  train- 


74 


ALABAMA 


ALABAMA 


ing  can  be  calculated,  but  something  of  the 
professional  status  of  the  teaching  force  can 
be  determined  from  the  fact  that  55  per  cent 
of  the  white  teachers  and  58  per  cent  of  the 
colored  teachers  were  teaching  on  a  third-grade 
certificate,  based  on  a  written  examination 
in  spelling,  reading,  writing,  grammar,  arith- 
metic through  fractions,  primary  geography, 
and  the  elementary  principles  of  hygiene, 
physiology,  and  agriculture.  Life  diplomas, 
based  on  six  years  of  successful  teaching  on  a 
first-grade  certificate,  are  held  by  3.5  per  cent 
of  the  white  teachers  and  7  per  cent  of  the 
colored  teachers.  As  a  means  of  impro%'ing 
the  teachers  in  service  250  teachers'  institutes 
are  held  in  the  different  counties  each  year. 
The  state  maintains  7  state  normal  schools  for 
the  training  of  teachers  for  the  state,  as  follows : — 


InTrain- 

N.IME 

LoC.\TION 

r.NG 

Grads. 

Course 

IN  1908 

State  Normal  College 

Florence 

352 

26 

State  Normal  College 

Troy 

261 

22 

Stale  Normal  Srhool 

Jacksonville 

400 

21 

State  Normal  School 

Daphne 

20 

6 

.\labama  Normal  College 

Livingston 

27.5 

12 

Falkville  Normal  College 

Falkville 

26 

0 

Agricultural  and  Mechani- 

cal College  for  Negroes 

Normal 

129 

24 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  are  3  private 
normal  and  industrial  colleges,  2  of  which  are 
for  the  colored  race,  including  the  widely 
known  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial  Insti- 
tute (g.c),  at  Tuskegee. 

Secondary  Education.  —  Graded  schools  have 
been  organized  in  the  towns  and  cities,  but  a 
high  school  system  for  the  state  is  as  yet 
to  be  developed.  The  last  available  report 
shows  that  there  were  8  public  high  schools 
in  cities  of  SOOO  or  over,  and  1 1 1  public  high 
schools  of  all  kinds  in  the  different  towns  and 
districts  of  the  state.  In  addition  to  the 
above  21  private  high  schools  are  reported. 
Three  public  high  schools  and  11  private  high 
schools  exi.st  in  the  state  for  the  colored 
race.  The  work  done  in  nearly  all  of  the  high 
schools  is  only  in  part  secondary  work,  as  is 
shown  by  the  presence  of  many  elementary 
pupils  and  by  the  low  entrance  requirements  of 
the  colleges  of  the  state.  The  high  school  law 
of  1907  provides  for  the  ultimate  placing  of  a 
good  high  school  in  each  county,  but  it  rests 
with  the  Governor  to  put  the  law  into  opera- 
tion, and  this  is  to  take  place  when  in  his 
judgment  the  conditions  of  the  treasury  will 
permit.  A  site,  building,  and  eciuipment, 
costing  not  less  than  .S5000  must  be  pro- 
vided locally  and  deeded  to  the  state,  after 
which  the  state  will  make  an  annual  appro- 
priation of  S2000  for  teachers'  salaries.  The 
7  public  normal  schools,  the  9  agricultural  high 
schools,  the  state  industrial  school  for  white 
girls,  and  the  high  schools  in  the  cities,  form 
the  chief  agencies  for  secondary  education  in 


the  state.  With  the  development  of  its 
agricultural  and  natural  resources,  the  coming 
of  railways  and  manufactories,  and  the  con- 
sequent largely  increased  expenditure  for  edu- 
cation on  the  part  of  the  people  of  the  state, 
educational  conditions  may  be  expected  to 
improve  rapidly  in  the  future.  But  it  will 
require  years  to  overcome  the  handicap  under 
which  the  state  now  labors. 

Higher  and  Technical  Education.  —  The 
University  of  Alabama,  opened  in  1831,  and 
the  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute  at  Auburn, 
opened  in  1872,  stand  as  the  culmination  of 
the  public  school  system  of  the  state.  The 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  for  negroes 
at  Normal  offers  agricultural  and  technical 
instruction  for  the  colored  race.  In  addition 
to  these  state  institutions  13  denominational 
colleges,  2  of  which  are  for  the  colored  race, 
supplement  the  higher  instruction  offered  by 
the  state.     The  colleges  are  as  follows:  — ■ 


College 

Location 

Opened 

Control 

For 

For  White  Race 

Spring  Hill  College 

Spring  Hill 

1S30 

R.  C. 

Men 

Judson  College 

Marion 

18.39 

Bapt. 

Women 

Howard  College 

East  Lake 

1841 

Bapt. 

Men 

Athens  College 

Athens 

1843 

M.  E.  So. 

Women 

Alabama      Brenau 

College 

Eufaula 

1854 

Non.Sect. 

Women 

Alabama     Confer- 

ence Female  Col- 

lege 

Tuskegee 

1856 

M.  E.  So. 

Women 

Alabama     Central 

Female  College 

Tuscaloosa 

1858 

Bapt. 

Women 

Southern     Univer- 

sity 

Greensboro 

1859 

M.  E.  So. 

Both  Sexes 

Tuscaloosa  Female 

College 

Tuscaloosa 

1860 

M.  E.  So. 

Women 

St.  Bernard  College 

St.  Bernard 

1892 

R.  C. 

Men 

Alabama  Synodica! 

Col.  for  Women 

Talladega 

1903 

Presby. 

Women 

For  Colored  Race 

Talladega  College 

Talladega 

Cong. 

Both  Sexes 

Stillman  Institute 

Tuscaloosa 

S.  Presb. 

Men 

Special  Institutions.  —  The  most  noteworthy 
special  institution  maintained  by  the  state 
is  the  Alabama  Girls'  Industrial  School  at 
Montevallo,  which  offers  courses  similar  to 
those  given  in  the  better  high  schools,  and  in 
addition  instruction  in  art,  domestic  economy, 
dairying,  and  manual  training.  Almost  equally 
noteworthy  are  the  9  agricultural  high  schools 
maintained  by  the  state,  one  in  each  con- 
gressional district,  which  serve  as  preparatory 
departments  for  the  University  of  Alabama. 
These  offer  a  good  high  school  course,  with 
instruction  in  agriculture.  The  state  also 
maintains  the  Alabama  School  for  the  Deaf, 
the  Alabama  School  for  the  Blind,  and  the 
Alabama  School  for  Xegro  Deaf  and  Blind, 
all  located  at  Talladega;  and  the  Alabama 
Industrial  (reformatory)  School  at  East  Lake. 

E.  P.  C. 
References:  — 
Clark,  Willis  G.     History  of  Education  in  Alabama, 

1702-1SS9.     Circ.    Inf.    No.    3,    1889,  U.    S.    Bu. 

Educ,  p.  280. 


73 


ALABAMA 


ALASKA 


Mato,  a.  D.  On  Histon*  of  Education  in  Alabama, 
see  Rcpts.  U.S.  Com.  Ediic,  1(S95-1S96,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
300-30J  :    1899-1900,  Vol.  I,  pp.  481-489. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Superintendent  of  Education  of 
Alabama,   1855-1858  ;    1869-190S. 

Public  School  Lau's  of  Alabama,  1908  ed. 

Statistics  based  on  the  1909  Report  of  U.S.  Com.  Educ. 

ALABAMA,   STATE   UNIVERSITY  OF. — 

Founded  in  1S19  through  a  donation  of  72 
sections  made  by  Congress  for  the  "  endowment 
of  a  seminary  of  learning."  In  1820  the  title 
"  University  of  Alabama  "  was  adopted.  Tus- 
caloosa was  selected  as  the  seat  of  the  university 
in  1827.  Rev.  Alva  Woods,  D.D.,  was  the  first 
president.  The  old  buildings  were  destroyed  in 
1865,  and  new  buildings  were  erected  in  1867 
and  instruction  resumed  in  1869.  In  1884 
Congress  made  a  second  donation  of  72  sections 
of  public  lands.  In  1907  the  Legislature  of 
Alabama  voted  $400,000  as  a  fund  for  erecting 
new  buildings  during  1907-1910,  and  increased 
the  annual  maintenance  fund  to  .125,000.  In 
the  same  year  the  Medical  College  of  Alabama 
(founded  1859)  at  Mobile  became  a  part  of  the 
university,  and  845,000  was  appropriated  to  it 
for  new  buildings  and  equipment  and  an  annual 
sum  of  S5000  for  maintenance.  The  Board  of 
Trustees  consists  of  the  Governor  and  State 
Superintendent  of  Education,  ex  officio,  and 
one  member  from  each  of  the  congressional  dis- 
tricts except  that  in  which  the  university  is 
located,  which  has  two  members.  The  uni- 
versity maintains  six  departments  for  academic 
instruction,  education,  engineering,  law,  medi- 
cine, and  pharmacy,  and  since  1904  a  summer 
school  for  teachers.  Admission  is  either  by 
certificate  from  affiliated  schools  and  the  first- 
grade  state  certificate  as  teachers  in  the  public 
schools  of  Alabama  with  an  examination  in  sub- 
jects not  covered  by  the  certificate,  or  by  exami- 
nation. Twelve  units,  to  be  raised  to  fourteen 
in  1910-1911,  are  required  for  admission. 
English,  mathematics,  and  history  must  be  in- 
cluded, and  no  student  who  is  conditioned  in 
more  than  four  units  is  admitted.  Degrees  are 
conferred  at  the  end  of  a  four  years'  course. 
The  university  grounds  at  Tuscaloosa  cover 
nearly  300  acres,  including  a  campus  of  40  acres. 
There  are  9  college  buildings.  The  univer- 
sity library  contains  20,000  volumes  and  a 
large  number  of  pamphlets;  there  is  also  a  valu- 
able natural  historv  collection.  There  were,  in 
1909,  884  students,  divided  as  follows:  284  in  the 
academic  department,  48  in  engineering,  09  in 
law,  74  in  medicine  and  19  in  pharmacy,  293 
in  summer  school.  There  is  a  faculty  of  30 
professors,  28  instructors,  lecturers,  and  assist- 
ants. T.  W.  Abercrombie,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  is 
the  president. 

ALABAMA  SYNODICAL  COLLEGE,  TAL- 
LADEGA, ALA.  —  An  institution  for  the  higher 
education  of  women,  founded  in  1903  by  the 
Presbyterian  Synod  of  Alabama.  While  the 
entrance  requirements  are  not  definitely  stated, 
the  institution  grants  degrees  on  a  four  years' 


76 


course.  Primary  and  preparatory  departments 
are  maintained,  as  well  as  a  conservatory  of 
music    and    art.      There    are    10    instructors. 

ALASKA,  EDUCATION  IN.  — The  first 
school  in  Alaska  was  established  on  Kodiak 
Island  in  1784  by  Gregory  Shelikof,  the 
founder  of  a  Russian  trading  company.  In 
1799  the  Russian-American  Fur  Company  was 
required  to  establish  schools  in  connection  with 
its  trading  posts.  In  these  schools,  especially 
at  Sitka,  the  half-breed  young  men  were 
trained  as  mechanics  and  bookkeepers,  and  as 
masters  of  its  vessels,  and  a  few  half-breed  na- 
tive girls  were  trained  as  housekeepers.  Mis- 
sion schools  of  the  Russo-Greek  Church  edu- 
cated a  few  young  half-breed  men  as  priests. 
The  native  population  as  a  whole  was  not 
reached  by  this  system  of  education,  which 
was  discontinued  about  1850. 

In  1877  the  first  American  schools  were  es- 
tablished in  connection  with  Presbyterian  mis- 
sions among  the  natives  through  the  agency 
of  Dr.  Sheldon  Jackson.  The  act  providing  a 
civil  government  for  Alaska,  1884,  directed  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  make  proper  pro- 
vision for  the  education  of  white  and  native 
children.  In  March,  1885,  this  duty  was  as- 
signed to  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education,  who  conducted  the  schools  for  both 
white  and  native  children  under  annual  ap- 
propriations from  Congress  until  1900,  when 
Congress  authorized  the  incorporated  towns  to 
assume  the  support  and  control  of  their  white 
schools.  In  1905  the  schools  outside  of  incor- 
porated towns  were  placed  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Governor  of  the  District,  who  was 
made  ex  offieio  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction. Both  the  schools  in  incorporated 
towns  and  outside  of  incorporated  towns  are 
managed  by  local  boards  of  three  members  each, 
elected  by  the  people;  both  classes  of  schools 
are  supported  from  the  moneys  received  from 
liquor,  occupation,  and  trade  licenses,  the  for- 
mer getting  one  half  the  income  received  from 
this  source  within  the  incorporated  towns, 
and  the  latter  one-fourth  of  the  amount  received 
outside  the  incorporated  towns.  The  only 
duties  of  the  Governor  regarding  schools  which 
are  expressed,  in  the  statutes  have  to  do  with 
the  apportionment  of  these  moneys  among 
the  latter  class  of  schools;  no  supervision  has 
been  exercised  by  him  over  the  schools  in  the 
incorporated  towns. 

In  1908-1909  there  were  10  schools  in  in- 
corporated towns  and  19  schools  outside  of  in- 
corporated towns.  The  latter  were  maintained 
at  a  cost  of  .S40,762,  the  enrollment  being  684. 
No  statistics  are  available  regarding  the  former. 
Schools  are  usually  maintained  for  nine  months 
in  all  tow-ns.  The  largest  towns  maintain 
graded  schools,  including  high  schools,  some  of 
which  are  of  high  grade.  The  schools  in  the 
incorporated  towns  are  well  housed  and  well 
equipped.     The  contrary  is  usually  the  case  in 


ALASKA 


ALBANY 


the  other  schools,  most  of  which  have  but  a 
single  teacher,  none  having  more  than  three. 
The  average  salary  of  teachers  is  slightly  above 
$100  per  mouth,  the  entire  range  being  from 
$80  to  $175. 

The  educational  system  for  the  natives,  under 
the  Commissioner  of  Education,  was  entirely 
reorganized  and  greatly  extended  during  1907- 
1910.  The  education  of  the  inferior  races  is 
conceived  as  meaning  the  advancement  of  both 
adults  and  children  in  civilization.  Four  main 
objects  are  sought:  (1)  the  development 
of  the  native  industries  and  of  the  industries  of 
civilization  to  which  the  natives  are  adapted; 
(2)  improvement  in  the  domestic  arts;  (3) 
the  establishment  of  .sanitary  conditions  in  the 
native  villages  and  the  promotion  of  hygienic 
living;  (4)  the  inculcation  of  moral  principles. 
Only  slightly  less  emphasis  is  placecl  upon  in- 
struction in  the  elementary  school  subjects. 
The  schoolhouse  in  each  village  is  regarded  as  a 
social  center  for  the  accomplishment  of  practi- 
cal ends.  These  houses  contain  the  school- 
room, industrial  room,  kitchen,  bath,  and  the 
living  quarters  of  the  teachers. 

In  the  school  year  1909-1910  the  school 
service  embraced  78  stations,  with  6  superin- 
tendents, 96  teachers,  17  physicians,  5  of  whom 
served  also  as  superintendent  or  teacher,  and  3 
instructors  in  sanitation  and  hygiene.  During 
1908-1909  the  school  enrollment  in  69  stations 
was  3809  and  the  average  attendance  1521; 
89  teachers  made  11,540  visits  to  homes  of  na- 
tives and  received  28,583  visitors;  77  of  these 
teachers  rendered  medical  attendance,  during 
the  absence  of  physicians,  9107  times.  Since 
July  1,  1907,  the  annual  appropriation  of  Con- 
gress for  this  service  has  been  $200,000. 

Alaska  Reindeer  Service.  —  One  of  the  most 
notable  achievements  in  the  history  of  the  edu- 
cation of  inferior  races  is  conducted  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  as  a  part  of 
its  educational  system  for  the  natives  of  Alaska. 
By  the  distribution  of  domestic  reindeer  im- 
ported from  Siberia  among  the  natives  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  plan  which  is  fundamentally 
educative  in  character,  a  threatening  economic 
danger  has  been  removed,  and  a  new  industry, 
higher  in  the  ethnological  scale,  has  been  estala- 
lished  through  which  the  Eskimos  are  advanc- 
ing rapidly  into  a  higher  civilization. 

The  Service,  which  was  inaugurated  in  1892, 
is  conducted  under  rules  and  regulations  ap- 
proved by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  which 
provide  for  the  distribution  of  reindeer  to  na- 
tives as  reward  for  apprenticeship,  in  return  for 
services  rendered  outside  apprenticeship,  and 
by  purchase.  Whites  may  acquire  male  deer  by 
purchase.  Distribution  occurs  mainly  through 
apprenticeship,  during  which  a  boy  not  only  ac- 
quires the  art  of  deermanship,  but  also  receives 
instruction  in  the  elementary  English  subjects, 
in  the  keeping  of  accounts,  in  the  marketing  of 
reindeer,  and  in  the  purchasing  of  supplies, 
during  periods  of  short  attendance  at  the  regu- 


77 


lar  schools,  and  also  from  travehng  teachers  at 
the  reindeer  camps.  If  his  record  is  good,  he 
receives  at  the  end  of  each  year  from  6  to  10 
reindeer,  and  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  year 
becomes  a  herder.  Later  he  is  required  to  take 
on  apprentices.  The  Lapps,  who  were  originally 
employed  as  instructors  in  deermanship,  have 
now  been  largely  succeeded  by  Eskimos. 
Since  1907,  the  government  by  a  large  increase 
in  the  number  of  its  reindeer  stations  has  taken 
the  prominent  part  formerly  held  by  the 
missions  in  the  distribution. 

On  June  30,  1909,  there  were  18  government 
and  10  mission  stations,  and  22,915  reindeer, 
19  per  cent  of  which  were  owned  by  the  govern- 
ment, 17  per  cent  by  the  missions,  14  per  cent  by 
the  Lapp  herders,  and  49  per  cent  by  260 
natives.  In  consequence  of  the  Bureau's 
policy  of  eventually  turning  over  all  its  rein- 
deer to  the  natives,  the  percentages  of  govern- 
ment and  mission  reindeer  are  gradually  de- 
creasing, while  the  percentage  of  reindeer  owned 
b}-  the  natives  has  increased  8  per  cent  and  the 
number  owming  reindeer  has  increased  128  per 
cent  since  1907. 

The  reindeer  furnish  the  natives  with  meat 
and  milk  for  food,  skins  for  clothing,  and  sinew 
for  sleds  and  other  implements;  800  sled  deer 
provide  transportation  for  passengers  and 
freight.  In  addition  the  natives  have  the  income 
from  the  sale  of  reindeer  products  and  from 
freighting,  which  during  the  fiscal  year  1909 
amounted  to  almost  $18,000.  Some  Eskimos 
maintain  bank  accounts.  Twenty-five  Eskimos 
own  herds  of  over  100  reindeer,  ranging  in  value 
from  S2500  to  $20,000  each.  H.  V. 

References:  — 

Brief  historj'  of  Alaska  School  Service  in  Report  of 
Harlan  Updegraff,  Chief  of  Alaska  Division,  for 
1907,  found  in  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education, 
1907,  Vol.  I,  pp.  371-396. 

Also  see  reports  on  Alaska  School  Service  in  Reports  of 
Commissioner  of  Education,  18S9-1906  and  190S. 

Report  of  Governor  of  Alaska,  1909,  p.  8. 

Reports  on  Introduction  of  Domestic  Reindeer  into 
Alaska,  1S93-1906,  published  as  Senate  Documents. 

Report  on  .'Uaska  Reindeer  Service  in  Report  of  Commis- 
sioner of  Education,  1906. 

ALBANY,  CITY  OF.  —  The  capital  citv 
of  the  state  of  New  York.  In  1900  the 
city  had  a  population  of  94,151,  and  in  1910 
its  estimated  population  was  100,253.  Its 
school  census,  5-18  years  of  age,  was  16,688  in 
1908,  and  its  total  day  school  enrollment  was 
12,572.  The  enrollment  in  private  and  parochial 
schools  was  5398  additional,  and  is  increasing, 
while  the  total  of  public  school  enrollment  is 
decreasing.  Nineteen  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion of  1900  was  foreign-born,  German,  Irish, 
and  English  being  the  predominant  races. 
Only  1.2  per  cent  were  negroes. 

A  Board  of  Public  Instruction  was  first  or- 
ganized by  law  for  Albany  in  1866,  and  a 
City  Superintendent  of  Schools  was  employed 
the  same  year.  The  Board  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion was  reorganized  in  1892,  and  again  in  1902, 


ALBANY  COLLEGE 


ALBERT  OF  YORK 


when  its  name  was  changed  to  the  Board  of 
Education.  The  board  consists  of  three  mem- 
bers, apijointed  for  six-year  terms.  The  Super- 
intendent of  Schools  holds  office  on  an  indefinite 
tenure.  The  city  employed  316  teachers  and  2.S 
supervisory  officers  in  1907-1908,  and  provided 
a  school  term  of  ISO  days  in  day  schools  and  87 
evenings  in  evening  schools;  29  teachers  were 
employed  in  kindergartens,  50  in  evening 
schools,  and  30  in  the  high  school.  Of  the 
teachers  employed,  313  were  women,  213  were 
graduates  of  the  Albany  higli  school,  and  172 
were  graduates  of  the  City  Training  School. 
The  total  expenditures  for  current  expenses  in 
1908-1909  were  $370,270.  The  city  maintains 
22  day  elementary  schools,  with  kindergartens 
attached,  4  elementar.y  evening  schools,  1  day 
and  1  evening  high  school,  and  a  teachers' 
training  school  with  a  two  years'  course  beyond 
the  high  school  for  the  jnirpose  of  training 
teachers  for  the  elementary  schools  of  the  city. 
An  ungraded  school  is  provided,  and  a  compul- 
sory attendance  officer  employed.  A  teachers' 
retirement  fund  went  into  operation  Jan.  1, 
1908.  A  vocational  school  was  added  in  1909, 
taking  pupils  from  the  elementary  schools  at  the 
age  of  13  or  14  and  giving  a  course  of  from  two  to 
four  years.  The  length  of  the  full  course  is 
four  years.  The  first  two  years  are  devoted  to 
general  mechanical  training,  and  in  the  la.st  two 
years  the  studies  are  more  specific  in  character, 
with  application  of  subject  matter  to  the  in- 
dustries of  Albany  and  its  vicinity.  The 
purpose  of  the  school  is  largely  industrial  and 
technical. 

References:  — 

Annual  Kvpnrls  iif  the  Board  of  Education  and  the  Supcrin- 
tcmhnl  of  Schools  of  the  City  of  Albany,  1867-1909. 

Albany  Vociitional  School,  New  York  State  Education 
Department,  Division  of  Trades  Schools. 

ALBANY    COLLEGE,    ALBANY,    ORE,  — 

A  coeducational  institution  founded  in  1866 
and  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Presbyterian 
Synod  of  Oregon,  which  elects  the  Board  of 
Trustees.  Financial  support  is  given  by  the 
sj'nod,  the  city  and  community  of  Albany,  and 
tlie  College  Board  of  the  Presbyterian  Church. 
All  students  are  expected  to  attend  chapel 
daily  and  to  devote  one  hour  a  week  to  Bible 
study.  Academic,  collegiate,  commercial,  and 
musical  departments  are  maintained.  Ap- 
proximately three  years'  high  school  work  is 
required  for  entrance.  The  B.A.  degree  and  the 
B.Ped.  in  the  Normal  course  are  given.  The 
majority  of  the  students  attending  are  in  the 
music  department.  There  are  7  professors  and 
5  instructors  and  assistants. 

ALBERT  COLLEGE,  BELLEVILLE,  ONTA- 
RIO. — A  coeducational  institution  of  prepara- 
tory grade  under  the  auspices  of  the  General 
Methodist  Conference,  giving  courses  preparing 
for  matriculation  for  the  universities,  business 
courses,  and  courses  in  fine  arts. 


78 


ALBERT  LEA  COLLEGE  FOR  WOMEN. 
ALBERT  LEA,  MINN.  —  .\n  educational 
institution  for  women,  founded  in  1884  by 
the  Synod  of  Minnesota.  An  academy  giv- 
ing preparatory  training  is  attached  to  the 
college.  Fifteen  units  of  academy  or  high 
school  work  are  reciuired  for  admission  to 
the  freshman  class  in  the  college.  Cla.ssical, 
•semicla.ssical,  and  scientific  courses  arc  offered, 
with  a  minimum  of  electivcs.  Departments 
of  fine  arts  are  also  maintained.  Degrees  and 
diplomas  are  conferred.  Graduates  of  the 
college  receive  state  certificates  to  teach  in  the 
high  schools  after  one  year's  service.  There  is 
a  faculty  of  17  instructors. 

ALBERT  OF  YORK.  —  (c.  710.)  School- 
master and  Archbishop  of  York.  As  master 
of  Alcuin,  the  most  famous  educator  of  his 
age,  whose  fame  is  greater  in  France  and 
Germany  even  than  in  England,  it  is  fortunate 
that  Albert's  own  merits  have  been  sung  by 
Alcuin  himself.  Albert,  orEthelbert,  a  relation 
of  his  predecessor  Egbert,  who  was  himself 
brother  of  the  reigning  king  of  Northumbria, 
was  brought  up  in  York  Minster.  He  became 
deacon  and  priest  when  quite  young;  was  made 
Defensor  Cleri,  an  oflSce  much  like  that  of  the 
later  official  of  the  Court  of  York  or  bishop's 
chancellor.  "  At  the  same  time  he  was  preferred 
as  master  in  the  city.  There  he  gave  to 
some  the  art  of  the  science  of  grammar,  pouring 
on  others  the  rivers  of  the  tongue  of  orators; 
these  he  polished  on  the  whet.stones  of  law, 
those  he  taught  to  sing  together  in  jFouian 
chant,  making  others  plaj'  on  the  flute  of  Ca.s- 
taly,  and  run  with  the  feet  of  lyric  poets  over  the 
hills  of  Parnassus."  But  grammar,  song,  and 
rhetoric  were  not  all.  He  taught  the  music  of 
the  spheres,  the  use  of  the  globes,  and  natural 
history.  "  Others  the  said  master  made  to 
know  the  harmony  of  heaven,  the  labors  of 
sun  and  moon,  the  five  belts  of  the  sky.  the  seven 
planets,  the  laws  of  stars,  the  rising  and  falling 
of  the  wind,  the  movements  of  the  sea,  the 
earth's  quake,  the  nature  of  men,  cattle,  birds, 
and  beasts,"  "  the  divers  kinds  of  numbers,  and 
various  shapes."  He  even  taught  arithmetic 
and  Euclid.  He  was  versed  in  the  calendar  and 
ecclesiastical  arithmetic.  "  Ho  gave  certainty 
to  the  solemnity  of  Easter's  return."  Above 
all,  he  taught  theology.  His  school  was  not 
merely  a  day  school,  "  whatever  youths  he  saw 
of  eminent  intelligence,  those  he  joined  to  him- 
self, he  taught,  he  fed,  he  loved."  Alcuin's 
biographer  tells  us  that  Helborcht,  as  he  calls 
Albert,  had  round  him  "  a  flock  of  scholars  from 
the  sons  of  gentlemen  (nobiJiiim),"  some  of  whom 
were  instructed  in  the  rudiments  of  the  art  of 
grammar,  others  in  the  learning  of  the  liberal 
arts,  and  some  in  the  divine  writings.  He 
traveled  abroad  and  went  to  Rome,  and  on  his 
return  l)ecame  archbishop.  The  cathedral, 
with  thirty  chapels  and  thirty  altars,  was  rebuilt 
by  his  two  pupils,  Eaubald  and  Alcuin,  under 


ALBERTA 


ALBRIGHT  COLLEGE 


Albert's  directions,  and  was  consecrated  ten 
days  before  he  died.  He  liad  lianded  over  the 
archbisliopric  to  Eaubakl  two  j'cars  before  his 
death,  and  retired  into  private  life.  He  is  the 
first  book  collector  recorded  in  England.  The 
school  and  the  books  he  gave  to  Alcuin  himself, 
who  gives  a  poetical  catalogue  of  them,  which 
comprised  only  some  half  dozen  authors  who 
would  now  be  called  classical:  Vergil,  Statius 
and  Lucan,  Aristotle  and  Cicero;  but  a  large 
number  of  grammarians,  ten  Fathers,  and  Aid- 
helm  and  Bede,  who  had  only  recently  died. 
But  as  the  catalogue  ends  with  saying  that  the 
rest  are  too  long  to  write,  we  may  perhaps 
credit  Albert  with  many  more.  At  all  events, 
he  was  a  remarkably  learned  man  for  his  age, 
and  showed  that  he  was  a  great  educator  by  the 
affection  which  he  inspired  in  the  pupils  who 
commemorated  him.  A.  F.  L. 

References:  — 

Alcuin.     De   Poniificihus    ct    Sanctis    Ecclesiae   Ebora- 

censis. 
Le.ich,     a.     F.     Early     Yorkshire    Schools.     (London, 

1899.) 
R,\INE,  J.     History  of  Church  of  York.     Rolls  Ser.  1S79. 

ALBERTA,EDUCATIONIN.  — SeeCAN.^DA, 

Educ.^tiox  IX. 

ALBERTUS  MAGNUS,— called  the  "univer- 
sal doctor  "  because  of  the  breadth  of  his  knowl- 
edge, which  rendered  him  perhaps  the  most 
learned  of  all  the  medieval  schoolmen,  —  was 
born  perhaps  in  1193  at  Lauingcn  in  Swabiaand 
died  at  the  ripe  age  of  87  years  at  Cologne. 
Albertus  had  already  been  well  educated  both  in 
Paris  and  Padua  when  he  entered  the  order  of 
the  Dominican  friars,  in  1223.  Subsequently  he 
studied  at  Bologna,  and  taught  both  at  Cologne 
and  Paris.  Nor  were  his  activities  limited  to 
the  scholastic  field.  The  greatness  of  his  repu- 
tation as  an  exponent  of  Peter  the  Lombard, 
Aristotle,  and  Averroes  caused  administrative 
duties  to  be  put  upon  him.  He  served  as 
Provincial  of  his  order  in  Germany,  then  as 
Grand  Master  of  the  Palace  to  Pope  Alexander 
IV,  and  finally,  in  1260,  as  Bishop  of  Ratisbon. 
He  assisted  at  the  famous  Council  of  Lyons,  but 
his  heart  was  rather  in  quiet  studies  and  in  his 
teaching  at  Cologne.  Albertus  was  skilled  in 
the  science  of  his  day,  a  prolific  author  of  21 
folio  volumes,  a  realist  in  philosophy,  a  fol- 
lower but  not  a  slavish  imitator  of  Aristotle, 
a  bold  and  discriminating  theologian,  and  a 
master  of  dialectical  method.  His  influence 
on  the  Church  has  been  less  than  that  of  Thomas 
Aquinas,  but  his  Summa  Theologiae  and  com- 
mentary on  the  Book  of  Sentences  are  among 
the  great  literary  achievements  of  medieval 
scholasticism.  P.  R.  C. 

References:  — 

Opera.      (Paris,  1890-1899.) 

SiGH.\RT.     Albert  the  Great,  tr.  by  Dixon.  (London,  1876.) 
TowN.sEND.     Great     Schoolmen     of    the    Middle     Ages. 
(London,  1S81.) 


ALBERUS,  ERASMUS.— (f.  1500-1553.)  A 
German  pastor  and  schoolmaster.  Born  in 
Sprendlingen,  he  became  teacher  in  Ursel,  and 
afterwards  general  superintendent  of  the 
churches  of  Brandenburg.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  Latin-German  dictionary,  a  book  on  morals, 
and  a  number  of  pedagogic  writings,  in  which 
he  opposes  the  barbarous  methods  of  corporal 
punishment  used  in  the  schools  of  his  time. 

ALBION  COLLEGE,  ALBION,  MICHI- 
GAN.—  A  coeductional  institution,  the  move- 
ment to  establish  which  was  begun  in  1833  by 
three  clergymen  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  In  November,  1843,  the  first  building 
was  opened;  in  1849  the  charter  was  amended  to 
provide  for  the  inclusion  of  a  women's  college, 
and  the  corporate  name  became  "  Wesleyan 
Seminary  and  Female  College  Institute."  In 
1861  this  institution  became  Albion  College,  and 
was  authorized  to  confer  degrees.  In  addition  to 
the  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  admission  to  which  is 
by  examination  or  certificate  from  an  approved 
high  school,  the  college  maintains  a  Conserva- 
tory of  Music,  a  School  of  Painting,  a  Business 
Department,  and  a  Preparatory  School.  A 
modified  elective  system  of  studies  is  in  effect. 
The  degree  of  M.A.  is  given  for  graduate  study. 
The  institution  has  established  a  "  Business 
Man's  College  Course  "  of  three  years,  leading 
to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science;  the  re- 
quirements for  admission  are  the  same  as  those 
for  the  College  of  Liberal  Arts.  Twelve  of  the 
16  members  of  the  College  Corporation  are 
elected  by  the  Michigan  and  Detroit  Confer- 
ences of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
College  fraternities  have  been  established  as 
follows:  Delta  Tau  Delta,  Sigma  Chi,  Alpha 
Tau  Omega,  Sigma  Nu,  Delta  Gamma,  Kappa 
Alpha  Theta,  Alpha  Chi  Omega;  the  last  three 
are  women's  societies.  There  are  (1909)  27 
members  on  the  instructing  staff,  10  of  whom 
are  full  professors.  The  students  number  452, 
divided  as  follows:  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  258; 
Conservatory  of  Music,  187;  School  of  Painting, 
13;  School  of  Business,  70;  Preparatory  and 
"  Unclassified,"  79.  The  grounds,  buildings, 
and  equipment  were  valued  (1906)  at  .S250,000; 
the  total  aiuiual  income  is  about  S42,000.  The 
average  salary  of  a  professor  is  .S1620.  The 
Rev.  Samuel  Dickie  is  president.  C.  G. 

ALBRIGHT  COLLEGE,  M'raRSTOWN,  PA. 

— Founded  in  1902  l:)y  the  union  of  Central 
Pennsylvania  and  Albright  colleges.  It  is 
coeducational,  and  offers  classical  and  scientific 
courses,  and  maintains  normal  and  fine  arts 
departments  and  preparatory  school,  giving  a 
three  years'  course.  Admission  is  by  certificate 
of  an  approved  school  or  by  examination  require- 
ments equivalent  to  three  and  a  half  years'  high 
school  course.  Degrees  are  conferred.  There 
is  a  faculty  of  11  professors  and  adjunct  pro- 
fessors. Clellan  Asbury  Bowman,  A.^Sl.,  Ph.D., 
is  president. 


ALCHAYAMI 


ALCIAT 


ALCHAYAMI.  —  See  Omar  Khayyam. 

ALCHEMY. —  Ancient  and  medieval  chemis- 
try, from  which  our  modern  science  did  not 
wholly  free  itself  until  Lavoisier  {q.v.)  made  his 
extraordinary  discoveries  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  word  is  of  doubtful 
origin.  Kimia  (xim'i)  may  have  to  do  with  an 
"  infusion,"  or  perhaps  mth  the  Greek  form  of 
the  native  name  of  Egypt.  The  prefix  "  al  "  is 
a  contribution  made  to  the  term  by  the  Arabic 
writers,  to  whom  the  Middle  Ages  owed  their 
knowledge  of  the  subject.  Chemical  substances 
and  processes  naturally  engaged  the  attention 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians  as  they  gradually 
learned  to  work  gold  and  silver,  make  glass  and 
enamels,  to  color  them,  and  to  dye  fabrics. 
Their  success  roused  indefinite  hopes  that  they 
might  be  able  to  change  the  baser  substances 
into  gold  and  silver,  produce  precious  stones,  and 
mayhap  discover  some  drug  that  would  put 
to  flight  all  forms  of  disease.  Accordingly, 
when  alchemy  emerges  in  the  writings  of  the 
third  and  fourth  century  of  our  era,  by  Zosimus, 
Synesius,  Olympiodorus,  and  others,  it  is  traced 
back  to  Hermes  Trismegistus  of  mythical 
Egyptian  origin,  and  contains,  along  with  certain 
practical  and  impractical  recipes  for  alloys, 
bronze,  glass,  enamels,  etc.,  avast  accumulation 
of  superstition,  mysticism,  and  symbolism. 
This  is  due  in  part  to  the  resemblance  of  the 
more  startling  chemical  changes  to  those  ascribed 
to  magic;  in  part  to  the  secrecy  demanded  by 
enterprises  which  if  kept  to  himself  might  en- 
rich the  fortunate  discoverer.  The  alchemist 
was  from  the  first  a  highly  suspicious  character, 
open  to  accusations  of  imitating  gold  and  silver, 
brewing  poisons,  and  consorting  with  evil  spirits. 
We  have  a  report  that  Diocletian  ordered  the 
book  of  the  Egyptians  concerning  the  trans- 
mutation (-n-epi  )(Tjfiia^)  of  gold  and  silver  to  be 
burned.  Alchemy,  like  astrology,  reached 
western  Europe  in  the  thirteenth  century 
through  the  Arabic  w-riters,  and  continued  to 
flourish  there,  with  all  its  disreputable  accom- 
paniments, for  five  hundred  years. 

With  our  modern  notions  of  the  various  kinds 
of  atoms  and  the  ob.served  laws  according  to 
which  they  combine  with  one  another  into  more 
or  less  complicated  molecules,  it  is  very  difficult 
indeed  to  sympathize  with  the  speculations 
and  theories  of  the  Middle  .A.ges.  Indeed,  one 
may  suspect  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  fan- 
tastic terminology  of  alchemy,  some  of  which  can 
be  derived  from  Egypt,  was  very  obscure  even  to 
the  adept.  It  is  clear  that  every  one  agreed 
that  all  things  were  composed  of  the  four  ele- 
ments, earth,  air,  fire,  and  water.  Lead  was 
cold  and  dry;  tin,  hot  and  wet;  the  former  had 
the  "  complexion  "  of  Saturn,  the  second  of 
Jupiter.  Avicenna  is  said  to  have  held  that 
copper,  which  resembled  Venus,  was  nearest 
silver,  and  was  composed  of  quicksilver  and  sul- 
phur, heated  for  centuries  in  the  bowels  of  the 
earth.     Roger    Bacon     (q-v.),    who     abhorred 


magic  and  expresses  manj^  reservations  in  deal- 
ing with  astrology,  gives  us  a  good  notion  of  what 
a  thoughtful  scholar  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century  might  deem  the  main  pur- 
poses of  alchemy.  The  great  object  was  the 
discovery  of  the  secret  of  making  gold  of  lead 
and  silver  of  copper.  In  tliis  way  not  only 
would  the  state  be  greatly  aided,  by  a  sufficient 
supply  of  the  precious  metals,  but,  what  was  far 
more  important,  life  would  be  greatly  prolonged. 
"  For  that  drug  (medicina)  which  should  re- 
move all  impurities  and  sources  of  corruption 
from  the  baser  metals  and  produce  the  purest 
of  gold  and  silver  would,  it  is  believed  by  the 
wisest  of  men,  eliminate  the  sources  of  corrup- 
tion in  the  human  body  to  such  a  degree  that 
life  would  be  prolonged  many  centuries  "  (Opus 
Majus,  Pt.  VI).  Adam's  body  was  so  perfectly 
tempered  and  balanced  that  the  elements  were 
held  in  equilibrium,  and,  had  he  not  sinned, 
he  would  have  enjoyed  something  like  bodily 
immortality.  Bacon  suggests  the  principles 
upon  which  this  elixir  or  philosopher's  stone  is 
to  be  compounded.  He  believes  that  human 
life  could  be  greatly  prolonged  by  a  combination 
of  gold,  pearl,  flower  of  sea  dew,  spermaceti, 
aloes,  bone  of  stag's  heart,  flesh  of  Tyrian  snake 
and  of  an  Ethiopian  dragon.  These,  the  very 
highest  authorities  agree,  would,  if  reduced  to 
absolute  simplicity,  so  that  thej'  would  not 
infect  one  another,  produce  the  sovereign  rem- 
edy (summa  7nedidna).  The  old  alchemistic 
conceptions  linger  in  our  terms,  spirits  of  wine, 
aqua  regia,  quicksilver,  etc.  The  search  for  the 
philosopher's  stone  led  to  much  experimentation, 
and  the  discovery  of  new  suiistances  and  com- 
pounds and  useful  chemical  processes.  In  the 
latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  many 
new  preparations  were  discovered,  the  gases 
began  to  be  distinguished,  and  the  English 
chemist  Boyle  (q.v.)  (1626-1691)  exercised  a 
decisive  influence  in  eliminating  from  chemistry 
the  ancient  belief  in  occult  properties. 

J.  H.  R. 
See  article  on  Che.mistry. 

References:  — 

Behthelot,  M.     Origincs  dc  V Alchimie.     (Paris,  1885.) 

Grande  Encyclopedie,  s.v.  Alchimie. 
Kopp.  H.     Die    Alchemic  in  tilterer  und  neuerer   Zeit. 

(1SS6.) 
Mdir,  M.  M.  p.     Story  of  Alchemy  and  the  Beginnings 

of  Chemistry.     (New  York,   1903.) 

ALCLAT.ALCLATI.orALCLATO  (ANDREA). 

—  (1492-1550.)  Born  at  Alzatoin  the  Duchy  of 
Milan  in  1492,  and  died  at  Pisa  in  1550.  He  was 
the  restorer  of  the  Roman  law,  and  the  Renais- 
sance leader  who  brought  literature  to  the  aid  of 
law.  "  The  historians  of  Rome,  her  antiquaries, 
her  orators,  and  poets  were  called  upon  to  eluci- 
date the  obsolete  words  and  obscure  allusions  of 
the  Pandects;  to  which,  the  earlier  as  well  as 
the  more  valuable  and  extensive  portion  of  the 
civil  law,  this  method  of  classical  interpreta^ 
tion  is  chiefly  applicable."     (Hallam,  Literature 


SO 


ALCOHOL 


ALCOHOL 


of  Europe,  edition  of  1S55,  Vol.  I,  p.  417.)  He 
lectured  on  law  at  Avignon,  Milan,  Bourges, 
Paris,  Pavia,  Bologna,  and  Ferrara.  Every- 
where he  urged  the  lawyers  to  write  with  purity 
and  elegance,  and  bring  law  into  literature. 
"  Practical  "  lawyers  were  opposed  to  him, 
for  he  attempted  to  "  sweep  away  the  rubbish 
of  the  old  conflicting  glosses,  and  their  subtili- 
tie.s."  He  was  a  man  of  the  widest  learning 
in  the  encyclopedia  of  knowledge  of  the  times. 
Besides  his  distinguished  position  as  the  re- 
former of  law  studies,  he  was  the  pioneer  in  the 
writing  of  emblems.  Henry  Green,  the  great 
authority  in  emblem  literature,  in  his  edition 
(1870)  for  the  Holbein  Society  of  Andreas  Al- 
ciat's  Emblcmatum  Pontes  Quntuor,  says:  "  If  we 
would  desire  to  know  what  amused,  and,  maybe, 
instructed  the  men  who  were  leisurely  literate 
in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  we  must 
seek  some  acquaintance  with  works  like  Alciat's 
Emblems,  where  the  graving-tool  attempts  to 
give  a  visible  form  to  the  wisdom  concealed  in 
mottoes  and  exemplified  in  stanzas,  whether 
of  Latin  verse  or  of  the  vernacular  rhymes." 
Emblem  books,  it  must  be  also  borne  in  mind, 
were  used  by  schoolmasters  to  a.ssist  in  stimu- 
lating verse-writing,  for  rhetoric,  and  also  for 
conversation  study  of  languages,  where  the 
letter-press  in  connection  with  the  device  was 
given  in  two  or  more  languages.  F.  W. 

See  Emblems. 

References:  — 
Green,     H.     Slmkcspeare     and    the    Emblem    Writers. 
(London,  1871.) 

ALCOHOL,  THE  USE  AND  PSYCHOLOG- 
ICAL EFFECT  OF.  —  This  is  a  subject  of  very 
great  scientific  interest  in  recent  years,  and  one  in 
which  much  experimental  work  has  been  done 
without  very  wide  conclusive  result.  The  subject 
has  much  educational  intere.st  both  because  of  the 
actual  effect  upon  school  children  whether 
used  directly  or  by  their  parents,  and  also 
because  of  the  extensive  legislation  relative  to 
temperance  instruction  (q.v.).  Results  can  be 
stated  in  a  tentative  form  only.  The  appli- 
cation of  such  generalizations  as  have  been 
reached  should  not  be  hastily  made. 

On  respiration  alcohol  has  a  slightly  stimu- 
lating effect,  increasing  somewhat  the  absorp- 
tion of  oxygen.  The  aromatic  flavors,  how- 
ever, of  wines,  brandies,  and  other  liquors  are 
found  to  exert  a  more  powerful  influence 
than  the  alcohol  itself.  The  presence  of  pure 
alcohol  affects  salivary  or  pancreatic  diges- 
tion but  slightly,  when  in  moderate  dilutions. 
Gastric  secretion  is  powerfully  stimulated 
by  moderate  doses  of  alcohol  in  the  stomach, 
and  digestion  is  not  noticeably  retarded 
as  long  as  the  percentage  of  alcohol  is  below 
5  per  cent.  The  presence  of  15  per  cent 
of  alcohol  may  retard  digestive  action  one 
fourth,  or  even  one  third.  Alcohol  causes 
dilatation  of  the  blood  vessels,  and  consequent 
hyperemia,    of    the    mucous    lining    along    the 


digestive  tract,  especially  of  the  stomach, 
attending  more  or  less  permanent  paralysis 
of  the  vaso-motor  nerves.  A  degeneration  of 
the  proper  glandular  tissues  is  also  often  attrib- 
uted to  continued  use  of  alcohol,  but  these 
results  are  by  no  means  constant.  Among 
the  digestive  organs  the  most  marked  effect  is 
produced  in  the  liver,  in  which  growth  of  con- 
nective tissue  is  stimulated,  giving  rise  to 
cirrhosis,  or  a  hardening,  of  the  organ,  which 
is  accompanied  with  degeneration  of  the  liver 
cells  proper  and  consequent  impairment  of 
function.  Fatt}'  degeneration  of  the  liver  cells 
is  often  apparently  caused  by  acute  alcohol 
poisoning. 

With  regard  to  the  food  value  of  alcohol, 
the  balance  of  evidence  seems  to  indicate  that 
alcohol  is  utilized  by  the  body  like  starches, 
sugars,  and  oils,  only,  however,  if  taken  in  small 
amounts.  It  is,  in  fact,  actuallj'  produced 
in  minute  quantities  in  the  various  tissues  as 
one  of  the  products  of  metabolism.  It  is 
clearly  not  a  tissue-building  food,  and  the  train 
of  effects  set  up  by  it  is  so  complicated  that 
the  evidence  is  still  inconclusive  whether  it  can 
be  considered  even  a  tissue-protecting  or 
tissue-saving  food.  In  all  cases  of  prolonged 
and  severe  tests  of  strength  and  endurance,  — 
mountain-climbing,  fatiguing  expeditions  in 
cold  climates,  athletic  sports,  —  alcohol  is 
strictly  excluded  from  the  diet. 

The  continued  use  of  alcohol  is  recognized  as 
an  important  cause  in  cases  of  shriveled, 
granular  kidney  and  chronic  Bright's  disease; 
and  also  of  dilatation,  hypertrophy,  and  fatty 
infiltration  of  the  heart,  and  in  cirrhosis  of  the 
blood  vessels. 

As  exhibited  in  the  ordinary  phenomena  of 
acute  intoxication,  more  or  less  marked  accord- 
ing to  individual  susceptibility  and  the  amount 
taken,  the  special  toxic  effect  of  alcohol  is  on 
the  nerve  centers.  Here  the  loss  of  control,  in- 
hibition, and  even  of  the  power  of  coordination 
is  clearly  due  to  a  throwing  out  of  function  of 
the  higher  brain  centers.  From  being  at  first 
functional  and  passing  off  with  the  intoxica- 
tion, recent  evidence  is  accumulating  to  prove 
that  degeneration  of  the  nerve  cells  may  be 
caused  by  continued  use  of  alcohol.  This 
degeneration  may  occur  anywhere  in  the  ner- 
vous system  —  in  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  or 
sympathetic  ganglia;  and  if  cells  are  destroyed, 
new  cells  do  not  develop,  and  thus  the  injury 
is  permanent.  As  a  result  various  forms  of 
insanity  are  thus  directly  caused  by  alcohol; 
and  these  cases  amount  to  from  25  per  cent  to 
over  30  per  cent  of  all  admissions  to  insane 
asylums.  Perhaps  the  most  serious  general 
effect  of  alcohol  is  the  impaired  organization  of 
the  nervous  system  in  the  offspring  of  alcoholic 
parentage.  Twenty  per  cent  of  all  epileptics 
are  traced  to  this  cause. 

Demme  studied  the  histories  of  ten  alcoholic 
and  ten  normal  families,  with  the  following 
results  — 


VOL.    I — G 


81 


ALCOHOL 


ALCOHOL 


Ten  Alcoholic  Families 


Ten  Normal  Families 

61 

2 

0  (2  backward) 


No.  of  children  .  57 
Deformed  ...  10 
Idiotic  ....  6 
Epileptic,  choreic    6  (one  epileptic 

cured  ?)  0 

Non-viable    .    .    25  .3 

Normal      .    .    .     10(9  ?)  (17  per  cent)  54  (88.5  per  cent) 

An  experiment  with  two  pairs  of  dogs,  care- 
fully balanced,  the  males  brothers  and  the 
females  sisters  from  two  not  closely  related 
litters,  yielded  a  closely  comparable  result. 
Chemically  pure  alcohol,  in  amount  not  suffi- 
cient to  cause  perceptible  intoxication,  was 
given  with  the  animals'  meals. 


No.  of  whelps 
Deformed 
Born  dead 
Viable  .     .     . 


No.  of  whelps 
Deformed 
Born  dead 
Viable  .     .     . 


Alcoholic  Pair 

(7-7-6-3)  2.3  (17.4  per  cent) 

(2-3-3-0)    8 

(2-2-2-3)     9 

(4-O-O-0)    4  (17.4  per  cent) 

Normal  Pair 

(5-3-8-8-5-6-3-7)  45 
(1-0-0-2-0-0-0-1)  4 
(0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0)  0 
(4-3-8-5-5-6-3-6)  41  (90.2  percent) 

Davenport  says:  "Nor  do  I  propose  to  consider  in 
any  detail  the  effects  of  drugs  on  germ  plasm.  The 
matter  awaits  further  investigation.  Meanwhile  ex- 
perience indicates  that  the  marriage  of  alcoholists  cer- 
tainly, and  probably  of  users  of  any  drug  to  extremes,  is 
associated  with  defective  development  of  offspring,  and 
is,  in  so  far,  unfit."     {Eugenics^  New  York,  1910,  p.  5.) 

Public  instruction  in  the  physiology  and 
hygiene  of  alcohol  was  made  the  subject  of 
exhaustive  investigation  by  the  Committee  of 
Fifty,  results  of  which  are  published  in  \o\.  1 
of  the  Report  cited  below. 

Many  careful  scientific  experiments  in  regard 
to  the  effects  of  the  use  of  alcohol  on  muscular 
work  and  mental  activity  have  been  made  in 
recent  j^ears.  In  considering  the  results  of 
these  investigations  the  first  thing  should  be  a 
word  of  warning  against  hasty  and  sweeping 
inferences.  The  effects  of  alcohol  are  largely 
relative  to  the  amount  of  the  dose,  the  kind  of 
work  done,  the  length  of  the  work,  the  par- 
ticular mental  processes  studied,  etc. 

The  tests  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  muscular 
work  have  been  made  for  the  most  part  with 
the  ergograph  (q.v.),  an  instrument  which 
records  the  amount  of  work  done  by  the  con- 
traction of  one  finger  or  one  arm  in  lifting  a 
weight.  These  tests  have  usually  shown  that 
the  amount  of  work  performed  l)y  a  muscle  is 
increased  by  the  use  of  alcohol,  either  under 
certain  conditions,  or  in  certain  persons,  or  for 
a  certain  time.  Usually  the  number  rather 
than  the  height  of  the  contraction  is  affected. 
Sometimes,  the  effect  of  alcohol  is  first  to  in- 
crease the  muscular  ability  and  then  to 
decrease  it. 

The  method  itself  is  not  free  from  objections, 
especially  because  certain  psychic  factors  such 
as  suggestion  and  the  like  are  not  excluded. 
Dr.   Rivers,  an  English  investigator  who  has 


made  very  careful  studies,  attempted  to  rule 
out  these  mental  factors  by  disguising  the 
alcohol  given  to  his  subjects,  mixing  it  with 
other  drugs.  For  example,  it  was  administered 
with  a  solution  of  peppermint,  so  that  the  sub- 
ject was  unable  to  tell  whether  the  mixture 
contained  alcohol  or  not.  On  certain  days 
10  to  15  cc.  of  this  mixture  were  given  imme- 
diately before  the  test,  and  on  other  da.vs  the 
same  mixture  without  alcohol  was  given. 
Ruling  out  the  factors  of  interest  and  sugges- 
tion in  this  manner,  only  negative  results 
were  obtained.  The  work  done  by  the  sub- 
jects was  neither  increased  nor  diminished. 
Thus  the  problem  of  the  effect  of  alcohol 
even  upon  the  muscular  ability  is  a  conii)lcx 
one,  and  yet  the  main  result  seems  to  be  well 
established,  that,  except  when  given  in  small 
doses,  the  effect  of  alcohol  is  to  increase  the 
ability  to  do  muscular  work  at  first  and  then 
to  decrease  it. 

Tests  of  work  involving  mental  processes 
and  of  memory  and  association  directly  have 
been  made  by  a  number  of  investigators,  the 
most  important  of  these  by  Kraepelin  and  his 
pupils  and  by  Specht.  Tests  of  writing  have 
shown  a  decrease  in  the  amount  of  work  done. 
Careful  tests  of  men  engaged  in  typesetting 
have  shown  a  considerable  decrease  under  the 
influence  of  moderate  doses  of  alcohol;  and, 
while  the  number  of  persons  tested  thus  far 
is  relatively  small,  the  inference  seems  to  be 
entirelj'  justified  that  the  general  effect  of 
alcohol  is  to  decrease  one's  working  capacity 
in  such  occupations,  although  the  subject 
often  has  the  feeling  that  he  is  doing  more  than 
usual. 

Tests  have  also  been  made  of  the  effect  of 
moderate  doses  of  alcohol  upon  such  intellec- 
tual processes  as  committing  to  memory,  free 
and  habitual  association,  discrimination,  and 
the  like.  The  results  differ  with  the  different 
mental  processes  tested,  but  generally  the 
effect  of  alcohol  is  to  decrease  the  mental 
ability.  The  simple  reaction  time  is  shortened 
somewhat  at  first.  Choice  reaction  times  are 
lengthened.  Speech  associations  are  often 
increased,  but  in  general  the  power  of  both 
free  and  habitual  associations  is  decreased. 
The  ability  to  add  is  decreased;  the  power  of 
committing  to  memory  is  decreased.  Atten- 
tion as  tested  by  the  ability  to  strike  a  dot  on  a 
revolving  drum  is  decreased. 

All  of  these  processes  tested  are  considerably 
complex.  Specht  has  tried  to  test  the  effect 
of  alcohol  upon  the  simplest  mental  processes, 
choosing  the  sensations  of  sound  and  testing 
the  initial  threshold,  that  is,  the  least  sound 
that  can  be  heard,  and  the  discrimination 
threshold,  that  is,  the  smallest  difference  be- 
tween two  sounds  that  can  be  noticed.  The 
striking  result  was  found  that  the  effect  of 
alcohol  on  these  two  thresholds  is  different. 
The  initial  threshold  is  diminished;  the  dis- 
crimination   threshold    is   increased;     that   is, 


82 


ALCOHOL 


ALCOTT 


under  the  influence  of  alcohol,  a  lower  sound  can 
be  heard,  but  the  difference  between  two 
sounds  must  be  greater  in  order  that  they  may 
be  distinguished.  The  explanation  given  these 
opposite  results  is  open  to  doubt.  The  effect 
of  alcohol  is  to  narrow  the  span  of  con- 
sciousness and  apparently  to  decrease  the 
memory.  As  a  result  of  this  only  the  single 
sound  is  attended  to,  and  other  stimuli  are  not 
noticed.  The  one  sensation  attended  to  fills 
the  whole  of  consciousness.  Conseciuently 
a  lower  sound  than  usual  can  be  distinguished; 
but  in  case  of  two  sounds  the  finst  fades  out 
or  is  banished  from  consciousness  as  soon  as 
the  second  is  noticed,  and  consequently  the 
two  cannot  be  held  together  and  compared  as 
in  the  normal  condition.  Specht  finds  that  the 
effects  of  small  doses  of  alcohol  are  the  same 
in  kind  as  the  effects  of  large  doses,  and  that 
the  results  of  taking  alcohol  are  cumulative. 

The  chief  results  of  all  these  investigations 
of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  mental  ability  are 
apparently  the  foUo-sving:  the  sensory-motor 
activity  is  increased;  the  ability  to  commit  to 
memory  and  the  power  of  association  and  the 
more  complex  mental  proces.ses  in  general  are 
decreased.  The  effect  of  small  doses  on  muscu- 
lar ability  does  not  seem  to  be  appreciable 
when  the  psychic  factors  of  suggestion  and  the 
like  are  ruled  out.  The  effect  of  larger  closes 
is  to  increase  the  muscular  ability  at  first  and 
then  decrease  it.  In  general  the  immediate 
effects  of  moderate  doses  of  alcohol  of  from 
30  to  40  cc.  is  to  increase  muscular  ability  and 
to  decrease  the  mental  ability.  The  imme- 
diate effect  of  large  doses  is  to  decrease  the 
mental  ability,  and  the  effect  of  such  doses 
persists  for  a  long  time,  perhaps  for  48  hours. 
The  depressing  effects  of  alcohol  in  general 
have  been  clearly  shown. 

No  adequate  investigations  of  the  effect  of 
alcohol  upon  the  mental  ability  of  children 
have  been  made  ;  but  the  studies  by  Kende 
on  25  children  indicate  that  the  effect  is  similar 
to  that  in  case  of  adults.  And  there  seems  to 
be  the  more  reason  for  forbidding  altogether 
the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants  to  children  and 
youth  ;  for  during  the  period  of  development 
at  all  events  the  mental  activity  should  be 
spontaneous,  without  interference  from  drugs 
of  any  kind,  and  the  effect,  even  of  moderate 
doses  of  alcohol,  is  probably  to  retard  mental 
development. 

In  view  of  the  inadequate  investigations 
already  made,  the  special  psychic  effects  of 
alcohol  can  hardly  be  stated  dogmatically. 

C.  F.  H.  andW.  H.  B. 
See  Temper.ince,  Instruction  in,  for  a  di.s- 
cussion     of     the     more     directly     educational 
aspect  of  this  topic,  and  for  the  legislation  relat- 
ing thereto. 

References:  — 

Billings,   John  S.,  and   others  for  the  Committsp  of 
Fifty.     Physiological   Aspects   of  the   Liquor   Prob- 

83 


lem.     (Boston    and    New  York.)     Vol.  I.     306  pp., 

no  inde.x;  Vol.  II,  .379  jjp..  index. 
Billings,    John    S.,    Eliot,  Charles    W.,    F.\rn.\m, 

Henrt    W.,    Greene,    Jacob    L.,    and    Peabody, 

Francis    G.      The   Liquor    Problem.     A    Summary 

of  Investigations  conducted  by  the  Committee  of  Fifty 

1S93-1903.    (Boston  and  New  York,  1905.)     182  pp. 
Davenport,   C.  B.     Eugenics,  Fit  and   Unfit  Matings. 

(New  York,  1910.)      35  pp. 
Demme,   R.      Ueher  den   Einfluss  des  Alkohols  auf  den 

Organismen  des  Kindes.      (Stuttgart,  1891.) 
Horsley,  Victor,  and  Sturge,  Mary  D.     Alcohol  and 

the  Hitman  Body.      (London,  1907.)      370  pp. 
Rivers,  W.  H.  R.     The  Influence  of  Alcohol  and  Other 

Drugs  on  Fatigve.      (London,   1908.)      136  pp. 
RosANOFF.  M.  A.  and  A.  J.    Evidence  against  Alcohol 

McClurc's   Magazine,     March,    1909,  Vol.    XXXII 

No.  5,  pp.  557-566. 
Specht,   W.     Die    Beeinfliissung    der    Sinnesfunlctionen 

durch     geringe     Alkoholmengcn.      (Leipzie,      1907.) 

I  Teil,  115  p. 
Wilker.  Karl.     Die  Bedrutung  und  Stellung  der  Alko- 

holfrage     in     der     Erziehungs-Schule.      (Miinchen. 

1909.)      120  p. 
Papers  by  Aschaffenburg,  Rudin,  Smith,  and  others  in 

Emil  Kraepelin's  Psychologische  Arbeiten,  Vols.  1-4. 

(Leipzig.) 

ALCORN  AGRICULTURAL  AND  ME- 
CHANICAL COLLEGE,  ALCORN,  MISS.— 
A  coeducational  institution  for  white  students, 
founded  by  the  Southern  Presbyterians  in 
1S2S  as  Oakland  College,  and  taken  over  in 
1871  by  the  state.  The  present  title  was 
adopted  in  1878  to  obtain  the  benefits  of  the 
act  of  Congress  of  1862.  A  state  appropria- 
tion of  about  $15,000  a  year  is  received.  A  five 
years'  preparatory  course,  leading  up  to  the 
four  years'  college  scientific  course,  is  offered, 
upon  the  completion  of  which  the  degree  of 
B.S.  is  given.  Admission  requirements  are, 
however,  vague  and  indefinite.  Departments 
of  agriculture,  industries,  fine  arts,  and  nurse 
training  are  also  maintained.  The  faculty 
includes  5  professors,  3  assistant  professors,  and 
12  instructors  and  assistants.  L.  J.  Brown,  B.S., 
is  the  president. 

ALCOTT,  AMOS  BRONSON  (1799-1888). 
—  Educator  and  author,  was  born  at  Wolcott, 
Conn.,  Nov.  29,  1799.  He  was  essentially 
self-educated,  having  received  an  abbreviated 
course  in  the  common  schools  and  acade- 
mies of  New  England.  In  1813  he  took 
up  the  itinerant  occupation  of  peddler  of  small 
wares  and  subscription  books,  which  took 
him  into  most  of  the  states  of  the  Union.  He 
began  his  career  as  a  teacher  in  Connecticut  in 
1823,  and  his  school  at  Cheshire  soon  attracted 
widespread  notice  by  the  examples  of  improve- 
ment which  he  set.  Single  desks  were  substi- 
tuted for  the  long  benches  and  double  and 
three-seated  desks;  the  pupils  were  provided 
with  slates,  pencils,  and  blackboards  ;  a  school 
library  was  established  ;  light  gymnastic  exer- 
cises were  introduced ;  the  children  were 
encouraged  to  keep  diaries  and  to  make  collec- 
tions of  common  objects,  and  he  broke  away 
from  the  old  rule  of  severe  and  indiscriminate 
punishments,  and  substituted  therefor  appeals 
to  the  affections  and  moral  sentiments  of  the 


ALCOTT 


ALCUIN 


children.  Of  his  course  of  study  he  wrote, 
"  It  is  adapted  professedly  to  the  wants  and 
genius  of  the  young  mind  ;  it  refers  to  children, 
and  it  insists  tliat  children  are  the  best  judges 
of  what  meets  their  wants  and  feelings."  His 
scheme  of  moral  training  was  the  most  rational 
and  elaborate  in  the  annals  of  early  American 
education.  Equally  important  was  the  scheme 
of  physical  training.  It  aimed  to  .train  the 
physical  powers  in  relation  to  the  jiractical 
uses  of  life.  It  provided  special  exercises  for 
the  eye,  the  ear,  and  the  voice,  with  emphasis 
on  such  games  as  balancing,  jumping,  hojiping, 
swinging,  and  running.  liis  jirinciples  of  intel- 
lectual education  may  be  briefly  summarized 
as  follows  ;  follow  nature  ;  employ  the  known 
to  induce  the  unknown;  teach  by  visible  and 
tangible  objects,  by  oral,  illustrative,  and 
familiar  methods  ;  bring  all  of  the  powers  of 
the  mind  into  harmonious  development  and 
exercise  ;  prepare  the  mind  to  investigate  for 
itself  ;  make  experiment  the  test  of  theory  and 
the  basis  of  fact ;  consult  the  minds,  genius, 
and  habits  of  the  pupils  ;  furnish  constant 
employment.  The  school  was  open  in  the 
evenings  for  story-telling,  plays,  and  games. 
Self-government  was  a  notable  feature  of  the 
Cheshire  experiment.  A  superintendent,  a  re- 
corder, a  librarian,  and  a  conservator  —  selected 
from  the  school  memljcrs  —  cooperated  with 
the  teacher.  Reforms  so  pronounced  were  not 
to  pass  unchallenged,  and  j\Ir.  Alcott  soon  met 
with  endless  opposition,  not  only  from  his 
patrons  but  from  his  colleagues.  In  1S2S 
lie  went  to  Boston,  where  he  opened  an  infant 
school  and  published  his  Observations  on  the 
Principles  and  Methods  of  Infant  Instruction, 
which  in  some  respects  was  an  exposition  of  the 
Postalozzian  method.  He  was  called  to  Phil- 
adelphia in  1830  to  accept  a  position  in  a  private 
school  conducted  by  William  Russell,  but  four 
years  later  he  returned  to  Boston  and  opened 
the  famous  Temple  School.  Here  he  repeated 
the  experiments  of  the  Cheshire  school,  and 
introduced  innovations  which  shocked  the 
pedagogic  repose  of  his  conservative  contem- 
poraries. He  had  as  a.ssistant  teachers  in 
the  Temple  School  two  women  who  later 
became  distinguished  in  American  education 
and  letters  :  Elizabeth  Palmer  Peabody 
iq.v.)  and  Sarah  Margaret  Fuller,  afterwards 
the  Marchioness  d'Ossoli.  Miss  Peabody's 
book,  Record  of  Mr.  Alcott' s  exemplifying  the 
Principles  of  Moral  Culture  (Boston,  1835), 
gives  an  admirable  pen  picture  of  the  Temple 
School ;  and  Mr.  Alcott's  daughter  Louisa  May 
in  her  Little  Men  utilized  many  of  the  incidents 
of  the  experiment  in  her  imaginary  Plumfield 
School.  In  1836  Mr.  Alcott  published  the 
first  volume  of  his  Conversations  icith  Children 
on  the  Gospels,  and  a  year  later  the  second 
volume  appeared.  These  books  met  mth  a 
storm  of  criticism  from  the  ultra-orthodox 
which  ultimately  caused  the  downfall  of  his 
school.     The     Boston     experiment     met     the 


hearty  approval  of  such  well-known  educa- 
tional leaders  as  Horace  Mann,  Henry  Barnard, 
Thomas  H.  (lallaudet,  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson, 
Walter  R.  Johnson,  and  William  EUcry  Chan- 
ning ;  but  the  opposition  from  conservative 
and  traditional  schoolmen  ruined  the  financial 
support  of  the  school,  and  it  had  to  be  given  up 
in  1839.  Harriet  Martineau,  after  her  return 
to  England  from  America  in  1837,  published 
what  she  intended  to  be  a  caricature  of  the 
Temple  School.  It  came  to  the  attention  of 
James  Pierrepont  Greaves,  an  English  philan- 
thropist and  former  a.ssociate  of  Pestalozzi. 
He  saw  in  her  burlesciue  the  genuine  Pestaloz- 
zian  spirit  and  method,  and  at  once  opened 
correspondence  with  Mr.  Alcott  and  pro- 
nounced him  the  true  successor  of  the  Swiss 
reformer.  An  English  Pestalozzian  school 
which  Greaves  was  organizing  at  Ham  was 
named  the  Alcott  House,  in  honor  of  the 
American  teacher.  Alcott  subsequently  made 
a  trip  to  England,  but  Greaves  had  died  before 
he  reached  there.  The  last  fifty  years  of  his 
life  Alcott  dsvoted  to  the  study  and  teaching 
of  philosophy.  His  contributions  to  the  litera- 
ture of  education  will  be  found  in  the  Amrri- 
can  Journal  of  Education  (1826-1831),  the 
American  Annals  of  Education  (1831-1837), 
and  the  early  volumes  of  the  American  Institute 
of  Instruction.  During  his  closing  years  he 
took  an  active  part  in  the  conduct  of  the 
Concord  School  of  Philosophy.  He  died  at 
Concord,   Mass.,   March  4,   1888.     W.  S.  M. 

References:  — 
Sanbor.n'.     Memoir  of  A.  Bronson  Alcott  in  Barnard's 

American  Journal  of  Education  (1877,  Vol.  XXVII, 

pp.  225-236). 
Sanborn  and  Harris.     A.  Bronson  Alcott  —  His   Life 

and  Philosophy.      (Boston,   1893.) 
Monroe, W.  S.     History  of  the  Pestalozzian  Movement  in 

the  United  States.     (Syracuse.  1905.) 

ALCOTT,  WILLIAM  ALEXANDER  (1798- 
18.59). —  Educational  writer,  educated  in  the 
public  schools  of  Connecticut  and  at  Yale  Col- 
lege ;  teacher  in  the  public  schools  of  Connecticut ; 
institute  lecturer  in  New  England  ;  associate 
editor  of  the  American  Annals  of  Education; 
author  of  Construction  of  School  Houses,  A 
Word  to  Teachers,  Essays  on  Penmanship,  and 
Confessiojis  of  a  Schoohnnster  ;  also  of  numerous 
articles  in  educational  journals.       W.  S.  M. 

ALCUIN  (ALCHUINE  ;  I.at.  ALCUINUS  or 
ALBINUS  ;    called    FLACCUS   at   the    Palace 

School)  (735-804),  the  adviser  of  Charle- 
magne, was  born  of  noble  Northumbrian  parent- 
age about  735  .\.d.  Educated  at  the  School  of 
York,  under  the  supervision  of  Archbishop  Eg- 
bert iq.v.),  he  was  first  the  favorite  pupil  and 
then  the  beloved  colleague  and  traveling  com- 
panion of  the  master,  ^Elbert;  and  finally, 
when  in  766  /Elbert  became  archbishop,  his  suc- 
cessor, jointly  with  Eanbald  in  the  conduct  of 
the  school.     He  was  ordained  deacon  probably 


84 


A.  Bronson  Alcott. 


WiUiam  A.  Alcott. 


Lord  Brougham.  Dr.  .\iKirew  Bell. 

Early  Nineteenth  Centcry  Educators. 


ALCUIN 


ALCUIN 


in  767  (he  never  received  priest's  orders),  and 
continued  to  teacli  and  travel  till  in  778 
iElbert's  resignation  and  Eanbald's  consecra- 
tion as  archbishop  left  him  undisputed  head 
of  the  school,  while  on  .-Elbert's  death  in  7S0 
he  apparently  inherited  his  master's  library. 
Already  his  journeys  and  the  influx  of  foreign 
students  to  York  had  introduced  him  to  many 
continental  scholars,  —  and  now,  going  to 
Rome  to  procure  the  pallium  for  Eanbald,  he 
met  Charles  the  Great  at  Pavia,  in  March,  781, 
and  was  induced  to  transfer  his  services,  first 
tentatively  and  then  permanently,  from  the 
Northumbrian  to  the  Prankish  kingdom. 
Till  793,  however,  his  work  for  Charles  was 
only  intermittent.  He  appeared  in  Mercia 
in  786,  as  a  Northumbrian  commissioner  in 
attendance  on  the  Papal  Legates,  and  again 
in  790  as  an  envoy  sent  by  Charles  to  make 
peace  with  Offa;  and  then  Northumbrian  affairs 
occupied  him  till  793.  But  in  794  he  was 
present  at  the  Synod  of  Frankfort,  and,  various 
causes  having  prevented  his  obejdng  Eanbald's 
summons  to  York  in  795,  the  murder  of  the 
Northumbrian  king  in  796  finally  determined 
him  never  to  return  to  England.  Hoping  for 
retirement  at  Fulda,  he  was  allowed  only  to 
exchange  his  work  at  the  palace  for  the  task  of 
establishing  a  model  monastic  school  as  Abbot 
of  St.  Martin's  at  Tours.'  Here  he  spent  his 
last  years  in  study,  teaching,  and  devotions, 
paying  at  first  an  annual  visit  to  the  Court,  and 
carrying  on  in  letters,  treatises,  and  even  in  a 
public  disputation  at  Aachen  (probably  in  799), 
a  lengthy  controversy  with  the  Adoptionist 
heretics  whose  teachings  had  lately  spread  from 
Spain  into  Southern  Gaul.  But  in  801  in- 
creasing ill  health  obliged  him  to  delegate  all 
secular  tasks  to  others,  though  he  still  wrote 
and  studied.  He  died  on  Whitsunday,  May 
19,  804. 

Lacking  as  Alcuin  was  in  heroic  qualities,  — 
in  daring  and  in  originality,  —  there  was  much 
that  was  attractive  in  his  character.  Pure 
and  devout,  patient,  kindly,  and  humble- 
minded,  he  was  generous  in  the  love  and  ad- 
miration he  lavished  on  men  of  a  stronger  type. 
Above  all  things  he  was  faithful  —  faithful  to 
his  master  Charles,  to  the  See  of  Rome,  to  the 
orthodo.xy  of  his  teachers,  to  the  moral  stand- 
ard by  which  he  guided  himself  and  judged 
others,  and  to  the  compelling  sense  of  duty 
which  made  him  forget  pain  and  weakness  in 
his  eagerness  to  be  ever  gaining  and  giving  the 
treasures  of  wisdom  and  combating  error  with 
the  weapons  of  authority  and  precedent.  In 
some  degree  this  humble  fidelity  stands  in  the 
way  of  a  just  estimate  of  his  work.  He  was 
so  much  the  instrument  of  others,  the  executor 
of  their  wishes,  the  medium  for  transmitting 
their  teaching,  that  the  personal  element  is 
hard  to  evaluate.  His  voluminous  writings 
are  not  in  general  educational,  but  consist 
mainly  of  letters  and  poems,  controversial, 
theological,  and  liturgical  compilations.     There 


are,  however,  treatises  on  grammar,  rhetoric, 
and  dialectic,  with  two  short  dissertations  and 
various  letters  on  astronomical  problems, 
mainly  in  connection  with  the  calendar. 
Works  on  music,  arithmetic,  and  geometry, 
mentioned  by  Alcuin's  biographer,  are  not 
known  to  exist.  The  Grammatica  begins 
with  a  short  dialogue  De  vera  philosophia  be- 
tween a  master  and  a  pupil,  which  indicates 
Alcuin's  views  on  education.  Like  most 
medieval  writers,  he  makes  the  comprehension 
of  the  Scriptures  the  ultimate  aim  of  study; 
but,  insisting  on  the  need  of  enlightenment  from 
on  high,  he  urges  also  the  necessity  of  human 
effort,  and  declares  the  Seven  Liberal  Arts 
essential  to  the  attainment  of  wisdom.  In  the 
second  dialogue,  in  which  the  pe.rsonw  are 
Alcuin  and  two  boys,  a  Frank  and  a  Saxon, 
he  defines  Grammar,  meagerly  enough,  as  the 
"  science  of  written  sounds,  the  guardian  of 
correct  speech  and  writings,"  and,  though  enu- 
merating twenty-six  parts  of  the  subject, 
actually  confines  himself  almost  entirely  to 
accidence  and  etymology:  a  supplementary 
De  Orthographia,  however,  correcting  the 
Turonica  riisticitas  of  his  pupils  at  St.  Martin's. 
The  De  Rhetorica  et  Virlutibus  discusses  the 
uses  rather  than  the  nature  of  Rhetoric.  The 
dialogue  form,  characteristically  Anglo-Saxon, 
is  retained,  but  the  speakers  are  here  Alcuin 
and  Charles  himself.  The  treatment  of  the 
subject,  based  on  Cicero  and  Isidore,  is  meager. 
The  De  Dialectica  deals  with  the  dialectic  art 
itself,  not  merely  its  applications,  but  is  neither 
original  nor  adequate,  though  dialectic  is  de- 
clared necessary  to  the  study  of  theology. 

These  treatises  would  by  themselves  hardly 
entitle  Alcuin  to  a  high  place  in  the  roll  of 
medieval  scholars,  but  they  afford  no  safe 
criterion  of  either  his  own  attainments  or  his 
educational  success.  Granted  that  his  knowl- 
edge of  rhetoric  and  dialectic  was  superficial, 
that  he  was  ignorant  of  Hebrew  and  scarcely 
less  so  of  Greek,  yet  at  least  his  grammatical 
studies  were  wide  enough  to  give  him  a  familiar 
acquaintance  not  only  with  patristic  writings, 
but  with  some  Latin  classics,  especially  with 
the  poets  whom  to  the  last  he  loved  to  quote, 
and  a  capacity  for  writing,  not  only  facile 
though  faulty  and  uninspired  verses,  but  Latin 
prose,  which,  if  not  invariably  correct,  was  easy, 
simple,  and  dignified.  And,  again,  it  was  not 
as  the  writer  of  textbooks,  —  imperfect  sum- 
maries of  oral  teaching, —  but  as  a  Minister  of 
Education  to  Charles,  and  as  the  master  whose 
personal  teaching  stimulated  the  interest  and 
industry  of  pupils,  men  and  women,  of  every 
rank  and  age,  that  he  did  his  real  work  for  learn- 
ing. It  is  indeed  impossible  to  appraise 
exactly  his  share  in  the  Carolingian  Renaissance. 
He  was  undoubtedly  the  confidential  adviser 
of  Charles  in  his  educational  schemes;  they  seem 
sometimes  to  follow  Anglo-Saxon  precedents, 
—  and  the  Admonitio  Generalis  and  the  letter 
to    Abbot    Baugulf    in    particular,    breathing 


85 


ALDEN 


ALDHELM 


Aleuin's  very  spirit,  may  even  have  been  drafted 
by  his  pen.  But  niDie  than  this  cannot  l)o 
said.  And,  while  his  k'tters  show  us  the  born 
teacher,  —  patient,  considerate,  indefatif!;ul)le; 
devoted  to  his  task;  confident  of  the  sacrcdne.ss 
of  liis  vocation,  —  they  give  little  or  no  de- 
tailed information  as  to  the  methods  and 
results  of  all  his  labors.  Thus  the  value  of 
his  work  is  left  to  be  surmised  from  the  vigor 
which  after  his  death  still  marked  the  schools 
where  he  had  taught,  —  from  the  achieve- 
ments of  his  own  pupils,  or  his  fellow  laborers, 
—  and  from  the  persistence  of  the  conserva- 
tive, as  opposed  to  the  creative,  impulse  of 
the  intellectual  revival,  all  through  the  dark 
period  of  feudal  strife  and  anarchy,  till  the 
dawn  of  a  greater  revival  in  the  twelfth 
century. 

See  also  the  article  on  Charlemagne  and 
Education.  C.  J.  B.  G. 

References  : 

Alcuin.    O iiera  Otnnia.    Ed.  Frobcn.    3  vols. 

Browne,  G.  F.     Alcuin  of  York.     (London,  1908.) 

Diclionary  of  Naliomd  Biography. 

Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography. 

DnPUY,  A.     Biography  of  Alcuin.     (Tours,  1876.) 

Gaskoin,  C.  J.  B.     Alcuin:    His  Life  and  His  Work. 

(London,  1904.) 
Hamehn.  F.     Biography  of  Alcuin.     (Rennes.  1873.) 
Hauck,  a.     Kirehcngeschichtc  Deutschlands.    lite  Theil. 
Herzog.    Realencyclopddie  fiir  proleslantischc  Theologie. 

3te  Auflage. 
Laforet,  J.  B.     Biography  of  Alcuin.     (Louvain.  1851.) 
LoRENTZ,  F.     Biography  of  Alcuin.    (Halle,  1829.)    Tr. 

by  J.  M.  Slee.     (London,  1837.) 
MoNNiER,  F.     Biography  of  Alcuin.      (Paris,   1853  and 

1863.) 
Wattenbach,  W.   Deutschlands  Geschichtsquellen,  Vol.  I. 
West,    A.    F.     Alcuin   and    the    Rise   of  the    Christian 

Schools.     (Groat  Educators.)     (London,  1893.) 
Werner,  K.     Biography  of  Alcuin.     (Paderborn,  1876.) 

ALDEN,  JOSEPH.  —  Educator  and  author, 
born  at  Cairo,  N.Y.,  Jan.  4,  1807;  educated  in 
public  and  private  schools,  at  Brown  University, 
and  Princeton  Theological  Seminary;  professor 
in  Williams  College  (1835-1852)  and  in  Lafay- 
ette College  (1852-1857);  president  of  Jefferson 
College  (1857-1867)  and  principal  of  the  State 
Normal  School  at  Albany  (1867-1872);  author 
of  Ethica,  Logic,  Political  Economy,  Civics, 
and  Intellectual  Philosophy ;  died  at  New 
York  City,  Aug.  30,  1885.  W.  S.  M. 

ALDEN,  TIMOTHY  (1781-1839).  —  Edu- 
cated in  the  district  schools  of  Massachusetts 
and  at  Harvard  College;  teacher  in  public 
schools  and  academies;  first  president  of  Alle- 
gheny College   (1817-1831).  W.  S.  M. 

ALDHELM  (640  (?)-709).  —  An  English 
scholar  important  in  the  history  of  education  as 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  of  the  scholars  trained 
at  the  Canterbury  school  founded  about  668 
by  the  Archbishop  Theodore  and  the  Abbot 
Adrian  (q.v.).  The  school  gave  a  new  impulse 
to  learning,  though  it  would  be  an  error  to 
suppose  that  learning   had    fallen    asleep  alto- 


gether between  the  Roman  military  evacuation 
and  the  coming  of  Augustine  in  597.  The 
school  or  schools  founded  in  East  Anglia  by 
the  joint  efforts  of  King  Sigberct,  the  Burgun- 
dian  Bishop  Felix,  and  the  Irish  monk  Fursa  in 
630  depended  for  teachers  on  "  pedagogues  and 
masters  after  the  custom  of  Kent''  (Bede, ///.s-<. 
Eccles.,  c.  xviii),  which  shows  that  the  Roman 
imperial  schools  in  Kent  survived  the  Saxon 
onslaught.  Aldhelm  himself  re])rcsented  the 
older  culture,  for,  born  at  Siierborne,  he  had  as 
his  teacher  the  famous  Irish  teacher  Maildulf 
of  Malmesbury,  who  himself  rejiresented,  as 
Fursa  represented,  the  imperial  tradition. 
On  the  arrival  of  Theodore  and  Adrian,  Aldhelm 
at  once  joined  them,  and  from  them  and  their 
varied  library  acquired  a  profound  knowl- 
edge of  Greek  and  Latin,  as  well  as.  there 
is  reason  to  believe,  Hebrew.  We  know  from 
famous  Anglo-Saxon  and  medieval  documents 
that  the  study  of  Helirew  never  entirely  died 
out.  The  calls  of  learning  were  so  insistent 
that  Aldhelm  joined  the  Canterbury  school  a 
second  time  in  further  search  for  knowledge. 
He  was  a  worthy  scholar  of  a  school  that 
rendered  possible  the  great  literary  movement 
which  was  to  be  crowned  by  Alcuin.  Bede 
tells  us  that  as  late  as  732  there  were  scholars 
to  whom  Greek  and  Latin  were  as  familiar 
as  their  native  tongue.  Aldhelm,  the  chief 
scholar  of  his  age,  did  much  to  strengthen  the 
movement.  As  the  successor  of  Maildulf  in 
the  monastery  at  Malmesbury,  and  as  the  first 
Bishop  of  Sherborne,  he  did  much  to  multiply 
houses  of  learning  and  to  spread  culture. 
By  his  journey  to  Rome  in  the  days  of  Pope 
Sergius,  he  may  be  said  to  ha\-e  paved  the 
way  for  the  formation  of  the  Saxon  School  of 
Rome  by  his  kinsman  Ine,  king  of  the  West 
Saxons,  in  727  (Flores  Hi.fioriarum,  Rolls  ed. 
Vol.  I,  pp.  368-3G9;  and  see  Matthew  Paris). 
Ine  himself  was  indeed  an  educationalist 
worthy  of  his  age  for  "he  hired  the  services 
of  two  most  skilful  teachers  of  Greek  from 
Athens."  (Sandys.)  But  Aldhelm  was  not 
merely  a  scholar  and  the  first  of  the  line  of 
scholars  who  adorned  the  eighth  century  in 
England.  He  was  also  a  famous  builder  of 
churches,  and  at  least  one  of  his  buildings 
still  survives.  We  may  see  in  this  church- 
building  movement  the  origin  of  that  technical 
training  in  church  schools  which  was  enjoined 
by  the  English  Canons  of  the  year  960.  Ald- 
helm died  in  the  year  709,  in  the  wooden  church 
of  Doulting  near  Wells,  and  he  was  buried  at 
Malmesbury,  itself  one  of  the  most  famous 
of  the  early  centers  of  education.  Some 
of  Aldhelm's  literary  work  is  still  extant,  such 
as  his  De  Laitde  Virginitatis  (which  was  dedi- 
cated to  and  is  evidence  of  the  Latin  culture 
of  the  Abbess  of  Barking  and  her  nuns),  De 
Laudihus  Virginum  and  an  educational  work 
on  the  writing  of  Latin  verse  entitled  Liber 
de  Septenario  (see  the  Dictionary  of  Notional 
Biography).  J.  E.  G.  de  M. 


86 


ALEXANDER 


ALEXANDRIA 


ALEXANDER,  ARCHIBALD  (1772-1851). 
—  Historian  and  tlieologian  educated  at  Wash- 
ington and  Lee  University;  president  of  Hamp- 
den Sidney  College  (1797-1806)  and  of  Union 
College  in  Georgia  (1810-1812;  professor  in 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  (1812-1851); 
author  of  History  of  the  Log  College,  Outlines  of 
Moral  Science,  and  of  numerous  theological 
and  historical  works.  W.  S.  M. 

ALEXANDER  DE  VILLA  DEI  (or  VIL- 
LEDIEU).— A  native  of  Flanders  who 
flourished  during  the  latter  twelfth  and  early 
thirteenth  centuries.  About  1119  he  wrote 
a  Latin  grammar,  a  part  of  which  is  the  Doc- 
trinale,  one  of  the  most  famous  and  most 
widely  used  of  all  textbooks.  It  is  composed 
in  verse,  and  consists  of  2645  lines,  1073  of 
which  are  devoted  to  etymology,  476  to  syntax, 
and  1095  to  quantity,  accent,  and  figures. 
Numerous  manuscript  copies  yet  exist,  and  it 
went  through  almost  300  printed  editions. 
As  an  introductory  text  it  went  far  to  replace 
the  older  ones,  such  as  Donatus  and  Priscian. 
Its  popularity  was  due  partially  to  its  metrical 
form  which  rendered  it  easier  to  memorize. 
The  prevailing  method  of  elementary  instruc- 
tion was  by  memorizing  of  the  complete  text. 
Its  logical  arrangement  and  distinctions  ap- 
pealed to  the  dialectic  interests  of  the  times; 
and  in  addition  it  included  more  of  a  vocabu- 
lary drawn  from  Christian  authors,  and  incor- 
porated many  of  the  changes  in  the  language 
which  had  occurred  subsequent  to  the  construc- 
tion of  the  earlier  texts.  The  general  use  of 
the  text  obtained  for  its  author  the  title  of  the 
"Aristotle  of  Grammar";  but  for  the  same 
reason  the  text  drew  the  special  opposition  of 
the  early  humanists,  and  it  was  generally  dis- 
carded early  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

References:  — 

AiiELsoN,  P.      The  Seven  Liberal  Arts.     (1906.) 
Neudekek,  K.  J.     Das  Doctrinale.    (1885.) 
Reiching,  in    Monumenta    Germaniae    Pedagogica, 
Vol.  XII. 

ALEXANDER  I,  OF  RUSSIA.  — See  Russia, 
Educ.\tio.\.\l   Syste.ms   of. 

ALEXANDER,    THE    GREAT.— Born    356 

B.C.,  died  323  b.c.  He  is  interesting  to  us  in  this 
place  not  as  conqueror  and  soldier,  but  in  his 
capacity  as  pupil  of  Aristotle  and  patron  of 
Greek  letters.  He  was  first  committed  to 
the  care  of  Lanice,  his  nurse,  who  loved  him 
as  a  mother  and  whose  children  afterwards 
served  him  to  the  death.  At  the  age  of  6, 
he  fell  under  the  care  not  of  an  ordinary 
Greek  pedagogue,  the  typical  chaperoning 
slave,  but  of  a  man  of  royal  birth,  Leonidas, 
a  strict  disciplinarian  who  taught  the  lad 
temperance  and  economj^,  and  perhaps  gave 
him  an  example  of  the  martinet  which  Ale.x- 
ander  was  not  slow  to  imitate  in  later  life. 
At  length  his  father,  the  royal  Philip  of  Mace- 


don,  recognizing  that  it  was  better  to  influence 
the  youth  by  argument  than  command,  sent 
for  Aristotle,  as  the  most  learned  and  saga- 
cious of  philosophers,  to  come  to  him.  Alexan- 
der was  at  this  time  12  years  of  age.  The 
two  formed  an  extraordinary  conjunction, 
for,  as  Zell  says:  "The  one  had  the  power  and 
the  call  to  master  and  rule  the  world.  The 
other  had  discovered  and  subjugated  a  new 
world  for  the  human  mind  and  for  science." 
Alexander  became  a  pupil  in  Aristotle's  school 
at  Mieza,  where  the  great  master  was  wont  to 
walk  through  the  grove  with  his  pupils  or  teach 
them  from  his  great  stone  chair.  Although 
Aristotle  declined  the  solicitations  of  Alex- 
ander, who  ascended  the  Macedonian  throne 
in  336  B.C.,  to  accompany  him  on  his  warlike 
expeditions,  a  close  correspondence  and  friend- 
ship appears  to  have  been  long  maintained 
between  these  two,  in  some  respects  the  great- 
est figures  of  the  Hellenic  age;  and  it  is  sig- 
nificant that  on  the  death  of  Alexander,  the 
Stagirite  philosopher  was  compelled  to  quit 
Athens  on  the  ground  that  he  had  been  a 
Macedonian  favorite. 

It  must  have  been  partly  owing  to  the  in- 
fluence of  Aristotle  that  Alexander  became  an 
extensive  reader  of  books  and  a  most  en- 
thusiastic admirer  of  Homer,  whose  poetry 
alone  he  is  said  to  have  found  truly  noble, 
grand,  and  kingly.  The  principal  authorities 
for  Alexander's  education  are  the  somewhat 
doubtful  accounts  of  Plutarch  and  Dion 
Chrysostomus.  P.  R.  C. 

References:  — 

Hogarth.  Philip  and  Alexander  of  Macedon.  (New 
York,  1897.) 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.    Alexander's  Empire.   (New  York,  1898.) 

Plutarch.     Life  of  Alexander. 

Sandys,  J.  E.  History  of  Classical  Scholarship.  (Cam- 
bridge, 190.3.) 

Wheeler,  B.  I.    Alexander  the  Great.    (New  York,  1900.) 

ALEXANDRIA,  SCHOOL  AND  UNIVER- 
SITY OF.  —  An  institution  which  represents  the 
zenith  of  the  somewhat  barren  and  pedantic  pe- 
riod of  cosmopolitan  Greek  learning.  The  city 
of  Alexandria,  founded  in  332  b.c.  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  fell  upon  his  death  to  Ptolemy 
Soter,  who  reigned  in  Egypt  from  306  to  285 
B.C.  As  wise  a  ruler  as  he  was  a  successful 
warrior,  Ptolemy  appears  to  have  reflected 
that  the  supremacy  of  the  Greeks  was  ulti- 
mately the  supremacy  of  mind,  and  under 
the  advice  and  with  the  assistance  of  his 
friend,  the  Athenian  orator,  Demetrius  Pha- 
lereus,  he  collected  a  vast  number  of  manu- 
scripts and  built  a  museum.  The  museum  is 
to  be  regarded  as  an  endowed  college  designed 
at  first  as  a  home  of  erudition  and  research 
rather  than  a  school  for  the  propagation  of 
knowledge.  Its  professors  or  fellows  con- 
stituted a  body  of  learned  Greeks  favored  and 
supported  by  a  Greek  dynasty,  but  isolated 
in   the   midst   of   a   nation   of   unsympathetic 


87 


ALEXANDRIA 


ALEXANDRIA 


Egyptians.  They  were  therefore  thrown  liack 
upon  thi'ir  own  society  and  upon  the  standard 
literature  of  the  classical  age  of  Greece.  Under 
these  circumstances  the  Alexandrian  university 
became  more  famous  for  literary  and  gram- 
matical studies  than  productive  genius  ;  and 
the  library,  the  greatest  of  ancient  times, 
eclipsed  the  importance  of  the  museum. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  considerable  absolute 
progress  was  made  at  Alexandria  in  mathe- 
matics and  physical  science  as  well  as  criticism, 
antiquarian  research,  and  formal  literature. 

In  an  estimation  of  the  work  of  the  school 
and  university  of  Alexandria,  two  periods  ought 
to  be  carefully  discriminated.  From  its  foun- 
dation to  its  conquest  by  Augustus  and  the 
Romans  in  30  B.C.,  the  reputation  of  the 
institution  was  due  to  its  literary  and  scientific 
bias.  Subsequent  to  the  Roman  conquest, 
however,  and  until  the  occupation  of  Alex- 
andria by  the  Mohammedans  in  640  a.d.,  the 
remarkaljle  feature  of  Alexandrian  culture  was 
the  development  of  the  Neo-Platonic  philosophy. 
Accordingly  the  description  which  immediately 
follows  ajiplies  primarily  to  the  pre-Roman 
period  of  Alexandria. 

The  successor  of  the  first  Ptolemy  con- 
tinued and  excelled  the  endeavors  of  the 
founder  of  his  dynasty  to  make  Alexandria 
the  intellectual  capital  of  the  world.  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  during  his  reign  from  2S.">  to 
247  B.C.,  was  advised  by  the  poet  Callimachus 
in  much  the  same  way  as  his  predecessor  by 
Demetrius,  and  collected  the  works  of  Aristotle 
and  many  Egyptian  and  Hebrew  texts.  Dur- 
ing this  reign  the  greater  and  the  lesser  libraries 
were  completed  and  a  beginning  was  made 
in  the  direction  of  translating  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  into  Greek.  This  was  the  origin 
of  the  famous  vSeptuagint  version  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Of  the  third  Ptolemy,  called 
Euergetes,  it  is  related  that  he  borrowed 
from  Athens  and  retained  the  standard  editions 
of  the  great  Athenian  dramatists,  while  he 
also  required  travelers  to  leave  behind  them 
a  copy  of  any  literary  work  which  they  might 
be  so  fortunate  as  to  possess.  The  traditional 
accounts  of  the  number  of  books  collected  in 
the  great  library  are  incredible;  the  volumes 
are  said  to  have  amounted  to  200,000  in  the 
time  of  Demetrius  Phalereus,  and  to  have 
numbered    at    the    maximum    700,000. 

Inconsiderable  as  the  quantity  of  extant 
literature  produced  by  the  Alexandrian  school 
must  be,  in  comparison  with  the  enormous 
amount  that  has  been  lost,  it  is  none  the  less 
sufficient  to  indicate  the  general  characteristics 
of  early  Alexandrian  culture.  Much  of  it 
was  pedantic;  there  was  little  or  no  expression 
of  romanticism  outside  the  poems  of  Theocritus. 
There  were  learned  poems  like  the  Hymns 
of  Callimachus,  obscure  epics  such  as  the 
Argonaidics  of  Apollonius  Rhodius  and  the 
Alexandra  or  Cassandra  of  Lycophron,  didactic 
verses  typified  by  the    Phenomena   and   Signs 


of  Weather  of  Aratus,  epigrams  and  satires 
like  those  of  Timon.  The  atmosi)here  of 
courts  and  royal  endowments  conduced  to 
research  rather  than  creative  activity,  for- 
malism rather  than  freedom.  Grammar, 
criticism,  prosody,  and  mythology  were  first 
elevated  into  sciences  at  Alexandria.  Here, 
first,  lives  were  devoted  to  arch;rology;  here, 
the  first  dictionaries  were  made.  But  there 
was  no  attempt  to  nationalize  the  foreign 
culture,  no  attempt  to  fuse  the  Greek  and 
Egyptian  civilizations. 

If  the  progress  of  Alexandrian  culture 
appears  to  have  been  slow,  relatively  to  its 
o])port unities,  it  is  none  the  less  vitallj-  im- 
portant from  an  absolute  point  of  view.  The 
labors  of  Euclid  on  geometry,  Apollonius  on 
conic  sections,  Archimedes  on  i)hysics,  Eratos- 
thenes on  scientific  geography.  Hero  and 
Philo  on  dynamics,  and  Hipparchus  on  astron- 
omy cannot  be  too  fully  appreciated.  It  was 
to  Alexandria,  and  especially  to  Hipparchus, 
that  the  remarkable  Ptolemaic  system  of 
astronomy,  wnth  its  epicyclical  theory  of  the 
movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  admirable 
and  serviceable  notwithstanding  its  errors, 
was  due.  But  such  genuine  scientific  achieve- 
ments were  buried  among  a  mass  of  prose  com- 
mentaries and  expositions. 

One  serviceable  result  of  the  zeal  for  exposi- 
tion and  criticism  remains  to  be  mentioned. 
It  was  the  work  of  the  early  Alexandrian 
savants  not  only  to  collect  and  preserve  cla.ssical 
manuscripts,  but  also  to  arrange  the  texts  and 
settle  the  accents.  It  is  owing  to  their  patient 
efforts  that  we  now  possess  the  theory  of 
Greek  accents  and  legible  texts  of  the  Homeric 
and  other  great  works  of  the  Greek  intellect. 

Subsequent  to  the  Roman  occupation  of 
Alexandria  in  30  B.C.,  while  the  sway  of  Greek 
letters  in  the  schools  suffers  no  interruption,  it 
perceptibly  yields  to  the  dominant  interest  in 
philosophy.  Alexandria  was  peculiarly  fitted 
by  its  situation  and  the  quality  of  its  population, 
in  which  Greek,  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Egyjitian 
elements  were  prominent,  to  become  the  seat 
of  a  new  synthetic  philosophy.  The  peculiarity 
of  Alexandrian  philosophy  consists  in  its  .sym- 
bolical and  religious  bent.  In  a  large  measure, 
these  features  were  the  result  of  an  attempt 
to  harmonize  the  highest  results  of  the  religious 
speculation  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  with  the 
religion  of  the  Jews  and  afterwards  with  Chris- 
tianity. The  contact  of  Greek  with  Hebrew 
thought  produced  Neo-Platonism  (q.v.),  which  is 
represented  by  the  names  of  Animonius  Saccas, 
Plotinus,  Porphyry,  lamblicus,  and  Proclus. 
The  contact  of  free  Greek  thought  with  Chris- 
tian doctrine  issued  in  such  heretical  forms  of 
belief  as  Gnosticism  {q.v.).  The  Neo-Platonic 
philosophy  in  particular,  whose  best  rei^resenta- 
tive  is  Plotinus,  has  exercised  a  profound  in- 
fluence upon  the  thought  of  both  the  ancient 
and  the  modern  world. 

Because    of   its    historical    importance,    and 


88 


ALEXIA 


ALFRED 


because  it  has  been  unjustiy  viewed  by  the  or- 
thodox on  account  of  its  Hberahsm,  and  by  the 
scientifically  minded  on  account  of  its  symboli- 
cal vagaries,  the  Neo-Platonic  philosophy  of  the 
Alexandrian  school  deserves  a  brief  explanation. 
Its  dominant  characteristic  is  mysticism.  It 
confounded  philosophy  with  religion,  and  practi- 
cally founded  a  church  in  establishing  a  school. 
It  took  up  the  cudgels  against  Christianity 
at  the  same  time  that  it  colored  the  pages  of 
many  of  the  Greek  Fathers.  Its  heresy  was 
regarded  as  dangerous  because  of  its  very  insidi- 
ous similarity  to  the  Christian  doctrine,  which 
made  its  refutation  so  much  the  more  difficult. 
On  the  other  hand,  Neo-Platonism,  like  other 
forms  of  mysticism,  appealed  chiefly  to  individ- 
uals and  did  not  attempt  to  concentrate  itself 
into  a  formal  sj'stem.  The  method  adopted  in 
teaching  the  system  was  dialectic.  A  begin- 
ning was  made  from  the  dissatisfaction  with  the 
objects  of  sense  which  Plato  had  felt  long  before, 
and  the  separation  of  the  world  of  sense  from  the 
superior,  indeterminate  world  of  perfect  ideas 
which  may  be  contemplated  by  reason.  In 
reason,  the  ideas  of  the  good  may  lie  studied  by  a 
return  upon  itself.  The  Neo-Platonic  system  of 
education  totally  disregarded  the  world  of 
sense  as  unreal  and  remote,  and  fixed  the  gaze 
solely  on  the  so-caUed  "  intelligible  "  world,  at 
most  adding  only  mathematics  to  its  con- 
templation. 

Ultimately  as  the  seat  of  a  metaphj'sical 
school  of  Christian  theology,  as  well  as  of  the 
Neo-Grecian  sects,  Alexandria  became  the 
theater  of  innumerable  and  bitter  religious 
polemics  between  them,  especially  Neo-Plato- 
nism and  Christianity.  P.  R.  C. 

References:  — 

KiNcsLEY,  C.     Alexandria  and  Her  Schools.     (London, 

1854.) 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.     Greek  Life  and  Thought.     (New  York 

and  London,  1898.) 

ALEXIA. —  A  speech  disorder  consisting  in  the 

inability  to  read  understandingly  (not  neces- 
sarily aloud)  printed  or  written  speech  symbols. 
See  APH.\si.i. 

References:  — 

Mills  and  Weisenburg.  Word  Blindness,  with  a 
Roford  of  a  Case.  Review  of  Neurology  and  Psy- 
chiatry, 1906,  p.  152. 

GoLDscHEiDER.  Ueber  corticate  Sprach-,  Schreib-,  und 
Lesestorung.  Berlin,  klin.  Wochenschrift,  1892,  pp. 
64,  100,  122,  144,  168. 

ALFRED,  KING.  —  (Reigned  871-901  a.d.) 
As  Educator.  —  The  traditional  ideals  of  King 
Alfred  are  set  forth  in  his  preface  to  the  trans- 
lation of  Pope  Gregory's  Pastoral  Care  (ed.  by 
Sweet,  E.E.T.S.)  and  in  comments  in  the  trans- 
lation of  Boethius'  Consolation  of  Philosophy 
(ed.  by  Sedgeficld,  p.  40).  These  pa.ssages  find  a 
close  parallel  in  the  Epistola  de  littcris  colendis  and 
other  proclamations  of  Charles  the  Great  (q.v.). 
The  chief  motive  of  reform  was  the  lack  of  edu- 
cated clergy  who  could  understand  the  ritual  of 


89 


the  Church  or  translate  a  Latin  letter.  In  the 
past,  since  the  work  of  the  Celtic  mi-ssionaries,  the 
monasteries  and  bishops'  sees  had  been  the  main, 
if  not  the  only,  centers  of  religious  and  classical 
learning.  Although  the  service  of  the  Church 
had  been  the  first  end  in  view,  the  secular  teach- 
ing involved  had  led,  especialh'  in  England,  to  a 
generous  study  of  all  available  knowledge  (see 
Roger,  U  Enseignement  des  letlres  classiques 
d'  Ausone  a  Alcuin,  Paris,  1905,  which  contains 
several  chapters  upon  the  spread  of  learning 
in  Ireland  and  England).  Except  in  Mercia, 
where  Offa  had  to  some  extent  maintained  the 
study  of  letters,  an  educated  clergy  had  disap- 
peared in  England  when  King  Alfred  came  to 
the  throne.  Alfred's  travels  and  wide  interests 
had  prepared  him  to  remedy  this  defect,  and  to 
restore  a  learned  clergy  and  educational  centers. 
One  of  the  scholars  whom  he  introduced,  Asser 
(q.v.)  of  St.  David's,  in  his  life  of  the  king  (ed. 
by  Stevenson,  Oxford,  1904,  an  edition  indispen- 
sable for  the  student  of  Alfred's  reign)  describes 
the  means  taken  by  the  king  for  carrying  out 
his  purpose.  Learned  men  were  brought  from 
parts  outside  Wessex,  Plegmund  from  Mercia, 
Grimbald  from  Flanders,  John  the  old  Saxon, 
who  became  respectiveh'  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, and  abbots  of  Alfred's  new  foundations 
at  Winchester  and  Athelney.  Neither  Grim- 
bald  nor  John  would  have  much  difficulty  with 
the  English  tongue  (.see  Stevenson,  p.  311). 
Alfred  was  eager  for  the  education  of  the  laity 
as  well  as  of  the  clergy.  Laymen  had  shared  in 
the  advantages  of  episcopal  schools  in  the 
seventh  century,  e.g.  they  are  found  among  the 
scholars  of  John  of  Beverley  (Roger,  op.  cit., 
p.  314).  Alfred  wished  "  that  all  the  freeborn 
youth  of  England  who  have  sufficient  means 
to  devote  themselves  thereto,  be  set  to  learning 
so  long  as  thej^  are  not  strong  enough  for  any 
other  occupation,  until  such  time  as  they  can 
weU  read  English  writing.  Let  those  be 
taught  Latin  whom  it  is  proposed  to  educate 
further,  and  promote  to  higher  office"  (Preface 
to  Pastoral  Care ;  Plummer,  Life  and  Times  of 
Alfred,  p.  136).  It  is  doubtful  to  what  extent 
the  scholars,  new  monasteries,  and  translations 
for  which  Alfred  was  responsible,  produced  this 
result.  That  some  result  was  reached  is  clear 
from  the  story  that  ignorant  royal  officials, 
afraid  of  the  king's  displeasure,  sought  to  learn 
from  their  children.  The  king  devoted  one 
eighth  of  his  income  to  a  schola  utriusque 
linguae,  which  developed  at  his  court  (Asser,  cc. 
75,  76,  102).  In  this  school  the  sons  of  the 
noble  class  and  officers  of  lower  rank  were  edu- 
cated. It  was  not  a  school  in  the  ordinary  sense 
of  the  term,  but  a  more  systematic  example,  on 
the  lines  of  the  school  at  the  court  of  Charles  the 
Great,  of  a  common  institution  (Stevenson,  p. 
300;  cf.  Guilhiermoz,  Essai  sur  Vorigine  de  la 
noblesse,  Paris.   1902,  passim). 

The  tradition  which  connects  Alfred  with 
Oxford,  which  was  inserted  by  Camden  in  his 
edition  of  Asser,  has  long  been  known  to  have  no 


ALFRED  UNIVERSITY 


ALGEBRA 


foundation  (Stevenson's  Asser,  pp.  xxxiii  scqq.; 
Parker,  Early  History  of  Oxford,  ch.  v;  Rasli- 
dall,  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
II,  ii,  322-323).  F.M.P. 

See  Middle  Ages,  Education  in. 

References:  — 
Asser.    Life  of  King  Alfred,  ed.  by  Stevenson.    Oxford, 

1904. 
HnNT.      A    History   of  the    English    Church,    597-1006. 

Chap.  xiv.      (London,  1901.) 
L.\PPEXBERG.     Anglo-Saxon  Kings,  etc. 
Pluilmer,  C.      The  Life  and  Times  of  Alfred  the  Great. 

(Oxford,  1902.) 
William  of  M,\lmesbury.    GestaRegum,  ed.  by  Stubbs. 

Rolls  Series,  with  editorial  introductions. 

ALFRED  UNIVERSITY,  ALFRED,  NEW 
YORK.  —  A  coeducational,  nonsectarian  in.sti- 
tution,  takes  its  origin  from  a  small  school  or- 
ganized Dec.  5,  1836,  in  the  village  of  Alfred.  In 
1843,  a  charter  was  granted  to  "Alfred  Acad- 
emy and  Teacher's  Seminary";  in  1846  three 
school  buildings  were  erected  on  the  present 
campus;  in  1857  a  university  charter  was  se- 
cured. The  university  maintains  an  under- 
graduate college,  admission  to  which  is  by 
examination  or  certificate  from  an  approved 
high  school,  and  a  preparatory  school  known  as 
Alfred  Academy.  By  chap.  383,  Laics  of 
the  State  of  Xew  York,  there  was  established  a 
New  York  State  School  of  Clay  Working  and 
Ceramics,  with  buildings  adjacent  to  the  uni- 
versity campus  ;  this  school  is  administered  by 
the  trustees  of  Alfred  University.  It  offers  a 
course  of  four  years  leading  to  the  degrees  of 
Bachelor  of  Philosophy  in  Ceramics,  and  of 
Bachelor  of  Science  in  Ceramics,  and  also  a  short 
course  of  two  years.  The  requirements  for  ad- 
mission to  the  full  course  are  the  same  as  those 
for  entrance  to  the  scientific  course  of  Alfred 
University.  On  May  6, 1908,  the  state  of  New 
York  also  established  a  state  School  of  Agricul- 
ture at  Alfred  University;  this  school  is  governed 
by  a  Board  of  JNIanagers  appointed  by  the  Alfred 
University  trustees.  Its  grounds  adjoin  the 
university  campus.  The  course  comprises  three 
years;  it  is  planned  (1909)  to  offer  also  a  short 
term  of  summer  work  in  agriculture.  The 
degree  of  M.A.  is  conferred  for  one  year's 
resident  graduate  study.  Alfred  University  is 
governed  by  a  self-perpetuating  board  of  33 
trustees.  The  institution  is  a  member  of 
the  Association  of  Colleges  and  Preparatory 
Schools  in  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland 
(see  College  Entr.\nce  Bo.\rds).  There  are 
no  college  fraternities.  The  grounds  and  Ijuild- 
ings,  valued  (1906),  with  equipment,  at  8279,000, 
occupy  an  unusually  beautiful  site  among  high 
hills  near  the  village  of  .\lfred,  the  headquarters 
in  America  of  the  Seventh  Dav  Baptists.  The 
total  income  (1906)  was  .?40,oi9.  The  average 
■salary  of  a  professor  is  S900.  There  are  (1909) 
14  members  on  the  instructing  staff,  of  whom 
12  are  full  professors.  The  college  has  120 
students.  Boothe  ColweU  Davis,  Ph.D.,  is 
president.  C.  G. 


ALGEBRA.  —  General  Nature  of  the  Subject. 

—  The  term  algebra  has  hail  several  meanings  in 
the  development  of  the  subject  as  we  now  under- 
stand it,  and  even  at  present  it  is  used  in  a  rather 
undefined  sense.  As  first  used,  the  term  referred 
to  the  science  of  the  equation,  as  will  be  seen  in 
the  article  given  below  on  the  history  of  algebra. 
With  the  development  of  symbolism,  as  ex- 
plained below,  it  came  to  refer  to  that  part  of 
mathematics  that  teaches  the  use  of  letters  to 
represent  numbers,  not  merely  in  equations  but 
in  operations  es.sential  to  the  study  of  more  ad- 
vanced mathematics,  such  as  the  fundamental 
operations  resembling  those  of  arithmetic. 
Among  the  various  attempts  to  define  algebra 
may  be  mentioned  Ne^rton's  characterization 
of  the  subject  as  "  universal  arithmetic,"  the 
more  common  one  of  "generalized  arithmetic," 
and  Comte's  expression,  the  "  calculus  of  func- 
tions," as  distinguished  from  arithmetic,  which 
is  the  "calculus  of  values."  None  of  these 
attempts  is  more  than  a  mere  epigram.  The 
fact  is  that  mathematicians  do  not  find  it  neces- 
sary or  profitable  to  attempt  any  exact  defini- 
tion of  llie  science.  It  is  the  calculus  of  certain 
functions,  and  in  general  these  functions  are 
those  involving  addition  and  an  inverse,  multi- 
plication and  an  inverse,  involution  and  an  in- 
verse. Thus,  besides  a+b  =  c  we  have  a  =  c  —  b, 
and  b  =  c  —  a;  besides  ab  =  c  we  have  a  =  c-i-b, 
b  =  c-i-a;  besides  a''  =  e  we  have  a=^c,  but  6 
=  log  c  ^  log  a  is  commonly  excluded  from  ele- 
mentary algebra,  and  log  a  is  not  considered  as 
an  algebraic  number.  Algebra  is  commonly 
considered  at  present  to  mean  that  part  of 
mathematics  which  uses  letters  to  represent 
numbers,  which  treats  of  the  operations  of  arith- 
metic performed  with  numbers  represented  in 
this  manner,  and  which  emphasizes  the  u.se  of 
the  equation  (q.v.).  Higher  algebra  is  taken  to 
include  such  topics  as  symmetric  functions  (see 
Function),  power  sums  (see  Power),  the 
proof  of  the  fact  that  every  algebraic  equation 
has  a  root,  number  congruences  (sec  Congru- 
ence), continued  fractions  (see  Fr.\ctio.\),  de- 
terminants (q.v.),  and  various  other  theories 
needed  in  advanced  work. 

History.  —  The  first  traces  of  algebra  are  so 
mingled  with  those  of  geometry  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  say  to  which  subject  they  should  be  as- 
signed. Thus  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
Babylonians  knew  the  law  that  we  express  in 
modern  s.vmbols  by  (n  +  b)- =  a-  +  2ab  +  lr,  a 
law  that  may  very  likely  have  come  from  geom- 
etry, but  that  also  may  have  been  derived 
inductively  from  a  study  of  numbers.  The  first 
definite  trace  of  algebra  comes  to  us  from  an 
Egyptian  work,  in  which  the  subject  appears 
already  in  a  rather  advanced  state.  This 
manuscript  on  papyrus  was  written  by  a  scribe 
named  Ahmes  {q.v.)  about  1700  B.C.,  but  was 
copied  from  an  earlier  work.  In  this  treatise 
are  found  a  few  crude  mathematical  symbols, 
the  linear  eciuation  appears  as  applied  to  a  few 
simple  problems,  and  there  is  a  slight  treatment 


90 


ALGEBRA 


ALGEBRA 


of  arithmetical  and  geometric  progressions. 
The  first  equation  known  appears  in  this 
worlc  in  the  form  "Heap,  its  seventli,  its  whole, 
it  makes  19,"  and  this  in  modern  symbols  would 


appear  a,s'-  +  x  ■ 


19. 


The  algebra  of  the  golden  age  of  Greek  mathe- 
matics was  merely  a  phase  of  geometry.  Aris- 
totle went  so  far  as  to  represent  quantities  by 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  saying,  "If  A  is  the  mov- 
ing force,  B  that  which  is  moved,  r  the  dis- 
tance, and  A  the  time,"  etc.,  but  such  literal 
notation  was  exceptional  at  that  period.  In 
general  the  algebraic  knowledge  of  the  Greeks 
of  that  time  was  confined  to  such  theorems  as 
could  be  developed  by  geometry.  In  this  way 
they  were  aware  of  the  truths  which  we  would 
now  express  by 

{a  +  bY  =  a:  +  2ab+b% 
{a-by  =  a:-2ab  +  b-, 
(a+b)(a  —  b)  =d-  —  b-, 

and  this  involved  a  knowledge  of  how  to  "  com- 
plete the  square,"  that  is,  of  adding  6'  to  a" 
±2ab. 

The  greatest  algebraist  of  Greece  was 
Diophantus  (q.v.),  who  lived  about  27.5  a.d. 
He  used  special  symbols  for  the  unknown 
quantity,  and  also  for  its  various  powers  so  far 
as  he  needed  to  use  them.  The  unknown  was  a 
S5'mbol,  the  meaning  of  which  is  not  certain, 
but  it  resembled  a  final  sigma,  s.  The  powers 
from  2  to  6  were  represented  by  S",  k",  88",  8k^, 
kk",  for  SuVayuts,  Kv'/Sos,  etc.,  a  symbolism  that 
was  not  improved  upon  until  the  time  of  Des- 
cartes (q.v.).  The  interest  of  Diophantus  was 
largely  in  indeterminate  equations  (q.v.),  but 
he  could  solve  the  quadratic  equation  and 
special  forms  of  the  cubic.  His  work  differs 
notably  from  that  of  his  known  predecessors  in 
being  analytic  rather  than  geometric,  and 
from  that  of  the  oriental  writers  who  came  after 
him  by  being  confined  to  pure  mathematics. 

Algebra  next  flourished  almost  exclusively  in 
the  East.  In  India  there  were  four  great 
writers,  Aryabhatta  (q.v.),  who  lived  about  500 
A.D.,  iSrahmagupta  (q.v.),  about  625  .^^.d., 
Mahavlrarcarya  (q.v.),  about  850  .\.d.,  and  Bhas- 
kara  (7. v.),  about  1150  .\.d.  Their  works  are  in 
rhetorical  form,  i.e.  with  the  problems  written 
out  at  full  length  and  with  no  symbols.  The 
nature  of  the  questions  proposed  by  these  orien- 
tal writers  will  be  understood  from  the  following 
problem  from  Mahavlrarcaya:  "  One  fourth 
of  a  herd  of  camels  was  seen  in  the  forest; 
twice  the  square  root  of  that  herd  had  gone  to  the 
mountain  slopes;  and  three  times  five  camels 
remained  on  the  bank  of  a  river.  What  is  the 
numerical  measure  of  that  herd  of  camels?  " 

Algebra  next  flourished  in  China  and  among 
the  Arabs  and  Persians.  The  Chinese  contri- 
butions have  not  been  thoroughly  studied,  but 
those  of  the  Arabs  and  Persians  are  well 
known.     The    leading    writer   of   the    Bagdad 


school  was  Mohammed  ibn  Musa  al-Khowaraz- 
mi  (q.v.),  who  flourished  about  830  a.d.,  and 
whose  name  appears  in  the  word  algorism 
(q.v.).     He  wrote  the  first   book  in  which  the 


.^F^^g^:^ 


-7-^^  ""*-*-•  "'%'* 


rrj3;;;;p::ffe^ 


•WT^^-VX: 


?~^rL, 


/•i-*. 


•^  «—  -— J'*y-»'^J'/SV  i-"*ir-/^^— „%   .^J* 

°T^ ''"'1  — %<.''-'^'"'i  *'kS^  "^^  ^f'i'li  i-wT 


•^>r->-^       •? 


Page  of  a  Latin  Manuscript  of  Al-Khowarazmi  of  1456. 
(Plimpton  Library.) 


word  algebra  occurs,  the  title  being  'ilm  al- 
jabr  wa'l  niuqabalah  (the  science  of  restoration 
and  comparison),  a  name  that  appeared  in  the 
Latin  translations  as  Indus  algebrae  almucgra- 
balaeque,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century  English 
as  algiebar  and  almachabel.  Among  the  other 
oriental  writers  of  note  was  Omar  Khayyam 
(q.v.),  whose  work  on  the  cubic  equation  was  in 
advance  of  that  of  his  predecessors. 

The  first  medieval  writer  of  importance 
was  Leonardo  Fibonacci  (q.v.),  about  1200 
A.D.  In  the  sixteenth  century  algebra  at- 
tracted much  attention  in  Italy,  and  the 
cubic  and  quadratic  equations  were  solved 
through  the  efforts  of  Tartaglia  (q.v.).  Cardan 
(q.v.),  and  their  contemporaries.  In  Germany 
Rudolff  (q.v.)  and  Stifel  (q.v.)  were  the  leaders 
in  this  period  and  assisted  materially  in 
perfecting  the  symbohc  work.  One  of  the 
Italian  names  for  the  subject  at  this  time, 
Arte  maggiore,  comes  from  the  late  Latin 
Are  major  and  Ars  magna,  terms  used  to  dis- 
tinguish algebra  from  arithmetic  (Ars  minor). 
It  was  also  called  La  regola  delta  cosa,  from 
cosa,  the  Italian  for  the  Latin  res,  thing,  which 
had    been    used    for    the   unknown    quantity. 


91 


ALGEBRA 


ALGEBRA  AND  GEOMETRY 


From  this  came  the  German  Coss  and  English 
Cossic  Art. 

The  present  symbols  of  algebra  date  cliiefly 
from  the  period  1550  to  1650,  including  the 
symbols  x,  y,  .  .  .  for  unknowns  and  a,  h, 
...  for  knowns,  due  to  Descartes  (La  geo- 
miirie,  1637).  From  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  to  the  present  time  the  develop- 
ment of  algebra  has  been  chiefly  beyond  the 
elementary  theory. 

Present  Status  in  the  Curriculum.  —  In  the 
schools  of  the  United  States  algebra  is  at 
present  generaUy  taught  in  the  first  year  of  a 
four-year  high  school  course,  or  in  the  ninth 
school  year  beyond  the  kindergarten,  and  in 
half  of  the  eleventh  school  year.  The  general 
plan  is  to  cover  the  four  fundamental  opera- 
tions wnth  integers  and  fractions,  factoring, 
powers  and  roots,  Unear  equations  with  one, 
two,  or  three  unknown  quantities,  and  quad- 
ratic equations  with  one  unknown  quantity. 
This  year  of  work  is  generally  followed  by  a 
year  in  plane  geometry.  Half  of  the  next 
year,  the  eleventh  in  the  pupil's  course,  is 
usually  devoted  to  algebra,  re\'ie\\ing  the  pre- 
ceding work  and  completing  the  elementary 
work  through  quadratic  equations  wth  two 
unknown  quantities,  including  easy  radical 
equations. 

There  is  at  present  a  strong  movement  in 
favor  of  using  the  Unear  equation  with  one  un- 
known quantity,  and  also  simple  formulas  in 
algebraic  language,  in  the  work  in  arithmetic 
in  the  elementary  grades,  and  in  particular  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  school  years.  There  is 
also  a  very  marked  tendency  to  change  the 
traditional  high  school  course  of  four  years  to  a 
course  of  five  or  six  years,  beginning  in  the 
eighth  or  seventh  school  year.  The  effect  of 
this  plan  wiU  be  to  complete  the  essentials  of 
arithmetic  in  the  elementary  school  (the  firet 
six  school  years),  to  re\'iew  arithmetic  in  the 
high  school  (the  second  six  school  years),  and  to 
extend  algebra  over  a  longer  period  in  the  high 
school.  This  might  profitably  be  done  without 
taking  any  more  time  for  mathematics  than  at 
present.  The  result,  if  we  can  secure  as  good 
candidates  for  teaching  as  are  secured  in  the 
older  countries,  will  be  a  much  better  training 
in  algebra  before  the  pupil  enters  college  or 
goes  into  business. 

The  textbook  in  elementary  algebra  is  merely 
a  development  of  the  sixteenth-century  text- 
book in  arithmetic.  One  of  the  first  succes.sful 
works  of  this  kind  was  the  Algebra  by  Chris- 
topher Clavius  (?.('.),  a  Jesuit  teacher,  wiio 
went  from  Germany  to  Rome  and  published 
this  textbook  in  1608.  The  general  plan  of 
the  book  is  similar  to  that  of  his  Epitome 
Arithmeticae  Practi'cae,  which  appeared  in 
1583  and  which  went  through  several  editions, 
—  first  notation,  then  the  operations  with 
integers,  then  fractions,  and  then  equations. 
There  has  of  late  been  a  tendency  to  change  this 
plan,    and   to   introduce   algebra   by   showing 


the  uses  of  the  formula  and  of  the  linear  equa- 
tion with  one  unknown  ciuantity;  in  other 
words,  to  make  the  transition  from  arithmetic 
to  algebra  less  marked. 

In  the  continental  European  schools  it  is 
the  custom  to  introduce  abstract  algebra 
earlier  than  is  usually  the  case  in  America. 
This  is  accomplished  by  combining  it  with 
arithmetic  more  fully  than  is  done  here;  by 
having  less  arithmetic  taught,  partly  because 
of  the  freedom  from  the  difficult  system  of 
comjiound  numbers  that  Ls  stiU  used  in  Eng- 
land, Canada,  and  the  United  States;  and 
by  having  more  vigorous  teaching  than  is  the 
general  custom  in  the  Western  hemisi)here. 
Thus  in  tiie  Xormallehrplan  des  Cytmiasitnns 
of  Austria,  of  1909,  algebraic  notation,  the 
negative  number,  and  the  geometric- 
algebraic  significance  of  (a  +  b),  (a  —  6)', 
(«  -I-  b){a  —  b),  (a  +  by,  etc.,  are  introduced 
in  the  sixth  school  year.  In  the  seventh 
school  year  linear  equations  with  several  un- 
knowns and  the  quadratic  equation  with  one 
unknown  are  studied.  In  the  eighth  year 
this  work  is  elaborated,  and  in  the  ninth  year, 
at  a  time  w  hen  the  American  schools  are  u.?ually 
beginning  algebra,  the  subjects  of  logarithms, 
complex  numbers,  and  the  easier  forms  of 
higher  equations  are  being  studied.  A  some- 
what similar  state  of  advancement  Ls  seen  in 
the  curricula  of  several  of  the  German  states 
and  in  the  mathematical  classes  of  France. 
These  facts  have  raised  the  question  as  to 
whether  the  schools  of  England  and  America 
are  utilizing  to  the  best  advantage  the  time  as- 
signed to  mathematics.  D.  E.  S. 

References  :  — 

On  the  history  of  algebra,  consult  :  — 
M.\TTHIESSEN.     GrundzilQe   dcr   antikeii    und   Tnodemen 

Alucbra.     2d  cd.      (Leipzig,  1896.) 
Nesselm.\nn.     Die     Algebra     der     Griechen.     (Berlin, 

1842.) 
Heath.     Diophantos       of       Alexandria.     (Cambridge, 

1885.) 
Ball.     History     of     Mathematics.     (London,    various 

editions.) 
C.\NTOR.     GeschiclUe  der  Malhemalik.  4  vols.     (Leipzig, 

various  editions.) 
And  in  general,  the  well-known  histories  of  mathematics. 

On  the  present  status  :  — 
Smith.     Teaching    of  Eletneniary   Mathematics.     (New 

York,  lilOO.) 
Young.     The   Teaching  of  Mathematics.     (New  York, 

1907.) 
Br.\nford.  .4  Study  of  Mathematical  Education.  (Ox- 
ford, 1908.) 
The  files  of  L'Enseignement  Mathimatiquc,  of  Sehot- 
tcn's  Zeilschrift  fiir  mathematischcn  und  naturwissen- 
schafllichen  Unierricht,  and  of  other  current  educational 
journals  of  approximately  equal  rank. 

ALGEBRA  AND  GEOMETRY  IN  THE 
GRAMMAR  GRADES.  —  The  idea  of  intro- 
ducing algeln-a  and  geometry  in  the  elementary 
school  arose  from  the  feeling  that  too  much 
arithmetic  was  required  and  that  the  foreign 
mathematical  curriculum  might  profitably  re- 
place the  American.  By  the  foreign  plan  less 
arithmetic  has  been  required  than  in  the  United 


92 


ALGEBRA  AND   GEOMETRY 


ALGORISM 


States,  allowing  time  for  some  work  in  literal 
notation  at  least,  and  in  some  form  of  ge- 
ometry. 

The  idea  is  plausible,  but  like  all  new  ideas 
it  has  not  been  sufficiently  considered  by 
some  of  its  advocates.  Granted  that  there  is 
some  time  available  for  algebra  and  geometry 
in  the  last  six  years  of  the  elementary  school, 
what  should  be  the  nature  of  this  work  ? 

As  to  algebra,  the  first  experiments  led  to 
an  attempt  to  use  a  considerable  amount  of 
literal  notation  simply  because  it  was  part 
of  algebra.  Removing  of  signs  of  aggregation, 
performing  the  various  operations  with  integers 
and  fractions,  and  the  solution  of  a  rather  mean- 
ingless lot  of  equations,  formed  the  body  of  the 
early  work  as  attempted  abroad  and  in  America. 
This  has,  more  recently,  given  place  to  a 
more  rational  use  of  algebra  as  a  part  of  arith- 
metic. (See  Arithmetic).  The  use  of  x  in  a 
simple  equation  has  come  to  be  allowed  in  the 
solution  of  arithmetical  problems,  to  the  ma- 
terial benefit  of  arithmetic.  The  use  of  the 
formula,  in  the  ordinary  algebraic  symbolism, 
has  come  to  be  a  recognized  part  of  arithmetic, 
as  in  a  =  ^r.  In  other  words,  the  part  of 
algebra  that  throws  light  upon  and  correlates 
with  arithmetic  has  been  adopted,  not  as  a 
separate  subject,  but  as  something  to  be 
assimilated  with  the  older  science. 

There  are,  however,  many  schools  in  which 
it  seems  best  to  introduce  an  elementary  text- 
book in  algebra  in  the  eighth  school  year,  re- 
placing the  arithmetic  entircl.v.  For  such 
schools  several  good  manuals  of  elementary 
algebra  have  been  prepared.  The  best  of 
these  begin  by  showing  the  practical  u.ses  of 
algebra,  usuallj^  in  formulas  with  which  the 
pupils  are  familiar.  They  then  show  the  use 
of  the  simple  equation  in  the  solution  of  the 
problems  of  ordinary  arithmetic.  This  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  nature  of  the  negative  number 
and  its  practical  applications.  The  funda- 
mental operations  with  integers  and  fractions 
are  treated  in  a  simple  fashion,  and  the  work 
closes  with  further  '  practical  problems  in 
simple  equations  and  easy  quadratics. 

Each  of  these  plans  is  usable,  and  each  is 
adapted  to  particular  types  of  school.  The 
plan  of  introducing  the  ab.stract  algebra  of 
the  high  school  into  the  elementary  grades  is 
not,  however,  to  be  commended. 

The  introduction  of  geometry  into  the 
elementarv  grades  has  not  been  so  successful. 
It  is  true  that  in  the  best  English  schools  Euclid 
is  taught  in  what  we  would  call  the  grammar 
grades,  but  this  does  not  appeal  to  American 
teachers  as  an  educational  policy  to  be  followed. 
The  work  is  too  abstract  and  too  logical  to  be 
understood,  and  the  gain  of  mere  memorizing 
is  offset  by  the  loss  in  interest.  In  Germany 
there  are  some  good  textbooks  in  demonstra- 
tive geometry,  adapted  to  the  grades.  These, 
however,  do  not  appeal  to  the  American 
teacher  as  usable   here.      While  better  for  the 


purpose  than  Euclid,  they  are  lacking  in  inter- 
est and  in  motive.  It  is  a  mistake,  however, 
to  feel  that  America  has  done  nothing  in  this 
field.  There  has  always  been  a  considerable 
amount  of  work  in  mensuration  in  our  arith- 
metics. Formerly  this  was,  like  arithmetic  in 
general,  merely  a  matter  of  rule  ;  but  for  some 
years  back  there  has  been  a  successful  effort 
made  to  render  this  work  clear  to  the  under- 
standing, intuitional  if  not  logical  in  the  formal 
sense.  As  a  result,  the  work  in  mensuration 
now  given  in  the  best  American  arithmetics 
is  a  very  satisfactory  solution  of  the  problem 
of  introducing  some  geometry  into  the  grades. 

Efforts  have  been  made,  but  with  no  marked 
success,  to  construct  a  geometry  suited  to  the 
grammar  grades.  These  have  thus  far  taken 
the  form  of  textbooks  on  constructive  geom- 
etry, on  observational  geometry,  and  on  an 
elementary  type  of  demonstrative  geometry. 
These  works  serve  a  good  purpose  in  that 
teachers  see  how  to  make  the  subject  of  men- 
suration more  real,  but  they  have  not  had  any 
marked  influence  beyond  this  point.  Further 
improvement  in  the  field  of  geometry  in  the 
grades  seems  to  lie  (1)  in  the  securing  of  a 
larger  number  of  practical  problems  in  men- 
suration, adapted  to  the  interests  of  the  children, 
and  possibly  (2)  in  the  preparation  of  a  text- 
book in  geometry  similar  to  the  several  text- 
books in  algebra  for  beginners.  D.  E.  S. 

See  also  Geometry,  and  Constructive 
Geometry. 

ALGERIA.  —  Recognized  educationally  as  an 
academy  of  the  University  of  France  or  as  a 
division  in  the  central  administration  of  French 
education. 

See  France,  Education  in. 

ALGOMETER.  —  An  apparatus  by  which 
the  sensitivity  of  the  skin  to  pain  can  be 
measured.  It  consists  of  a  blunt  point  which 
may  be  pressed  against  the  skin,  a  handle  to 
be  used  in  pressing,  and  a  spring  which  serves 
both  to  hold  the  pressing  point  in  position  and 
as  a  gauge  to  measure  the  amount  of  pressure. 
The  test  for  pain  has  been  regarded  as  of  im- 
portance because  there  appear  to  be  great  in- 
dividual differences  in  sensitivity  to  pain,  and 
some  evidence  exists  which  tends  to  show  that 
habitual  criminals  are  especially  insensible  to 
such  stimulations. 

ALGORISM.  —  A  word  used  in  the  late 
Rliiklle  Ages  to  mean  arithmetic  according  to  the 
method  of  the  Arabs,  as  distinguished  from 
that  in  which  the  abacus  (q.v.)  was  used. 
Advocates  of  algorism  were  often  called  algorists, 
while  those  who  preferred  the  abacus  were 
called  abacists.  The  words  were  finally  used 
interchangeably,  however,  their  original  mean- 
ings having  been  forgotten.  Thus  we  have 
Borghi's  Libra  de  Abacho  (1st  ed.,  Venice, 
1484),  which  does  not  mention  the  abacus,  while 


93 


ALIEN   PRIORIES 


ALL   HALLOWS  COLLEGE 


Huswirt's  Enchiridion  noiiiis  Algorism!  (1st 
ed.,  Cologne,  1501)  is  largely  devoted  to  the 
counter  reckoning. 

The  name  comes  from  tlie  Latin  translation 
of  the  first  Arab  arithmetic  known  in  which 
the  Hindu  system  of  notation  was  emjiloyed. 
The  work  was  written  by  Mohammed  ibn 
]M\isa  al-Khowarazmi  (Mohammed  the  son 
of  Moses,  the  Kharezmite),  who  lived  in 
Bagdad  about  830  a.d.  Commonly  known 
as  al-Khowarazmi,  the  Latin  translation  gave 
as  the  title  of  his  work.  Liber  Algorismi. 
From  this,  books  of  this  nature  came  to  be 
called,  without  much  attention  to  case  endings, 
by  such  names  as  Algoriimiis,  Algoritmi, 
AHcgorithmuin,  Algorismtis,  and  Alglwarismi. 
The  change  of  al  to  ok,  owing  to  French  in- 
fluence, gave  aiigrim  and  allied  forms  in  Eng- 
lish of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Of  late  the  term  "algorism,"  less  correctly 
spelled  "  algorithm,"  has  been  used  to  refer  to 
any  particular  arrangement  of  figures  in  an 
operation.  Thus  we  speak  of  the  various 
algorisms  of  division,  such  as  short  division 
with  the  ciuotient  below,  long  division  with 
the  quotient  above,  and  the  older  style  of  long 
division  with  the  quotient  at  the  right. 

D.  E.  S. 

ALIEN  PRIORIES.  —  Long  before  the  Con- 
quest various  continental  religious  houses  were 
extensive  landowners  in  England,  and  established 
cells  or  dependent  houses  on  their  lands.  An 
early  instance  of  this  was  the  Priory  at  Ghent, 
which  acquired  from  the  daughter  of  King  Alfred 
the  extensive  lands  which  were  subsequently 
comprised  in  the  manors  of  Lewisham  and  Green- 
wich. These  they  held  till  the  fifteenth  century. 
This  was  one  of  very  many  examples.  Since 
these  priories  appointed  to  the  livings  on  their 
lands,  they  had  an  important  influence  on  local 
education,  which  was,  in  the  matter  of  elemen- 
tary education,  in  the  hands  of  the  local  priests. 
But  the  branch  priories  themselves  seem  to 
have  had  important  schools,  for  Stow  (writing 
before  159S)  definitely  states  that  when 
Henry  V  in  1415  finally  suppressed  the  priories 
these  schools  were  broken  up  and  ceased,  and  he 
apparently  refers  to  four  London  priory  schools, 
i.e.  Our  Lady  of  Rouncivall  at  Charing  Cross, 
Oldborne,  Cripplegate  Without,  and  Alders- 
gate  Without  (Stow's  Survey  of  London,  Book  I, 
p.  54,  ed.  1603).  The  final  suppression  of  the 
Alien  Priories  in  1415  (Rot.  Pari.,  Vol.  IV, 
p.  22)  therefore  marks  a  definite  stage  in  the 
dissolution  of  medieval  education,  and  the 
destruction  thus  wrought  requires  careful  es- 
timation. The  question  has  not  yet  received 
adequate  investigation.  The  Commons,  as 
early  as  1346,  had  petitioned  King  Edward  III 
(2  Rot.  Pari.,  p.  162,  Xo.  19)  that  the  abbeys 
and  priories  of  the  alien  monks  should  be  de- 
voted to  the  education  of  young  English 
scholars,  since  for  some  time  they  had  lost  the 
opportunity   of  learning.      The  king   rejected 


94 


the  petition  on  the  ground  that  Parliament  had 
no  jurisdiction  and  that  he  himself  had  taken 
the  profits  of  the  lands  and  benefices.  This  is 
evidence  that  as  early  as  1346  education  had 
suffered  loss  by  the  partial  suppression  of  the 
priories.  At  the  final  sui)pression  in  1415, 
when  146  alien  priories  disappeared,  the  king 
at  first  intended  to  found  a  "noble  college" 
at  Oxford  out  of  the  proceeds.  But  his  death 
prevented  this,  and  Henry  VI  applied  some 
of  the  lands  to  the  endowment  of  Eton  College, 
Windsor,  and  King's  College,  Cambridge. 
(See  Tanner's  Notitia  (1744)  and  Some  Account 
of  the  Alien  Priories  (1786),  which  last  work 
gives  a  list  of  the  lands  devoted  to  educational 
uses.)  The  bulk  of  the  Alien  Priory  lands 
were,  however,  appropriated  to  private  uses. 

J.  E.  G.  DE  M. 

ALIENIST. — The  specialist  who  makes  a 
study  of  pathological  mental  processes.  See 
PsYCHi.\TRY  and  Abxorm.\lities. 

AL-KAYAMI.  —  See  0.m.\r  Kh.\yyam. 

AL  KHOWARAZML  — Abu  'Abd  Moham- 
med ibn  Allah  Musa  al-Khowarazmi  was  the 
greatest  teacher  of  algcljra  in  the  famous  mathe- 
matical school  of  Bagdad.  He  was  born  in  the 
province  of  Khwarazm,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
river  Oxus.  He  died  at  Bagdad  about  831  a.d. 
He  wrote  the  first  book  entitled  Algebra  (q.v.), 
viz.  'Urn  al-jahr  ica'l  muqahalah  {the  science  of 
restoration  and  comparison),  so  called  because 
in  an  equation  (comparison)  we  take  from 
one  side  and  restore  to  the  other  side.  Al- 
Khowarazmi  called  the  unknown  quantity 
"the  thing"  or  "the  root."  From  the  former 
came  the  use  of  res  in  the  Latin  works  based 
upon  the  Arabic  treatise,  and  hence  the  Italian 
cosa  (thing),  and  hence  the  German  co.'is  and 
the  English  Cossic  Art  for  algebra.  From  the 
word  "root"  came  our  expression,  "the  root 
of  an  equation."  Al-Khowarazmi  first  treats 
of  algebra  by  rules  without  proofs,  and  fol- 
lows this  by  certain  geometric  demonstrations 
of  these  rules,  after  the  manner  of  Euclid. 
The  first  plan  was  Hindu,  the  second  Greek, 
al-Khowarazmi  being  the  first  to  combine  the 
two  methods.  His  work  also  contained  a 
treatise  on  arithmetic,  and  from  his  name 
is  derived  the  word  "algorism"  (q.v.).  It 
appeared  in  English,  tran.slated  by  Rosen, 
in  1830.  Like  all  oriental  names,  al-Kliowar- 
azmi's  is  variously  transliterated,  appear- 
ing also  as  Alkarismi,  al-Khowarizmi,  and  al- 
Khuwarizmi.      (See  fig.  on  p.  91.)       D.  E.  S. 

ALL  HALLOWS    COLLEGE,  SALT  LAKE 

CITY,  UTAH.  —  Founded  in  1886  and  placed 
under  the  control  of  the  Marist  Fathers  in 
1889.  Boys  are  received  on  completion  of 
their  sixtli  year  into  a  special  department. 
Primary,  academic,  classical,  scientific,  com- 
mercial, and  post-graduate  courses  are  offered. 


ALLEGHENY 


ALLEN   UNIVERSITY 


Degrees  are  given  in  the  scientific  and  classical 
departments  upon  a  four  years'  preparatory 
course  wliich  render  a  student  eligible  for 
matriculation  in  any  of  the  leading  universities. 

ALLEGHENY,  CITY  OF.  — A  city  of  the 
second  class,  under  the  laws  of  Pennsylvania, 
first  incorporated  in  1840,  and  organized  as 
a  school  district,  under  the  Board  of  Con- 
trollers in  1854.  In  1900  the  city  had  a 
total  population  of  129,896,  and  in  1907 
its  estimated  population  was  147,632.  Its 
school  census,  6-21  years  of  age,  was  esti- 
mated at  24,000  in  1909,  and  its  total  day 
school  enrollment  20,405.  Twenty-eight  hun- 
dred children  in  the  city  were  estimated  as 
enrolled  in  private  and  parochial  schools. 
Twenty-three  per  cent  of  the  population  of 
the  city  in  1900  was  foreign-born,  one  half  of 
this  number  was  German,  one  sixth  Irish,  and 
the  remainder  widely  scattered. 

The  city  employed  a  total  of  403  teachers  and 
29  supervisory  officers  in  1907-1908,  the  year 
of  the  last  report,  and  provided  a  school  term 
of  200  days.  Thirteen  teachers  were  employed 
in  evening  schools,  44  in  kindergartens,  and 
27  in  the  high  school.  The  total  expenses  for 
maintenance  in  1907-1908  were  .§677,691.  The 
city  provides  free  te.xtbooks,  gives  instruc- 
tion in  manual  training  and  domestic  science 
in  the  schools,  and  has  a  compulsory  educa- 
tion department.  The  one  high  school  offers 
academic  and  commercial  courses,  and  has  a 
graduate  year  of  city  normal  school  work 
for  the  training  of   new  teachers  for  the  city. 

The  school  dejiartment  is  under  a  Board  of 
Controllers  of  90,  subdivided  into  15  ward 
boards  of  6  members  each,  elected  by  wards 
for  three-year  terms,  and  each  ward  board  has 
a  president  and  a  secretary.  There  are  15 
committees  of  the  central  board,  with  a  repre- 
sentative from  each  ward  on  each.  Meetings  of 
the  central  board  and  of  the  different  ward 
boards  are  held,  and  authority  is  di\'ided  be- 
tween them.  The  ward  boards  have  authority 
under  the  law  to  purchase  lots;  erect  and  re- 
pair buildings;  purchase  apparatus,  stationery, 
books,  furniture,  and  fuel;  pay  janitors;  borrow 
money  for  such  purposes,  and  levy  taxes  to 
pay  interest  and  principal.  The  Board  of 
Controllers  has  charge  of  the  public  library 
of  Allegheny  as  well  as  the  schools.    E.  P.  C. 

References;  — 

Annunl  Reports  Board  of  Controllers,  1854-1908.      (An- 
nual Riporls  of  Superintendent  included  since  1S74.) 

ALLEGHENY  COLLEGE,  MEADVILLE, 
PENNSYLVANIA. —A  coeducational  institu- 
tion, founded  in  1815  by  citizens  of  Meadville, 
then  a  frontier  village  of  400  inhabitants.  The 
college  was  chartered  in  1817,  and  in  1820  the 
corner  stone  was  laid  of  the  first  building, 
Bentley  Hall.  Admi-ssion  is  by  examination 
or  certificate  from  an  approved  high  school; 
the  college  aims  only  to  supply  a  liberal  educa- 


tion. A  preparatory  school  is  maintained,  known 
as  the  Allegheny  College  Preijaratory  School, 
which  is  under  the  control  and  supervision  of 
the  college,  but  which  has  its  own  building 
and  a  distinct  corps  of  instructors.  Graduate 
courses  lead  to  the  degree  of  M.A.  A  joint 
board  of  control,  elected  by  the  Erie,  Pittsburg, 
West  Virginia,  and  East  Ohio  conferences  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  nominates  three 
persons,  one  of  whom  must  be  elected  to  fill  each 
vacancy  in  the  Board  of  Trustees,  which  has  50 
members.  Fraternities  have  been  established 
as  follows:  Phi  Kappa  Psi,  Phi  Gamma  Delta, 
Delta  Tau  Delta,  Phi  Delta  Theta,  Sigma  Alpha 
Epsilon,  Kappa  Gamma,  the  last  two  being 
women's  societies;  Alpha  Chi  Omega,  1891, 
a  women's  musical  society;  and  Beta  Sigma, 
local.  Allegheny  College  is  a  member  of  the 
Association  of  Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools 
in  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland  (q.v.)  (see 
College  Entrance  Boards).  There  are  10 
buildings,  valued  (1906)  with  grounds  and  equip- 
ment at  .1440,000,  and  situated  on  a  campus  of 
unusual  beautj',  through  which  runs  a  ravine. 
The  total  annual  income  averages  .150,000. 
The  average  salarv  of  a  professor  is  SI 800. 
There  are  (1909)  322  students,  of  whom  122 
are  women.  The  instructing  staff  numbers 22; 
14  are  full  professors.  William  H.  Crawford, 
D.D.,  is  president.  C.  G. 

ALLEN,  FORDYCE  ALMON    (1820-1880). 

—  Schoolman,  educated  in  private  schools  in 
Philadelphia  and  at  the  Alexander  Classical 
School  in  New  York;  teacher  and  institute 
instructor  (1840-1854);  instructor  in  State 
Normal  School  at  West  Chester,  Pa.  (1854- 
1857);  principal  of  the  same  (1857-1864); 
principal  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Mans- 
field, Pa.  (1864-1880);  author  of  a  Primary 
Geography  and  of  numerous  papers  on  education. 

W.  S.  M. 

ALLEN,  JEROME.  —  Educator  and  author, 
born  at  Westminster,  \t.,  .July  17, 1830;  educated 
in  public  and  private  schools  and  at  Amherst 
College;  instructor  in  Maquoketo  Academy 
(1835-1855);  professor  in  Alexander  College 
(1855-1859);  president  of  Knox  College  (18.59- 
1869);  superintendent  of  schools  at  Monticello, 
111.;  principal  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  St. 
Cloud,  Minn.  (1881-1884);  professor  of  peda- 
gogy in  New  York  University  (1887-1893); 
author  of  Map-drawing,  Mind  Studies  for 
Teachers,  and  Temperament  in  Edueation ; 
editor  of  Barnes'  Educational  Monthly  (1876- 
1880)  and  School  Journal  (1884-1890);  died 
of  May  26,   1894.  W.  S.  M. 

ALLEN    UNIVERSITY,    COLUMBIA,  S.C. 

—  A  negro  in.stitution  incorporated  by  the 
legislature  of  South  Carolina  in  1880.  The 
trustees  are  elected  by  the  Conference  of  the 
.\frican  Methodist  Church  in  South  Carolina. 
Courses  are  offered  in   theology,  law,  sciences, 


95 


ALLEN 


ALLEYN 


classics,  fine  arts,  industry,  and  commerce. 
Primary  and  preparatory  departments  are 
maintained.  Approximately  two  and  a  half 
years'  high  school  work  are  required  for  entrance. 
Degrees  are  conferred.  The  degree  of  Licen- 
tiate of  Instruction  gives  the  graduates  the 
privilege  of  teaching  in  the  public  schools  of  the 
state  without  examination.  There  is  a  faculty 
of  16  professors,  instructors,  and  assistants. 
Wm.  D.  Johnson,  D.D.,  Ph.D.,  is  president. 

ALLEN,  WILLIAM,  D.D.  — Born  at  Rossall 
in  Lancashire  in  1532,  was  principal  of  St.  jMary's 
Hall,  Oxford,  when,  owing  to  the  change  of  re- 
ligion conse(iuent  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth, 
ho  left  and  took  refuge  in  the  Low  Countries. 
In  1568,  in  company  with  other  Roman  Catholic 
exiles,  he  founded  a  college  at  Douay,  in  Flanders, 
W'here  there  was  a  new  university  already  under 
Oxford  influences,  in  which  Allen  himself 
became  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity.  The 
object  of  his  college  was  to  afford  facilities  for 
exiled  Catholics  to  continue  their  studies,  and 
the  Douay  Bible  (N.T.  1582;  O.T.  1609-1610) 
and  many  controversial  and  other  works  bear 
witness  to  their  literarj'  activity.  But  it  soon 
grew  also  into  a  missionary  college  for  educat- 
ing priests  to  return  to  England  and  preach  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion.  As  such  it  continued 
(with  the  exception  of  fifteen  years,  1578-1593, 
when  it  was  temporarily  transferred  to  Rheims) 
for  more  than  two  centuries,  until  it  came  to  an 
end  during  the  Terror  in  1793. 

In  1575  Allen  visited  Rome,  and  established 
a  similar  college,  which  continues  to  the  present 
day.  Ten  years  later  he  took  up  his  residence 
there.  He  was  made  cardinal  in  1587,  and 
took  part  in  the  revision  of  the  Vulgate,  which 
was  still   incomplete   when   he   died   in   1594. 

Reference :  — 

See  Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

ALLEN,  WILLIAM  (1770-1843).  — One  of 
the  prominent  leaders  in  the  educational 
and  philanthropic  movement  in  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  England. 
Born  in  1770,  he  was  brought  up  under  princi- 
ples of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  was  cm- 
ployed  in  his  father's  silk  business  at  Rochester. 
His  scientific  interests,  however,  took  him  to 
London,  where  he  opened  a  chemical  labora- 
tory at  Plaistow.  When  he  was  but  30  years 
old  he  refused  to  accept  a  fellowship  in  the 
Royal  Society.  In  1801  he  became  a  fellow 
of  the  Linna-an  Society,  and  in  1817  of  the 
Royal  Society.  With  some  scientific  friends, 
he  was  active  in  founding  the  Askesian  Society. 
From  1802  to  1S26  he  lectured  at  Guy's  Hospital. 
His  interests,  however,  were  very  wide.  He 
was  early  attracted  to  the  movement  for  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade  and  slavery.  But 
he  is  chiefly  known  as  an  energetic  worker  in 
the  British  and  Foreign  School  Society  iq.v.). 


He  was  a  member  of  Lancaster's  committee 
in  1804,  and  became  treasurer  of  the  society  in 
1811.  In  connection  with  this  movement  he 
traveled  widely  in  Europe,  and  succeeded  in 
interesting  Czar  Alexander  of  Ru.ssia  (q.v.) 
in  the  work,  with  the  result  that  several  Russian 
boys  were  sent  to  the  Borough  Road  School. 
In  1818  he  made  selections  from  the  Bible  for 
use  in  the  British  schools,  which  were  trans- 
lated into  Russian.  Allen  was  also  actively 
interested  in  the  New  Lanark  movement  with 
Bentham  (q.v.)  and  Robert  Owen  (q.v).  About 
1835  he  turned  his  attention  to  an  agricultural 
colony  and  industrial  school  at  Lindfield  in 
Sussex.     Allen  died  in  1843. 

References :  — 

Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

BiNNS.    H.    B.     .4    Century    of  Education.    1808-1908. 
^London,  190S.) 

ALLEN,  WILLIAM  HENRY  (1S0S-18S2). 
—  Educator  and  author,  educated  at  Maine 
Conference  Seminary  and  at  Bowdoin  College; 
instructor  in  Cazenovia  Seminary  (1833-1836); 
professor  in  Dickinson  College  (1836-1850); 
president  of  Girard  College  (1850-1862),  of 
Pennsylvania  College  at  Gettysburg  (1865- 
1866),  and  again  of  Girard  College  (1867- 
1882) ;  author  of  a  number  of  pamphlets  and 
reports  on  education.  W.  S.  M. 

ALLENTOWN  COLLEGE  FOR  WOMEN, 
ALLENTOWN,  PA.  —  An  institution  estab- 
lished in  1S66  and  controlled  by  the  Eastern 
Synod  of  the  Reformed  Church.  Courses  are 
offered  to  girls  between  8  and  18  in  elementary, 
academic,  and  collegiate  departments.  Courses 
in  fine  arts  are  also  provided. 

ALLEYN,  EDWARD  (1566-1626).  —  A 
well-known  actor  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign, 
who  became  largely  interested  in  theater 
property.  In  1605  he  purchased  the  manor 
of  Dulwich,  and  between  1613  and  1616  he 
founded  Dulwich  College,  Kent.  Already 
Thomas  Sutton  had  established  the  famous 
Charterhouse  Hospital  and  School  in  1611. 
The  Puritans  inveighed  against  play-acting, 
but  in  Alleyn's  foundation  of  Dulwich  it  was 
clear  that  an  actor  could  be  as  public-spirited  as 
themselves.  The  Anglicans  were  establishing 
Chelsea  College  as  an  institution  to  afford 
maintenance  to  learned  men,  set  apart  to 
answer  the  Catholic  disputants.  They  ap- 
pealed, unsuccessfully,  to  Alleyn  to  give  his 
money  to  their  purposes.  Alleyn  secured  the 
services  of  Inigo  Jones  as  architect.  As 
originally  constructed,  the  "College"  consisted 
of  a  chapel,  a  schoolhouse,  a  kitchen,  offices, 
and  twelve  dormitories.  The  set  of  buildings 
was  named  "The  College  of  God's  Gift." 
The  dramatist,  Thomas  Dekker,  about  this 
time  (1616)  in  great  poverty,  wrote  some 
verses  to  Alleyn  in  praise  of  his  charity.     The 


96 


ALLIGATION 


ALMA  COLLEGE 


Earl  of  Arundel  wrote  to  ask  Alleyn  to  "  accept 
a  poor  fatherless  boy  to  be  one  of  the  number  " 
of  scholars.  The  founder  chiefly  chose  for  his 
college  those  resident  in  St.  Botolph's  parish 
in  Bishopsgate,  where  (strange  coincidence) 
Stephen  Gosson,  the  author  of  the  School  of 
Abuse,  1579  (an  invective  against  play  actors) 
was  the  rector.  Gosson's  letters,  however, 
show  that  he  grew  into  high  respect  for  Alleyn. 
By  1620,  in  addition  to  the  12  poor  boys  on 
the  foundation,  who  were  gratuitously  fed, 
taught,  and  clothed,  boys  were  also  accepted  as 
boarders,  and  educated  in  the  school.  Pro- 
vision was  made  for  a  master,  a  warden,  4  fel- 
lows, 6  Poor  Brethren  and  as  many  Sisters. 
The  hospital  was  to  be  similar  to  Archbishop 
Whitgift's  hospital  at  Croydon.  As  founda- 
tioners, boys  of  the  name  of  Alleyn  or  Allen 
were  to  be  preferred.  The  college  was  opened 
with  great  ceremony  in  1619,  in  the  presence 
of  Lord  ChanceUor  Bacon.  The  Founder's 
Statutes,  1626,  extended  the  benefits  of  the 
school  to  sons  of  residents  in  Dulwich,  and  as 
many  others  as  would  make  up  the  total  num- 
ber of  boys  in  the  college  school  to  SO  in  all. 
The  college  was  reconstituted  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment in  1858.  F.  W. 

ALLIGATION.  —  Until  recently  an  impor- 
tant chapter  in  arithmetic,  and  still  taught  in  a 
number  of  European  countries,  as  in  the  Misch- 
vngsrechnung  of  the  German  schools.  It  is  a 
crude  method  of  solving  linear  equations,  often 
indeterminate  ones,  and  is  first  found  in  the 
form  in  which  we  have  received  it  in  the  early 
Hindu  arithmetics.  Thus  Bhaskara  {q.v.)  in  his 
LilCivali  makes  use  of  it,  it  being  particularly 
suited  to  the  fanciful  projjlenis  of  the  East.  It 
played  but  little  part  in  the  medie\'al  arith- 
metics of  Europe,  but  as  the  Regula  Alligationis 
it  became  very  prominent  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. The  word  is  from  the  Latin  «d,  to,  and 
Ugare,  bind,  and  is  related  to  the  words  alloy 
and  alli/,  and  of  course  to  the  French  alliage. 
The  Dutch  arithmeticians  translated  it  as  Den 
Reghel  van  Menginghe,  Rekeninglien  van  Menge- 
lingen,  Alligationis  ofle  Menginghe,  etc.,  and 
the  French  used  both  alliages  and  alligation. 
In  English,  alligation  has  been  the  favorite 
name,  although  Recorde  (c.  1542)  remarked 
that  "  it  might  bei  well  called  the  rule  of 
Myxture."  The  reason  for  the  prominence 
of  the  subject  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  the 
great  increase  in  coinage,  necessitating  the 
mixture  of  alloys,  problems  of  this  kind  being 
classed  under  such  heads  as  Del  consolare  deW 
ore  e  deW  argento  in  Italy,  Silber  Rechnung, 
Goldt  Rechnung,  and  Kupfer  Rechnung  in 
Adam  Riese's  German  arithmetics,  and  simi- 
larly in  other  countries.  Robert  Recorde  {(/.v.) 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  English  writer  to 
suggest  the  application  of  alligation  to  other 
problems  than  those  relating  to  alloys,  saying, 
"it  hath  great  vse  in  composition  of  medicines, 
and  also  in  myxtures  of  metalles,  and  some  vse 

VOL.  I  —  H  97 


it  hath  in  myxtures  of  wines,  but  I  wishe  it 
were  lesse  vsed  therin  than  it  is  now  a  dales." 
A  specimen  of  the  problems  of  alligation  is  the 
following  from  Vander  Schuere's  (1600)  Dutch 
arithmetic:  "  A  brewer  has  100  tuns  of  5-gulden 
beer  in  a  vat;  how  much  water  must  he  mix 
with  it  to  produce  3-gulden  beer?" 

The  subject  was  generally  dropped  from 
American  arithmetics  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  chiefly  because  it  included 
no  real  modern  problems,  and  did  not  represent 
modern  methods  of  solution.  D.  E.  S. 

ALLOCHEIRLA    (or  ALLOCHIRIA).  —  The 

subjective  transference  of  a  sensation  to  the 
opposite  and  corresponding  half  of  the  body, 
so  that  a  touch  or  other  stimulus  on  one  leg 
or  arm  or  side  is  localized  on  the  opposite 
side.  It  is  a  symptom  found  in  a  few  organic 
nervous  diseases  and  commonly  in  hysteria. 

S.  I.  F. 
References:  — 
Obersteiner.     On  Allocheiria.     Brain,  1S85,  153. 
Jones,  E.      The    Clinical    Significance    of    AUochiria. 

Proc.  I .  Iniemui.  Cong.  PsychicU..  Neurol.,  Psychol., 

pp.  40S-414.      (Amsterdam,  1907.)     Also  in  Lancet 

(London),  1907,  II,  S30-832. 
The  Pathology  of  Dyschiria.    Rev.  Neurol,  and  Psy- 

chiat.,  VII,   1909,  pp.  499-522  ;    559-587.     (With 

bililiograpliy  of  25  titles.) 
H.iMMOND,  W.  A.      Allochiria  :    Its   Nature   and  Seat. 

N.Y.  Med.  Jour.,  XXXVII,  1883,  35-37. 

ALLYN,  ROBERT  (1817-1894).  — Educator, 
attended  the  public  schools  of  Connecticut 
and  Wesleyan  University;  instructor  in  Wil- 
braham  Academy  and  principal  of  the  same 
(1841-1848);  principal  of  academy  at  East 
Greenwich,  R.I.  (1848-18.54);  state  commis- 
sioner of  schools  of  Rhode  Island  (1854-1857); 
professor  in  the  Ohio  University  at  Athens 
(1857-1859);  principal  of  Wesleyan  Female 
College  at  Cincinnati  (1859-1863);  president  of 
McKendree  College  (1863-1874);  principal  of 
the  Illinois  State  Normal  School  at  Carbondale 
(1874-1892).  W.  S.  M. 

ALMA  COLLEGE,  ALMA,   MICHIGAN.  — 

A  coeducational  institution  founded  in  1886. 
The  first  Board  of  Trustees  was  elected  by  the 
Synod  of  Michigan;  new  members  of  the 
board  are  nominated  by  the  trustees,  subject 
to  confirmation  by  the  synod.  There  are  20 
trustees,  each  serving  four  years.  The  college 
is  one  of  31  institutions  reporting  to  the 
Presbj^erian  College  Board  {q.v.).  The  in- 
stitution maintains  the  usual  undergraduate 
courses  in  arts  and  science,  a  preparatory 
academy,  schools  of  music,  art,  and  business, 
and  a  school  of  pedagogy  mainly  devoted  to 
the  training  of  kindergarten  teachers.  The 
college  and  school  of  pedagogy  admit  on 
examination  and  certificate  of  approved  high 
school;  the  other  departments  require  a  com- 
mon school  education.  A  modified  elective 
sj'stem  is  in  effect;  the  college  courses  are 
offered  in  seven  groups.     Instruction  in  peda- 


ALMA   COLLEGE 


ALMONRY   SCHOOLS 


gogy  to  juniors  and  seniors  Irads,  without 
examination  by  the  state,  to  a  state  teacher's 
certificate.  To  graduates  of  at  least  two 
years'  standing  the  degree  of  M.A.  is  given  for 
one  year's  study  in  residence.  There  are  no 
college  fraternities.  Including  Wright  Hall, 
a  well-eciuippcd  dormitory  for  women,  there 
are  six  buildings  (1906),  valued,  with  grounds 
and  equipment,  at  .§176,283.  The  total  annual 
income  is  about  $22,000.  The  average  salary 
of  a  professor  is  $1000.  There  are  366  students 
(1909),  divided  as  follows:  College,  118; 
Academy,  39;  Commercial  School,  46;  School 
of  Music,  127;  School  of  Art,  26.  Ten  of  the 
25  members  of  the  instructing  staff  are  full 
professors.  August  F.  Bruske,  D.D.,  is  presi- 
dent. C.  G. 

ALMA   COLLEGE,   ST.   THOMAS,    ONT. 

—  An  institution  for  the  higher  education  of 
women,  founded  in  1877  and  under  the  control 
of  the  General  Conference  of  the  Methodist 
Church.  Preparatory  and  collegiate  depart- 
ments are  maintained  preparing  for  university 
matriculation  or  for  teachers  (nonprofessional) 
examinations.  The  college  is  affiliated  with 
the  University  of  Toronto.  Courses  in  fine 
arts  and  commercial  subjects  are  offered. 
Diplomas  are  given  on  graduation.  Rev. 
R.  T.  Warner,  M.A.,  D.D.,  is  the  principal. 

ALMA  MATER.  —  Literally,  foKter-mother. 
Applied  in  classical  Latin  to  the  goddesses,  in- 
cluding the  Muses.  The  term  is  now  applied  as 
an  expression  of  affection  to  the  college  or  univer- 
sity which  one  has  attended.  The  use  is  universal 
in  English,  American,  and  German  universities. 
Compare  in  this  connection  the  use  of  the  terms 
"  alumnus  "  [q.v.)  and  "  matriculation  "  {q.v.). 

ALMAGEST. —  The  great  textbook  on  astron- 
omy of  tlie  Middle  Ages,  written  by  Ptolemy 
{q.v.)  in  the  second  century  of  our  era.  The 
name  comes  from  the  Arabic  al-majMi,  from  al 
(the)  and  a  corruption  of  the  Greek  fityiaTi],  femi- 
nine form  of  ntytaro^,  greatest.  The  work  con- 
sists of  thirteen  books,  and  includes  a  treatise 
on  trigonometry.  It  remained  the  standard 
treatise  on  astronomy  until  it  was  superseded 
by  the  works  of  Copernicus  and  Kepler. 

D.  E.  S. 

ALMANAC.  —  A  term  probably  derived  from 
the  medieval  Spanish  —  the  Arai.iic  nl,  the,  -f- 
manakh,  calendar,  possibly  originally  from  the 
Greek  or  Latin.  The  term  was  introduced  into 
Christian  Europe  by  the  astrologers,  who 
adopted  much  of  oriental  mysticism,  and  has 
since  been  used  to  refer  to  an  annual  calendar. 
(See  C.\LEND.\R,  Computus.)  D.  E.  S. 

ALMONRY  SCHOOLS.  —  These  schools, 
which  began  to  be  attached  to  monasteries  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  form  one  of  the  most 
striking  proofs  that  the  monasteries  were  not 


centers  of  general  education  and  did  not  keep 
schools  in  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  term. 
The  Almoner  {Elecmusimirius),  or  charity  dis- 
tributor, was  one  of  the  "  obedientiaries,"  or 
officers,  of  most,  if  not  all,  monasteries.  It 
was  his  duty  to  distribute  the  broken  meats, 
the  "  remainder  biscuit,"  from  the  monks' 
meals  at  the  gate  of  the  monastery  every  day, 
and  on  certain  days  to  distribute  doles  in 
money  or  kind  among  the  poor,  often  as 
many  as  1000  receiving  a  penny  each.  In 
some  cases  the  general  duty  of  taking  in  the 
poor  and  sick,  for  which  esi)ecially  many  monas- 
teries, notablv  Reading,  were  expressly  founded, 
was  discharged  by  setting  up  an  inn  {lio.rpiliuni) 
or  Spital  {Iw.'ipitalc)  outside  the  gates,  in  which 
generally  12  or  13  old  or  sick  people  were 
maintained  at  the  expense  of  the  Almoner, 
who,  like  the  other  officers,  had  special  estates 
allotted  to  him  out  of  the  common  monastic 
estate.  The  earliest  mention  of  education 
connected  with  the  Almoner  is  in  about  1180, 
when  the  Archdeacon  of  Durham  gave  a  manor 
to  the  Almoner  of  the  Cathedral  Monastery 
to  supply  free  food  and  lodging  for  3  boys 
from  the  public  grammar  school,  to  be  nomi- 
nated by  the  master.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century  a  movement  seems  to  have 
sprung  up  in  connection  with  the  great  in- 
crease in  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  for 
the  establishment  of  choristers  in  the  Lady 
Chapels  of  the  monastic  churches,  and  special 
provision  had  to  be  made  for  their  housing  and 
education.  It  seems  that  this  new  develop- 
ment was  not  made  out  of  the  general  monastic 
funds,  but  by  special  endowments  given  either 
bv  the  Abbots  or  Priors  or  by  outsiders.  Thus, 
by  deed  of  Feb.  16,  1319-1320,  at  Canterbury, 
Prior  Henry  of  Eastry  founded,  probably  out 
of  a  royal  grant,  a  chantry  of  6  priests  to 
pray  for  the  soul  of  Edward  I,  with  the  usual 
attendant  clerks  and  choristers.  It  is  implied 
that  they  had  to  attend  the  Cathedral  school 
by  the  provision  that  on  feast  days  when  the 
schoolmaster  does  not  lecture  they  are  to  attend 
all  the  canonical  hours.  Also  it  is  laid  down 
that  no  scholar  shall  be  admitted  to  the  Al- 
monry unless  he  knows  how  to  read  and  sing, 
and  is  10  years  old  at  least,  and  has  a  decent 
surplice  commensurate  with  the  size  of  his 
body.  Though  the  Almonry  boys  were  only 
fed  on  the  broken  meats  from  the  monks' 
table,  yet  being  one  was  regarded  as  a  valuable 
form  of  scholarship,  as  is  shown  by  a  letter  of 
Queen  Philippa  to  the  Prior  in  1332,  asking 
him  to  take  Richard  of  Bedingfield  into  the 
Almonry  "  to  be  maintained  like  other  poor 
scholars  of  his  estate."  The  Prior  consents, 
hoping  in  return  that  the  Queen  will  prevent  the 
king's  purveyors  from  seizing  the  provisions  he 
had  collected  for  his  own  use  while  attending 
Parliament.  In  1364  we  hear  of  the  school- 
master of  the  Almonry  being  appointed  master 
of  the  public  school  of  his  native  town  of  King- 
ston-on-Thames.    So  by  that  time  a  separate 


98 


ALMONRY  SCHOOLS 


ALMONRY  SCHOOLS 


schoolmaster,  though  probably  only  as  a  pri- 
vate tutor,  had  been  provided  for  these  Al- 
monry boys.  St.  Alban's  Abbey  seems  to 
have  been  the  first  monastery  to  follow  the 
example  of  Canterbury,  an  "  Order  of  living  of 
the  poor  scholars  in  the  Almonry  "  there  being 
made  April  4,  1339.  The  scholars  were  to  stay 
five  years  at  most,  "  as  that  time  is  sufficient 
for  becoming  proficient  in  grammaticals." 
They  were  to  "  shave  an  ample  crown,  hke 
choristers,"  and  daily  say  the  seven  psalms 
for  the  Convent  and  its  founders.  The 
sergeant,  or  servant  of  the  Almoner,  to  whom 
their  care  was  deputed,  took  oath  to  collect 
the  broken  meats  of  the  monastery  and  faith- 
fully distribute  them  to  the  boys  of  the  Almonry 
and  to  friars  and  other  beggars,  and  to  instruct 
the  boys  to  the  best  of  his  ability  in  morals 
and  learning. 

The  first  beginnings  of  the  great  public 
school  of  Westminster  may  be  traced  to  the 
provision  made  for  2  boys'  food  and  cloth- 
ing, costing  32s.  6d.  for  the  year,  as  shown  in 
an  Almoner's  account  roll  for  the  year  1355. 
Their  numbers  were  rapidly  increased  from 
that  time,  as  in  1363  cloth  for  their  gowns 
alone  cost  24s.  5d.  In  1367,  a  "  master  of  the 
boys "  appears.  In  1373,  another  account 
shows  that  there  were  13  boys  living  in  what 
is  then  called  the  Sub-Almonry,  and  the 
master  received  13s.  4d.  a  year.  In  1380,  the 
master  is  for  the  first  time  called  a  grammar 
master,  when  there  were  28  boys.  From 
1388  onwards,  he  is  called  Schoolmaster 
{magister  scolarum),  and  in  1394  his  stipend 
by  a  new  agreement  was  doubled,  £1.  6s.  8d. 
He  had  board  and  lodging  as  well.  Probably 
the  boys  attended  one  of  the  three  pubhc 
schools  of  London.  Then  a  school  was  built 
for  them  on  the  spot,  items  for  its  repair  occur- 
ring in  1414  and  for  its  rebuilding  in  1422. 
The  payments  for  cloth  for  the  boys'  gowns 
was  raised  in  1400  by  the  Abbot's  express 
orders  from  50s.  to  £6.  8.s.  and  £7.  a  year. 
The  master's  salary  was  raised  to  £2.  in 
1479,  when  a  distinction  appears  between  the 
"  grammar  boys  "  and  the  "  singing  boys  "  who 
were  now  provided  with  a  separate  singing 
master.  So  the  school  continued  to  the  disso- 
lution of  the  abbey  in  1539,  the  normal  num- 
ber of  boys  appearing  to  be  24.  When  the 
abbey  was  refounded  next  year  as  a  cathe- 
dral, the  number  of  grammar  school  boys  to  be 
maintained  out  of  the  foundation  was  raised  to 
40,  and  this  number  of  resident  King's  schol- 
ars is  still  kept  up.  At  Durham,  a  similar 
Almonry  School  appears  first  in  1350,  when  a 
payment  is  made  for  the  "Almonry  bishop," 
the  boy  bishop  (q.v.)  of  the  Almonry  boys.  A 
master  of  the  boys  in  the  Almonry  is  first  men- 
tioned in  1352,  and  in  1372  he  is  first  called 
schoolma.ster  of  the  Almonry  and  paid  £1. 
14s.  3f/.  for  his  salary  and  gown.  It  was  only 
on  special  feasts  the  boys  had  anything  to  eat 
but  the  broken  meats  from  the  monks'  table; 


7.S.  was  paid  for  fresh  meat  for  them  for  Advent, 
1419.  They  were  set  to  menial  tasks.  In 
1448,  1  pennyworth  of  bread  and  beer  was 
given  them  for  tossing  hay,  and  in  1457  Is.  5d. 
was  spent  in  beer  for  them  for  getting  stones. 
The  Elizabethan  "Rites  of  Durham"  tells  us 
how  the  broken  meats  for  them  were  handed 
out  of  the  pantry  window  of  the  Refectory, 
when  they  carried  them  to  the  Almonry  just 
outside  the  great  gate.  When  a  monk  died, 
the  children  of  the  Almonry  spent  the  night 
by  the  corpse  "  sitting  on  their  knees  "  and 
reading  the  Psalter  till  8  .\.m.  It  is  probable 
they  attended  the  bishop's  or  city  grammar 
school,  as,  when  the  Priory  was  turned  into 
a  cathedral,  which  had  tfl  keep  18  King's 
scholars,  the  last  master  of  the  Almonry  school 
became  Usher,  or  Second  Master,  of  the 
grammar  school,  the  first  Headmaster  being  the 
master  of  the  city  grammar  school.  At  St. 
Mary's  Abbey,  York,  the  Almonry  School,  in 
which  50  boys  boarded  in  a  house  called  the 
Conclave  or  Chamber,  attending  the  Cathedral 
or  City  School,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
William  Rufus.  But  we  may  put  this  down 
as  false  history.  On  its  dissolution,  the  same 
number  was  provided  for  in  the  Hospital 
annexed  by  Cardinal  Pole  to  the  Cathedral 
School,  but  this  boarding  house  was  soon 
discontinued.  At  Coventry,  the  Cathedral 
Priory  kept  14  boys  in  its  Almonry  at  a  cost 
of  £12.  lis.  4rf.  a  year.  In  1439,  the  Mayor 
and  six  of  the  Town  Council  arranged  to  see  the 
Prior  to  tell  him  they  were  wiUing  he  should 
"  occupye  a  scole  of  gramer  "  if  he  likes  to  teach 
his  brethren  and  the  children  of  the  "  Aumbry," 
but  he  was  not  to  interfere  with  the  freedom  of 
the  citizens  as  to  the  city  school.  At  Nor- 
wich, the  Cathedral  Priory  ought  to  have 
maintained  in  the  Almonry  14  boys,  but  in 
1520  the  bishop  found  at  a  visitation  that 
there  were  only  8.  At  Thornton  Abbey,  Lin- 
colnshire, there  ought  also  to  have  been  14 
boys  in  the  almonry,  but  the  bishop  in  1424 
had  to  order  12  at  least  to  be  admitted.  At 
Bardney  Abbey,  in  1379,  the  bishop  ordered 
the  monks,  instead  of  wandering  about  the 
country,  to  observe  their  rule,  stay  at  home, 
and  maintain  6  boys  to  learn  grammar  (pueri 
literati).  Similar  provision  was  made  in  other 
monasteries.  Probably  not  less  than  2000  boys 
were  thus  provided  with  board,  lodging,  and 
education  free,  taking  England  as  a  whole. 
The  schools  were  purely  charity  schools,  the 
boys  were  made  to  feel  that  they  were  char- 
ity children,  they  acted  as  choristers  and  page 
boys  to  the  monks,  but  they  were  taught  and 
managed  by  secular  clerks  as  masters.  It  is 
not  probable  that  their  education  went  beyond 
what  choristers  get  now,  except  in  a  few  spe- 
cial instances,  such  as  Westminster.  These 
schools  were  in  historical  times  the  sole  con- 
tribution of   the  monasteries  to  education. 

The  only  secular  church  in  which  an  Almonry 
School   has  been   found   is   St.  Paul's,   where 


99 


ALPHABET 


ALPHABET 


tho  8  choristers,  afterwards  increased  to  10, 
hitherto  living  separately  and  fed  by  the  canons 
in  turn,  were  collected  together  and  placed  in 
the  Almonry  under  the  care  of  the  Almoner  on 
the  north  side  of  the  cathedral,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourteenth  century.  Many  en- 
dowments were  added  for  them  when  their 
voices  "  brast "  and  some  of  the  10  must  have 
passed  on,  as  Thomas  Tusser,  c.  1.535,  did  to 
Eton,  to  other  schools  and  the  universities. 

A.  P.  L. 

ALPHABET.  —  In  the  widest  sense  of  the 
term,  "alphabet"  connotes  the  sum  total  of 
signs  and  characters  that  form  the  basis  of  writ- 
ten language,  so  that  it  is  theoreticallj'  proper 
to  speak  of  the  A.ssj'rian  or  the  Chinese  alpha- 
bets, which  are  composed  of  a  relatively  small 
number  of  basal  characters  modified  in  various 
ways,  until  the  ultimate  quantity  of  signs  be- 
comes very  large.  Practically,  however,  the 
word  "  alphabet  "  refers  only  to  that  collection 
of  syllabic  characters  in  which  a  given  language 
or  group  of  languages  is  written;  and  it  is 
thus  distinguished  from  number  signs,  as  well 
as  from  idiograms,  or  characters  reiircsenting 
a  word  or  series  of  words,  as  $,  or  the  multi- 
plicity of  signs  used  in  mathematics,  astronomy, 
and  other  sciences.  This  restriction  of  the 
term,  moreover,  rules  out  what  may  be  termed 
pictographic  writing.  This  system  is  found  in 
most  primitive  form  among  the  American 
Indians,  not  only  in  their  numerous  picto- 
graphs  properly  so  called,  but  in  the  historical 
records  preserved,  for  example,  in  the  "  Lone- 
dog  winter  count  "  of  the  Siou.x  and  the  similar 
annals  of  the  Iviowa  and  the  Pima,  as  well  as 
in  the  highly  developed  and  probably  (|uasi- 
syllabic  value  found  in  the  writing  of  the 
Aztecs,  the  Mayas,  the  Hittites,  and  the 
Egj'ptians,  yet  it  must  be  noted  that  it  was 
exactly  this  pictographic  theory  which  prob- 
ably formed  the  basis  of  the  complicated 
Chinese  characters. 

The  term  "  alphabet  "  is  of  comparatively 
recent  formation,  occurring  first  in  the  eccle- 
siastical Latin  of  Tertullian  and  Jerome.  It 
denotes,  as  is  well  known,  the  regular  sequence 
of  the  first  two  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 
alpha  and  beta,  and  finds  analogues  not  only 
in  the  English  a-b-c,  but  also  in  the  Arabic 
abjad,  the  Old  Irish  beth-luis-nion,  and  the 
Germanic  futhork. 

Of  all  alphabets  that  which  has  had  the 
widest  and  the  longest  currency  is  the  Grseco- 
Roman,  which  is  the  parent,  with  more  or  less 
modification,  of  all  the  modern  occidental  lan- 
guages, and  which,  in  its  Roman,  or  modified 
Roman,  form,  is  now  almost  universally  em- 
ployed when  languages  hitherto  without  script 
are  reduced  to  writing.  On  the  Greek  side  this 
alphabet  furnished  the  foundation  for  the 
Slavonic  scripts;  and  on  the  Roman  for  all 
those  tongues  whose  speakers  came  under  the 
control  or  the  influence  of  the  Roman  Empire 


or  Church.  There  is  practically  no  room  for 
doubt  that  the  immediate  jiarent  of  this  alpha- 
bet is  the  Phoenician  script,  whose  earliest 
known  forms  date  from  about  1000  B.C.  (the 
"  Baal  Lebanon  "  bowls),  though  the  best  early 
specimen  is  the  Moabite  Stone,  which  dates 
from  890  B.C.  This  Phaiucian  ali)habet  con- 
sists of  22  letters,  all  of  which  are  consonants. 
This  is,  indeed,  characteristic  of  all  Semitic 
alphabets  allied  to  the  Phrenician,  the  vowels 
Vicing  left  undesignated,  except  in  sacred  texts 
(notably  the  Bible  and  the  Qur'an)  or  in  diffi- 
cult poetry  and  elementary  textbooks.  The 
writing  in  Phccnician,  as  in  the  kindred  Semitic 
alphabets,  is  from  right  to  left,  a  usage  which 
was  also  retained  in  the  oldest  Greek  inscrip- 
tions, as  well  as  in  the  ancient  Kharoshthi 
script  in  India.  But  for  some  reason  or  other 
aU  the  Indo-Germanic  peoples,  excepting  the 
Iranians,  who  employed  an  Aramaic  form  of 
the  Phirnician  alphabet  in  both  Avesta  and 
Pahlavi,  early  felt  objections  to  a  script  which 
ran  from  right  to  left.  In  India,  therefore,  as 
earlj'  as  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  the  Brahnii  alpha- 
bet, another  variety  of  the  Aramaic,  had  evi- 
dently begun  to  be  written  both  from  left  to 
right  and  boustrophedoti,  as  by  the  Greeks  until 
about  500  B.C.  The  Oscans  and  Umbrians, 
before  they  accepted  the  Roman  alphabet, 
also  wrote  from  right  to  left,  as  was  the  case  in 
Etruscan  and  in  one  archaic  Latin  inscription 
(the  so-called  "  Ducnos-inscription  ");  though 
the  boustropliedon  method  was  observed  in  the 
Old  Sabellian  texts  and  in  an  archaic  Latin 
bronze  tablet  from  the  Lago  di  Fucino.  Again, 
while  many  of  tho  oldest  Norse  runic  inscrip- 
tions, and  practically  all  those  outside  the 
Norse  region,  are  written  from  left  to  right, 
there  was  an  early  tendency  to  inscribe  the 
runes  from  right  to  left,  or  to  write  them 
boustrophedon,  or  even  in  serpentine  fashion. 
Normally,  however,  in  the  Indo-Germanic 
alphabets,  even  in  Armenian,  which  is  appar- 
ently a  mixture  of  Greek  and  Aramaic  types, 
the  script  runs  from  left  to  right,  this  also  hold- 
ing good  of  all  Indian  scripts  except  the  Kha- 
roshthi, all  except  the  most  archaic  Greek  and 
Latin  alphabets,  and  all  the  scripts  based  upon 
them.  Only  in  one  outlying  member  of  this 
alphabetic  system,  the  Tibetan,  which  is  based 
on  Syriac,  does  the  writing  run  vertically,  as 
in  Chinese  and  Japanese. 

\Ye  have  seen  that  the  Phoenician  alphabet 
was  the  parent  of  a  vast  number  of  scripts  as 
far  divergent  as  Roman  and  Sanskrit,  Hebrew 
and  Arabic;  and  it  scarcely  need  be  said  that 
within  each  of  these  groups  there  are  many 
subvarieties,  separated  not  only  chronologi- 
cally, but  also,  even  when  used  side  by  side, 
so  distinct  in  form  as  to  require  the  most 
patient  paheographical  research  to  show  their 
ultimate  kinship.  But  a  further  question  arises 
which  is  by  no  means  so  easy  to  answer.  What 
was  the  source  of  the  Phoenician  alphabet? 
Here    the     attempted    solutions    have     been 


100 


ALPHABET 


THIS  BOOK  IS  NOT  TO  Bt 
TAKtN  FROM  THE  LIBR«k.Ry 

ALPHABET 


numerous.  De  Rouge  and  Taylor  have  main- 
tained that  the  Phoenician  script  was  based 
on  the  hieratic  alphabet  of  the  Egyptians; 
Deecke,  Ball,  and  Zimmern,  among  others, 
trace  it  to  the  cuneiform  writing  of  the  Assyro- 
Babylonians;  Evans  cautiously  suggests  that 
the  origin  is  to  be  sought  in  Cyprus;  Petrie, 
followed  by  Clodd,  would  see  in  Phoenician 
script  a  selection  from  a  large  body  of  signs, 
apparently  geometric  rather  than  hieroglyphic 
in  origin,  which  is  held  to  have  been  current 
throughout  the  Mediterranean  territorj^  about 
5000.  B.C.;  Lidzbarski  and  Delitzsch  take  an 
intermediate  position,  holding  that  both  Baby- 
lonia and  Egypt  influenced  the  Phccnician 
alphabet;  and  Hommel  has  suggested  that 
the  source  in  question  was  the  Mina>an  script 
of  South  Arabia,  which  he  considers  to  be  older 
than  the  North  Semitic  types.  All  these 
views  have  been  submitted  to  a  close  criticism 
by  Peters,  who  thinks  it  not  impossible  that  the 
Pha?nician  alphabet  shows  traces  of  Baby- 
lonian, Egyptian,  and  Cretan  elements;  but 
that,  in  view  of  the  names  assigned  to  the 
letters  in  the  non-Babylonian  Semitic  languages 
and  in  Greek,  the  main  element  must  probably 
be  sought  in  Babylonia.  It  may,  of  course,  be 
thought  that  the  Phcenician  alphaljet  was  an 
independent  creation.  Such  inventions  are 
not  unknown.  An  instance  in  point  is  the  one 
Polynesian  script  of  which  there  is  any  record. 
This  is  found  on  a  few  wooden  tablets  from 
Easter  Island,  though  tradition,  which  is 
doubtless  correct,  declares  that  the  alphabet 
was  brought  from  some  more  eastern  island 
whence  the  Easter  Islanders  emigrated;  and  a 
like  assumption  of  invention  seems  best  to 
explain  the  origin  of  the  ancient  Irish  ogams. 
But  with  the  Phrenicians  this  theory  of  inde- 
pendent creation  is,  on  the  whole,  scarcely 
probable;  for  the  Phoenicians  were  adapters 
rather  than  creators.  In  a  word,  the  exact 
source  of  the  Phoenician  alphabet,  and  conse- 
quently that  of  our  own  script,  is  not  yet 
definitely  known. 

Once  an  alphabet  has  been  constituted,  it  is 
modified  to  meet  the  needs  of  other  peoples 
who  may  adapt  it.  Thus  the  Greek  alphabet 
has  24  letters,  while  the  Russian,  directly 
based  upon  it,  has  37.  The  English  alphabet 
has  26  characters,  but  the  Cherokee,  by  modify- 
ing these  signs  and  adding  independent  crea- 
tions of  its  own,  raises  this  number  to  85.  On 
the  other  hand,  letters  may  be  dropped.  Greek 
early  discarded  the  Pha?nician  vau,  koppa, 
and  fiampi  (except  for  numerals),  and  Pahlavi, 
based  on  an  Aramaic  variety  of  Phoenician, 
has  but  14,  giving  rise,  since  many  of  these 
signs  have  several,  often  identical,  values,  to 
one  of  the  most  vexatious  scripts  ever  devised. 

It  has  already  been  said  that  the  aljihabet 
was  primarily  syllabic.  This  is  true  of  the 
Semitic  alphabets  as  a  whole,  where  the  vowels 
are  not  indicated  normally;  and  it  is  in  a 
measure  true   also   of   all   the   Indian   scripts, 


which  are  ultimately  of  Semitic  provenance. 
Thus  in  Sanskrit  there  is,  for  example,  a  .sign 
indicating,  not  n,  but  na,  and  another  indicating 
ta ;  but  if  one  wishes  to  indicate  nta,  he  must 
combine  the  radical  part  of  the  character  for 
na  with  that  for  la.  This  system,  however, 
proved  unacceptable  to  the  Indo-Germanic 
peoples  in  general,  for  the  Iranians  on  the  one 
hand,  adopting  an  Aramaic  alphabet,  and  the 
Greeks  on  the  other,  using  the  Phcenician 
script,  both  introduced  vocalic  characters 
before  the  time  of  their  first  extant  literary 
monuments.  The  very  first  letter  of  our  own 
alphabet  bears  witness  to  this.  In  Semitic 
the  first  character,  aleph,  represents,  not  a 
vowel,  but  an  extremely  light  guttural,  which 
is  exactly  represented  by  the  "  smooth  breath- 
ing "  of  the  Greek  alphabet.  But  in  the 
earliest  Greek,  alpha,  the  letter  corresponding, 
as  its  very  name  shows,  to  the  Phoenician 
aleph,  is  not  a  guttural,  but  the  vowel  which 
we  term  a. 

In  the  early  period  the  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet had  names,  not  the  mere  implication  of 
the  sounds  for  which  they  stand,  as  in  our  he 
for  6.  This  is  the  rule  in  such  Semitic  lan- 
guages as  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Samaritan,  and 
Ethiopic,  and  is  also  the  case  in  Greek.  Else- 
where the  principle  decays  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  as  in  Arabic  and  Armenian,  while  in 
Sanskrit  there  is  but  a  single  survival  of  the 
old  practice  in  the  name  for  ra,  repha  ("  snarl  "). 
In  the  Germanic  runes  there  may  be  an  uncon- 
scious return  to  the  ancient  use  in  the  name 
thorn  given  to  the  character  /,  which  is  imme- 
diately derived  from  the  Roman  D,  and  a 
Salzburg  manuscript  gives  a  complete  list  of 
names  for  the  Gothic  runes.  This  brings 
us  to  the  origin  of  the  names  of  the  letters.  The 
meanings  of  the  designations  of  twelve  of  the 
Phoenician  letters  are  practically  certain. 
These  are,  giving  them  their  Hebrew  names, 
as  being  the  most  familiar,  as  follows:  aleph, 
"ox";  beth,  "house";  daleth,  "door"; 
yodh,  "  hund  " ;  kaph,  "hollow  of  the  hand"; 
mem,  "water";  nu7i,  "fish";  'ain,  "eye"; 
pe,  "mouth";  resh,  "head";  sin,  "tooth"; 
and  tail,  "  mark."  Three  others,  gimel,  lamedh, 
and  samekh,  apparently  are  derived  from 
Semitic  triliteral  roots;  and  the  remainder 
are  of  onomatopoetic  or  of  doubtful  origin. 
With  regard  to  those  letter  names  of  known 
signification,  it  may  be  suggested  that  they 
were  named  from  being  the  initial  letters  of 
well-known  words,  beth  as  being  the  first  letter 
of  beth,  "  house,"  etc.,  precisely  as  if  we  called 
a  "archer"  and  b  "butcher"  because  of  the 
nursery  rhyme 

"  A  was  an  Archer,  and  shot  at  a  frog; 
B  was  a  Butcher,  and  had  a  great  dog  ";  etc. 

It  has,  indeed,  been  suggested  by  some  scholars 
that  the  origin  of  the  Semitic  names  for  the 
letters  is  to  be  sought  in  the  objects  of  which 
the  letters  in  question  are  alleged  to  have  been 


101 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
SANTA  BARBARA  COLUGE  LIBRARY 


ALPHABET 


ALPHABET 


primarily  pictographs,  so  that  bcth,  for  instance, 
would  at  first  have  been  a  pictograph  or  ideo- 
gram for  "  house,"  whence,  since  the  initial 
sound  of  the  word  in  question  is  b,  beth  itself 
came  to  denote  b.  This  hypothesis  is  not, 
however,  borne  out  by  the  earliest  accessible 
forms  of  the  Phoenician  alphabet,  for  though 
this  might  possibly  be  urged  in  the  case  of 
mem,  "water"  {^),  'ain,  "eye"  ('V>  ),  or 
sin,  "  tooth "  (w),  it  will  scarcely  explain 
aleph,  "ox"  (l),  belli,  "house"  {^),  kaph, 
"hollow  of  the   hand"    (Ti),  or   nun,    "fish" 

In  regard  to  the  general  form  of  letters  it 
should  be  noted  that  the  material  on  which 
they  were  originally  written  has  largely  con- 
ditioned their  shape.  The  cuneiform  char- 
acters, primarily  engraved  on  wet  clay,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  numerous  Sumerian,  Assyr- 
ian, and  Babylonian  tablets,  are  straight, 
heavy  strokes,  with  a  marked  indentation 
where  the  stylus  was  first  pressed  on  the  writ- 
ing surface;  the  Irish  ogams,  first  carved  on 
stone,  are  either  horizontal  or  oblique  lines,  or 
else  dots,  all  suitable  for  simple  working  on 
stone;  the  Germanic  runes,  originally 
"  scratched  "  (as  the  ctymologj'  of  the  English 
torite  shows)  on  wood,  are  plainly  designed  to 
avoid  interfering  with  the  grain;  the  South 
Indian  scripts,  traced  with  a  sharp  stylus  on 
palm  leaves,  are  characterized  by  curves,  and  an 
avoidance  of  straight  lines,  to  ])revent  splitting 
the  fiber  of  the  leaf;  and  in  Egypt,  where  the 
writing  material  was,  from  the  earliest  times, 
papyrus,  an  elaborate  system  of  essentially 
pictographic  writing  could  be  developed.  Of 
course,  these  principles  are  only  general,  for 
when  an  alphabet  had  once  been  formed,  it 
was  carried  out  even  when  written  on  materials 
for  which  it  had  not  originally  been  intended. 
As  examples  of  this  we  may  perhaps  cite  the 
Maya  pictographs  on  stone  as  compared  with 
the  manuscripts  of  the  same  people,  or  of  the 
Aztecs  and  Zapotecs;  or  the  wooden  tablets 
of  Easter  Island,  whose  pictographic  characters 
are  obviously  little  suited  to  the  material  on 
which  they  are  inscribed,  so  that  probably 
these  characters  were  primarily  devised  for 
some  less  fragile  substance. 

All  alphabets  consist  at  first  of  what  might 
be  called  capitals,  exactly  as  children  to-day 
begin  to  learn  their  letters  by  making  capitals. 
This  is  precisely  the  case  with  many  oriental 
scripts,  such  as  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Sanskrit, 
where  there  is  no  distinction  between  what 
are  called  capital  and  small  letters;  and  in 
Greek  and  Latin  inscriptions  all  the  writing 
is  in  capitals,  as  is  also  the  case  with  the  oldest 
extant  manuscripts  in  these  languages.  But 
this  sort  of  writing  consumed  time,  and  was 
unsuitable  for  rapid  correspondence;  and  there 
accordingly  developed  a  cursive  script.  Of 
this  there  are  countless  instances,  among  the 
earliest  being  the  successive  transitions  in 
Egypt  from  the  hieroglyphic  to  the  hieratic, 


and  from  that  to  the  demotic  script;  or  the 
Hebrew  "  Rashi  "  cursive  beside  the  conven- 
tional "  square  script."  While  the  cursive 
is  thus  essentially  a  later  development,  it  does 
not  altogether  supersede  the  capitals,  which 
remain  either  for  more  formal  writing,  or  to 
mark  words  to  which  special  importance  is 
attached  (for  an  admirable  example  in  English 
cf.  Exodus  iii,  14,  vi,  3),  or  to  show  that  cer- 
tain words  are  nouns  (as  in  earlier  modern 
English  and  in  German)  or  are  proper  names. 
As  the  cursive  develops  from  the  capitals,  so  by 
analogy  cursive  script  evolves  capitals  of  its 
own,  the  result  being  that  alphabets  based  on 
the  Grffico-Roman  system  have,  in  reality, 
four  distinct  types  of  script. 

In  the  light  of  what  has  already  been  said,  the 
genealogy  of  the  English  alphabet  may  be 
summarized  both  clearly  and  briefly.  The 
Phoenician  alphabet,  whose  precise  origin  is 
not  yet  absolutely  certain,  was  introduced  into 
Greece,  probably  between  the  eleventh  and 
eighth  centuries  B.C.  Thence  it  was  carried, 
in  its  Chalcidian  variety,  to  Italy  by  .^gean 
immigrants,  apparently  about  the  eighth  cen- 
tury. From  Italy  it  passed,  in  the  course  of 
Roman  conquest,  to  Gaul  and  Britain.  And 
mainly  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  form  the  present 
English  alphabet  is  directly  derived.  Into  all 
the  varieties  of  the  English  alphabet,  of  which 
phases  survive  in  the  "  engrossing  hand  "  and 
the  like,  there  is  no  space  to  enter  here.  It 
would  add  no  new  principles,  and  properly 
belongs  to  the  special  study  of  palaeography  or 
diplomatics.  The  principal  innovations  of  the 
English  alphabet  as  compared  with  its  immedi- 
ate ancestor,  the  Roman,  are  only  five.  From 
the  Germanic  runes  the  Anglo-Saxons  borrowed 
two  signs  —  \>  (or  (J)  for  ih,  and  f  for  iv,  the 
former  being  imitated  in  the  half-archaic  y, 
as  in  i/  for  the.  In  the  Middle  English  period  the 
French  form  of  Roman  script  furnished  the 
character  i,  which  had  various  values  —  a 
sound  intermediate  between  g  and  y,  though 
inclining  to,  and  often  interchangeable  with, 
the  latter  (as  }al,  Anglo-Saxon  gyllede,  English 
yelled;  yet  cf.  a^eiii  beside  aye,  "against"); 
the  guttural  sound  represented  by  the  modern 
gh  in  daughter  (Middle  English  doHer,  Anglo- 
Saxon  dohtor);  and  .f  or  z,  as  marchauid'f, 
"  merchants."  And  in  the  earlier  period  of 
modern  English  i  was  divided  into  sonant  (i)  and 
consonant  (j)  functions,  the  latter  receiving  a 
letter  modified  from  the  former,  while  a  special 
"  double  u  "  (w)    was  made  from  vv=  uu. 

L.  H.  G. 

References: — - 

Bergeb.     Histoire  de  Vicriture  dans  VantiguiU.     (Parig, 

1891.) 
Bla.ss,  Hubner.  and  L.^rfeld.  sections  on  Greek  and 

Latin  paleography  and  opigrajiliy  in  Miillpr,  Hand- 

huchdcr  klassischen  Altertums-Wissenschafl.   {2d  ed., 

Munich,  1892.) 
BUhler,     Indische  Palceographie.       (Strassburg,  1896.) 
BuRNELL.     Elements  of  South  Indian  Palwography.     (2d 

ed.,  London,  1S7S.) 


102 


ALPHABET 


ALSTED 


Cagnat.  Cours  elcmenlaire  d'epigraphie  laline.  Paris, 
1898.) 

Clarke.  Origin  and  Varieties  of  the  Semitic  Alphabet. 
(Chicago,  1887.) 

Clodd.     Story  of  the  Alphabet.     (London,  1900.) 

Delitzsch.  Ziir  Entstekung  dcs  &ltesten  Schriflsystems . 
(Leipzig,  1890.) 

Evans.     Cretan  Pictographs  and  Pre-Phwnician  Script. 
(London,  1895.) 
Discoveries  of    Cretan  and   JSgean  Script.     (London, 
1898.) 

KiHCHOFF.  Studien  zur  Geschichle  des  griechischen 
Alphabets.      (GUtersloh,  1887.) 

Lepsius.     Standard  Alphabet.       (2d  cd.,  London,  1S0.3.) 

LiDZBAHSKi.  Handhuch  der  nordsemitischen  Epigrnphik. 
(Weimar,  1898.) 

MoRiTZ.      Arabic  Palmography.      (Cairo,  1905.) 

Peter.s.  Recent  Tlieories  of  the  Origin  of  the  Al- 
phabet, in  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental 
Society,  XXII  (1901),  pp.  177-198. 

Prou.  Elements  de  paieographie  laline  E  et  francaise. 
(Paris,  1892.) 

Roberts.  Introduction  to  Greek  Palaeography.  (Cam- 
bridge, 1887.) 

SiEVERS  and  Arndt-Bloch  ;  sections  on  runes  and  the 
Roman  alphabet  in  Paul,  Grundriss  der  germanis- 
chen  Philologie,  Vol.  I,  248-282.  (2d  ed.,  Strassburg, 
1901.) 

Taylor.     The  Alphabet.     (2d  ed.,  London,  1899.) 

Thompson.  Handbook  of  Greek  and  Latiti  PaUeography. 
(London,  1892.) 

ALPHABET,  PHONIC.  —  See  Phonetics. 

ALPHABET,       TEACHING       THE.  —  See 

Reading,  Teaching  Beginning. 

ALPHABET  WHEEL.  —  One  of  the  many 
devices  for  teaching  the  alphabet.  In  1820 
a  Hartford  publisher  issued  The  Revolving 
Alphabet  or  C/h'W.?  Instructive  Toy.  It  con- 
sists of  two  circular  pieces  of  wood,  with 
a  diameter  of  five  inches,  Vjetween  which 
was  placed  a  sheet  of  paper  containing  the 
alphabet  on  one  side  and  a  series  of  little  syl- 
lables on  the  other.  The  paper  could  be  re- 
volved and  a  short  column  at  a  time  of  the 
print  could  be  seen  through  an  aperture  in 
the  disks.  The  alphaljet  wheel  was  one  of  the 
de\'ices  frequently  used  in  the  Lancasterian  or 
monitorial  system  (qq.r.)  of  instruction. 

Reference:  — - 

Johnson,  Clifton.  Old  Time  Schools  and  Schoolbooks. 
(New  York,  1904.) 

ALPHABETIC  METHOD.  —  A  special 
method  in  teaching  reading  to  beginners, 
much  used  prior  to  the  last  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  children  were  first 
taught  the  letters  and  names  of  the  alpha- 
bet. They  next  spelled  the  words  to  be  read, 
and  with  the  approximate  sound  suggested  by 
the  spelling  of  the  word  as  a  guide,  proceeded 
to  the  pronunciation  of  the  word.  If  the  simple 
words  involved  were  already  in  the  speech  of  the 
child,  the  spelling  sounds  usually  sufficed  to  sug- 
gest the  right  pronunciation  or  quickly  cor- 
rected a  false  pronunciation.  The  alphabetic 
method  was  unsucces.sful  with  words  the  sounds 
of  which  did  not  correspond  to  the  spelling.  It 
failed  with  foreign  children,  as  these  had  little 


basis  in  English  speech  to  suggest  right  pro- 
nunciation and  rectify  wrong  pronunciation. 
The  weakness  of  this  method  became  more 
apparent  with  the  influx  of  immigrant  children 
during  the  last  half  of  last  century,  and  the 
attention  of  teachers  was  turned  to  other  and 
more  efficient  methods.  In  the  American 
Colonial  {q.v.)  period  the  alphabetic  method 
was  about  the  only  special  method  of  teaching 
reading  employed.  The  transition  step  of  com- 
bining letters  into  syllables  was  provided  be- 
tween the  learning  of  the  alphabet  and  the 
reading  of  words.  Together  the  "  alphabetic  " 
and  "  syllabic  "  methods  constituted  one  of  the 
first  "  synthetic  "  methods  of  teaching  begin- 
ners to  read.  H.  S. 
See  Reading,  Teaching  Beginners. 

ALPHABETIC  SPELLING.  — See  Spelling. 

ALSACE-LORAINE,    EDUCATION    IN.— 

See  German   Ejipire,   Education  in. 

ALSTED,  JOHANN  HEINRICH.— A  theo- 
logian of  the  Reformed  Church,  the  author 
of  a  va.st  body  of  theological,  philosophical, 
and  pedagogical  works,  and  the  master  who 
in  many  directions  exerted  a  profound  influence 
upon  the  famous  educator  Comenius,  was  born 
in  15SS  at  Herborn  in  Nassau.  His  father,  a 
minister  and  teacher,  devoted  himself  to  the 
education  of  the  young  Alsted  until  at  the 
age  of  14  he  was  enrolled  on  the  books  of  the 
gymnasium  or  pjidagogium  of  his  native  town. 
Graduating  as  an  accomplished  Latinist,  well 
versed  also  in  philosophy  and  theology,  Alsted 
proceeded  upon  one  of  those  academic  journeys 
(peregrinationes  academicac)  that  were  at  the 
time  regarded  as  an  indispensable  supplement 
to  the  education  of  a  cultured  scholar.  Before 
returning  home  he  had  listened  to  the  distin- 
guished teachers  of  the  day  at  Marburg, 
Frankfort,  Heidelberg,  Strassburg,  and  Basle. 
Alsted  now  became  a  teacher  in  the  high  school 
at  Herborn.  His  amazing  literary  activity  soon 
rendered  his  name  illustrious  throughout  Ger- 
many, and  procured  him  the  rank  of  extraordi- 
nary professor  of  philosophy  (ICIO).  The 
youth  of  all  lands  in  which  the  Reformed  reli- 
gion had  taken  root  flocked  to  hear  him,  and 
among  others  Comenius  (IGll),  who  owed 
to  the  youthful  professor  his  first  impulse 
toward  didactic  studies.  In  1615  Alsted  was 
made  ordinary  professor ;  and  in  1618  one 
finds  him  among  those  summoned  to  the  Dor- 
drecht Synod,  at  which  the  orthodox  Reformed 
theology  was  to  win  a  signal  victorj'  over 
Arminianism.  In  1619  Alsted  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology.  At  this  time  the  storms 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  devastated  the  land 
of  Nassau,  bringing  plague  and  fire  in  their 
train.  Knowing  that  the  school  at  Herborn 
could  never  maintain  itself  in  the  face  of  these 
disasters,  Alsted  in  1620  reluctantly  obeyed  a 
call  to  the  conduct  of  a  new  academv  at  Stuhl- 


103 


ALSTED 


ALTERNATING   SYSTEM 


Weisscnburg.  Here  he  continued  to  produce 
book  upon  book,  so  that  even  his  untimely 
death  on  November  9,  1638,  did  not  prevent  him 
from  taking  rank  as  one  of  the  most  prohfic 
writers  of  any  age. 

Alsted  was  one  of  that  noble-spirited  band 
in  whom  the  culture  of  antiquity,  but  recently 
made  availal)le  by  the  scholars  of  the  Renais- 
sance, was  happily  united  with  the  intense  moral 
earnestness  of  the  Reformation.  Few  had 
drunk  more  deeply  at  the  springs  of  classical 


learning  ;  few  were  more  zealous  in  doctrinal 
disputation  or  more  fervent  in  religious  faith. 
Education  was  to  Alsted  a  branch  of  the  history 
of  culture  and  a  handmaiil  of  divine  truth. 
His  universal  encyclopedia,  in  two  folio  volumes, 
published  at  Ilerborn  in  1630,  the  most  famous 
work  of  his  pen  and  an  undertaking  that  has 
scarcely  a  parallel,  includes  a  treatment  of  edu- 
cation which  is  not  merely  of  interest  as  an  illus- 
tration of  the  theory,  but  also  the  practice  of 
German  education  in  that  day.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  books  upon  education,  at  least,  were 
written  with  genuine  love  for  the  work,  and  not 
in  a  perfunctory  spirit.  Alsted's  Nassau  writ- 
ings include  no  less  than  120  volumes,  several  of 
which  run  each  to  more  than  a  thousand  pages. 
Consult  Johann  Heinrich  Alsted's  pddagogisch- 
didaktische  Reform- Bestrebungen,   Lippert. 

P.  R.  C. 


ALTDORF,  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  Near 
Nuremberg,  Bavaria;  played  a  prominent 
role  as  a  Protestant  institution  of  learning 
during  the  seventeenth  century.  It  owed  its 
origin  to  a  Gymnasium  removed  from  Nurem- 
berg to  Altdorf  in  1573,  although  the  institu- 
tion was  not  transformed  into  a  university 
until  1622.  Like  so  many  of  the  other  German 
universities  established  during  the  seventeenth 
century,  it  succumbed  under  the  calamities  that 
befell  the  German  states  during  the  period  of 
the  Napoleonic  concjuests,  and  closed  its  doors 
in  1S07. 

ALTENSTEIN,  KARL  FREIHERR  VON 
STEIN  ZUM  (1770-_1S40J.  —The  first  Prussian 
Minister  of  Education.  He  was  born  in  Ans- 
bach,  being  a  descendant  of  one  of  the  oldest 
German  families,  studied  law  at  the  universities 
of  Erlangen  and  Gottingen,  and  entered  the 
Prussian  administrative  service,  in  which  he 
rose  very  rapidly.  After  the  resignation  of 
Stein  in  1808,  he  became  minister  of  finances, 
and  was  practically'  at  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment until  1810.  In  this  position  he  cooper- 
ated very  effectivel.v  in  the  establishment  of 
the  University  of  Berlin.  In  1817  he  was  called 
to  the  charge  of  the  newly  created  Ministry  of 
Education,  which  he  directed  until  1835,  when 
he  retired  on  account  of  old  age. 

Altenstein's  administration  was  of  great  in- 
fluence on  the  development  of  the  Prussian 
school  system.  He  established  the  University 
of  Bonn,  as  well  as  many  new  gymnasiums, 
teachers'  seminaries,  and  other  educational 
institutions.  He  tried  to  enforce  the  principle 
of  compulsory  education  and  to  raise  the  in- 
come of  the  elementary  teachers.  The  project 
of  a  general  school  law  worked  out  under  his 
direction  in  1819  did  not  pass,  but  its  principles 
were  embodied  in  later  legislation. 

ALTERNATION  OF  STUDIES.  —  It  is  usual 
in  arranging  the  succession  of  lesson  periods 
to  alternate  between  subjects  more  or  less  formal 
and  strainful  and  those  to  a  considerable  degree 
objective  and  restful.  Thus  music,  drawing, 
phj'sical  education,  manual  training,  or  nature 
study  might  follow  and  be  followed  by  arith- 
metic, history,  grammar,  etc.  Such  a  succes- 
sion, designed  to  relieve  strain  and  fatigue 
through  recreation  or  change,  is  spoken  of  as 
an  "alternation  of  studies." 

See  Progr.\m  ;  Schedule. 

ALTERNATING  SYSTEM.  —  In  an  un- 
graded school  with  several  divisions  or  groups 
it  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  give  his  class 
instruction  to  the  groups  in  alternation.  Even 
in  city  schools,  where  only  one  grade  is  under 
the  control  of  a  single  teacher,  it  is  frequently 
required  that  the  children  of  the  single  grade 
be  divided  into  two  groups,  which  are  to  have 
the  major  attention  of  the  teacher  alternately. 
When  one  group  is  reciting,  the  other  studies. 


104 


ALTHAMMER 


ALTRUISM  AND   EGOISM 


Such  a  method  of  class  management  is  called 
an  "  alternating  system  "  of  instruction. 
See  Grading;  Classification;  Program. 

ALTHAMMER,  ANDREAS  (1498-1564).— 
A  German  Lutheran  pastor.  He  was  born 
in  Brentz,  and  became  city  pastor  in  Ausbach 
(1528).  He  is  said  to  be  the  author  of  the  first 
religious  te.xtbook  which  was  known  by  the 
name  of  catechism.  He  published  also  notes 
and  explanations  to  the  Germania  of  Tacitus. 

See  Catechism. 

ALTHOFF,  FRIEDRICH  (1839-1908). —  For 

about  twenty-five  years  one  of  the  leading 
officials  in  the  educational  administration  in 
Prussia.  In  1880  he  was  appointed  professor  at 
Strassburg,  and  in  1882  he  entered  the  Ministry 
of  Education  becoming  coimected  with  the  de- 
partment for  universities  and  scientific  institu- 
tions, where  he  was  active  for  fifteen  years.  In 
1897  he  became  the  chief  permanent  official 
in  the  ministry.  During  his  long  official  career 
he  exercised  a  great  influence  over  Prussian 
education.  He  took  a  broad  view  of  education, 
and  showed  great  interest  in  educational  move- 
ments in  England,  France,  and  the  United 
States.  From  Harvard  University  he  received 
an  honorary  degree.  To  his  suggestion  and 
efforts  are  due  the  exchange  of  German  and 
American  professors,  and  the  establishment  of 
the  important  Inquiry  Bureau  (Aii.skimftstellc) 
of  the  BerUn  University.  He  died  on  Oct.  20, 
1908.  I.  L.  K. 

ALTRUISM  AND  EGOISM.  —  While  these 
words,  as  antithetical  psychological  and  moral 
terms,  are  comparatively  novel  in  English 
thought  (having  been  introduced  by  the  fol- 
lowers of  Comte,  especially  George  Eliot,  and 
by  Herbert  Spencer)  the  ideas  underl.ving  them 
constitute  the  most  fundamental  and  enduring 
problem  of  English  ethical  speculation.  British 
ethics,  in  contrast  with  Continental,  has  been 
doniinantly  individualistic  in  its  basis  and  psy- 
chological in  its  method.  Grotius,  the  founder 
of  the  Continental  tradition,  re\'ived  and  de- 
veloped the  classic  principle  of  Greek  and  Roman 
morals,  that  man  is  social  by  nature,  and  that 
this  sociability,  being  a  universal  trait,  is  essen- 
tially rational  in  character.  Hence  the  content 
of  morals  was  arrived  at  deductively  by  develop- 
ing the  necessitj'  of  rational  conditions  of  the 
manifestation  of  man's  social  nature. 

Hobbes  started  English  thought  in  an  opposite 
direction.  He  held  that  the  primary  law  of 
nature  is  individual  .self-preservation,  and  that 
men,  instead  of  being  by  nature  fit  for  society, 
are  naturally  averse  to  it,  the  only  natural 
conditions  of  their  coming  together  socially 
being  accidental,  namely,  desire  for  comfort  and 
profit,  and  vainglory  or  love  of  honor  and  fame 
attained  by  a  competitive  outstripping  of 
others.  Since,  however,  the  natural  tendencies 
of  men  to  seek  in  purely  individualistic  ways 


their  self-preservation  bring  them  into  conflict 
with  one  another,  there  results  a  condition  of 
mutual  fear  and  uncertainty,  a  condition  wherein 
wealth,  the  sciences,  and  the  arts  are  all  im- 
possible, and  the  life  of  man  is  "  solitary, 
brutish,  and  nasty."  From  this  untoward 
result  of  pure  individualistic  self-seeking, 
Hobbes  deduces  the  necessity  of  a  central 
authority;  a  political  sovereign,  which  has 
the  power  to  impose  common  laws  upon  men 
and  to  enforce  peace  and  order.  The  edicts 
of  civil  authority  are  thus  the  source  of  justice 
and  morality. 

While  Hobbes'  doctrine  called  out  a  storm  of 
protest  from  all  quarters,  while  he  had  no 
avowed  disciples,  nevertheless  he  set  the  prob- 
lem and  fixed  the  method  of  subsequent  British 
moral  theorizing.  The  problem  was  reconciling 
the  natural  constitution  of  individual  man  with 
the  demands  of  civilized  social  life.  The 
method  was  that  of  psychological  examination 
of  the  individual  to  ascertain  what  is  his  natural 
constitution.  In  the  main  Hobbes'  successors 
contended  that  man's  psychological  structure 
contains  two  sets  of  motive  springs,  termed 
respectively  self-love  and  benevolence  (or  self- 
interest  and  sympathy),  and  that  the  sympa- 
thetic spring  to  action,  disinterested  interest  in 
the  happiness  of  others,  is  as  much  a  genuine 
part  of  the  individual's  natural  constitution  as 
is  his  passion  for  self-preservation. 

By  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
this  type  of  moral  philosophy  was  elaborated 
to  a  point  where  it  became  the  psychological 
foundation  for  the  economic  theory  of  Adam 
Smith  and  the  utilitarianism  of  Jeremy  Bentham 
—  the  two  most  influential  doctrines  of  the 
time.  Adam  Smith  made  sympathy  the  basis 
of  ethics  and  intelligent  self-interest  the  basis 
of  economics,  and  bent  his  energies  to  proving 
that  if  intelligent  self-love,  or  the  reasonable 
desire  for  personal  comfort  and  profit,  were  left 
free  from  arbitrary  political  regulations,  it 
naturally  brought  men  together  in  natural 
agreement  (contracts)  so  that  each  man,  in 
serving  himself,  served  his  fellow.  In  this  way, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  "  invisible  hand  " 
of  Providence,  men  in  seeking  their  own  inter- 
ests promoted  unconsciously  the  welfare  of 
society  as  a  whole  even  more  efficaciously  than 
if  they  had  sought  to  do  so  from  motives  of 
conscious  philanthropy. 

Jeremy  Bentham  furnished  the  natural 
pendantto  this  doctrine.  Without  committing 
himself  upon  the  psychological  question  of 
whether  sympathy  is  as  innate  as  self-love,  he 
held  that  the  sole  moral  criterion  is  the  tendency 
of  acts  to  promote  universal  happiness,  so  that 
benevolence  is  the  ultimate  virtue.  He  also 
held  that  men's  need  for  the  approval,  esteem, 
and  aid  of  others  is  so  great  that  ultimately  the 
dictates  of  universal  benevolence  and  of  intelli- 
gent self-love  coincide.  In  promoting  the  hap- 
piness of  all,  the  individual  is  taking  the  best 
means  to  secure  his  own  greatest  happiness,  and 


105 


ALTRUISM  AND   EGOISM 


ALUMNUS 


\nce  versa.  Thus  Bent  ham's  moral  doctrine 
effectively  supplemented  the  economic  theory 
of  Smith. 

This  result,  completely  reversing  the  original 
assumption  of  Hofebes,  practically  terminated 
the  movement.  Further  discussion  was  coinci- 
dent with  the  introduction  of  the  terms  "egoism" 
and  "altruism"  as  substitutes  for,  although  not 
synonymous  with,  the  older  terms.  The  nine- 
teenth century,  in  its  reaction  against  the  iso- 
lated individualism  of  the  eighteenth,  laid  great 
stress  upon  the  importance  of  the  tratlitions  and 
institutions  of  society  as  absolutely  necessary 
to  the  proper  nurture  of  the  individual.  Ego- 
ism thus  became  a  term  standing  in  the  main 
for  the  nonsocial  tendencies  in  the  individual, 
which  needed  to  be  transformed  in  order  that  the 
individual  might  take  his  due  place  in  the  social 
order,  while  altruism  meant  regard  for  the  well- 
being  of  otliers  which  formed  the  social  cement, 
and  to  which  therefore  egoism  must  be  subordi- 
nated, moral  discipline  consisting  essentially  in 
acquiring  habits  of  such  subordination. 

Spencer,  however,  saw  in  the  notion  of  organic 
evolution  a  means  of  reassigning  positive  moral 
value  to  egoism  while  reconciling  it  to  altruism. 
He  distinguished  "  relative  ethics  "  as  the  code 
appropriate  to  an  imperfect  state  of  evolution 
from  absolute  ethics,  or  the  code  obtaining  when 
the  goal  of  evolution,  the  complete  adaptation 
of  the  individual  to  his  environment,  is  attained. 
During  the  transition  period,  only  a  compro- 
mise between  the  claims  of  individual  and 
general  happiness  is  possible.  When  individ- 
uals are  completely  adapted,  however,  the 
acts  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  society  will 
have  become,  through  heredity,  the  spontaneous 
functions  of  the  individual,  and  hence  attended 
with  pleasure. 

The  present  tendency  is  to  view-  the  whole 
question  as  arising  from  a  separation  of  the 
individual  from  social  relations  wOiich  has  no 
basis  in  fact.  The  primary  or  natural  im- 
pulses of  man,  just  because  they  are  natural, 
are  neither  egoistic  nor  altruistic,  although 
some  of  them  tend  more  to  individual  results 
and  others  to  acts  serviceable  to  others. 
Either  tendency  may  be  unduly  cultivated, 
but  normal  moral  growth  consists  in  organizing 
the  natural  impulses  so  that  the  individual 
finds  his  chief  interest  in  acts  that  at  the  same 
time  are  socially  useful.  The  moral  problem 
of  education  is  thus  not  one  of  balancing  or  com- 
promising two  sets  of  motives,  but  of  developing 
that  type  of  ego  or  self  which  finds  happiness  in 
the  kind  of  acts  that  are  of  social  value.  This 
result  is  achieved  by  enlightening  the  indi^-idual 
as  to  social  ends,  and  by  forming  a  disposition 
actively  interested  in  such  ends,  rather  than 
by  conscious  appeal  to  "  altruistic  "  motives. 
The  fallacy  underlying  the  older  controversy 
was  the  false  antithesis  of  the  "  self  "  and  the 
"other  ";  this  antithesis  is  overcome  by  recog- 
nition of  the  objective  social  relations  and 
activities  which  concern  alike  the  "  self  "  and 


the  "  other."  To  bring  about  this  appreciation 
of  social  relations  as  a  common  good  is  the 
chief  function  of  the  school  as  a  social  institution. 

J.  D. 
References:  — 

CoMTE.   .\.     Cours  de  la  Philosophic  Positive.     (Paris, 

lS.30-184.3.) 
Dewey,  J.     School  and  Society.      (Chicago.  IStOO.) 
Dewey  and  Tufts.     Ethics.     (New  York,  1908.) 
M.\CKENZiE,   J.   S.     Introduction  to  Social  Philosophy. 

(New  York,  1895.) 
Macdougall,  W.     Social  Psychology.     (London,  1909.) 
Ross,  E.  A.     Social  Control.      (New  York,  1908.) 
Spencer,      H.     Principles     of     Psychology.      (London, 

1855.) 
Data  of  Ethics.      (London,  1879.) 
Westermarck,    E.     Origin  and  Development  of  Moral 

Ideas.     (London,  1908.) 

ALUMNI  ASSOCIATION.  — See  Alumnus  ; 

I".\IVERSITY  AND  C'oLLEGE  AlUMXI  ASSOCIA- 
TIONS. 

ALUMNUS.  —  Literally,  nur.sling,  foster  child. 
A  term  which  is  the  corollary  of  the  use  of  Aliia 
]\L\TER  (q.v.)  with  reference  to  a  college  or  uni- 
versity, and  which  was  at  first  applied  to  one 
who  had  been  a  student  in  such  an  institution. 
At  present  its  use  has  become  generalized  in 
America,  and  applicable  to  a  former  pupil  in 
any  institution  for  higher  education,  including 
high  schools.  As  opposed  to  graduate,  the 
term  emphasizes  rather  the  personal  attitude 
of  affection  and  devotion  to  an  institution.  In 
LS40  an  Alumni  Association  was  formed  at 
Harvard  to  include  all  who  had  taken  their  first 
degree  at  that  university.  At  first  only  the 
social  side  was  emphasized  by  such  associa- 
tions, but  gradually  a  sphere  of  considerable 
usefulness  was  developed,  not  only  in  welding 
together  men  of  one  college,  but  in  keeping 
them  in  close  touch  with  it  and  maintaining 
their  interest.  A  spirit  of  mutual  help  has 
sprung  up  among  the  members  and  has  been 
extended  to  the  young  graduates.  The  influence 
of  alumni  associations  was  crystallized  and  given 
a  new  direction  about  forty  years  ago,  when 
a  movement  began  to  obtain  representation  of 
alumni  on  boards  of  trustees  of  colleges  and 
universities.  Since  1S66  the  Board  of  Over- 
seers at  Harvard  has  consisted  of  30  members 
elected  by  the  alumni.  In  other  universities 
the  alumni  have  obtained  representation  on 
boards  of  trustees.  This  practice  has  become 
almost  universal.  As  members  of  different 
professions  and  callings,  these  representatives 
can  exercise  their  influence  in  preventing  hasty 
action  or  conservatism,  and  introduce  an  ele- 
ment of  democracy  into  university  manage- 
ment. The  representation  of  alumni  on  boards 
of  trustees  corresponds  to  the  practice  in  the 
English  universities  of  having  representatives 
of  Convocation  on  the  Senate.  The  extension 
of  alumni  associations  to  high  schools  is  a 
recent  movement,  and  should  certainly  be  an 
important  medium  for  keeping  schools  and 
parents  in  close  touch.  In  England  school  tra- 
ditions and  school  friendships  are  maintained 


lOG 


AMATEURISM 


AMATEURISM 


and  fostered  by  Old  Boys'  Associations  (e.g.  Old 
Etonians,  Old  Paulines,  etc.),  which  are  being 
extended  to  elementary  schools.  Up  to  the 
present  only  the  social  side  and  a  spirit  of  devo- 
tion to  the  old  school  have  been  emphasized, 
but  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  in 
the  future  develop  into  an  important  instrument 
as  representatives  of  inteUigent  lay  opinion  in 
education. 

So  far  as  university  administration  is  con- 
cerned, the  alumni  associations  are  represented 
in  England  by  Convocation  (q.v.).  Otherwise, 
with  the  exception  of  university  clubs  in  London, 
there  are  no  organizations  which  perform  the 
general  function  of  the  American  associations. 

I.  L.  K. 

See  Colleges,  American;  University  and 
College  Alumni  Associations. 

References:  — 

BiRDSEYE,  C.  F.     Individual  Training  in  Our  Colleges. 

(New  York.  1907.) 
The  Reorganizalion  of  Our  Colleges.  (New  York,  1909.) 
Eliot,  C.  W.     University  Administration.     (New  York, 

1908.) 
TnwiNG,  C.  F.     College  Administration.     (New  York, 

1900.) 

AMATEURISM.  —The  question  of  amateur- 
ism has  engaged  the  attention  for  a  number  of 
years  of  educators  responsible  for  the  supervi- 
sion of  college  athletics.  So  long  as  physical  ex- 
ercises and  athletic  games  are  practiced  simply 
to  gratifjr  the  natural  desire  of  youth  for  physical 
activity  and  recreation,  all  the  participants  re- 
main amateurs  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word. 
But  when  contests  are  organized  as  public  spec- 
tacles to  which  admission  fees  are  charged,  and 
prizes  are  awarded  to  the  winners,  the  inevitable 
result  is  that  some  competitors  are  not  content 
vnih.  the  honor  of  winning,  but  seek  to  utilize 
their  skill  for  financial  gain.  Such  a  situation 
was  developed  in  American  colleges  during  the 
period  of  rapid  extension  and  specialization  of 
athletics  beginning  in  the  decade  1880-1890. 
The  necessity  of  adopting  rules  to  distinguish 
amateurs  and  professional  athletes  became  im- 
perative when  the  inordinate  desire  to  win  led 
student  athletic  managers  to  offer  financial  in- 
ducements to  secure  expert  athletes  for  college 
teams. 

There  is  nothing  objectionable  about  a  pro- 
fessional athlete  as  such,  for  he  can  be  a  very 
good  sportsman  and  command  general  admira- 
tion and  enjoy  the  public  esteem  so  long  as  he 
remains  among  the  professionals,  but  there  is  no 
sympathy  with  the  professional  who  masquer- 
ades as  an  amateur.  The  professional  athlete 
is  the  natural  result  of  commercialized  athletics; 
he  corresponds  to  the  circus  performer  and  the 
vaudeville  actor  who  earn  a  hvelihood  by  exhibit- 
ing unusual  skill  to  entertain  the  public.  The 
conducting  of  athletic  spectacles  for  financial 
gain  is  not  a  legitimate  function  of  educational 
institutions;  therefore,  professional  athletes 
should  be  excluded  from  participation  in  college 
athletics. 


According  to  the  generally  accepted  law, 
an  athlete  ceases  to  be  an  amateur  by:  (1) 
Receiving  compensation  directly  or  indirectly 
for  ijarticipation  in  athletic  contests.  (2)  Com- 
peting with  or  against  a  professional.  (3)  Re- 
ceiving money  for  teaching  any  form  of  physical 
exercise.  (4)  Entering  a  competition  open  to 
all  comers. 

The  enforcement  of  the  amateur  law  presents 
many  difficulties,  because  unscrupulous  men  are 
willing  to  resort  to  all  sorts  of  questionable 
practices  to  evade  the  letter  of  the  law.  The 
first  clause  is  most  difficult  to  enforce.  There 
are  many  ways  of  gaining  financial  profit  from 
sport  without  competing  for  cash  prizes  or 
selling  valuable  prizes  won  in  competition. 
Scholarships,  lucrative  positions  where  the 
compensation  is  excessive  for  the  services  ren- 
dered, free  board  and  room  under  the  guise  of 
training  expenses,  excessive  allowance  for  travel- 
ing expenses,  etc.,  are  some  of  the  methods  used 
to  compensate  college  athletes  while  assuming 
to  maintain  amateur  standards.  Playing  base- 
ball on  summer  nines  is  also  responsible  for  many 
infractions  of  the  amateur  law  by  college  ath- 
letes. Clauses  two  and  four  are  rarely  vio- 
lated by  college  athletes,  except  in  the  matter 
of  summer  baseball.  Clause  three  presents 
difficulties  only  in  cases  where  impecunious 
college  athletes  undertake  to  teach  physical 
training  classes  as  an  avocation  to  help  defray 
their  legitimate  living  expenses.  The  whole 
problem  of  maintaining  amateur  standards  in 
college  athletics  could  be  solved  by  organizing 
athletics  on  an  educational  basis  for  the  benefit 
of  students  and  doing  away  with  commercialized 
athletics.  There  is  honest  division  of  opinion 
on  the  question  of  enforcing  this  clause,  and 
also  in  the  matter  of  permitting  college  students 
to  earn  money  bj'  playing  on  hotel  or  other  semi- 
professional  "  summer  nines."  Some  contend 
that  any  bona  fide  student  who  maintains  a 
satisfactory  standing  in  his  studies  and  whose 
conduct  is  that  becoming  a  gentleman  should  be 
permitted  to  earn  money  by  his  athletic  skill. 
The  argument  advanced  to  support  this  prop- 
osition is,  that  playing  baseball  and  teaching 
physical  training  are  just  as  legitimate  methods 
of  earning  money  as  tutoring,  singing,  or  playing 
in  an  orchestra,  activities  to  which  no  objection 
is  made. 

Those  who  favor  the  enforcement  of  the  ama- 
teur law  contend  that  professionalism  in  college 
athletics  is  the  cause  of  many  serious  evils,  and 
therefore  amateur  standards  must  be  main- 
tained. There  is  no  objection  to  a  student 
using  his  skill  to  earn  money,  but  by  so 
doing,  he  ceases  to  be  an  amateur  and  must 
forego  the  privilege  of  participating  in  college 
athletics. 

The  inordinate  desire  to  win  at  any  cost 
because  winning  insures  financial  success  is 
largely  responsible  for  the  difficulties  encoun- 
tered in  maintaining  amateur  standards.  These 
difficulties  will  disappear  when  college  athletics 
107 


AMBIDEXTERITY 


AIMBROSE 


are  organized  on  an  educational  basis,  and  the 
commercial  interests  are  eliminateil. 

G.  L.  M. 
See  Athletics,  Educational. 

References :  — 

Hetherington,  C.  W.  The  Foundation  of  Ama- 
teurism. American  Physical  Education  Review, 
Nov..  1909. 

Report  of  Committee  on  an  Amateur  Law,  for  the 
Intercollegiate  Athletic  Association.  American 
Physical  Education  Revierc,  March,  1910. 

Report  of  International  Olj'mpic  Committee  on  Status 
of  Amateurism.  American  Physical  Education 
Review,  April,  1910. 

AMBIDEXTERITY.  —  There  are  certain 
individuals  who  arc  able  in  all  types  of 
manipulation  to  use  the  right  or  left  hand 
with  equal  freedom  and  skill;  they  are  said 
to  be  ambidextrous  or  to  be  possessed  of  am- 
bidexterity. The  great  majority  of  individ- 
uals are  so  developed  that  the  finer  manipula- 
tions are  made  freely  and  skillfully  by  one  hand 
only,  the  other  hand  acting  merely  as  a  holder 
or  support  for  the  manipulating  hand.  When 
the  finer  manipulations  are  naturally  made 
with  the  right  hand,  the  person  is  called  right- 
handed;  when  the  finer  manipulations  are  made 
naturally  with  the  left  hand,  the  person  is  said  to 
be  left-handed.  There  are  varying  degrees  of 
right-handedness  and  left-handedness,  some  in- 
dividuals showing  very  little  ability  to  train  the 
hand  which  does  not  naturally  perform  fine 
manipulations,  others  showing  relatively  little 
departure  from  ambidexterity. 

The  causes  of  these  conditions  are  probably 
to  be  found  in  inherited  nervous  structures 
which  in  turn  seem  to  be  very  closely  related 
to  inherited  circulatory  organs.  The  two  sides 
of  the  brain  receive  their  blood  supply  through 
arteries  which  are  asymmetrical.  Where  the 
blood  supply  is  larger  to  the  left  side  of  the  brain, 
the  right  hand  is  naturally  developed  to  a  higher 
degree  of  dexterity;  where  the  right  side  of  the 
brain  receives  the  greatest  blood  supply,  the 
person  is  naturally  left-handed.  Exercise  may 
have  some  effect  in  fixing  this  relation  and  ex- 
aggerating the  degree  of  one-sided  development, 
but  the  inherited  structures  are  doubtless  of  the 
first  importance. 

The  question  of  what  kind  of  training  to  give 
left-handed  children  is  involved  by  the  general 
fact  that  all  the  conventions  of  life  are  adjusted 
on  the  assumption  that  right-handedness  is  not 
only  more  common,  but  more  natural.  All 
writing,  for  example,  is  adapted  to  right-handed 
manipulation.  The  best  practical  rule,  there- 
fore, would  seem  to  be  this:  if  a  child  is  so 
little  predisposed  toward  left-handedness  that 
some  effort  will  fit  him  to  the  common  mode  of 
action,  it  is  better  for  him  to  be  trained  in 
right-handed  movements.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  he  is  extremely  left-handed,  it  is  futile  to 
attempt  to  change  his  inherited  mode  of  activ- 
ity. Ambidexterity  is  not  a  natural  goal  of 
development.      One  hand  only  is  required  for 


fine  manipulation.  The  other  finds  its  normal 
and  adeciuate  function  in  supporting  the  hand 
engaged  in  fine  manipulations.  C.  H.  J. 

Reference:  — 

B.\LDwiN,  J.  M.     Mut\ial  Development  of  the  Child  and 
Race.      (New  York,  1S95.) 

AMBROSE.  —The  greatest  ecclesiastical 
statesman  of  the  fourth  century,  born  a.d. 
340  at  Treves,  where  his  father  was  governor. 
He  was  educated  for  the  bar  in  Rome  under  the 
foremost  rhetoricians,  frequenting  the  Senate 
and  the  Forum,  and  soon  surpassing  his  fellow- 
students  in  learning  and  accomplishments. 
At  an  early  age  he  became  governor  of  Northern 
Italy,  and  soon  gained  such  a  hold  upon  the 
people  of  Milan  that  they  forced  him  to  become 
their  archbishop  in  374.  jMilan  was  then  the 
seat  of  the  imjjerial  government  and  needed  an 
archbishop  of  sound  practical  wisdom  and 
large  executive  ability,  qualities  which  Ambrose 
possessed  beyond  any  man  of  his  time.  Under 
the  instruction  of  Simplicianus  he  soon  became 
a  sound  theologian  and  a  great  teacher.  He 
fostered  sound  learning  in  every  way,  establish- 
ing schools  and  founding  monasteries  which 
became  centers  of  intellectual  life,  not  only  in 
Italy,  but  also  in  Ireland,  for  many  centuries. 
His  most  famous  pupil  was  St.  Augustine, 
through  whom  he  influenced  the  whole  history 
of  Latin  theology.  In  common  with  the 
Fathers  of  the  Latin  Church,  and  unlike  the 
Alexandrian  teachers,  he  deprecated  the  study 
of  Greek  philosophy.  He  distributed  his 
princely  fortune  amongst  the  poor,  and  became 
the  chief  champion  of  the  people  in  their  struggle 
for  religious  liberty  and  purity  of  faith.  He 
contended  stubbornly  against  the  Arian,  Mani- 
cha?an,  and  Pelagian  heresies,  fearlessly  opposing 
the  emperors  and  leaders  of  the  Church.  He 
left  his  mark  upon  the  Church  chiefly  in  three 
ways  —  in  the  assertion  of  her  spiritual  au- 
thority (thus  laying  the  foundation  for  the 
growth  of  the  Papacy  in  succeeding  centuries), 
in  church  music,  and  in  liturgies.  He  may  be 
regarded  as  the  father  of  music  in  the  Western 
Church.  This  had  previously  consisted  of  a 
monotonous  recitation  of  the  psalms  and 
prayers.  St.  Ambrose  introduced  measured 
time,  regular  rhythm,  and  varied  melody, 
following  the  musical  system  of  the  Greeks  and 
using  antiphonal  effects.  A  contemporary  ac- 
count of  the  origin  and  character  of  this  music 
is  given  by  St.  Augustine  in  his  Confessions 
(IX,  7  and  X,  33).  The  reform  spread  rapidly 
until  the  use  of  the  Ambrosian  Chant  became 
almost  universal  in  the  Western  Church. 
Later  on  this  was  developed  into  the  Gregorian 
Chant,  which  resounded  through  the  great 
cathedrals  and  abbeys  of  Europe  for  a  thou- 
sand years.  St.  Ambrose  also  introduced  the 
practice  of  singing  hymns  in  divine  service,  and 
wrote  many  beautiful  Latin  hymns,  of  which  the 
Te  Deum   Laudamiis  is  the   best  known.     He 


108 


AMERICAN  ACADEMY 


AMERICAN   ASSOCIATION 


devoted  much  attention  to  liturgies,  and  gave  the 
Liturgy  of  Mihin  a  distinctive  form,  differ- 
ent from  that  of  Rome  and  more  like  those  of 
the  East,  which  is  known  as  the  Ambrosian 
Liturgy  and  has  been  tenaciously  retained  in  the 
Province  of  Milan  down  to  the  present  day.  St. 
Ambrose  has  left  a  rich  legacy  of  theological 
treatises,  sermons,  exegetical,  moral,  and  asceti- 
cal  works,  which  are  full  of  striking  practical 
thoughts.  W.  R. 

References:  — 

Biography  of  Ambrose  Paulinus,  of  the  eighth  century. 
Farr.\r,  F.  W.   Lives  of  the  Fathers.     (New  York,  1907.) 
Robinson,  Thornton.    The  Fathers  for  English  Readers. 

(New  York,  1S90-1S9.3.) 
ScHAFF,  Philip,  and  Wace,  H.     Library  of  Greek  and 

Latin  Fathers,  Vol.  x.     (New  Y'ork,  1890-1897.) 

AMERICAN   ACADEMY   OF  ARTS  AND 

SCIENCES.  —  Organized  in  Boston  in  1780. 
John  Adams,  afterwards  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  originally  its  chief  pro- 
moter. Its  purpose  was  "  to  promote  and  en- 
courage the  knowledge  of  the  natural  history  of 
the  country,  and  to  determine  the  uses  to  which 
the  various  natural  productions  of  the  country 
may  be  applied;  to  promote  and  encourage 
medical  discourses,  mathematical  disquisitions, 
jihilosophical  inquiries  and  experiments;  astro- 
nomical, meteorological  and  geographical  obser- 
vations, and  improvements  in  agriculture,  arts, 
manufactures,  and  commerce,  and,  in  fine,  to 
cultivate  every  art  and  science  which  may  tend 
to  advance  the  interest,  dignity,  honour,  and 
happiness  of  a  free,  independent,  and  virtuous 
people."  It  followed  in  the  main  the  lines 
of  scientific  activity  adopted  by  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  {q.v.).  It  published  for 
many  years  scientific  memoirs  as  well  as  its 
proceedings.  It  has  a  scientific  library  of  up- 
wards of  25,000  volumes.  W.  S.  M. 

AMERICAN  ANNALS   OF  EDUCATION. 

—  See  Educatio.n'al  Journ.\lis.m  in  Americ.\. 

AMERICAN  ASSOCLA.TION  FOR  THE 
ADVANCEMENT  OF  EDUCATION.—  (1849- 
1855.)  An  association  which  met  in  pursuance 
of  a  call  from  "the  friends  of  the  common 
schools  of  the  LTnited  States"  at  Philadelphia, 
the  17th,  18th,  and  19th  of  October,  1849.  The 
call  was  signed  by  most  of  the  educational 
leaders  of  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  in- 
cluding 12  state  superintendents  of  schools 
and  25  other  representative  schoolmen.  The 
purpose  of  the  organization,  as  stated  in 
the  preliminary  call,  was  "that  the  great  cause 
of  popular  education  in  the  United  States 
may  be  advanced  and  the  exertions  of  its 
friends  strengthened  and  systematized  by  mu- 
tual consultation  and  deliberation."  Horace 
Mann  (q.v.)  (179G-1S59),  then  secretary  of 
the  state  board  of  education  in  Massachusetts, 
was  the  president  of  the  first  meeting.  Eight 
annual  meetings  were  held,  at  which  a  wide 


range  of  subjects  was  presented  in  the  form 
of  discussions,  addresses,  and  essays.  At 
the  first  meeting,  for  example,  the  list  in- 
cluded school  organization  and  supervision, 
normal  schools  and  teachers'  institutes,  moral 
and  religious  instruction,  school  architecture, 
the  grading  sy.stem,  the  teaching  of  phonetics, 
and  school  funds.  The  speakers  at  this  meet- 
ing included  Henry  Barnard  (1811-1900), 
John  Griscom  (1774-1852),  Joseph  Henry 
(1797-1878),  John  S.  Hart  (1810-1877),  Alonzo 
Potter  (1800-1865),  Gideon  F.  Thayer  (1793- 
1863),  Nathan  Bishop  (1777-1855),  and  John 
Kingsbury  (1801-1874).  (See  articles  on  these.) 
The  proceedings  of  the  first  meeting  were 
printed  in  a  pamphlet  of  40  pages.  The 
second  meeting  of  the  association  was  also 
held  in  Philadelphia  (1850),  with  Eliphalet 
Nott  (1773-1866),  president  of  Union  College, 
as  presiding  officer. 

The  last  meeting  was  held  at  Detroit  on 
Aug.  12-15,  1856.  It  was  planned  to  hold  the 
next  session  in  New  York,  but  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  National  Teachers'  Association 
(q.v.)  superseded  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Education,  and  a  ninth 
meeting  was  not  held.  W.  S.  M. 

AMERICAN    ASSOCIATION    FOR    THE 

ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE.  — Organized 
in  1840,  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  (q.v.),  which  Benjamin 
Franklin  had  founded  in  1743,  and  of  the 
American  Geological  Association.  Its  object  is 
"  by  periodical  and  migratory  meetings  to 
promote  intercourse  between  those  who  are  cul- 
tivating sciences  in  different  parts  of  America, 
to  give  a  stronger  and  more  general  impulse 
and  more  systematic  direction  to  scientific  re- 
search, and  to  procure  for  the  labours  of 
scientific  men  increased  facilities  and  wider 
usefulness."  Its  first  meeting  was  held  in 
Philadelphia,  and  the  subsequent  meetings  of 
the  association  have  been  held  in  the  leading 
cities  of  the  country.  Its  presidents  have 
included  most  of  the  first  American  men  of 
science,  —  William  B.  Rogers,  W.  C.  Redfield, 
Joseph  Henry,  Alexander  Dallas  Bache,  Louis 
Agassiz,  Benjamin  Peirce,  James  D.  Dana, 
F.  A.  P.  Barnard,  Asa  Gray,  J.  W.  Powell, 
Daniel  G.  Brinton,  E.  D.  Cope,  and  Lewis  H. 
^Morgan.  The  chief  executive  officer  is  the 
permanent  secretary,  L.  0.  Howard,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  being  the  present  incumbent. 
The  association  is  composed  of  members  and 
fellows.  All  persons  interested  in  science 
are  eligible  to  membership,  while  fellows  are 
elected  from  such  members  as  are  engaged  in 
advancing  science.  The  association  has  sec- 
tions in  mathematics  and  astronomy,  physics, 
chemistry,  mechanical  science  and  engineer- 
ing, geology  and  geography,  zoology,  botany, 
anthropology  and  p.sychology,  social  and 
economic  science,  physiology  and  experimental 
medicine,  and  education.  W.  S.  M. 

109 


AMERICAN   COLLEGE 


AMERICAN    INTERNATIONAL 


AMERICAN  COLLEGE  AND  EDUCATION 
SOCIETY.  —  Sou  A.MEHicAN  Education  So- 
ciety; College  Boards  in  Educatiox, 
Denominational. 

AMERICAN    EDUCATION     SOCIETY.— 

Orpiaiiizt'd  in  1815  for  the  purpose  of  aid  in 
the  odiication  of  Protestant  clergymen.  Its 
original  name  was  the  American  Society  for 
the  Education  of  Pious  Youth  for  the  Gospel 
Ministry,  but  the  title  was  changed  in  1S20 
to  the  American  Etlucation  Society.  It  held 
annual  conventions  and  made  ajipropriations 
to  the  different  colleges  for  the  pa.vnient  of  tiic 
tuition  of  young  men  looking  to  the  ministry. 
It  also  took  a  keen  interest  in  the  subject  of 
religious  education  in  general.  W.  S.  M. 

AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OF  INSTRUC- 
TION.—  Tlie  oldest  echicational  a.ssociation  in 
the  United  States,  organized  in  1830.  With  two 
exceptions  — 1893,  on  account  of  the  Inter- 
national Congress  of  Education  at  Chicago, 
and  1903,  when  the  National  Education 
Association  met  in  Boston  —  annual  meetings 
have  been  held.  The  Institute  was  organized 
by  "teachers  and  friends  of  education"  at 
Boston  the  1.5th  of  March,  1830,  and  a  tempo- 
rary committee  was  selected  to  provide  for  a 
program  for  a  general  meeting  to  be  held 
in  August  that  year.  The  first  regular  meet- 
ing, held  at  Boston  the  19th,  20th,  21st,  and 
22d  of  August,  1830,  was  attended  by  300 
delegates,  who  represented  the  educational 
interests  of  11  states.  A  constitution  was 
adopted  which  recited  as  the  object  of  the  new 
organization  "the  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge 
in  regard  to  education."  At  each  meeting 
problems  of  vital  interest  were  proposed  for 
general  discussion,  and  set  addresses  were 
provided  by  the  executive  committee.  The 
annual  sessions  varied  from  four  to  six  days, 
with  morning,  afternoon,  and  evening  sessions. 
The  original  constitution  provided  that  the 
conventions  should  meet  annually  in  Boston, 
but  this  article  was  subsequently  altered,  and 
the  executive  committee  was  given  power  to 
call  meetings  at  such  jilaces  as  they  deemed 
best.  While  not  intended  solely  for  New  Eng- 
land, the  membership  of  the  Institute  has 
always  been  almost  entirely  represented  by 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island, 
Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  and  Maine,  and 
for  the  first  50  years  of  its  existence  49 
of  the  meetings  were  held  in  New  England. 
Since  1880  4  meetings  have  been  held  in 
New  York  state  and  3  in  Canada.  The 
Institute  took  a  leading  part  in  most  of  the 
great  educational  movements  of  the  country 
during  the  formative  period  of  the  state  school 
systems  —  such  as  normal  schools,  the  en- 
largement and  the  enrichment  of  the  course 
of  study,  provision  for  better  textbooks,  school 
supervision,  and  the  study  of  science.  Its 
proceedings,    which   were   published  from   the 


first,  include  not  only  the  names  of  practically 
all  the  educational  leaders  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  but  such  well-known  names  in  pulilic 
life  as  Lyman  Beecher,  Joseph  Story,  Caleb 
Cushing,  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  A.  Bronson 
Alcott,  William  E.  Channing.  Theodore  Parker, 
Ceorge  Ticknor,  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Julia 
Ward  Howe,  and  Kaspar  Spurzheim.  The 
list  of  educators  includes  every  name  that 
belongs  to  the  hi.story  of  American  education 
during  the  past  century,  —  Horace  Mann, 
Henry  Barnard,  Samuel  G.  Howe,  Lowell 
Mason,  William  C.  Woodbridge,  Walter  11. 
Johnson,  William  Russell,  James  G.  Carter, 
William  A.  Alcott,  Elizabeth  P.  Peabody, 
Francis  Wayland,  John  D.  Philbrick,  Warren 
Colburn,  William  T.  Harris,  Charles  Brooks, 
Francis  W.  Parker,  Samuel  J.  May,  Nicholas 
Tillinghast,  to  name  at  random  but  a  few. 
(See  articles  on  these).  Some  of  the  most 
important  contributions  to  the  literature  of 
American  education  were  given  originally  as 
lectures  at  the  American  Institute  of  Instruc- 
tion, as  A.  Bronson  Alcott's  Means  of  Earhj 
Education  (1832),  Samuel  R.  Hall's  Qualifica- 
tion of  Teachers  (1833),  Sarah  Austin's  Prussian 
System  of  Schools  (1835),  Lowell  Mason's 
Pestalozzian  Method  of  Teaching  Music  (1834), 
Samuel  G.  Howe's  Education  of  the  Blind  (1836), 
Charles  Brook's  Teachers'  Seminaries  (1837), 
David  P.  Page's  ]\Ieansand  Methods  of  Instruc- 
tion (1843),  Horace  Mann's  Motives  of  Teachers 
(1847),  Henry  Barnard's  Teachers'  Institutes 
(1849),  and  Cyrus  Pierce's  Crime  —  its  Causes 
and  Cure  (1853).  Albert  E.  Winship,  in  a 
historical  sketch  of  the  Institute  (see  Proc. 
N.E.A.  for  1906),  calls  attention  to  the  fact 
that  in  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction 
were  born  Greenleaf's  arithmetics,  Greene's 
grammars,  Hilliard's  readers.  Mason's  music 
series,  Newman's  rhetoric,  Wayland's  philos- 
ophies,   and    Harkness'    Latin   series. 

W.  S.  M. 
References  :  — 

Barn.-vrd,  Henry.    American  Institute  of  Instruction. 

Amrrican  Journal  of  Education,  1856,  Vol.  2,  pp.  19- 

.32  and  241-255. 
Smith.     Founders  of  the  Institute.     Proc.  of  Amrrican 

Instilule  uf  histruclion  for  1867,  pp.  21.3-218. 
Winship,   A.   E.     American    Institute   of   Instruction. 

Prnc.  National  Educational  Association  for  1906,  pp. 

457-463. 

AMERICAN  INTERNATIONAL  COL- 
LEGE, SPRINGFIELD,  MASS.  —  Founded 
in  1885  as  the  French  Protestant  College; 
title  changed  in  1890  to  French-American 
College  and  in  1905  to  the  present  title.  The 
institution  aims  to  provide  a  higher  Christian 
education  to  foreign  immigrant  youth  of  both 
sexes.  A  four-year  academy  course  is  main- 
tained, preparing  for  the  college.  Pupils  are 
admitted  into  the  college  at  the  age  of  15. 
Two  degrees,  one  in  the  classical,  and  one  in 
the  literary  course,  are  offered.  Industrial 
training  is  given  by  which  students  may  pay 
their  way.     There  is  a  faculty  of  12  professors 


110 


AMERICAN  JOURNAL 


AMERICAN   LYCEUM 


and  instructors.  Rev.  Samuel  H.  Lee,  M.A.,  is 
the  president. 

AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION. 

—  See  Educational  Journalism  in  America. 

AMERICAN  LIBRARY  ASSOCIATION.  — 

An  orojanization  wliich  represents  tlie  interests 
of  public  and  private,  state  and  city,  and  insti- 
tutional and  association  library  interests  in 
the  United  States,  started  at  Philadelphia 
in  1876.  Excepting  1878  and  1880,  it  has 
held  annual  meetings.  Besides  the  general 
meetings,  it  has  five  sections,  as  follows: 
colleges  and  reference  section,  catalogue  section, 
library  work  with  children,  state  library  com- 
mission section,  and  trustees'  section.  The 
permanent  headquarters  of  the  association 
are  at  No.  1  Washington  Street,  Chicago. 
The  American  Library  Journal  has  been  its 
chief  organ.  It  has  been  active  in  the  or- 
ganization of  state  and  local  library  associa- 
tions, the  organization  of  training  schools  for 
librarians,  traveling  libraries,  and  most  of 
the  leading  topics  affecting  library  science. 

W.  S.  M. 

AMERICAN      LYCEUM      ASSOCIATION 

(1831-1S39). — -An  educational  body  which  is, 
after  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  the 
oldest  organization  of  its  kind  in  the  United 
States.  This  association  grew  out  of  the  lyceum 
movement  which  had  been  started  by  Josiah  Hol- 
brook(17SS-lS54)  at  Millbury,  Mass.,  in  1826, 
and  spread  rapidly  over  Massachusetts  and  Con- 
necticut. Holbrook,  as  early  as  1819,  organized 
the  first  industrial  school  in  the  United  States 
after  the  pattern  of  Fellenberg's  (q.v.)  institu- 
tion at  Hofwyl.  The  purpose  of  the  lyceums 
which  he  organized  in  the  different  towns  was 

(1)  the  improvement  of  the  common  schools, 

(2)  the  formation  of  lecture  courses  and  the 
establishment  of  classes  for  the  education  of 
adults,  and  (3)  the  organization  of  libraries 
and  museums.  The  Worcester  (Mass.)  County 
Lyceum  Association  was  formed  in  1827,  and 
a  state  association  in  Massachusetts  three 
years  later.  By  1831  there  were  900  towns 
in  the  United  States  with  lyceum  a.ssociations, 
and  56  county  associations.  The  national 
association  was  projected  at  the  state  con- 
vention held  at  Boston  in  1830.  It  was, 
however,  at  a  meeting  of  the  New  York 
State  Lyceum  Association,  held  at  Albany  the 
13th  of  January,  1831,  that  it  was  formally 
organized  and  the  program  formulated.  The 
purpose  of  the  American  Lj'ceum  Association,  as 
set  forth  in  its  constitution,  was  (1)  to  secure 
better  legislative  provisions  for  schools;  (2)  to 
improve  the  ciualifications  of  teachers;  (3)  to 
secure  closer  relationship  between  the  com- 
mon schools  and  the  colleges;  (4)  to  improve 
methods  of  instruction  and  school  discipline; 
(5)  to  introduce  the  natural  sciences  into  the 
course  of  study;    (6)  to  provide  schools  with 


books,  apparatus,  and  teaching  appliances; 
and  (7)  to  arouse  an  interest  in  the  education 
of  girls  and  women.  The  first  national  meet- 
ing was  held  in  New  York  City  the  4th  of  May, 
1831.  Seven  states  were  represented.  The 
president  of  the  meeting  was  Stephen  Van 
Rensselaer  (1765-1839).  The  principal  topics  of 
discussion  at  the  first  meeting  were  the  extent 
to  which  the  natural  sciences  maj'  be  taught  in 
the  common  schools,  the  study  of  the  Bible 
in  the  schools,  the  qualifications  of  teachers, 
and  the  need  of  seminaries  for  the  education 
of  teachers.  In  addition  to  the  general  to])ies, 
which  were  discussed  bj^  all  the  members  of 
the  convention,  at  the  subsequent  meetings 
of  the  association  prepared  addresses  and 
essays  were  presented.  The  second  annual 
meeting  of  the  association  was  held  in  New 
York  City  the  4th  of  May,  1832.  John  Griscom 
(q.v.)  was  the  president  of  the  meeting.  The 
operations  of  the  various  local  lyceums  was 
the  general  topic  of  the  meeting,  with  essays 
and  addresses  on  school  discipline  by  President 
Griscom,  the  study  of  the  constitution  and 
political  institutions  by  Theodore  Freling- 
huysen  (1787-1861),  appropriate  use  of  the  Bible 
in  common  education  by  Thomas  S.  Grimke, 
the  extent  to  which  the  monitorial  system  is 
practicable  in  common  school  education  by 
Walter  Rogers  Johnson  (1794-1852),  and  the  in- 
troduction of  the  natural  sciences  in  the  common 
schools  by  Chester  Dewey  (1784-1867).  At 
the  third  annual  meeting  of  the  association, 
held  in  New  York  City,  May,  1833,  at  which 
President  W.  A.  Duer  of  Columbia  College 
presided,  the  leading  topics  of  discussion  were 
manual  labor  schools,  cabinets  of  natural 
history,  and  the  study  of  phj'siology.  As 
textbooks  in  the  latter  subject  were  wanting, 
the  association  decided  to  offer  a  prize  of  .$300 
for  the  best  manuscript  of  a  textbook  on 
physiology  for  use  in  the  schools,  the  same 
to  be  published  by  the  association.  The 
selection  of  the  manuscript  was  left  to  a  com- 
mittee of  four,  "one  from  each  of  the  pro- 
fessions of  medicine,  law,  theology,  and  educa- 
tion." The  desirability  of  "  the  establishment 
of  a  central  school  for  teachers"  and  the  ap- 
propriateness of  the  monitorial  system  for 
our  common  schools  were  the  two  topics  for 
general  discussion.  The  first  six  meetings  of 
the  American  Lj'ceum  Association  were  held  in 
New  York  City.  President  Duer  of  Columbia 
College  presided  at  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and 
sixth  annual  conventions.  The  seventh  con- 
vention was  held  in  Philadelphia,  G.  W. 
Ridgley  presiding,  with  state  aid  for  education, 
the  monitorial  s.vfstem,  and  female  education 
as  the  general  topics,  and  essays  and  addresses 
on  the  education  of  the  deaf,  stammering, 
the  study  of  meteorology,  of  elocution,  and 
the  question  method  in  teaching.  The  eighth 
annual  meeting  was  held  at  Hartford,  ]\Iay,  1838, 
with  Thomas  H.  Gallaudet  as  presiding  officer. 
The  ninth  and  last  meeting  of  the  association 


111 


AMERICAN   PHILOSOPHICAL 


AMERICAN   SCHOOL 


was  again  held  in  Xew  York  City  IMay  3-6, 
1839,  with  President  Ducr  of  Columbia  again 
as  presiding  officer.  The  chief  topic  at  this 
meeting  was  the  need  of  improvement  of  the 
common  schools,  with  Charles  Brooks  as  the 
leading  speaker.  Mr.  Brooks  asked  the  asso- 
ciation to  appoint  a  committee  of  five  to  organize 
a  special  convention  to  be  held  in  Philadelphia 
during  November  for  the  consideration  of 
the  following  topics:  (1)  to  gather  educational 
statistics;  (2)  to  ascertain  what  has  been 
accomplished  in  different  parts  of  the  country; 
(3)  to  discuss  systems  now  in  operation  in 
Europe  and  see  how  far  they  may  be  applied 
in  the  United  States;  (4)  to  inquire  into  the 
value  of  normal  schools;  (5)  to  ascertain  how 
and  where  may  be  procured  the  best  school 
apparatus,  reading  books,  libraries,  and  models 
of  schoolhouses;  (6)  to  petition  Congress  to 
insert  a  new  item  in  taking  the  next  census, 
viz. :  to  see  how  many  children  there  are  in  each 
state  between  the  ages  of  7  and  16  who  have  re- 
ceived no  elementary  instruction.  These  topics, 
he  urged,  would  elicit  a  mass  of  information 
which  might  be  used  as  a  basis  for  introducing 
legislation.  The  recommendation  was  adopted, 
and  it  was  decided  to  ask  the  governor  of  each 
state  to  issue  an  appeal  to  the  friends  of  edu- 
cation to  attend  the  proposed  convention. 
The  meeting  was  held  at  Philadelphia  the 
22d  of  November,  1839.  John  Griscom  pre- 
sided. It  was  attended  by  55  delegates  from 
the  different  .states,  and  the  leading  partici- 
pants were  Charles  Brooks,  Theodore  Freling- 
huysen,  Henry  R.  Schoolcraft,  Theodore  Dwight, 
Jr.,  Alexander  Dallas  Bache,  and  E.  C.  Wines. 
The  meeting  by  common  consent  urged  the 
formation  of  state  boards  of  education  and  the 
selection  of  secretaries  of  the  same  to  serve  as 
state  superintendents  of  schools.  It  is  doubt- 
less true  that  the  convention  was  fruitful  in 
accelerating  the  unification  of  state  school 
systems  and  of  emphasizing  the  need  of  the 
service  of  professional  schoolmen  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  same.  Although  it  was  voted 
to  hold  another  convention  the  following  year 
in  Washington,  and  five  special  committees 
were  appointed,  —  one  to  arrange  the  national 
convention,  one  to  memorialize  the  legislatures 
of  the  several  states,  one  to  memorialize  Con- 
gress respecting  the  appropriation  of  the  proceeds 
of  the  sale  of  the  public  lands,  one  to  issue  an 
appeal  to  the  people  with  respect  to  needed 
improvements  in  the  common  schools,  and 
one  to  memorialize  Congress  with  reference  to 
the  Smithsonian  legacy,  —  there  is  no  record 
of  a  convention  having  been  held  in  1840. 
The  proceedings  of  the  association  —  to  ex- 
cept the  first,  which  was  printed  as  a  separate 
volume  —  appeared  in  the  American  Annah 
of  Education  and  the  American  Monthly 
Magazine.  W.  S.  M. 


AMERICAN  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 

—  The    oldest    scientific    society    in    America, 


and  still  in  existence,  was  organized  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1743.  Benjamin  P'ranklin,  its  first 
secretary  and  for  many  years  before  his  death 
its  president,  was  instrumental  in  the  organi- 
zation of  the  society.  Its  labors  were  mani- 
fold, as  is  indicated  by  the  following  statement 
of  its  purpose  and  scope:  "To  ascertain  new- 
discovered  plants,  herbs,  trees,  roots,  their 
virtues,  uses,  etc.;  methods  of  propagating 
them  and  making  such  as  are  useful  but  par- 
ticular to  some  plantations  more  general; 
improvement  of  vegetable  juices,  ciders,  wines, 
etc.;  new  methods  of  curing  and  preventing 
diseases;  aU  new-discovered  fossils  in  different 
countries,  as  mines,  minerals,  and  quarries; 
new  and  useful  improvements  in  any  branch  of 
mathematics;  new  discoveries  in  chemistry, 
such  as  distillation,  brewing,  and  assaying 
ores;  new  mechanical  inventions  for  saving  la- 
bour, such  as  mills  and  carriages,  and  for 
raising  and  conveying  water,  draining  meadows, 
etc.;  all  new  arts,  trades,  and  manufactures 
that  may  be  proposed  or  thought  of;  surveys, 
maps,  and  charts  of  particular  parts  of  the  sea- 
coast  and  of  inland  countries;  courses  and 
junctions  of  rivers  and  great  roads,  and  situa- 
tion of  lakes  and  mountains;  nature  of  soil 
and  its  productions;  new  methods  of  imjirov- 
ing  breeds  of  useful  animals,  and  introducing 
other  sorts  from  foreign  countries;  new  im- 
provements in  planting,  gardening,  and  clear- 
ing land,  and  all  philosophical  (scientific) 
experiments  that  let  light  into  the  nature  of 
things,  tend  to  increase  the  power  of  man  over 
matter,  and  multiply  the  conveniences  and 
the  pleasures  of  life."  It  was  the  parent  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  {q.v.)  and  of  the  numerous  s])ccial 
scientific  associations  in  America.  From  1799 
to  1838  it  published  its  "  transactions,"  and 
since  that  date  its  "  proceedings."  Its  head- 
quarters are  at  Philadelphia,  and  since  the 
organization  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science  ((j.r.)  it  has  served 
the  purpose  of  a  local  scientific  association 
for  Philadelphia.  W.  S.  M. 

AMERICAN  SCHOOL  SOCIETY. —Or- 
ganized in  1832.  Its  purpose  was  the  em- 
ployment of  professional  agents  who  should 
examine  the  schools  in  the  endeavor  to  improve 
them,  and  to  organize  schools  in  villages  where 
none  existed.  During  the  first  year  of  its 
existence  its  six  agents  visited  150  schools  in 
^Massachusetts,  Vermont,  New  Hampshire, 
Maine,  Connecticut,  and  New  York.  Its  first 
annual  convention  was  held  at  Andover, 
Mass.,  the  5th  of  August,  1833.  Samuel 
Farrar  presided,  and  Milo  P.  Jewitt  was 
the  secretary,  and  conventions  were  held  the 
two  foUo^nng  years.  Samuel  R.  Hall  was 
the  moving  spirit  in  the  society.  Besides 
the  reports  of  the  agents,  the  annual  conven- 
tions gave  considerable  attention  to  problems 
of  illiteracy  in  the  American  states  and  to  the 


112 


AMHERST  COLLEGE 


AMHERST  COLLEGE 


inadequacy  of  textbooks  for  use  in  elementary 
schools.  Among  these,  besides  Samuel  R.  Hall, 
who  took  an  active  part  in  the  annual  meetings 
of  the  society,  wore  Francis  Wayland,  Jacob 
Abbot,  William  C.  Woodbridge,  Josiah  Holbrook, 
AVilliam  A.  Alcott,  Rufus  Choate,  and  Thomas 
H.  Gallaudet  (qq.v.).  The  work  of  the  society 
was  subsequently  taken  over  by  the  American 
Lyceum  Association  {q.v.).  W.  S.  M. 

AMHERST  COLLEGE,  AMHERST,  MASS. 

—  An  institution  which  took  its  origin  from 
Amherst  Academy,  founded  in  1814,  one  of 
the  largest  of  the  early  New  England  schools. 
On  Nov.  8,  1817,  the  trustees  of  this  acad- 
emy, adopting  the  suggestion  of  Rufus 
Graves,  one  of  their  number,  voted  to  estab- 
lish a  "  charity  fund  "  for  the  training  of  indi- 
gent candidates  for  the  ministry.  Upon  the 
failure  of  the  original  plan,  which  involved 
only  the  appointment  of  a  professor,  Rufus 
Graves  circulated  a  proposal  for  a  fund  of 
$50,000  to  be  used  in  the  establishment  of  a 
"Charity  Institution."  On  May  8,  1821, 
the  Rev.  Zcphaniah  Swift  Moore  was  elected 
president.  His  inauguration  occurred  on  the  day 
the  college  was  opened  (Sept.  21,  1821).  The 
institution  announced  its  intention  of  maintain- 
ing standards  equal  to  those  of  Yale.  Forty- 
seven  students  were  matriculated,  15  of  whom 
entered  from  Williams  College.  Li  1822 
there  were,  besides  the  president,  2  professors 
and  a  tutor.  The  president  was  the  only 
teacher  of  the  senior  class.  Nearly  all  the 
students  were  poor,  and  the  cost  of  a  year's 
schooling  was  about  .$200.  The  early  years 
were  periods  of  struggle  so  keen  that,  when 
President  Moore  died  from  overwork  in  1823, 
the  despairing  seniors  asked  permission  to 
graduate  from  some  other  institution.  Not 
until  the  second  year  of  the  administration  of 
President  Heman  Humphrey  (inaugurated 
Oct.  15,  1823)  did  the  college  secure  a  charter. 
This  was  granted  by  the  General  Court  on 
Feb.  21,  1825,  in  the  face  of  an  opposition 
led  by  those  who  felt  that  Williams  College 
should  be  the  only  college  in  western  Massa- 
chusetts. From  1825  to  1836  Amherst  grew 
rapidly;  for  two  years  the  institution  had 
more  students  than  Harvard  or  any  other 
American  college  except  Yale.  But  this  growth 
was  accompanied  by  increasing  poverty.  After 
several  years  of  suspense,  a  petition  for  state 
aid  was  denied  by  the  General  Court  in  1832. 
Immediately  graduates  and  friends  of  Amherst 
by  heroic  efforts  raised  .'530,000,  allot  it  sub- 
scribed before  the  end  of  the  year.  In  1837 
the  enrollment  was  259,  but  by  1846  it  had 
decreased  to  less  than  half  that  number.  The 
partial  decline  of  religious  enthusiasm  injured 
the  college,  as  did  likewise  the  anti-slavery 
agitation.  There  was  also  a  growing  spirit  of 
dissatisfaction  among  the  undergraduates, 
which  began  in  1837  when  the  students  asked 
that  the  system  of  honorary  appointments  l>e 

VOL.  I  —  I  1 


changed.  Fostered  by  the  newspapers,  the 
impression  became  current  that  the  college  was 
mismanaged.  Financial  impotence  contributed 
to  difficulties  which  were  not  removed  until  the 
resignation  of  President  Humphrey  in  1842. 
His  successor  was  the  Rev.  Edward  Hitchcock, 
professor  of  theology  and  geology,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  of  American  geologists.  The  tact 
and  sagacity  of  President  Hitchcock  brought 
Amhcnst  College  from  threatened  bankruptcy 
to  a  safe  and  permanent  prosperity.  At  the 
beginning  of  his  administration,  the  plan  was 
seriously  considered  of  continuing  the  college 
in  its  original  form  of  preparatory  school,  and 
certain  influential  undergraduates  remained 
in  college  only  by  the  personal  persuasion  of 
the  president.  At  its  close  (1847)  the  college 
had  received  .125,000  of  aid  from  the  state, 
professorships  had  been  endowed  with  862,000, 
the  Sears  Fund  of  S12,000  was  established,  and 
a  scientific  course  had  been  organized.  Twenty 
years  before,  Amherst  had  been  a  pioneer  in 
introducing  a  "  parallel  course  "  in  which  the 
ancient  languages  of  the  old  curriculum  were 
replaced  by  the  modern,  emphasis  was  laid 
upon  the  sciences,  modern  history,  civil  and 
political  law,  and  a  nontechnical  study  was 
made  of  engineering  problems.  Like  this 
earlier  experiment,  the  scientific  course  of 
President  Hitchcock  la.sted  only  a  few  years. 
The  fourth  president  was  the  Rev.  William 
Augustus  Stearns,  Harvard  '27,  installed 
Nov.  22,  1854,  who,  in  the  words  of  Pro- 
fessor W.  S.  Tyler,  "  found  the  college  brick, 
and  kft  it  granite."  Seven  buildings  were 
erected  or  partly  rebuilt  during  his  administra- 
tion: the  curriculum  was  broadened,  and  many 
scholarships  were  established.  During  the  Civil 
War,  Amherst  enlisted  247  students  in  the 
Union  army,  of  whom  78  were  undergraduates. 
The  fiftieth  anniversary  was  celebrated  at  the 
Commencement  of  1871  when  nearly  700 
alumni  were  present.  Upon  the  sudden 
death  of  President  Stearns  (June  8,  1876), 
the  trustees  elected  as  his  successor  the  Rev. 
Julius  Seelye,  professor  of  philosophy,  and  at 
the  time  a  member  of  Congress.  The  force 
of  President  Seelye's  character,  and  the  extent 
of  his  reputation  as  a  scholar  and  educator, 
did  much  to  place  Amherst  among  the  best 
American  colleges.  He  introduced  the  system 
of  self-government,  anticipated  many  years 
before,  which  developed  into  one  of  the  best 
features  of  Amherst  life.  The  sixth  president 
was  Merrill  Edwards  Gates,  who  held  office 
from  1890  to  1899.  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
Rev.   George  Harris,   'S3. 

The  college  is  controlled  by  a  Board  of  Trus- 
tees of  17  members,  of  whom  10  are  laymen 
and  7  are  clergymen.  Twelve  trustees  are 
elected  for  life  by  the  board,  and  5  are  chosen 
by  the  alumni,  to  serve  5  years.  Amherst 
College  was  one  of  the  institutions  originally 
accepted  by  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the 
Advancement  of  Teaching  {q.v.). 
13 


AMITY  COLLEGE 


AMNESIA 


Dcsrccs  conferred  are  A.B.,  B.S.,  and  M.A. 
for  one  year's  graduate  study  in  residence. 
The  college  is  a  member  of  the  New  England 
Association  of  Colleges  and  Preparatory 
Schools  (q.v.). 

From  the  outset,  it  has  been  the  policy  of 
Amherst  to  do  the  work  of  a  "  small  college  " 
of  the  best  type.  The  fraternities,  which  elect 
nearly  the  entire  student  body,  have  proved 
instruments  of  value  in  training  the  younger 
students.  The  societies  include:  Alpha  Delta 
Phi,  Psi  Upsilon,  Delta  Kappa  Epsilon,  Delta 
Upsilon,  Chi  Psi,  Chi  Phi,  Beta  Theta  Pi, 
Thcta  Delta  Chi,  Phi  Delta  Theta,  Phi  Gamma 
Delta,  and  Phi  Kappa  Psi.  All  of  them  occupy 
houses.  The  library  has  80,000  volumes. 
The  scientific  museums  are  unusually  com- 
plete. Grounds,  buildings,  and  equipment  are 
valued  at  $648,500;  real  estate  other  than 
dormitories,  etc.,  at  .S13,700.  The  total  produc- 
tive endowment  is  .§1,965,284. l.i;  the  total  an- 
nual income  is  .S  139,8.56.84,  of  which  .S41, 208.16 
is  from  tuition  and  other  fees  from  students. 
The  average  salary  of  a  professor  is  S2868. 
The  instructing  staff  (1909)  numbers  53,  of 
whom  21  are  full  professors.  There  are  528 
students.  More  than  half  of  the  4200  graduates 
have  become  clergymen  or  teachers.        C.  G. 

References:  — 

History  of  .\mhpr.st  CoUprp  in  the  biographies  of  its  presi- 
dents, iu  National  ( 'i/clopedia  of  American  Biography, 
Vol.  v.,  pp.  .307-310. 

Tyler,  Rev.  U.  S.,  History  of  Amherst  College,  1S21- 
ISOl.     (N'ew  York,  l.SOo.) 

AMITY  COLLEGE,  COLLEGE  SPRINGS, 
IOWA. — A  coeducational  institution  founded 
in  1855  by  the  Western  Industrial  and  Scientific 
Association.  Candidates  are  admitted  on 
presenting  a  certificate  from  an  academy  or 
high  school  and  making  up  necessary  defi- 
ciencies, or  by  examination  for  which  the  re- 
quirements are  equivalent  approximately  to 
three  years'  high  school  work.  A  preparatory 
school  is  attached  to  the  college.  Classical, 
scientific,  philosophical,  normal,  business,  and 
fine  arts  courses  are  offered.  Degrees  are  con- 
ferred in  the  college  and  normal  studies.  Very 
few  of  the  students  take  the  college  course. 
There  is  a  faculty  of  11  professors  and  in- 
structors. Ross  Turner  Campbell,  D.D.,  is  the 
president. 

AMMAN,  JOHANN  KONRAD  (1669-1730). 
—  A  Swiss  physician  and  teacher  of  deaf  mutes. 
Born  in  Schaffhausen,  he  studied  medicine  in 
Basel,  and  went  in  1690  to  Amsterdam,  where 
he  soon  became  famous  as  a  teacher  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb.  His  system  was  based  on  the 
pupil's  observation  of  the  lips  and  tongue  of 
the  teacher  and  the  imitation  of  the  motions 
seen.  He  also  made  the  pupil  grasp  the 
throat  of  the  teacher  and  feel  the  vibrations 
resulting  in  sound  production.  This  "  articu- 
lation method,"  which  he  explained  in  his  books 


Siirdus  loquens  {The  Deaf  Speaking)  (Amstei- 
dam,  1692),  and  Dissertatio  dc  loquela  (Disser- 
tation on  Speerh)  (Amsterdam,  1700),  was 
afterwards  adopted  and  imjiroved  by  Heinicke, 
the  founder  of  the  first  German  institution 
for  the  instruction  of  deaf  mutes.         F.  M. 

AMNESLA.— Literally  a  loss  or  lack  of 
memory;  the  term  is  used  to  designate  the  in- 
ability to  recall  one  or  more  sets  of  events  in 
the  life  of  the  individual.  Amnesia  is  a  com- 
mon symptom  in  many  types  of  mental  disease, 
but  may  occur  independently,  and,  in  some 
people,  be  consistent  with  an  otherwise  per- 
fectly normal  condition  of  mind. 

It  is  vi'ell  known  that  there  are  well-marked 
normal  individual  differences  in  the  learning 
and  in  the  recall  of  certain  classes  of  facts. 
One  person  may  be  able  to  remember  and  to 
recall  the  names  of  people  whom  he  has  met, 
another  may  be  unable  to  recall  the  names,  but 
may  be  able  to  recall  their  appearances.  These 
differences  in  memory  ability  may  be  spoken 
of  as  amnesias,  but,  as  will  be  shown  later,  they 
are  not  usually  designated  in  this  way. 

Without  reference  to  books  or  to  notes,  the 
stock  broker  is  able  to  quote  the  various  prices 
of  a  fluctuating  stock  over  a  period  of  a  j'ear 
or  more,  the  butcher  can  give  the  wholesale 
and  retail  prices  of  meat  and  poultry  for  the 
same  period,  and  the  musician  can  recall  the 
notation  and  the  fingering  of  many  composi- 
tions, but  each  of  these  individuals  is  usually 
unable  to  recall  in  such  detail  as  are  the  others 
the  facts  in  lines  of  endeavor  different  to  that 
in  which  he  may  be  employed.  The  inability 
of  the  stock  broker  to  recall  the  theme  of  an 
opera,  or  that  of  the  musician  to  recall  the 
fluctuating  prices  of  stock  that  he  has  bought 
may  be  called  amnesia,  but  it  must  be  noted 
that  there  is  not  so  great  an  interest  in  these 
events  and  not  so  much  importance  that  the 
facts  be  so  well  retained.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  see  that  the  facts  that  are  so  well  retained 
are  special  vocational  facts,  and  it  is  usual  to 
consider  them  the  almormal  part  of  memory 
rather  than  the  normal.  In  this  case  the 
unusual  memory  is  due  to  close  attention,  and 
these  special  memories  may  be  properly  called 
hypermnesias  {q.v.,  and  also  article  on  Memory). 

If  there  be  an  inability  to  recall  facts  to 
which  the  individual  pays  attention  and  which 
it  is  important  for  him  to  remember,  we  say 
there  is  an  amnesia.  This  condition  may  be 
permanent  or  temporary,  complete  or  incom- 
plete, circumscribed  or  progressive,  and  may  be 
due  to  organic  nerve  disease  or  to  simple  func- 
tional alterations. 

Many  cla.ssifications  of  the  amnesias  have 
been  made,  but  that  pro]iosed  and  used  by 
Janet,  which  will  be  followed  here,  is  most  sat- 
isfactory and  most  complete. 

(1)  Sy.Hematized  amnesias.  The  best  exam- 
ple of  a  systematized  amnesia  is  that  of  an 
aphasic  (see  aph.^sia).     In  such  a  case  we  find 


114 


AMOROS 


ANAGNOS 


a  loss  of  a  definite  category  or  collection  of 
memories,  it  may  be  of  sounds,  or  of  move- 
ments, or  of  sights,  or  of  other  sensory  memories 
or  combinations  of  them,  and  the  associations 
which  were  formerly  produced  by,  let  us  say, 
a  tone  or  a  light  are  no  longer  produced.  Such 
a  systematized  loss  is  to  be  found  in  astasia- 
abasia  (q.v.),  in  which  condition  the  inability 
to  stand  or  to  walk  is  not  due  to  any  lack  of 
muscular  power  or  to  deficient  control  of  in- 
dividual muscles,  but  solely  to  the  inability 
to  coordinate  the  motor  impulses.  The  skin 
and  other  sensations  accompanying  move- 
ments are  retained  in  this  state,  and  there  is 
also  present  the  ability  to  .judge  movements 
except  in  the  standing  position.  There  is  a 
motor  amnesia,  or  a  loss  of  the  motor  images. 

(2)  Localized  amnesias  are  memory  losses 
of  events  occurring  during  a  certain  period. 
This  condition  is  usually  found  to  be  due  to 
the  shock  of  an  accident  or  to  some  other 
strongly  emotional  event.  If  only  one  event 
is  forgotten,  the  amnesia  is  called  simple.  If 
the  forgotten  events  are  those  preceding  the 
accident,  the  amnesia  is  called  retrograde;  if 
those  following  the  accident  or  shock,  the 
amnesia   is   called   anterograde. 

(3)  A  general  amnesia  may  also  be  produced 
by  shock.  In  such  a  case  the  individual  seems, 
as  Janet  so  well  expressed  it,  "  to  be  born  again 
and  to  learn  anew  all  that  he  had  previously 
learned  from  infancy." 

(4)  Continued  amnesia.  In  some  there  is 
found  a  retention  and  an  ability  to  recall  old 
occurrences,  but  an  inability  to  recall  events  of 
recent  date  and  a  difficulty  or  an  inabihty  to 
acquire  new  facts  and  to  retain  them.  This 
is  the  kind  of  amnesia  usually  found  in  the 
aged,  but  it  may  occur  in  those  in  middle  life. 

Each  of  these  kinds  of  amnesia  may  be  (a) 
complete  —  everything  is  lost,  and  there  is 
no  power  to  recall;  {h)  incomplete  —  some 
memories  persist  and  others  can  be  recalled, 
if  sufficient  effort  is  made;  (c)  sharp,  or 
circumscribed  in  time,  or  (d)  progressive  —  at 
first  incomplete,  then  increasing  little  by  little 
until  there  is  a  complete  amnesia.       S.  I.  F. 

References:  — 
Bruns,     O.      Ueber     retrograde     Amnesic.      (Tubingen, 

190.3.) 
Janet,  P.     Auto?natisme  Psycholugique.      (Paris,  1S89.) 
Pick,  A.     Zur  Pathologic  dcs  Gedilchtnisses.     Archiv  f. 

Psyrhialr..  1S*S6,  XVII,  83-9S. 
RiBOT,  Thom-\s.     Les  Maladies  de  la  Memoire.     (Paris, 

18S1.) 

AMOROS,  FRANCIS  (1769-1848).  — One  of 
the  pioneers  of  the  physical  education  move- 
ment in  France;  was  born  in  Valencia  (Spain). 
At  the  age  of  IS,  he  entered  the  Spanish 
army,  and  gradually  rose  to  the  rank  of  colo- 
nel. Afterwards  he  filled  various  high  admin- 
istrative positions,  and,  in  1807,  he  was  en- 
trusted with  the  education  of  the  young 
prince  Don  Francisco  de  Paula,  which  he 
directed   according   to    Pestalozzi's   principles. 


115 


During  the  Napoleonic  invasion  of  Spain,  he 
joined  the  French  party  and  was  employed  by 
King  Joseph  as  governor  of  several  Spanish 
provinces.  In  1814,  he  was  forced  to  flee  from 
Spain  and  found  a  refuge  in  France.  In  1831, 
he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Military 
Gymnasium  of  Paris.  His  chief  work  is  his 
Manuel  d'education  physique,  gymnastique  et 
morale,  published  in  1838. 

AMSTERDAM,       UNIVERSITY      OF.  — 

Founded  in  1877  by  the  Municipal  Council, 
which  has  a  large  share  in  the  control  and  in  the 
election  of  professors  under  the  supervision  of 
the  Ministry  of  Education.  The  fact  of  munici- 
pal control  distinguishes  it  from  the  state  uni- 
versities of  Holland.  The  history  of  the  insti- 
tution, however,  goes  back  to  1632,  from  which 
date  it  maintained  a  continuous  existence  as 
the  Athena'um  Illustre.  Faculties  of  theology, 
law,  medicine,  arts,  and  the  sciences  are  main- 
tained. There  were  enrolled  in  1908-1909,  925 
students  and  117  auditors.  This  institution  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  Free  University 
of  Amsterdam,  which  was  founded  in  1880 
by  the  Association  for  Reformed  Education 
under  the  control  of  five  directors.  Faculties 
of  law,  theology,  literature,  and  medicine  are 
maintained.  There  was  in  1909  an  enrollment 
of  about  170  students. 
See  Netherlands,  Education  in. 

AMUSIA.  —  An  association  disorder  consist- 
ing in  an  inability  to  appreciate  music  as  such, 
i.e.  as  a  mode  of  expression  corresponding  to 
speech.  It  is  a  special  kind  of  aphasia  (q.v.)  of 
rare  occurrence. 

References:  — 

Blocq.  p.     L'.\musia.     Gaz.  hebd.  de  med.    (Paris,  2me 

Ser.,  XI,  1893.) 
Mauinesco,  G.     Des  Amusies.     Semaine  med.     (Paris, 

XXV,  1905.) 
Pick,  A.     Zur  Analyse  der  Eleraente  der  Amusie  und 

deren  Vorkommen  ira  Rahmen  aphasischcr  Stiirun- 

gen.     Monatsch.   f.    Psychiat.  u.    Neurol.,    XVIII, 

1905,  87-96. 

ANEMIA.  —  See  Diseases,  School. 

ANAGNOS,  MICHEL  (1837-1906).  —  Suc- 
cessor of  Samuel  G.  Howe  as  the  American 
leader  of  the  education  of  the  blind,  was  born 
at  Epirus,  Greece,  the  7th  of  November,  1837, 
and  received  his  education  in  the  state  schools  of 
Greece  and  at  the  University  of  Athens.  He 
came  to  America  in  1867,  and  became  associate 
director  of  the  Perkins  Institution  of  the  Blind. 
Upon  the  death  of  Dr.  Howe  in  1876  he  be- 
came director  of  the  institution,  which  position 
he  held  for  30  years.  He  secured  the  first 
permanent  fund  for  the  printing  of  books  in 
raised  letters  for  the  blind,  made  the  kinder- 
garten a  feature  of  the  schools  for  the  blind,  and 
inaugurated  other  progressive  movements. 
Besides  his  30  annual  reports,  which  cover 
the  entire  field  of  the  pedagogy  of  the  blind, 


ANALGESIA 


ANALOGY 


he  was  the  author  of  Education  of  the  Blind, 
Kindergartens  and  Primary  Schools  for  the 
Blind,  Through  Education  to  Independence,  and 
of  several  juvenile  books  iu  raised  letters  for  the 
blind.  lie  died  at  Turn  Severin,  Rounuinia, 
the  29th  of  June,  1906.  W.  S.  M. 

ANALGESIA.  —  The  absence  of  the  sen.se 
of  pain,  or  the  inability  to  appreciate  pain. 
The  word  is  (1)  most  correctly  used  to  indicate 
that  condition  in  which  painful  stimuli  from 
without  the  body  are  not  appreciated  as  such ; 
(2)  sometimes,  but  incorrectly,  used  for  hypal- 
gcsia  {q.v.)  to  indicate  a  lessened  i)ain  apprecia- 
tion. The  causes  and  forms  of  analgesia  are 
discussed  in  the  article  on  anaesthesia  (.q.v.). 

S.  I.  F. 

ANALOGY.  ^Psychology  of.  There  is  a 
strong  tendency  for  individuals  to  carry 
over  to  any  new  situation  wiiich  may  arise 
the  habits  of  thought  and  action  which  have 
been  cultivated  in  other  situations  somewhat 
similar.  Thus,  if  one  has  acquired  a  certain 
distaste  for  a  person,  he  is  likely  to  carry  over 
the  same  general  attitude  of  dislike  to  any  new 
acquaintance  who  resembles  in  features  or  be- 
havior the  person  for  whom  he  first  acquired  the 
dislike.  Children  exhibit  the  tendency  to  form 
plurals  of  such  irregular  nouns  as  man  and 
sheep,  after  the  fashion  of  regular  nouns  ending 
in  s.  The  tendency  to  reason  by  analogy  is 
very  marked,  especially  in  the  case  of  uncriti- 
cal individuals  at  a  relatively  low  stage  of  in- 
tellectual development.  All  savages  explain 
the  phenomena  of  nature  after  the  analogy  of 
their  own  personal  experiences.  They  come, 
therefore,  to  personify  all  the  processes  and 
objects  about  them. 

An  elaborate  system  of  argument  by  anal- 
ogy appears  in  the  pseudo-science  of  astrology. 
The  astrologers,  finding  that  a  certain  group  of 
events  in  the  world  occurred  at  the  time  of  a 
certain  juxtaposition  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
looked  forward  to  the  recurrence  of  a  similar 
group  of  events  in  the  world  whenever  the  same 
relative  positions  of  heavenly  bodies  occurred. 
As  knowledge  developed,  the  tendency  to  argu- 
ment by  analogy  became  restricted  through  the 
exercise  of  the  critical  faculty.  Two  events 
were  compared  with  each  other  only  when  their 
characteristics  could  be  shown  by  careful  study 
to  have  a  fundamental  resemblance.  Thus,  the 
pseudo-science  of  astrology  broke  down  as  soon 
as  it  appeared  that  the  laws  of  human  behavior 
are  in  no  way  connected  with  the  position  of  the 
heavenly  bodies.  The  child's  tendency  to  form 
all  plurals  as  if  they  were  regular,  disappears 
as  soon  as  he  comes  to  recognize  the  complexity 
of  his  language  and  the  variety  of  its  forms. 
A  certain  number  of  analogies  continue  to  be 
justifiable  even  in  later  science,  but  these  an- 
alogies must  be  sifted,  and  in  all  cases  where 
they  are  accepted,  justified  by  a  full  statement 
of  their    conditions.      In   the  development   of 


children  the  transition  from  argument  by  mere 
analogy  to  the  critical  formation  of  scientific 
judgment  is  a  definite  mark  of  intellectual 
development.  Analogy  may  therefore  be  re- 
garded as  a  first  and  simjile  form  of  reasoning, 
to  be  superseded  later  by  critical  analysis  and 
comparison.     See  Analysis  and  Synthesis. 

C.  H.  J. 

Logic  of.  —  In  its  origin  analogy  was  a  mathe- 
matical term,  meaning  an  equivalence  of  ratio, 
i.e.  a  proportion.  Thence  it  was  a  natural  ex- 
tension to  give  the  word  a  logical  sense,  meaning 
similarity  of  relations.  When  Darwin  carried 
over  the  Malthusian  principle  of  the  multiplica- 
tion of  population  in  human  society  in  excess 
of  the  means  of  subsistence  to  animal  and  vege- 
table life  generally,  he  reasoned  by  analogy. 
Although  the  things  were  different,  he  assumed 
a  similarity  of  relation  in  the  two  cases.  Anal- 
ogy is  also  frequently  used  in  a  loose  and  vague 
logical  sense,  meaning  any  similarity  cmi)loyed 
as  a  factor  in  reasoning.  In  many  cases, 
relations  and  qualities  can  hardly  be  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other,  so  that  similarity 
of  quality  becomes  a  basis  of  inference.  In  this 
usage,  analogy  runs  into  association  by  similar- 
ity iq.v.).  That  association  by  similarity  is  of 
higher  intellectual  importance  tlian  that  by 
contiguity  has  long  been  noticed,  so  that  some 
writers  have  gone  to  the  extreme  of  identifying 
reasoning  itself  with  a.ssociation  by  similarity. 
While  this  view  is  extreme,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  analogy  is  always  present  (either  of 
relations  or  qualities)  as  an  influential  factor 
in  inference.  Its  value  for  purposes  of  proof, 
however,  is  not  to  be  identified  with  its  value  for 
discovery.  Indispensable  for  the  latter,  it  is  of 
little  weight  for  the  former;  that  is  to  say,  its 
role  is  in  induction  rather  than  deduction,  unless 
strict  resemblance  of  relation  can  be  made  out, 
and  this  resemblance  of  relation  be  then  traced 
to  a  common  principle  as  its  ground.  In  other 
words,  when  pupils  are  engaged  in  thinking  out 
a  new  fact  or'  principle,  associations  by  simi- 
larity should  be  encouraged;  when  they  are 
demonstrating  some  stated  principle,  similari- 
ties should  themselves  be  shown  to  be  effects  of 
a  common  cause.  J.  D. 

Reference:  — 

Dewey,  .J.     Studies  in  Logical  Theory.     (Chicago,  1909.) 

Method  of.  —  One  of  the  methods  by  which  a 
chihl  is  taught  to  derive  the  sound  of  a  letter  or 
phonogram  (a  syllable  or  other  unit  of  pronun- 
ciation). (1)  A  method  much  employed  by 
teachers  in  instructing  beginners  in  reading. 
The  underlying  principle  is  that  similarity  in 
form  implies  similarity  in  sound.  Thus,  if  the 
child  knows  his  consonants  and  the  words  "  me  " 
and  "  rate,"  he  ought  to  pronounce  at  sight 
the  new  word  "  relate,"  the  same  sound  value 
being  given  to  e  in  both  "me  "  and  "  re," 
and  to  ate  in  both  "  rate  "  and  "  late."  If 
not,  the  teacher  will  bring  the  mastered  words 


116 


ANALYSIS 


ANALYSIS  AND   SYNTHESIS 


into  juxtaposition  with  the  new  word,  so  as  to 
assist  him  in  getting  the  sound  by  analogy.  (2) 
A  method  used  in  teaching  the  chikl  to  compre- 
hend the  pronunciation  given  in  the  dictionary 
when  he  has  no  knowledge  of  the  sounds  which 
go  with  the  special  diacritical  marks  used. 
Suppose  the  child  seeks  the  pronunciation  of 
the  word  "  anoint."  The  word  "  anoint  "  is 
marked  "a-noint';"  but  the  child  does  not 
know  the  sound  that  accompanies  a.  He  glances 
at  the  list  of  simple  known  words  at  the  bottom 
of  the  dictionary  page  until  he  finds  a  word  con- 
taining a  similarly  marked.  He  finds  the 
word  "  ask,"  and  transfers  the  sound  of  a 
in  "ask"  to  the  w-ord  "anoint."  The  method 
of  analogy  is  likewise  applicable  to  spelling  and 
other  subjects.  H.  S. 

See  Re.^ding,  Teaching  Beginners. 

ANALYSIS.  —  The  term  used  to  characterize 
the  "  first  step"  in  the  procedure  of  the  recita- 
tion, more  particularly  in  the  "  inductive  de- 
velopment lesson." 

See  Apperception;  Prep.'^r.^tion;  Recita- 
tion, Method  of. 

ANALYSIS.  —  In  mathematics  the  term  is 
used  in  several  senses.  The  primitive  use  is 
in  the  sense  of  the  resolution  of  a  compound 
into  its  elements,  and  in  particular  the  pro- 
ceeding to  resolve  a  statement  sought  to  be 
proved  into  sub-statements  that  have  already 
been  proved.  Synthesis,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  the  proceeding  from  truths  that  have  already 
been  proved  to  the  truth  that  we  wish  to 
prove.  Generally  we  ascertain  the  method  of 
proving  a  proposition  in  mathematics  by  analy- 
sis, and  this  we  follow  by  a  sj^ithetic  proof, 
as  in  elementary  geometry.  In  another  sense 
the  word  is  used  to  mean  algebra  {q.v.),  and 
in  particular  higher  algebra,  or  the  discussion 
of  a  problem  by  means  of  algebra  instead  of 
geometry',  and  hence  our  analytic  geometry 
{q.v.).  It  is  more  commonly  used  at  present, 
as  designating  a  branch  of  mathematics,  to 
refer  to  the  differential  and  integral  calculus, 
which  are  sometimes  called  Infinitesimal  Analy- 
sis, and  which  include  differential  equations,  the 
calculus  of  variations,  and  other  branches. 

D.  E.  S. 

ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS.  —  In  one 
form  or  another  analysis  and  synthesis  have 
always  been  recognized  as  fundamental  fimc- 
tions  of  intelligence  or  reflective  thought. 
Since  it  appears  paradoxical  that  thinking 
should  at  once  distinguish  particulars  and  con- 
nect by  universals,  the  nature  of  the  relation 
between  the  functions  has  been  one  of  the 
persistent  problems  of  logical  theory.  The 
objective  counterpart  of  this  prolslcm,  or  the  re- 
lation of  the  one  and  the  many, unity  and  plural- 
ity, has  been  a  basic  question  for  metaphysics, 
all  kinds  of  systems,  from  thoroughgoing  atom- 
ism through  various  compromises  over  to  abso- 


lute monism,  arising  according  to  the  degree 
and  kind  of  emphasis  placed  upon  analysis  on 
one  side  or  synthesis  on  the  other.  In  the 
theory  of  educational  method,  no  question  has 
been  more  vigorously  discussed  than  the  rela- 
tive values  of  analytic  and  synthetic  methods 
in  teaching  reading,  number,  geography,  nature 
study,  etc.  And  in  many  cases  where  there  has 
been  no  overt  controversy,  the  changes  that 
have  occurred  in  method  of  instruction  will  be 
found  upon  examination  to  consist  in  shifting 
from  analytic  to  synthetic  methods  of  attack, 
or  vice  versa,  or  in  combining  the  two  methods 
in  different  ratios. 

If  we  note  some  of  the  terms  that  are  practi- 
cally equivalent  to  analysis  and  synthesis,  we 
shall  recognize  more  easily  the  essential  signifi- 
cance of  these  terms.  Discrimination,  discern- 
ment, distinguishing,  demarcating,  in  fact  all 
names  that  indicate  acts  that  result  in  marking 
anything  out  and  off  in  experience  so  that  it 
gains  in  specification,  that  is,  in  peculiar  indi- 
viduality, express  operations  that  are  analogous 
to  analysis.  Abstraction  represents  analysis 
carried  to  the  point  where  some  aspect  or  rela- 
tion incapable  of  separate  existence  is  discrimi- 
nated from  its  actual  context  so  that  mentally 
at  least  it  seems  to  have  independent  existence. 
Identification,  connection,  unification,  system- 
atization,  are  corresponding  synonyms  for 
synthesis.  In  all  cases  it  is  obvious  that  syn- 
thesis implies  the  notion  of  continuity,  of  neces- 
sary reference  of  one  thmg  to  another,  just  as 
analysis  means  particularization,  or  parting  a 
thing  off  on  its  own  account.  The  general 
bears  the  same  relation  to  synthesis  that  the 
abstract  bears  to  analysis.  When  the  ab- 
stracted relation  or  qualitj'  is  reapplied  to 
particular  cases  so  as  to  bring  them  into  one 
cla.ss  (or  genus)  or  under  one  principle  of 
explanation,  generalization  occurs.  Psychologi- 
cally analysis  corresponds  to  the  well-known 
fact  that  all  attention  consists  in  an  increase 
of  clearnes.i  coincident  with  emphasis  on  the 
subject  matter  attended  to,  while  synthesis 
corresponds  to  the  tendency  of  all  subject 
matter  of  attention  to  gather  in  relations  of  sub- 
ordination about  a  single  focus.  For  just  as  in 
attention  mental  darkness  gives  way  to  clear- 
ness, so  dispersion  gives  way  to  concentra- 
tion or  orderly  grouping.  Going  from  the 
technical  terms  to  the  empirical  facts  they  ulti- 
mately signif}',  analysis  means  clearnes.'>  through 
emphasis,  synthesis  means  order  through  place 
in  a  context. 

The  bearing  of  these  conceptions  may  be 
brought  out  by  contrasting  them  with  the  defi- 
nitions frequently  given  in  pedagogical  writings, 
according  to  which  analysis  means  mentally 
breaking  a  whole  into  its  parts,  while  synthesis 
means  the  mental  composition  or  putting  to- 
gether of  parts  into  a  whole.  These  definitions 
are  not  necessarily  incorrect,  but  they  are  apt 
to  be  misleading  because  they  tend  to  make  us 
conceive  analysis  and  synthesis  as  some  sort 


117 


ANALYSIS   AND   SYNTHESIS 


ANALYSIS  AND   SYNTHESIS 


of  mental  counterparts,  a  physical  hroaking  up. 
or  taking  to  pieces,  and  of  a  physical  putting 
together.  Now  physical  dissection  and  com- 
position both  operate  upon  a  ready-made  object, 
upon  something  which  is  already  given.  Hence 
mental  analysis  is  thought  of  as  a  picking  to 
pieces  in  the  mind  of  an  object  which  is  already 
mentally  given,  that  is  known;  and  conversely, 
synthesis  as  a  piecing  together  of  a  number  of 
qualities  and  relations  already  known.  We 
analyze  —  so  it  is  thought  —  a  table  by  enumer- 
ating all  its  properties,  —  size,  form,  color, 
material,  use,  etc.  By  combining  a  certain 
color,  flavor,  size,  texture,  odor,  etc.,  we  would 
get  synthetically  the  notion  of  an  orange. 

But  the  important  thing  in  genuine  analysis 
and  synthesis  is  that  they  do  not  operate  with 
and  upon  what  is  already  present  and  given  (i.e. 
known),  but  are  aspects  of  the  process  of  getting 
knowledge,  that  is,  of  advancing  from  what  is 
partially  known  to  more  adequate  knowledge. 
If  the  table  were  already  well  known,  there 
would  be  no  sense  in  decomposing  it  mentally 
into  its  constituent  properties.  The  table  al- 
ready is  these  properties;  they  are  the  table. 
Only  if  we  were  not  sure  whether  the  object 
was  a  table  or  what  kind  of  a  table  it  was  (how 
much  it  was  worth,  whether  it  would  fit  our 
needs,  what  period  it  belonged  to)  should  we 
proceed  to  select  or  emphasize  any  particular 
aspect  of  the  object.  We  analyze  because  there 
is  a  specific  end  to  be  attained;  and  we  analyze 
only  so  as  to  get  clear  and  reliable  indications 
of  the  means  to  be  used.  If  some  one  fea- 
ture serves  as  an  adequate  evidence  of  the  ob- 
ject's being  a  table,  or  being  the  kind  of  a  table 
we  want,  or  worth  the  price  asked  for  it,  we 
stop  there;  if  more  indications  are  necessary  to 
settle  the  matter,  we  go  on  with  our  analysis 
till  we  think  sufficient  data  for  a  correct  conclu- 
sion are  at  hand. 

Synthesis  is  the  correlative  process  of  inter- 
preting some  fact  or  quality  which  is  perplexing 
and  obscure  because  of  its  isolation.  We  do 
not  put  together  a  number  of  qualities  of  taste, 
smell,  touch,  and  sight  that  we  are  already 
thoroughly  familiar  with  in  order  to  make  up 
an  entire  object  we  are  equally  familiar  with; 
but  hitting  upon  some  smell  or  color  we  wonder 
what  it  means.  The  only  answer  to  that 
question  is  the  discovery  of  some  object  — 
a  flower,  an  orange,  or  whatever  it  may  be  —  of 
which  it  is  a  distinctive  connected  part. 

These  considerations  illustrate  the  three 
most  important  principles  of  analysis  and 
synthesis.  (1)  They  are  performed  for  the 
sake  of  teaching  a  specific  conclusion;  or  are 
parts  of  a  process  of  inference.  They  are  never 
ends  in  themselves,  or  performed  simply  on  their 
own  account.  (2)  Being  controlled  by  the 
special  end  in  view,  they  are  always  limited  as 
to  their  extent  by  reference  to  the  end.  We 
analyze  only  far  enough  to  get  clearly  reliable 
signs  with  reference  to  the  purpose  in  hand;  we 
do  not  synthesize  indefinitely,  but  only  till  we 


have  interpreted  a  particular  isolated  puzzling 
[ihenomenon  by  so  placing  it  in  relation  to  other 
things  that  it  is  understood.  (3)  Each  process 
requires  the  other  for  its  own  completion,  no 
matter  which  one  happens  to  be  most  prominent 
at  the  beginning.  They  are  correlative,  not  in- 
dependent, functions.  It  is  for  the  sake  of  de- 
termining the  nature  of  some  conclusive  whole 
that  we  dwell  upon  and  render  conspicuously 
clear  any  s])ecial  trait;  it  is  only  by  detailed 
examination  and  inspection,  clearing  up  some 
I)articular  feature,  that  we  get  any  sure  basis  for 
passing  upon  the  nature  of  the  whole.  The 
sense  of  the  whole  end  controls  what  we  empha- 
size and  how  far  we  carry  our  selection  and  ex- 
amination for  i)articulars;  the  character  of  the 
particular  qualities  that  stand  out  clearly  are 
the  sole  guides  we  possess  in  reaching  a  definite 
conclusion  as  to  the  nature  of  the  whole. 

All  three  of  these  normal  jirinciplcs  arc  fre- 
quently violated  in  methods  of  teaching. 

(1)  Analysis  and  synthesis  are  frequently 
treated  as.  ends  in  themselves.  The  kindergar- 
ten child  analyzes  geometrical  forms;  the  ele- 
mentary pupil  analyzes  sentences  in  grammar 
and  objects  in  "  object  lessons  "  or  in  nature 
study;  the  high  school  pupil  carries  the  obser- 
vation of  distinctions  and  differences  into 
mathematics  and  the  sciences;  and  in  too  many 
cases  the  analysis  is  not  performed  so  as  to 
clarify  the  means  or  the  data  requisite  to  achieve 
some  end  in  experience,  but  simply  to  multiply 
information  as  to  details  of  facts.  While  ac- 
quaintance with  facts  is  the  nominal  purpose, 
too  often  the  student  only  accjuires  terminology, 
for  facts  appeal  to  any  one  n.s-  facts  only  when 
they  perform  a  required  function  in  controlling 
the  achievement  of  an  end  or  solving  a  problem. 
Nor  is  it  enough  to  have  some  general  end  in 
view,  such  as  acquiring  more  knowledge  or  infor- 
mation. The  aim  must  be  sjiecific,  and  must 
arise  normally  in  the  individual's  own  experi- 
ence. 

(2)  Making  analysis  an  end  in  itself  always 
results  in  violation  of  the  second  principle, 
that  of  selective  emphasis.  There  being  no 
specific  end  to  control  the  process  of  noting 
particulars,  it  has  no  limiting  principle.  Theoreti- 
cally anything  and  everything  about  the  object 
is  of  equal  importance;  hence  none  of  the 
qualities  should  be  slighted  or  passed  over.  All 
must  be  enumerated.  The  tedious  nature  of 
this  exhaustive  analysis  is  sufficient  evidence 
of  the  way  in  which  it  violates  normal  mental 
action. 

(3)  The  very  discussion  as  to  whether  certain 
subjects  should  be  taught  analytically  or  syn- 
thetically is  proof  of  the  violation  of  the  third 
l)rinciple.  Xo  subject  can  be  intellectually  ac- 
quired except  by  using  both  methods,  it  being 
a  matter  largely  of  accident  and  convenience 
which  phase  comes  first.  The  child  begins 
reading  with  isolated  letters  or  isolated  phonic 
elements.  Having  mastered  a  variety  of  these, 
he  then  goes  on  to  comliinc  them  into  words, 


118 


ANALYTIC   GEOMETRY 


ANALYTIC   GEOMETRY 


and  then  to  combine  words  into  sentences. 
The  mutual  character  of  analysis  and  synthesis 
is  wholly  lost  from  view.  In  fact,  the  only  rea- 
son for  discriminating  special  forms  and  special 
sounds  is  to  get  hold  of  the  special  tool  nece.ssary 
to  master  some  complete  meaning,  —  and  the 
analytic  recognition  of  special  sounds  and  forms 
would  be  accomplished  more  effectively  if 
performed  for  rendering  clear  some  special 
letter,  word,  or  sound  important  in  view  of 
getting  a  larger  and  inclu.sive  meaning.  On  the 
other  hand,  teachers,  in  reaction  against  a 
method  which  compels  children  to  occupy  them- 
selves for  such  a  long  time  ■with  senseless  forms, 
begin  with  whole  words,  or  sentences.  But 
there  is  no  way  of  attaining  a  mastery  of  the 
meaning  of  groups  of  words,  or  of  letters,  save 
to  master  the  particular  traits  that  are  im- 
portant as  signs.  Even  if  the  child  is  deliber- 
ately discouraged  from  such  anal}^sis,  he  ad- 
vances in  reading  ability  only  because  he  un- 
consciously works  out  some  analytic  method 
for  himself. 

This  discussion  of  the  pedagogical  violation 
of  logical  principles  has  considered  the  matter 
merely  from  the  side  of  analj'sis,  but  the  same 
errors  could  easily  be  illustrated  from  the  side  of 
synthesis.  Learning  general  principles,  rules, 
and  definitions  by  themselves  instead  of  as 
methods  of  identifying  and  handling  particular 
cases  is  an  illustration  of  making  synthesis  an 
end  in  itself,  of  removing  the  natural  limitations 
that  make  it  selective,  and  of  isolation  from 
analysis.  J.  D. 

References:  — 
Dewey,  J.     Studies  in  Logical  Theory.    (Chicago,  1909.) 
HoBHOD.SE,    L.    T.      Theory    of   Knowledge.     (London, 
1896.) 

ANALYTIC  GEOMETRY.  — That  branch 
of  mathematics  in  which  geometric  truths  are 
investigated  by  means  of  analysis  (q.v.),  and  in 
particular  by  means  of  algebra,  through  the 
one-to-one  correspondence  between  points  in  a 
plane  or  in  space  and  ciuantities  in  an  equation. 
More  broadlj-  considered,  it  enables  the  mathe- 
matician to  investigate  a  geometric  problem  by 
putting  it  into  the  form  of  an  algebraic  equation 
and,  conversely,  to  carry  on  an  algebraic  in- 
vestigation by  the  aid  of  geometry,  and  in  gene- 
ral to  pass  from  either  of  these  two  branches  of 
mathematics  to  the  other  in  the  course  of  his 
research,  as  may  be  convenient. 

History.  —  The  Greeks  carried  the  subject  of 
elementary  geometry  (see  Geometry)  to  a  high 
degree  of  development  in  the  works  of  Euclid 
(q.v.)  and  Archimedes  (q.i).).  They  then  di- 
rected their  attention  to  bringing  the  study  of 
conies  (q.v.)  to  a  similar  state  of  completeness, 
and  this  culminated  in  the  works  of  Apollonius 
iq.v.).  From  this  time  to  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury there  was  no  great  advance  in  geometry 
as  distinct  from  trigonometry.  The  invention 
of  analytic  geometry  is  usually  ascribed  to 
Descartes   (1637),   but  considerable  work  had 


been  done  before  this  time  by  way  of  prepara- 
tion. Apollonius  himself  had  referred  the  con- 
ies to  their  diameters  and  tangents,  and  had 
expressed  the  relation  by  means  of  equations 
between  areas,  so  that  he  practically  used 
abscissas  and  ordinates.  He  proved,  for  ex- 
ample, as  Menaechmus  had  done  before  him, 
the  property  of  the  parabola  which  we  now  ex- 
press by  the  equation  i/  =  px,  and  in  general  he 
knew  the  most  important  properties  of  all  the 
conies  that  are  represented  at  present  by  such 
symbolism  as  this.  While  not  commonly  using 
the  word  "  ordinate  "  directly,  he  frequently 
uses  TtTay/icVojs,  ordinate- wise.  His  full  form  for 
ordinate  is  TCTay/xtVws  Karayofiivrj,  and  occasion- 
ally he  uses  each  of  these  words  by  itself  to 
mean  an  ordinate.  He  uses  an  expression 
meaning  "  the  (portion)  cut  off  by  it  (the  ordi- 
nate) from  the  diameter  toward  the  vertex  " 
as  the  equivalent  of  "  abscissa."  In  the  Latin 
tranislations  of  his  works  these  expressions 
appear  as  orrlinatim  applicalae  and  abscis- 
sae, the  former  shortened  by  Fermat  (q.v.) 
into  "  applicate  "  and  by  others  into  "  ordi- 
nate." In  the  medieval  universities  a  kind  of 
coordinate  geometry  appears  under  the  name 
De  Lalitudinibus  Formarinn.  The  latitudo  was 
the  ordinate  and  the  longiludo  the  abscissa,  as 
in  ordinary  map-drawing.  A  variable  point 
could  thus  be  referred  to  rectangular  coordinates 
and  a  figura  formed.  By  this  means  Oresme 
{q.v.),  for  example,  studied  geometric  figures, 
including  the  parabola,  but  always  in  the  first 
quadrant.  This  work  was  extended  by  such 
investigators  as  Viete  (q.v.)  and  Roberval, 
and  particularly  by  Fermat,  the  latter  often 
being  called  the  inventor  of  analytics.  It  was 
Descartes  iq.v.),  however,  who  first  set  forth  the 
essential  features  of  the  science,  showing  the 
full  significance  of  the  positive  and  the  negative 
quantity  \\ith  relation  to  points  in  the  four  quad- 
rants, and  the  one-to-one  correspondence  be- 
tween values  of  x  and  y,  and  points  on  a  curve. 
The  effect  of  the  work  of  Descartes  was  to 
greatly  stimulate  the  study  of  the  ancient  conies 
and  to  revolutionize  methods  of  mathematical 
investigation.  The  extension  of  the  theorj'  to 
space  of  three  dimensions  was  effected  by  the 
efforts  of  Van  Schooten,  Parent,  and  Clairaut, 
and  resulted  in  Euler's  (1731)  theorj'  of  surfaces. 
The  nineteenth  century  saw  the  entire  subject 
amplified,  other  systems  of  coordinates  being 
introduced  for  the  treatment  of  certain  classes 
of  problems  not  readily  handled  by  means  of  the 
rectangular  ones  of  Descartes  or  the  oblique 
ones  of  his  immediate  successors. 

General  Nature  as  now  conceived.  —  At 
present  analytic  geometry  has  for  its  first 
objects  of  study  the  conic  sections.  The  com- 
mon propo.sitions  were  known  to  the  Greeks, 
but  are  established  more  expeditiously  by  ana- 
lytic methods.  Higher  plane  curves  are  next 
considered,  including  some  that  were  known 
to  the  Greeks  (the  cissoid,  conchoid,  and  spiral 
of  Archimedes,  for  example),  and  others  of  later 


119 


ANALYTIC   METHOD 


ANATOLIUS 


invention,  like  tlu-  liniaQon  of  Pascal,  the 
Cassiui  ovals,  and  the  witch  of  Ajjjncsi.  Curves 
are  usually  first  referred  to  rectangular  coordi- 
nates, and  then,  as  the  student  advances,  to 
oblique  coordinates.  Polar  coordinates  are 
next  introduced,  a  pole,  an  axis,  an  angle, 
and  a  radius  vector  sufficing  to  fix  any  point 
on  a  plane.  These  three  classes  of  coordi- 
nates answer  for  ordinary  cases.  The  num- 
ber of  systems  of  coordinates  is,  however,  un- 
limited. Sometimes  two  poles  can  be  used  to 
advantage,  —  the  bipolar  system;  at  other 
times  three  lines  in  a  jilane  can  better  be  used, 
—  trilinear  eoiirdinates,  and  so  on.  For  any 
adequate  understanding  of  the  subject  the 
reader  must  refer  to  the  standard  texts. 

Present  Status  in  the  Curriculum.  —  At 
present  it  is  the  custom  of  colleges  in  the 
United  States  to  tc;ich  analytic  geometry  in  the 
sophomore  year,  the  fourteenth  school  year  of 
the  student.  It  is  preceded  by  a  year's  work  in 
higher  algebra,  trigonometry,  and  often  in  solid 
geometry.  It  is  taught  cither  for  a  half  year 
or  for  a  year,  and  is  followed  l)y  a  course  of 
greater  or  less  length  in  the  differential  and 
integral  calculus.  It  is  still  largely  devoted  to 
the  ancient  propositions  on  conies.  In  the  way 
of  reform  several  changes  have  been  advocated. 
One  is  that  the  dividing  line  between  ana- 
lytics and  the  calculus  be  partially  removed, 
to  the  end  that  a  student  may  use  his  calculus 
while  studying  the  curves  to  which  it  applies, 
and  use  his  analytics  in  the  problems  in  the 
.calculus  where  it  is  helpful,  and  do  all  this  just 
at  the  right  time,  without  waiting  a  year  and 
having  to  review  the  subject.  Another  sugges- 
tion is  that  some  analytic  geometry  be  taught  in 
connection  with  algebra,  and  this  is  done  by  the 
use  of  so-called  graphs  in  the  latter  subject. 
It  is  further  suggested  that  the  high  school  take 
over  the  trigonometry  and  solid  geometry, 
leaving  analytic  geometry  for  the  first  year  of 
college.  All  of  these  suggestions  have  merit, 
but  no  one  is  likely  to  be  fully  carried  out. 
It  seems  probable,  however,  that  a  moderate 
amount  of  graphic  work  with  rectangular  coor- 
dinates will  be  done  in  the  course  in  elementary 
algebra,  that  trigonometry  will  be  treated  more 
in  accord  with  the  usages  of  analytics,  and  that 
there  will  be  a  conservative  merging  of  analytics 
and  calculus.  D.  E.  S. 

References:  — 

Ou  the  hi.story  of  analytic  geometn,- :  — 
Heath.      Apollo/iias  of  Pcrga.      (Cambridge.  1S96.) 
CANTOR.     Gcschichte    der     Mathcmalik,     Vol.      II,     ch. 

Ixxvii. 
S.MITH,  D.  E.  History  of  Modem  Mathematics.  (New 
York,  inOG.)  ,52  ])p.,  with  a  l^ibliography. 
On  the  present  theDry  there  are  numerous  works 
of  high  gr.icle,  sueli  as  Briot  and  Bouquet's  Lemons  de 
Giotnitrie  annlutique.  English  by  Bo>'d  (Chieago, 
1896),  and  various  eneyclopedias  of  mathematies. 

ANALYTIC  METHOD.  —A  special  method 
of  teaching  reading  to  beginners,  in  which 
the    first    reading    is    mastered    in    "  thought 


wholes"  (sentences,  phrases,  or  words),  which 
are  then  analyzed  or  broken  into  parts 
(syllables,  phonograms,  letters).  These  de- 
rived parts  or  units  are  then  used  as  a  basis 
for  interpreting  the  sounds  of  other  words, 
phrases,  and  sentences.  The  "  analytic  "  and 
"  synthetic  "  methods  are  very  frequently  used 
as  supplementary  means  in  the  teaching  of  be- 
ginners. "  Sentence,"  "phrase,"  and  "word" 
methods  are  types  of  analytic  methods. 

See  Analysis  and  Synthesis;  Reading, 
Teaching  Boginners;    Synthetic  Method. 

ANARTHRIA.— The  loss  of  or  a  defect  in  the 
ability  to  articulate.  The  condition  is  normally 
found  up  to  3  or  4  years  of  age  in  young  children 
who  have  not  gained  sufficient  control  of  the  mus- 
cles to  properly  coordinate  them  for  the  jjroduc- 
tion  of  speech  sounds.  If  the  condition  persists 
beyond  the  usual  age  of  speech  ac(|uisition,  it  is 
pathological.  The  condition  is  sometimes  pro- 
duced in  older  people  by  disease  of  parts  of  the 
nervous  system,  especially  those  associated 
with  the  movements  of  the  tongue.  The 
term  has  sometimes  been  used  to  describe  a.sso- 
ciation  speech  defects  of  the  nature  of  motor 
Aphasia   (q.v.),  both  cortical  and  subcortical. 

See  Speech,  Defects  of.  S.  I.  F. 

ANATOLIUS.  —  Church  Father,  born  in 
Alexandria  about  a.d.  230  and  educated 
in  the  Christian  school  of  his  native  city 
under  Dionysius  the  Great  in  all  the  reli- 
gious and  scientific  learning  of  his  day. 
About  270  he  succeeded  Eusebius  as  Bishop 
of  Laodicea.  We  are  dependent  upon  the 
historian  Eusebius,  who  describes  him  as  sur- 
passing all  men  of  his  time  in  learning,  for 
information  about  his  life  and  work  (Kcclea. 
Hist.  Bk.  VII).  He  attained  the  highest  emi- 
nence in  mathematics,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy. 
In  his  I  n.%titutes  of  Ai-ithmetichc  recognizes  eight 
branches  of  Mathematics:  Arithmetic,  Geom- 
etry>  Computation,  Geodesy,  Optics,  Theoreti- 
cal Music,  Mechanics,  and  Astronomy.  He 
defines  mathematics  as  "A  theoretic  science 
of  things  apprehensible  by  perception  and  sen- 
sation for  communication  to  others."  He 
illustrates  its  greatness  by  saying  that  "It 
begins  with  a  point  and  a  line  and  forthwith 
takes  heaven  itself  and  all  things  within  its  com- 
pass," and  applies  to  it  Homer's  description  of 
Discord  — 

"  Small  at  her  birth,  but  rising  every  hour. 
While  scarce  the  skies  her  horrid  head  can  bound, 
She  stalks  on  earth  and  shakes  the  world  around." 

In  his  work  on  The  Chronology  of  Easier  he 
practically  settled  one  of  the  burning  questions 
of  the  day  and  helped  to  lay  the  foundations  of 
the  modern  science  of  a.stronomy,  the  only 
practical  application  of  which  up  to  this  time 
had  been  to  such  problems  as  this.  He  did  not 
write  many  books,  and  only  small  fragments  of 
these  have  been  preserved.  W.  R. 


120 


ANATOMY 


ANDREW   COLLEGE 


References :  — 

Farrar,    F.    W.     Lives    of   the    Fathers.     (New    York, 

1907.) 
Roberts,    A.,    and    Donaldson,  J.     The    Ante-Nicene 

Fathers.  Vol.  VI.     (New  York,  1890-1897.) 

ANATOMY.  —  See  Medical  Education; 
Zoology. 

ANCIENT  LANGUAGES.  —  See  Greek; 
Latin;  Oriental  Languaoes. 

ANDERSON,  JOHN,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  — (1726- 
1796).  The  founder  of  Ander.son's  University, 
Glasgow,  was  born  in  1726.  Educated  at  the 
Universit}^  of  Glasgow,  he  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  Languages  in  1756  in  that 
university,  and  in  1760  was  transferred  to  the 
chair  of  natural  philosophy.  During  his  tenure 
of  tlie  latter  cliair,  he  perceived  tliat  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  principles  of  natural  philosophy 
was  invaluable  to  mechanics,  and  this  led  him  to 
establish,  in  addition  to  his  usual  class,  a  more 
popular  course  for  those  whose  pursuits  did  not 
allow  them  to  follow  the  regular  academic 
curriculum.  These  lectures  he  continued  until 
his  death  in  1796.  On  his  death,  he  bcciueathcd 
the  whole  of  his  property  with  a  few  trifling 
exceptions  "  to  the  public,  for  the  good  of  man- 
kind and  the  improvement  of  Science  in  an  in- 
stitution to  be  denominated  Anderson's  Univer- 
sity and  to  be  managed  by  81  trustees."  Ac- 
cording to  the  design  of  the  founder  there  were 
to  be  4  faculties,  each  composed  of  9  professors, 
viz.,  arts,  medicine,  law,  and  theology.  As  the 
funds  were  quite  inadequate  to  carry  out  this 
object,  the  institution  was  at  first  commenced 
with  a  single  course  of  lectures  on  natural  philos- 
ophy and  chemistry  by  Dr.  Thomas  Garnett. 
Li  1796  courses  were  instituted  in  mathematics 
and  geography.  In  1799  Dr.  Garnett  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Dr.  Birkbeck  (afterwards  founder  of 
the  Birkbeck  Institution,  London)  who,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  branches  taught  by  his  predecessor, 
gave  free  lectures  on  mechanics  and  other  scien- 
tific subjects.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  popu- 
lar lectures  in  Anderson's  University  and  of 
Mechanics'  Institutions  in  Great  Britain.  The 
faculties  of  law  and  theology  have  never  been 
established,  but  the  medical  college  came  into 
being  in  1799  by  the  appointment  of  a  lecturer 
on  anatomy  and  surgery.  The  medical  school 
has  at  the  present  time  a  full  complement  of  pro- 
fessors, and  supplies  a  sound  medical  education 
at  a  cost  suited  to  the  circumstances  of  many 
who  could  not  otherwise  enter  the  profession. 
In  1884  the  medical  school  became  a  separate 
and  distinct  institution  under  the  name  of 
Anderson's  College  Medical  Scliool,  the  parent 
institution  continuing  its  popular  day  and  even- 
ing art  and  science  classes.  A.  D. 

ANDOVER  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY, 
CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. —Chartered  in  1S07 
and  opened  in  1808.  In  1908  the  institution 
removed    to    Cambridge    and  entered  into  an 


arrangement  with  Harvard  University  whereby 
there  is  an  exchange  of  privileges  and  the 
resources  of  each  are  made  available  to  stu- 
dents of  both  institutions.  The  seminary  is 
open  to  all  Protestant  students  of  church 
membership  and  graduates  of  an  approved 
college.  This  curriculum  is  one  of  three  j'ears. 
Students  may  divide  their  work  between 
Harvard  University  and  the  Seminary.  Courses 
are  offered  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
Church  liistory,  systematic  theology,  and 
homiletics.  Fourteen  courses  are  required  for 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity,  three  of 
which  may  be  taken  at  Harvard.  Students  who 
are  not  candidates  for  a  degree  may  receive 
certificates  from  the  seminary.  There  is  a 
faculty  of  6  professors,  3  lecturers,  and  an 
assistant.  The  library  contains  books  in  de- 
partments of  Biblical  study,  historical,  system- 
atic and  practical  theology,  and  in  missionary 
literature  of  everj'  kind. 

ANDRE,  CHRISTLAN  KARL  (1763-1821).— 
A  German  educator  and  journalist.  He  was 
born  in  Hildburghausen.  In  1782,  he  started 
an  educational  institute  in  Arolsen,  which 
three  years  later  he  left  to  become  a  teacher 
in  Salzmann's  Philanthropinum  in  Schnep- 
fenthal.  In  1798,  he  accepted  a  call  to  be- 
come the  principal  of  a  Protestant  school  in 
Briinn.  There,  as  well  as  in  Stuttgart,  where 
he  settled  in  1821,  he  continued  his  literary 
activity,  the  chief  object  of  which  was  the  edu- 
cational uplifting  of  the  masses  of  the  rural 
population.  For  this  purpose  he  wrote  many 
pamphlets  and  published  a  number  of  periodi- 
cals, such  as  Dcr  Landmanii  ( The  Farmer)  (1790- 
1795),  Palriotifiches  TageUatl  (Patriotic  Jour- 
nal)   (1800-1805),  and   Hesperus    (1809-1821). 

ANDREiE,  JOHANN  VALENTIN  (1586- 
1654).  —  A  German  theologian  and  friend  of 
Comenius.  Born  in  Herrenburg,  Wiirtemberg, 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Tubingen,  he 
filled  various  ecclesiastical  positions  in  his 
native  country  and  died  as  court  preacher  in 
Stuttgart.  Andrcie  may  be  regarded  as  a  fore- 
runner of  Spener,  the  founder  of  Pietism.  In 
education  he  was  opposed  to  mere  verbalism, 
and  laid  emphasis  on  moral  and  religious  train- 
ing. Among  his  writings,  which  are  full  of  wit 
and  humor,  is  Turbo  (1616),  a.  dramatic  satire  on 
the  scholars  of  his  time;  also  Christianopolis 
(1019),  a  sort  of  Christian  Utopia,  and  Die 
Christenburg  (1G26)  (The  Christian  Castle),  an 
allegory,  representing  the  Church  as  a  besieged 
city.  The  opinion  that  he  was  the  founder  or  re- 
storer of  the  order  of  Rosicrucians  is  erroneous. 

ANDREW   COLLEGE,    CUTHBERT,    GA. 

—  Founded  in  1S54,  bj' the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  South,  and  controlled  by  the 
South  Georgia  Conference.  Literary,  Inisiness, 
and  fine  arts  departments  are  maintained. 
Admission  requirements  amount  approximately 


121 


ANDREWS 


ANESTHESIA 


to  one  and  a  half  years'  high  school  work. 
Degrees  are  conferred.  There  is  a  faculty 
of  11  professors.  T.  W.  Malone,  M.A.,  D.D.,  i's 
the  president. 

ANDREWS,  ETHAN  ALLEN  (1787-1858). 

—  Schoolman  and  textbook  writer,  educated  in 
the  public  schools  of  Connecticut  and  at  Yale 
College;  professor  of  ancient  languages  in 
the  University  of  North  Carolina  (1822- 
1828);  principal  of  a  private  school  for  girls 
in  Boston  (IS3.3-1S39);  author  of  an  extended 
series  of  Latin  texts  for  use  in  secondary 
schools   and   colleges.  W.  S.  M. 

ANDREWS,  ISRAEL  WARD    (1815-1888). 

—  Educator  and  author,  educated  in  the  public 
schools  and  at  Amherst  coUege;  teacher  in 
academies  in  Massachusetts  (1835-1839);  pro- 
fessor in  Marietta  College  (1839-1855);  presi- 
dent of  the  same  (1855-1885)  and  again  pro- 
fessor (1885-1888);  author  of  numerous  articles 
in  educational  journals.  W.  S.  M. 

ANDREWS,  LORIN  (1819-1861).  — Edu- 
cator and  author,  educated  at  the  Kenyon 
Grammar  School  and  at  Kenyon  College; 
prominently  identified  wth  public  school  work 
in  Ohio;  president  of  Kenyon  College  (1854- 
1861);  contributed  numerous  articles  to  edu- 
cational journals.  W.  S.  M. 

ANDREWS,  ST.,  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF. 

—  A  coeducational  institution  founded  in  1411 
by  Henry  Wardlaw,  Bishop  of  St.  Andrews, 
is  the  oldest  of  the  four  universities  of  Scot- 
land. It  is  now  composed  of  three  con- 
stituent colleges,  viz. :  The  United  Colleges 
of  St.  Salvator  (founded  in  1450)  and  St. 
Leonard  (founded  in  1512);  St.  Mary's  College 
(founded  in  1537);  and  LTniversity  College, 
Dundee  (q.v.)  founded  in  1880,  affiliated  to  and 
made  an  integral  part  of  the  university  in  1897. 

In  1597,  St.  Salvator's  and  St.  Leonard's 
were  united  and  restricted  to  the  teaching  of 
philosophy,  law,  and  medicine  and  the  College 
of  St.  Mary's  to  the  teaching  of  theology. 
This  arrangement  continues  to  the  present 
day,  St.  Mary's  College  being  the  divinity 
faculty  of  the  university,  whilst  courses  in 
arts,  science  and  medicine  are  taught  within 
the  L'^nited  Colleges.  There  is  a  principal  in 
each  of  the  colleges.  Each  principal  i)resides 
over  his  own  college,  but  the  principal  of  the 
United  Colleges  is  the  head  of  the  University 
and  the  president  of  the  Senatus  Acadcmicus. 
The  work  of  the  university  is  divided  into 
five  departments  or  faculties,  viz.:  the  facul- 
ties of  divinity,  medicine,  arts  and  science,  and 
law;  and  the  total  number  of  students  is  about 
550;  the  largest  faculty  is  that  of  arts,  com- 
prising over  360  students. 

The  United  Colleges  of  St.  Salvator  and  St. 
Leonard  have  the  greatest  number  of  students, 
over  300:    University  College,  Dundee,  comes 


next,  with  over  200  students;  while  St.  Mary's 
College  is  attended  by  some  20  to  30  students 
annually.  The  only  vocational  degree  granted 
other  than  those  for  the  learned  professions  is 
that  of  Baciielor  of  Science  in  Engineering, 
which  falls  under  the  Faculty  of  Science. 

A.  D. 

ANDREWS,  SAMUEL  (1656-1738).  — The 
second  president  (jf  Yale  College;  graduated 
from  Harvard  College  in  1675.  He  engaged  in 
the  work  of  the  ministry  for  several  years  and 
succeeded  Abraham  Pierson  as  president  of  Yale 
in  1707  and  continued  at  the  head  of  the  college 
until  the  time  of  his  death  in  1738    W.  S.  M. 

ANESTHESIA,  or  AN.S;STHESLA.  — Liter- 
ally, a  loss  of  feeling  or  of  sensation,  is  a 
term  used  to  designate  the  following  differ- 
ent, but  in  many  respects  similar,  conditions: 

(1)  general   surgical    anesthesia    or    narcosis; 

(2)  local  surgical  anesthesia  and  (3)  sensation 
losses  from  injury,  disease,  or  other  functional 
derangement  of  parts  of  the  nervous  system. 

In  reference  to  the  third  class,  the  anes- 
thesia of  endogenous  origin,  some  people  use 
the  term  popularly  with  a  broad  connotation 
to  include  losses  of  sensations  of  sight,  of  hear- 
ing, of  pain,  of  touch,  of  pressure,  and  of  all  other 
sensations,  and  it  is  commonly  used  to  indicate 
the  loss  of  ability  to  appreciate  the  sensations 
normally  obtained  from  stimulation  of  the  skin 
and  underlying  tissues.  The  best  usage  is  that 
in  which  the  term  is  restricted  to  indicate  the 
inability  to  appreciate  sensations  of  light, 
touch,  and,  possibly,  pressure.  For  the  losses 
of  ability  to  appreciate  other  kinds  of  sensa- 
tion the  following  special  terms  are  used:  blind- 
ness, deafness,  anosmia,  ageusia,  analgesia, 
thermoanesthesia  (qq.v.). 

(1)  General  surgical  anesthesia  is  usually 
produced  by  the  inhalation  of  the  vapor  of 
sulphuric  ether,  of  chloroform,  of  nitrous  oxide, 
or  of  certain  combinations  of  these.  The  in- 
gestion or  injection  of  the  derivatives  of  opium 
and  of  other  alkaloids  and  of  some  synthetic 
chemical  compounds  also  produces  states  simi- 
lar to  those  following  the  use  of  chloroform  and 
ether.  The  inhalation  of  one  of  the  gases 
mentioned  above  produces  at  first  a  feeling  of 
suffocation,  which  is  fought  against,  a  stupe- 
faction, and  finally  less  of  consciousness.  In 
the  last  state  voluntary  movements  cannot 
be  performed  and  external  stimuli  are  not 
consciously  appreciated.  Movements  of  a 
reflex  character,  however,  may  be  produced 
by  appropriate  stimulation  and  certain  bodily 
changes,  notably  of  the  respiratory  and  circula- 
tory systems,  take  place  in  an  almost  normal 
manner,  unless  the  amount  of  the  anesthetic 
be  excessive.  In  every  deep  narcosis  all 
movements,  including  those  of  a  reflex  nature, 
cease,  and  death  may  result.  There  is  an 
amnesia  for  the  anesthesic  period  of  time. 

The  action  of  morphine  and  of  other  similar 


122 


ANESTHESIA 


ANESTHESIA 


agents  resembles  that  of  ether  and  chloroform, 
but  in  place  of  a  complete  amnesia  there  may 
be  a  remembrance  —  but  usually  of  a  delirious 
nature. 

(2)  Local  surgical  anesthesia  may  be  pro- 
duced by  a  variety  of  agents,  of  which  cold, 
and  cocaine  and  its  chemical  derivatives,  are 
the  most  important.  The  application  of  a 
mixture  of  ice  and  salt  or  the  spray  of  ether, 
of  ethvl  chloride,  of  methyl  chloride,  and  of 
many  other  licjuids  of  low  boiling  point  pro- 
duces a  greater  or  less  freezing  of  the  parts  to 
which  they  are  applied,  and  there  is  loss  of 
certain  sensations  in  that  part.  After  freezing 
the  skin,  for  example,  the  sensations  of  pain, 
of  pressure,  of  touch,  and  of  temperature  are 
abolished  for  a  time,  the  duration  of  the  anes- 
thesia depending  upon  the  amount  of  the  freez- 
ing and  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air. 
The  sensory  nerve  endings  are  not  all  equally 
affected  by  applications  of  short  duration, 
nor  does  the  effect  persist  for  the  same  length 
of  time  for  all  the  different  sensations.  Pain 
and  temperature  sensations  appear  to  be  most 
affected.  Thermal  .stimuli,  especially  cold, 
cannot  be  felt  as  such,  even  after  a  very  brief 
application  of  the  freezing  spray,  although 
light  touches  and  pressures  can  be  well  felt. 
Pain  sensation  is  abolished  for  several  minutes, 
and  remains  subacute  for  a  comparatively  long 
period.  Touch  and  pressure  sensations  are 
the  last  to  disappear  and  the  first  to  reappear. 

Anesthesia  from  cocaine  and  its  derivatives 
is  produced  by  the  subcutaneous  injection 
of  solutions  of  these  substances  or  by  the  ap- 
plication of  them  to  mucous  surfaces.  In 
some  parts  of  the  body  cocaine  produces  a 
true  analgesia  without  an  anesthesia,  but 
usually  affects  all  kinds  of  sensation  in  the 
part  to  which  applied. 

(3)  The  anesthesias  of  an  endogenous  (with- 
in the  body)  nature  are  of  more  pedagogic 
interest  and  importance.  Changes  in  sen- 
sation may  be  produced  by  alterations  in  the 
structure  or  in  the  conducting  power  of  any 
part  of  the  afferent  system.  It  is  a.ssumed 
that  impulses  which  are  started  by  stimuU  do 
not  become  conscious  parts  of  us,  i.e.  do  not 
become  sensations,  until  they  reach  the  cere- 
bral cortex  (see  article  on  Nervous  System 
especially  cerebrum).  A  sensory  .system  con- 
sists of  the  receiving  element  in  the  skin  or 
other  organ,  the  peripheral  nerve  that  con- 
ducts the  impulses  to  the  spinal  cord  and 
through  it  to  certain  subsidiary  centers  in 
the  mid-brain  (e.g.  the  thalamus),  and  the 
nerve  tract  leading  to  and  the  cells  in  the 
cerebral  cortex.  Theoretically  it  is  possible 
to  have  a  change  in  sensation  in  any  small  or 
large  part  of  the  body  due  to  functional  or 
structural  alterations  in  some  part  of  this 
afferent  system.  In  practice,  however,  it  is 
found  that  the  sensation  losses  have  rather 
definite  characteristics  and  distributions. 

When    a    peripheral  afferent   nerve    is    cut, 


sensation  is  lost  over  a  considerable  skin  area. 
Stimuh  of  light  touch,  of  pressure,  of  tem- 
perature, and  of  pain  are  not  appreciated, 
and  the  area  is  anesthesic,  analgesic,  and  ther- 
moanesthesic.  Surrounding  this  area  of  com- 
plete loss  there  is  usually  a  narrow  band  from 
which  the  sensations  of  pain,  of  pressure,  and  of 
hotness  and  coldness  may  be  obtained,  Ijut  not 
the  sensations  of  light  touch  and  of  warmth  and 
coolness.  Such  an  area  is  well  defined  but  not 
sharply  marked  oft'  from  all  other  skin  areas. 

The  section  of  a  posterior  root  of  the  spinal 
cord  is  accompanied  by  similar  but  not  corre- 
sponding losses,  but  the 
definition  of  areas  is  not 
so  sharp  as  in  the  case  of 
the  peripheral  nerves. 
There  is,  in  addition,  a 
marked  difference  in 
the  areal  distribution  of 
the  peripheral  and  the 
spinal  nerves,  and  this 
fact  enables  the  physi- 
cian to  diagno.se  the  seat 
of  a  lesion  causing  an 
anesthesia.  An  illus- 
tration of  the  varying 
distribution  of  the  peri- 
pheral and  spinal  nerves 
in  the  leg  is  given  in 
Figure  1.  In  this  fig- 
ure A  represents  the  ap- 
pro.ximate  distribution 
of    the    posterior    root 

fibers  and  B  that  of  the  fig.  i.  — Sho^-ing  the 
main  peripheral  nerves,  distribution  to  the  skin  of 

Organic  disturbances  t'^<=  anterior  part  of  the  leg 

of  the  sninql    cnrrl   iiiH  "^    *™    sensory    fibers,   A 

OI   ine   spinal    COICI  ana  from  the  posterior  roots,  B 

the      brain     produce     a  from the.peripheral  nerves. 


widespread  sensory 
change,  but  the  combi- 


A  1,  first  sacral  ;   2,  3, 

4,  5,   6,  respectively   fifth, 

,.  c  1  fourth,  third,  second,  and 

nation  of  sensory  losses  f^^^t  lumbar  ;    7,  twelfth 


are  usually  different  to 
those  found   in  lesions 


choratic. 

B   1.    median    plantar ; 


Of  the  peripheral  nerves  f^  ^^-fp^rriT*  peroneal  ] 

and    of     the_    posterior  5,  saphenous ;    6,  common 

roots.      At    times    func-  peroneal  ;   7.  anterior  fem- 

tional  derangements  of  '"'-']  ='"'^  obturator :  s,  lat- 

.      ■,     '^  eral    femoral  :      9.    ironito- 


,1  ,      ,      -  eral    femoral 

the  central  nervous  sys-  femoral 


tem     may     be    accom-       Adapted  from  Morris. 

panied  by  anesthesia  of 

slight  extent.     Figure  2  illustrates  some  of  the 

kinds  of  anesthesias  from  spinal  cord  and  brain 

lesions. 

The  most  common  diseases  in  which  these 
forms  of  anesthesia  occur  are:  injuries  to  or 
inflammation  of  the  brain  and  its  membranes, 
disease  of  the  spinal  cord,  posterior  columns 
and  horns,  hysteria  and  the  traumatic  neuroses. 
From  injury  or  disease  of  the  brain  mono- 
and  hemi-anesthesias  are  common.  In  these 
eases  the  borders  of  the  anesthetic  areas  are  not 
sharply  defined,  and  in  the  case  of  the  mono- 
anesthesias  the  distal  portion  of  the  limb  is 
always  more  affected  than  the  part  near  the 


123 


ANESTHESIA 


ANESTHESIA 


trunk.  In  ohildrcn  cort'l)r;il  injury  may  re- 
sult in  a  diplegia  (a  palsy),  and  hv  accompanied 
by  a  bilateral  anesthesia.     It  is  more  common, 


Fig.  2. — Showins  various  forms  of  anesthesia  from  lesion  of 
the  spinal  cord  and  brain.  A,  mono-aneathesia  of  the  arm.  and 
bilateral  anesthesia  of  the  leg  ;  B,  disseminated  anesthesias  ;  C, 
left  hemi-anesthcsia. 


however,  to  find  this  distribution  from  disease 
or  injury  to  the  spinal  cord.  Disseminated 
anesthesias  are  most  common  in  hysteria,  and 
in  this  disease  all  other  forms  of  anesthesia 
may  be  encountered.  The  hysterical  anesthesia 
is  usually  complete  and  sharply  defined,  and  in 
these  respects  is  quite  unlike  the  anesthesia 
from  any  organic  lesion,  with  the  exception  of 
that  from  peripheral  nerve  section.  The  dis- 
tribution of  the  anesthetic  area  in  hysteria  is 
usually  that  of  an  artificial  bodily  segment, 
such  as  a  finger  or  a  hand,  and  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  differentiate  the  hysterical  from  organic 
anesthesia  on  account  of  this  artificial  and 
unphysiological  distribution. 

The  sensory  lo.sses  from  lesions  of  the  spinal 
cord  differ  according  to  the  level  of  cord  at  which 
the  lesion  is  located  and  according  to  the 
columns  or  tracts  that  are  diseased.  Illus- 
trations of  the  extent  of  the  sensory  changes 
according  to  the  vertical  location  of  the  cord 
disturbance  will  be  found  in  many  good  text- 
books dealing  with  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system.  The  sensory  functions  of  special 
tracts  are  dealt  with  in  the  article  on  the  spinal 
cord,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 

Lesions  of  the  post- central  portion  of  the 
cerebral  cortex  produce  anesthesia  or  hypes- 
thesia,  depending  upon  the  extent  and  the 
severity  of  tlie  lesion.  In  the  cerebral  anes- 
thesias it  is  uncommon  to  find  a  complete 
anesthesia,  certain  sensations  always  remaining. 
Lesions  of  the  mid-brain,  however,  may  be 
followed  by  a  hemi-anesthesia  for  all  forms  of 
skin  sensation,  especially  if  the  internal  capsule 
or  the  thalamus  be  involved. 

The  differentiation  of  the  sensory  disturbance 


and  the  diagnosis  of  the  lesion  causing  the 
particular  type  of  anesthesia  are  matters  for 
the  neurologist,  but  the  teacher  should  be 
informed  of  such  conditions  in  the 
children  under  her  control  that  she 
may  adjust  her  teaching  to  the  child's 
endowment.  All  education  lias  for  its 
aim  the  adjustment  or  the  association 
of  sensory  and  motor  impulses,  and 
it  is  a  truism  that  when  cither  the 
motor  or  sensory  endowment  is  less 
than  normal,  or  when  there  is  a  marked 
defect  in  either  of  these  spheres,  the 
child  cannot  have  normal  responses  to 
appropriate  stimuli.  This  is  well  recog- 
nized in  cases  of  paralysis,  because  we 
can  see  the  defect  or  the  result  of 
the  defect,  but  most  people,  physicians 
as  well  as  the  lait}-,  take  little  account 
of  the  conditions  which  do  not  intrude 
themselves  upon  their  vision.  The 
effect  of  certain  sensory  losses  and  the 
educational  application  of  these  facts 
are  given  in  the  article  on  ataxia  (q-v.), 
and  the  application  of  similar  facts  to 
educational  procedure  maj-  be  made 
in  the  same  way.  At  present  we 
know  too  little  of  the  psj'chology  of 
the  mentally  and  morally  defective,  but  from 
observations  already  published  it  appears  that 
moral  as  well  as  physical  defects  are  associated 
with  sensory  disorders,  and  it  follows  that  in 
the  education  of  both  classes  the  method  of 
dealing  with  normal  children,  i.e.  on  the  assump- 
tion of  perfect  sensory  and  motor  endowment, 
is  ineffectual,  and  a  waste  of  time  for  both 
pupil  and  teacher.  It  is  understood,  and  un- 
derstanding is  followed  by  practice,  that  the 
l)lind  may  be  reached  through  touch  and  hear- 
ing sensations,  but  it  is  apparenth-  not  under- 
stood that  certain  people  are  anesthesic  or 
hypcsthesic  and  that  they  must  be  reached 
through  other  senses.  S.  I.  F. 

References:  — 

Braun,    H.     Lokal    AnOsthesie,    ihre   wissenschnflb'chen 

Gnnullagen  ■und   ■praktische   Anwendiing.      (Leipzig, 

1907.) 
FooTE,   E.   M.     Article  on   Anesthesia,   local   surgical, 

in    Wood's    Reference    Handbook    of    the    Medical 

Sciences.  Vol.  1,  pp.  286-290. 
Franz,  S.    I.      Sensations    follomng    Ner\'e    Division. 

Jour.    Compar.    \eurol.    and   Psychol.,    1909,    Vol. 

19,  pp.  107-12.3  :  215-235. 
Head,   H.,    and    Sherren,   J.      The   Consequences  of 

Injury  to  the  Peripheral  Nerves  in  Man.      Brain, 

1905,'Vol.  28,  pp.  116-3.38. 
Head,    H.,    and    Thompson,    T.      The     Grouping    of 

.•\ffrrent  Impulses  within  the  Spinal  Cord.     Brain, 

1000,  Vol.  29,  pp.  537-741. 
Hewitt,    F.    W.      Ano'slhetics    and    their  Administra- 
tion.     (London,  1907.) 
Martin.   M.     Die  Anasthesie  in  der  arztlichen  Praxis. 

(Mimchen,  1905.) 
MoNAKow.  C.  V.     Ueber  den  gegenwartigen  Stand  der 

Frage    nach    der     Lokalisation    im    Grosshirn,    in 

Ergehnisse  der  Phi/siolngie     (ed.    bv    L.  Asher  and 

K.  Spiro),  1902,  Vol.  1,  pt.  2,   pp.   534-605.      Sec 

especially  pp.  621-641. 
Weitz.  J.  .\.     -Article  on  Anesthesia  in  Wood's  Reference 

Handbook  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  Vol.  1 ,  pp.  282-2S6. 


124 


ANGER 


ANGLO-NORMAN   SCHOOLBOOKS 


ANGER.  —  A  form  of  emotional  reaction 
closely  related  to  fear  in  its  physiological  condi- 
tions. Elaborately  described  by  James  in  his 
Talks  to  Teachers  (New  York,  1S99)  and  McDou- 
gall  in  his  Social  Psychology.     (London,  1909.) 

See  Emotions. 

ANGLO-NORMAN  DIALECT.— This  curi- 
ous dialect  plays  a  very  important  part  in 
the  medieval  history  of  English  education, 
and  that  part  has  a  direct  lesson  for  edu- 
cation in  modern  times  when  (as  in  the  case 
of  India)  a  foreign  language  is  forced  upon  the 
schools.  The  experience  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
like  the  experience  of  the  English  in  India, 
shows  that  little  but  loss  can  result  from  so 
irrational  a  process.  The  history  of  the  dia- 
lects can  be  briefly  related.  The  use  of  French 
had  become  common  at  the  English  court 
before  the  Conquest,  but  with  the  advent  of 
William  in  1066  it  became  in  its  Norman  form 
the  official  language.  Official  documents  and 
all  enactments  were  in  Latin  or  Anglo-Norman, 
and  William  I  directed  tliat  all  children  should 
learn  their  lessons  in  French.  We  know  this 
from  Higden's  Polychronicon  (1.327),  which  tells 
us  that  "  children  in  school  against  the  usage 
and  manner  of  all  other  nations  are  compelled 
to  leave  their  own  tongue  "  and  do  all  their 
school  work  in  French  and  that  this  had  been 
the  case  since  the  Normans  came  first  to  Eng- 
land. The  use  of  French  prevailed  at  the 
universities  as  well  as  in  the  schools  (see  H. 
Anstey's  Munimenta  Academica  Oxon.  pp. 
Ixx  and  438).  This  curious  tongue  during  the 
three  centuries  of  its  use  broke  up  (in  England) 
into  various  sub-dialects,  and  a  very  consider- 
able and  important  literature  both  in  verse 
and  prose  survives.  But  it  probably  never 
became  really  popular  (see  M.  J.  Vising, 
Etude  sur  le  Dialccle  Anglo- Normand  dii  xii" 
Steele  :  Upsala,  1882).  It  was  finallj'  under- 
mined by  the  Black  Death  {q.v.)  of  1349. 
John  de  Trevisa  (the  editor  and  translator  of 
the  Polychronieon  in  138.5)  tells  us  that  soon 
after  1349  John  Cornwaile,  the  schoolmaster 
of  Pencriche  in  Staffordshire,  began  the  move- 
ment for  the  expulsion  of  Anglo-Norman  from 
the  schools,  and  he  adds  that  in  the  year  of 
writing,  138.5,  English  is  substituted  for  French 
in  all  the  grammar  schools  of  England.  Even 
the  gentry,  he  says,  were  ceasing  to  teach  their 
children  French.  The  teaching  of  French 
was  introduced  into  the  schools  once  more  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  But 
the  Anglo-Norman  dialect  did  not  entirely  die 
out  in  the  mid-fourteenth  century,  and  must 
still  have  been  taught  to  legal  apprentices,  for, 
though  we  know  that  in  1362  pleas  were 
directed  by  statute  (36  Edw.  III.,  c.  15)  to  be 
pleaded  in  the  courts  of  law  in  the  English 
tongue,  defended,  avowed,  debated,  and  judged 
in  English,  and  enrolled  in  Latin,  yet  in  fact, 
as  we  know  from  the  Year  Book  Reports, 
arguments   and  judgments   were   delivered   in 


Anglo-Norman  well  into  the  sixteenth  century, 
while  late  in  that  century  law  books  were 
written  in  Anglo-Norman.  It  was  a  statute 
of  the  commonwealth  (Act  37  of  1650)  that 
finallj^  abolished  the  use  of  Anglo-Norman  in 
legal  proceedings.  But  even  to-da}'  Anglo- 
Norman  phrases  are  constantly  used  in  the 
Law  Courts,  while  the  official  language  of  the 
King  of  England  in  the  year  1910  is  Anglo-Nor- 
man. As  a  legislative  person  he  intimates  his 
decisions  in  the  Anglo-Norman  tongue,  while 
for  ceremonial  uses  the  tongue  is  still  alive;  so 
persistent  is  the  tradition  that  has  its  origin  in 
Norman  influence  over  Saxon  England  nearly 
nine  centuries  ago.  J.  E.  G.  de  M. 

ANGLO-NORMAN       SCHOOLBOOKS.  — 

The  use  of  Anglo-Norman  in  English  schools 
during  the  three  centuries  from  1066  to  1366 
involved  the  use  of  Anglo-Norman  school- 
books.  The  history  of  English  education  can 
scarcely  be  followed  without  some  appreciation 
of  this  fact.  Unfortunately  this  field  has  not  yet 
been  surveyed  in  detail,  and  the  various  manu- 
script libraries  in  England  need  to  be  ransacked 
for  this  purpose.  The  following  schoolbooks 
are,  however,  known:  the  De  Utensilibvs  of 
Alexander  Neckham  (1157-1217),  a  vocabu- 
lary in  Latin  with  a  gloss  in  Anglo-Norman 
interspersed  with  occasional  Engli.sh  words  (the 
book  deals  with  the  details  of  daily  life) ;  a  vocab- 
ulary of  the  names  of  plants  with  an  explanation 
of  the  Latin  names  in  English  and  Anglo-Nor- 
man (c.  1250);  a  vocabulary  in  Anglo-Norman 
with  an  interlinear  gloss  in  Latin  written 
before  the  year  1300  by  Walter  de  Bibeles- 
worth  at  the  request  of  Lady  Dionysia  de 
Monchensy  of  Swanscombe  in  Kent,  with  the 
object  of  teaching  the  children  of  the  upper  class 
(for  the  text  of  these  vocabularies  sec  the  Volumes 
of  Vocabularies  in  Mayer's  Library  of  National 
Antiquities,  edited  bj' Thomas  Wright  in  1857); 
Orthographia  Gallica  (c.  1300)  referred  to  by 
Dr.  H.  ffilsner  in  the  Athenwum  for  Feb.  11, 
1905.  It  is  difficult  to  accept  Dr.  Oilsner's 
view  that  Trevisa  overrated  the  use  of  Anglo- 
Norman  in  the  schools.  It  does  not,  however, 
appear  that  Anglo-Norman  was  regularly 
used  in  the  parochial  schools,  and  Dr.  QSlsner 
probably  only  means  this.  A  systematic  in- 
vestigation among  extant  Mss.  will  clear  up 
these  various  questions.  An  Oxford  University 
statute  which  H.  Anstey  in  the  Munimenta 
Academica  Oxon.  (pp.  Ixx  and  438)  refers  to 
the  thirteenth  century  (but  wdiich  seems  to 
belong  to  the  early  fourteenth  century)  pro- 
vides that  boys  shall  be  taught  to  construe 
in  French  as  well  as  in  English  in  order 
that  the  French  tongue  may  not  be  for- 
gotten. By  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century 
Anglo-Norman  was  rapidly  dying  as  a  tongue, 
and  M.  Vising  and  Dr.  (Eisner  are  correct 
in  the  view  that  it  was  probably  never 
really  popular,  except  possibly  in  particular 
districts.     To  what  extent  it  has  left  its  mark 


12.5 


ANGLO-SAXON 


ANGLO-SAXON 


on  local   dialects  in   England   remains   to   be 
seen.  J.  E.  G.  db  M. 

Reference:  — 
Montmorency,    J.    E.    G.     de.      Slate    Intervention    in 
English  Education.     (Cambridge,  1902.) 

ANGLO-SAXON.  —  Anglo-Saxon,  or  Old 
English,  is  the  form  of  the  P^nglish  language  in 
current  spoken  use,  and  to  a  certain  extent  al.so 
in  written  use,  in  England  from  the  coming  of 
the  English  in  the  fifth  century  to  about  the 
year  1200.  As  a  literary  language  the  vernac- 
ular speech  within  this  period  acquired  considcr- 
alile  dignity,  especially  in  the  recording  of  the 
native  poetical  traditions.  In  the  prose,  whicli 
was  throughout  more  academic  and  ecclesiastical 
in  character  than  the  verse,  the  vernacular  had 
to  meet  a  stronger  competition  with  the  universal 
Latin  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Since  most  of  the 
Old  English  writings  now  extant  are  preserved 
in  the  Early  West  Saxon  dialect,  which  became 
standard  in  the  reign  of  King  Alfred  (d.  901), 
it  is  usually  this  form  of  the  language  which 
is  made  the  basis  of  study  in  the  modern  class- 
room. 

There  are  only  slight  evidences  that  the  ver- 
nacular was  ever  the  subject  of  academic 
instruction  during  the  Anglo-Saxon  period. 
The  most  important  of  these  evidences  is  to  be 
found  in  the  statements  of  Alfred  in  the  Pref- 
ace to  his  translation  of  the  Cura  Pastoralis 
of  Pope  Gregory.  (See  Alfred,  King,  .\s 
Edicator.)  Alfred  at  that  place  outlines  a 
system  of  general  education  according  to  whicii 
all  English  boys  are  to  be  instructed  in  Englisli 
until  they  are  able  to  read  (and  presumably 
also  to  write,  though  this  is  not  specifically 
stated)  English  writing.  After  this  those 
students  who  are  to  be  prepared  for  the  higher 
activities  of  Church  and  State  may  proceed, 
according  to  Alfred,  to  the  study  of  Latin.  It 
is  not  probable  that  Alfred's  scheme  for  the 
training  of  Anglo-Saxon  youths  in  English 
was  ever  very  extensively  carried  out.  For 
one  thing  the  disturbed  state  of  public  affairs 
during  the  Old  English  period  hardly  permitted 
the  elaboration  of  such  a  comprehensive  edu- 
cational system.  Nevertheless,  it  is  certain 
that  some  students  must  have  received  a  good 
deal  of  formal  instruction  in  their  mother 
tongue,  since  it  was  only  by  such  instruction 
that  the  language  could  be  held  in  the  dignified 
and  standard  position  which  for  at  least  four 
centuries  it  maintained.  It  is  probable  also 
that  formal  instruction  in  Anglo-Saxon  was 
carried  on  in  some  of  the  English  monasteries 
as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century, 
since  some  of  the  historical  writings  in  Anglo- 
Saxon,  of  that  period,  exhibit  a  conservative 
and  traditional  form  of  the  language  different 
in  many  respects  from  the  contemporary  speech. 
No  textbooks,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  were 
written  for  the  purpose  of  instruction  in  Eng- 
lish   during    the    Anglo-Saxon    period.     Such 


schoolbooks  as  were  given  English  form,  for 
example  the  Colloquies  and  tlie  Grammar  of 
-Elfric  (fj.v.),  were  written  for  the  primary  pur- 
pose of  instruction  in  Latin,  and  the  English 
translations  are  interesting  to  the  student  of 
the  vernacular  merely  as  indications  that 
schoolboys  found  English  an  easy  approach  to 
Latin. 

After  the  Norman  Conquest  the  English  of 
the  preceding  period  became  rapidly  unintelli- 
gible even  to  an  educated  Englishman.  Chau- 
cer, for  example,  could  not  have  read  the 
Beowulf,  if  he  had  chanced  upon  a  manuscript 
copy  of  it.  And  Caxton,  who  was  somewhat 
more  expert  in  languages,  tells  us  (jireface  to 
his  EneydoK,  1490)  that  Old  English  seemed 
more  like  Dutch  to  him  than  English,  and  that 
he  could  not  understand  it.  And  the  false 
archaisms  of  Spenser  prove  a  very  inadequate 
knowledge  not  merely  of  Anglo-Saxon,  but 
even  of  Middle  English,  on  his  part. 

The  return  to  the  manuscript  records  of 
Anglo-Saxon  in  the  effort  to  understand  and 
interpret  the  language  did  not  occur  until  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  impulse 
was  then  not  literary,  scientific,  or  academic, 
but  ecclesiastical  and  legal.  Students  of  Eng- 
lish law,  on  the  one  hand,  were  led  back  to  the 
study  of  Anglo-Saxon  documents  in  their  effort 
to  determine  the  oldest  traditional  custom  and 
law  of  the  English  people.  Ecclesiastics  of  the 
Reformed  party,  on  the  other  hand,  used  Anglo- 
Saxon  records,  especially  the  sermons  of  jElfric, 
to  strengthen  in  general  the  claims  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church  to  independence  and  purity  of 
doctrine,  and  to  prove  in  jjarticular  that  the 
teachings  of  the  Church  of  Rome  had  been 
different  in  early  days  from  those  which  she 
now  professed,  thus,  as  they  maintained,  con- 
troverting the  Romish  theory  of  doctrinal 
immutability.  It  is  this  ecclesiastical  interest 
which  accounts  for  the  important  part  which 
such  great  churchmen  as  Matthew  Parker  and 
William  Laud  took  in  the  revival  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  studies. 

The  first  book  printed  in  Anglo-Saxon 
appeared  in  1.567,  and  was  entitled,  .4  Testi- 
monie  of  Antiquitic,  sheiring  the  auncicnt  faijth 
in  the  Church  of  England  touching  the  sacra- 
ment and  bloude  of  the  Lord  here  publikely 
preached,  and  also  receaved  in  the  Saxon's  tyme, 
above  600  yeares  agoe.  In  the  following  year 
appeared  a  work  on  Anglo-Saxon  laws  by 
WiUiam  Lambarde,  entitled  "Apxa'cvo/iia, 
sive  de  priscis  Anglorum  legibus  lihri,  sermone 
Anglico,  etc.  Other  early  Anglo-Saxon  books 
are  of  similar  character,  the  prevailing  interest 
in  matters  theological  and  legal  discouraging 
the  study  of  the  poetical  and  historical  prose 
manuscripts.  Relatively  little  attention  was 
paid  to  the  language  itself.  One  of  the  first 
indications  of  an  attempt  to  provide  for  the 
serious  study  of  the  language  is  to  be  found 
in  Sir  Henry  Spelman's  plan  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  lectureship  in  Anglo-Saxon  at  Cam- 


126 


ANGLO-SAXON 


ANGLO-SAXON   SCHOOLS 


bridge  University.  According  to  the  condi- 
tions of  the  lectureship,  the  holder  was  to 
deliver  two  lectures  annually,  "  one  on  Saxon 
learning,  the  other  on  the  old  church  history 
and  creed  of  England."  But  Sir  Henry  Spei- 
man  died  in  1641,  and  the  lectureship,  though 
held  by  at  least  two  persons,  Abraham  Wheloc 
and  AVilliam  Somner,  was  never  permanently 
established.  As  the  terms  of  this  projected 
foundation  indicate,  the  study  of  the  language 
was  still  regarded  as  important  mainly  from 
the  point  of  view  of  Enghsh  Church  history. 
The  first  Anglo-Saxon  work  of  anj'  extent  to 
be  printed  as  a  whole  was  Bede's  Hisloria 
Ecclesiastica  Gentis  Anglorum,  edited  by 
Wheloc  in  1643.  The  first  extensive  verse 
published  was  the  religious  poetry  of  Caedmon, 
edited  by  the  Dutch  scholar,  Franciscus 
Junius,  Amsterdam,  1655.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  seventeenth  and  in  the  early  eight- 
eenth century,  however,  interest  in  the  antiq- 
uities and  hi.story  of  the  English  people  led 
to  the  publication  of  works  of  more  general 
interest,  and  from  this  period,  also,  date  the 
first  grammars  and  glossaries  of  the  language. 
In  the  year  1750  the  first  permanent  provision 
was  made  for  the  study  of  Anglo-Saxon.  This 
was  a  chair  for  the  study  of  Anglo-Saxon  in 
the  University  of  Oxford,  founded  by  Dr. 
Richard  Rawlinson.  The  professorship  is  still 
in  existence,  and  is  now  honorably  filled  by  one 
of  the  foremost  English  scholars  of  the  day. 
This  brief  chronological  survey  may  be  closed 
by  noting  that  the  first  complete  edition  of  the 
most  important  poetical  monument  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period,  the  Beoioulf,  did  not 
appear  until  1815,  edited  by  the  Danish 
scholar,  Thorkelin,  in  Copenhagen. 

At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  and  in  the  early 
nineteenth  centuries,  the  study  of  Anglo-Saxon 
was  given  a  new  direction  as  a  result  of  the 
investigations  in  comparative  Indo-European 
linguistics  which  occupied  so  much  of  the 
scholarly  thought  of  the  time,  especially  in 
Germany.  These  historical  and  comparative 
views  were  finst  fully  formulated  in  Grimm's 
Deutsche  Gramtnatik,  1819,  a  book  which  may 
be  taken  as  the  starting  place  of  the  modern 
attitude  toward  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  Ger- 
manic dialects  in  general.  Since  this  time  the 
study  of  Anglo-Saxon  from  the  purely  linguis- 
tic point  of  view,  both  as  an  individual  dialect, 
and  comparatively  as  a  member  of  the  Indo- 
European  family,  has  been  increasingly  promi- 
nent and  productive.  The  modern  scientific 
and  historical  method  of  the  study  of  literature 
has  also  led  to  the  careful  study  of  all  the  sur- 
viving monuments  of  literary  interest  of  the 
Old  English  period. 

The  position  which  Anglo-Saxon  at  present 
occupies  in  academic  instruction  is  defined  and 
well  established.  Most  European,  and  prac- 
tically all  English,  American,  and  German 
universities,  provide  advanced  courses  for  the 
study    of    Anglo-Saxon,     usually    under    the 


direction  of  a  professor  of  English  philology. 
These  courses  are  concerned  both  with  the 
study  of  the  language  from  a  scientific  point  of 
view  and  with  the  interpretation  of  the  litera- 
ture. In  the  United  States  the  colleges  almost 
universally  offer  undergraduate  reading  courses 
in  Anglo-Saxon,  which  are  taken  usually  as 
electives  in  the  student's  third  or  fourth  year. 
In  England  Anglo-Saxon  is  not  taught  in  schools 
of  lower  grade  than  the  universities,  nor  is  it 
included  in  the  courses  of  study  of  the  German 
gj'mnasiums.  The  secondary  schools  and  the 
grades,  in  the  United  States,  have  never  given 
a  place  to  Anglo-Saxon,  except  in  rare  sporadic 
instances.  The  difficulties  of  the  language 
are  not  such  as  to  make  the  elementary  pres- 
entation of  it  impracticable,  but  the  present 
crowded  condition  of  the  curricula  in  grammar 
and  secondary  schools  leaves  little  place  for  a 
study  apparently  so  remote  as  Anglo-Saxon. 

It  is  generally  assumed,  however,  that  a 
thoroughly  trained  student  of  English  will' be 
familiar  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  and 
literature,  and  such  studj'  is  universally  made 
a  prerequisite  to  the  higher  university  degrees 
in  English.  The  study  of  the  language  is  re- 
garded as  an  especially  necessary  and  helpful 
part  of  the  preparation  of  teachers  of  English. 
The  justification  for  such  study  on  the  part  of 
teachers  who  may  not  themselves  be  called 
upon  to  give  instruction  in  Anglo-Saxon  is 
assumed  to  lie  not  in  the  disciplinary'  value  of 
the  study  of  the  language,  but  in  furnishing 
students  with  a  background  of  historical  infor- 
mation necessary  for  the  intelligent  understand- 
ing of  the  facts  of  Modern  English.  The  study 
of  Anglo-Saxon  is  the  most  effective  means  of 
introducing  English-speaking  people  to  the 
principles  of  the  historical  development  of  the 
mother  tongue.  G.  P.  K. 

References:  — 

WtJLKEn.  Grundriss  zur  Geschichte  der  angehachsischen 
LiUeratur  tnit  einer  Ubersicht  dcr  ajigclsdchsischen 
Wissenschaft  (Leipzig,  1885),  pp.  1-90,  gives  a 
sketch  of  the  history  of  Anglo-Saxon  studies. 
This  should  be  supplemented  by  the  preface  to 
Liebermann's  Die  GcsHze  der  Angdsachsen  (Halle, 
190.3),  and  by  The  Dictionary  of  National  Biography 
under  the  proper  names  mentioned  above.  The 
arguments  for  the  introduction  of  Anglo-Saxon 
into  the  curriculum  of  secondary  schools  are  favor- 
ably presented  in  Carpenter,  Baker,  and  Scott, 
The  Teaching  of  English,  pp.  215-218. 

ANGLO-SAXON  SCHOOLS.  — A  certain 
school  of  historians,  the  first  of  whom  was 
William  of  Malmesbury  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, anxious  to  show  that  the  Normans 
had  not  merely  by  superior  numbers  con- 
quered a  people  superior  to  them  in  the 
arts  of  civilization,  have  written  down  the 
Anglo-Saxons  as  a  beer-besodden  breed  of 
brainless  and  bookless  barbarians,  uncivilized 
and  uneducated.  Nothing  can  be  further 
from  the  truth.  The  Anglo-Saxons,  from  the 
first  moment  of  their  contact  with  the  civili- 
zation which  still  found  a  home,  not  in  Gaul 


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ANGLO-SAXON   SCHOOLS 


or  France,  but  in  Rome,  took  a  leading  part  in 
literature  and  education,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
devastation  caused  by  the  Danes,  continued  to 
talce  a  leading  part  until  the  catastroplie  due 
to  the  alliance  of  Danes,  Norwegians,  Normans, 
Bretons,  and  French,  which  overwhelmed  them 
in  1066.  Whether  any  system  of  education 
existed  before  the  Anglo-Saxons  espoused 
Christianity  is  unknown.  The  descent  of  epics 
like  Bcoiculf  suggests  that  some  education, 
founded  as  in  otfier  early  races  on  learning  by 
heart  the  songs  of  the  nation,  existed.  But 
for  historical  purposes,  schools  in  England 
began  with  Christianity.  Those  of  Canter- 
bury, both  of  grammar  and  song,  which  in  631 
and  636  formed  models  for  schools  at  Dunwich 
and  York,  according  to  Bede  {q.v.),  were 
presumably  estabhshed  by  Augustine  {q.v.), 
the  apostle  of  the  English  (see  Bishops' 
Schools),  in  or  about  the  year  603,  when  ho 
was  allowed  to  estabhsh  a  Christian  church. 
Even  before  the  introduction  of  Greek  by  the 
Greek  archbishop,  Theodore,  in  669,  the  name 
of  Aldiielm  (q.v.)  is  sufficient  evidence  that 
all  the  learning  of  the  age  could  be  acquired 
in  the  schools  of  England.  For  Aldhelm,  who 
was  born  about  639,  could  not  have  obtained 
his  education  from  Theodore  "  in  infancy," 
as  alleged  in  one  story,  supported  by  a  spurious 
letter,  nor  at  Malmesbury,  as  alleged  by  an- 
other story,  supported  by  a  forged  charter, 
since  Malmesbury  was  then  still  in  the  hands 
of  the  Britons.  A  scion  of  the  ro.val  West 
Saxon  house,  he  must  have  been  brought  up  at 
Dorchester,  where  the  West  Saxon  see  was 
established  in  63-i  by  the  Roman  Birinus  and 
the  Prankish  Agelbert,  who,  after  studying  in 
Ireland,  succeeded  Birinus  about  6.50.  Bede 
tells  us  that  Aldhelm  had  been  a  deacon  under 
Hoeddi,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  and  one  of  the 
chief  evidences  of  Aldhelm's  learning  is  a  letter 
to  Hoeddi,  apologizing  for  not  coming  to  keep 
Christmas  at  Winchester  with  his  old  com- 
panions, because  of  his  studies.  He  is  explor- 
ing Roman  law  to  the  marrow,  is  learning  to 
distinguish  the  one  hundred  different  meters 
of  Latin  verse,  and  is  utterly  nonplussed  by  the 
difficulties  of  arithmetic,  especially  fractions, 
with  astronomy  and  astrology.  Aldhelm's 
treatise  on  prosody,  written  to  his  pupil  Acir- 
cius,  King  of  Northumbria,  is  certainly  a  most 
learned  work,  while  his  Latin  verses  in  Praise 
of  Virginity,  borrowings  from  Vergil  and  Ovid, 
and  his  Riddles  in  1000  lines,  \\\t\\  their  acrostic 
introduction,  Aldhelmus  cccinit  miUena.s  ver- 
sibus  odax,  would  do  no  discredit  to  the  scholars 
of  the  twelfth  or  the  sixteenth  centuries. 
Some  letters  purporting  to  be  from  foreign 
scholars  seeking  to  study  under  him,  if  genuine, 
may  be  no  more  than  complimentary  verses. 
How  far  he  really  taught  a  school  may  be 
questioned.  He  seems  to  have  been  rather  a 
student  than  a  teacher,  while  he  was  a  monk, 
and  when  he  became  Bishop  of  Sherborne  in 
705,  his  letter  to  Gerontius  and  other  works  are 


those  of  a  divine  rather  than  a  master.  But 
one  and  all  testify  to  the  existence  of  a  learned 
literary  coterie  and  to  excellent  schools,  while 
the  well-known  storj'  of  his  English  songs  by 
which  he  attracted  careless  folk  to  church 
shows  that  he  was  no  mere  peasant.  The  cor- 
respondence of  Winfrith  of  Nursling,  Hants, 
who  changed  his  name  to  Boniface,  when  he 
exported  himself  about  715  to  become  the 
apostle  of  (iermany  and  Archbishop  of  JMaintz, 
with  eight  bishops  under  him,  all  Englishmen, 
and  his  successor.  Lull,  in  755,  gives  a  most 
pleasing  picture  of  English  learning.  It  shows 
that  women  shared  almost  equally  with  men  in 
the  intellectual  hfe.  Egburg,  who  may  be 
the  same  person  with  Eadburgh,  Abbess  of  St. 
Mildred's,  Thanet,  reminds  him  how  she  and 
her  brother  had  been  his  pupils  together. 
Eangyth,  Henburg,  Bugge,  Cuneburg,  and 
Leobgyth,  who  followed  Boniface  to  Germany, 
and  Vieune,  Abbess  of  Bischoffsheim,  exchange 
letters  w'ith  him  and  his  clerks  in  excellent 
Latin,  adorned  ^\•ith  scraps  of  Vergil  and  other 
cla.ssic  authors  as  well  as  of  the  Scriptures. 
They  give  and  ask  for  presents,  chiefly  of  books 
and  manuscripts,  especially  Bede's  and  Ald- 
helm's, and  on  one  occasion  Boniface  asks 
Eadburgh  to  write  him  a  copy  of  St.  Peter's 
Epistles  in  letters  of  gold.  They  send  and  are 
sent  Latin  verses  of  their  own  composition,  a 
feat  which  the  nuns  of  the  twelfth  and  later 
centuries  would  have  found  quite  beyond  them. 
Boniface  refers  to  Winbert,  abbot  of  Nutselling, 
as  having  been  his  master  and  teacher,  and 
when  archbishop  still  continued  to  teach  him- 
self. In  writing  to  an  Englishman,  Aud, 
whom  he  had  made  an  abbot  in  735,  he  mod- 
estly expresses  his  gratification  at  Aud's  grati- 
tude for  his  teaching,  as,  though  he  had  but  little 
learning,  he  was  at  least  a  devoted  teacher. 
Another  of  his  pupils  whom  he  had  sent  to 
Thuringia,  addressing  him  as  "  his  most  de- 
voted instructor  in  the  study  of  grammar  " 
[in  litterarum  studiis)  asks  leave  to  stay  away 
a  little  longer  and  incloses  some  verses  to 
be  corrected  by  Boniface.  The  schoolmaster 
appears  too  in  the  incident  of  a  Bavarian 
priest,  who  baptized  a  person  with  the  fcfmula, 
Baptizo  te  in  nomine  patria  et  fiUa  d  spiritus 
sancti.  Boniface  was  so  shocked  that  he 
had  the  person  rebaptized.  The  Pope,  less 
pedantic,  held  that  as  long  as  the  three  persons 
of  the  Trinity  were  named,  even  in  bad  gram- 
mar, the  baptism  was  good. 

It  was  in  Northumbria  that  schools  flourished 
most.  The  great  name  of  Bede,  one  of  the 
greatest  among  the  encyclopedic  writers  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  is  sufficient  testimony  to  the 
English  teaching.  Though  he  was  a  pupil 
from  the  earliest  age  in  a  monastery,  and 
taught  in  a  monastery  probably  only  young 
monks,  yet  the  monasteries  and  the  monastic 
schools  "of  those  times  were  much  more  like 
public  schools  than  those  of  later  ages.  In  the 
twin   monasteries  of  Jarrow  and   Wearmouth 


128 


ANGLO-SAXON   SCHOOLS 


ANGLO-SAXON   SCHOOLS 


there  were  no  less  than  600  monks  instead  of 
the  60  which  was  the  maximum  of  the  Largest 
monasteries  in  post-Conquest  times.  Besides 
the  Ecclesiastical  History,  which  will  forever 
preserve  his  name  as  that  of  the  sanest  and 
greatest  historian  for  500  years,  his  works  are 
the  works  of  a  schoolmaster  of  no  mean  order. 
Contemporarj^  with  him,  we  have  Egbert  in 
732,  the  bishop  and  teacher  of  York  School, 
followed  by  Ethelbert,  or  Albert,  c.  766  iq.v.), 
Alcuin's  master,  on  whose  merits  as  a  school- 
master Alcuin  descants  at  length.  He  taught 
everything  —  grammar,  rhetoric,  law,  physics, 
and  divinity,  to  say  nothing  of  arithmetic, 
geometrj',  and  the  mode  of  calculating  Easter, 
music,  and  singing.  Alcuin  himself  succeeded 
him  as  master  of  the  Cathedral  School  of 
York,  with  the  same  extensive  curriculum 
which  he  took  to  France,  when,  in  7S0,  he 
became  the  master  of  Charlemagne's  Palace 
School.  His  correspondence  with  his  old  friends 
at  York  shows  an  active  interest  in  education. 
He  sends  a  master  to  teach  the  new  school 
which  King  Offa  of  Mercia  was  setting  up, 
presumably  at  Lichfield,  and  proves  that 
schools  were  no  new  thing  in  Mercia  by  re- 
gretting that  the  light  of  learning  was  now 
extinguished  in  many  places  in  Offa's  king- 
dom. Other  letters  show  his  interest  in  the 
schools  at  Canterbury  and  Hexham,  and  he 
seeks  to  borrow  books '  from  York  for  the 
school  he  afterwards  set  up  at  Tours,  because 
no  such  treasures  were  to  be  found  in  France. 
During  the  Danish  invasion,  when  Win- 
chester was  "  to-broke  "  in  860  and  the  Hamp- 
shire thanes  fled  oversea,  learning  suffered. 
It  is  to  this  period  that  the  famous  complaint 
of  Alfred  (g.i'.),  in  the  Preface  to  his  translation 
of  Gregory's  Pastoral,  refers.  He  contrasts  the 
past,  "  How  zealous  the  sacred  orders  had  been 
in  teaching  and  learning  when  foreigners  came 
here  in  search  of  wisdom  and  learning,"  with  the 
present,  "  when  we  should  have  to  import 
them,  if  we  would  have  them.  So  clean  was  it 
fallen  off  among  the  English  that  there  were 
very  few  on  this  side  of  Humber  who  could 
translate  a  letter  from  Latin  into  English,  and  I 
believe  not  many  beyond  Humber.  ...  I 
cannot  remember  a  single  one  south  of  the 
Thames  when  I  came  to  the  throne."  But 
this  was  but  a  temporary  setback.  They  still 
learned  to  read  English,  and  so  Alfred  made 
his  own  tran.slations.  He  determined  that  "  all 
the  youth  of  our  English  freemen,  who  are 
rich  enough,  should  be  set  to  learning  until 
they  are  able  to  read  English,  and  those  after- 
wards learn  Latin  who  wish  to  continue  in 
learning."  He  set  the  example  in  his  own 
family,  if  the  pseudo-Asser,  his  eleventh-cen- 
tury biographer,  is  to  be  trusted,  for  his 
eldest  son  and  daughter,  brought  up  in  the 
court,  learned  to  read  English  books,  and 
especially  Saxon  poems,  while  "  Ethelward  the 
youngest  was  sent  to  the  Grammar  School 
there,  with  the  children  of  all  the  nobility  of  the 


country  and  many  also  who  were  not  noble. 
Books  in  both  Latin  and  Saxon  were  dili- 
gently read  in  the  school.  They  also  had 
leisure  for  writing."  The  pseudo-Asser  then 
depicts  the  older  generation  envying  the 
younger,  because  the  latter  were  learned  and 
they  were  not. 

In  the  next  generation  King  Edgar's  canons, 
attributed  to  the  year  960,  directed  that  no 
priest  should  take  another's  scholar  without 
his  leave,  and  that  learned  prie.sts  should  not 
put  the  half-learned  to  shame.  .<Elfric's  (q.v.) 
grammar  and  his  famous  colloquies  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  next  century,  c.  1005,  the  Latin 
interlined  with  an  Anglo-Saxon  translation,  are 
the  earliest  schoolbooks  of  purely  English  ori- 
gin that  has  come  down  to  us,  for  Alcuin's  were 
written  abroad.  He  was  himself  educated  at 
Winchester;  where  he  taught  is  not  known. 
His  book  was  edited  and  added  to  by  his  pupil 
^Elfric  Bata.  The  Anglo-Saxon  document 
known  as  Ranks,  vaguely  attributed  to  "  c. 
1029  to  1060,"  gives  evidence  of  the  wide 
spread  of  learning,  by  laying  down  that  the 
scholar  who  had  become  proficient  in  learning 
so  as  to  reach  sacred  orders,  was  treated  as  a 
free  man  and  ranked  according  to  his  orders. 
The  Archdeacon  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  writing 
in  1070,  attributes  to  the  Danish  king,  Canute, 
an  extensive  system  of  free  scholarships  to 
public  schools  at  his  own  expense.  The  ac- 
count of  Waltham  Holy  Cross  Church  of  secular 
canons,  founded  by  Earl  Harold  in  1060,  brings 
the  tale  of  English  schools  up  to  the  date  of  the 
Conquest.  With  the  two  clerks  installed  by  Tovi 
le  Prude  in  Waltham,  the  strenuous  carl  asso- 
ciated eleven  other  wise,  prudent,  lettered  men, 
carefully  chosen  from  the  best  of  the  land,  among 
whom  was  a  certain  Teuton  unexpectedly 
bestowed  on  him  by  God's  gift,  Athelard, 
by  birth  of  Liege  and  by  education  of  Utrecht, 
while  Wul\\'in,  whom  the  earl  set  over  them  as 
Dean,  was  illustrious  in  character  and  industri- 
ous in  learning.  The  historian  himself  was 
taught  by  ^Master  Peter,  the  son  of  Master 
Athelard;  "  from  whom  flowed  a  copious  stream 
of  learning,  after  the  Teutonic  fashion,  for  the 
composition  of  letters  and  verses  did  not  dimin- 
ish the  learning  and  practice  of  singing.  And 
so  far  did  their  rule  differentiate  the  boys  from 
ordinary  boys  that  they  walked,  stood,  read, 
and  chanted  by  heart  with  as  great  gravity  as  if 
they  were  monks.  Whether  they  were  in  choir, 
or  marching  in  procession  from  school,  they  go 
to  choir  and  from  choir  to  school  as  if  they  were 
regular  canons  getting  up  to  midnight  matins." 
Lastly,  when  King  Henry  I  wished  to  prevent 
the  new  Norman  lord  of  Warwick  from  up- 
setting the  constitution  of  the  mother  church 
in  favor  of  a  new  church,  his  writ  confirmed 
to  the  Church  of  All  Saints  the  school  of 
Warwick  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  Edward  the 
Confessor.  A.  F.  L. 

See  Alcuin;  Alfred;  Anglo-Norm.\n  Dia- 
lect and  Schoolbooks;  Bede. 


129 


ANHALT 


ANIMAL  PSYCHOLOGY 


References:  — 

^LFKic.      Colloquies.      Ed.  T.  Wright. 

Alcuim.      Carmen  Dc  Sanctis  el  Pontificibus    ecclesiae 

Eboracensis.     Ed.   J.   Kaine.     Hist.   Ch.   oj    York. 

Rolls.  SfT. 
Alcuin.     Epistolw.     Ed.  Jaffe. 
Aldhel-m.     Opera.     Ed.  J.  A.  Giles. 
AssEU.      Life  of  Alfred.     Ed.  Stevenson. 
Bede.     Feci.  History. 

BoNiF.tcii,  Lulli  Epistolae  (Mon.  Mogunt),  Ed.  Ja£f6. 
Inventio  Crucis.     Ed.  \V.  Stubbs. 
Leach,  A.  F.      Early  Yorkshire  Schools.  I. 

Hist.  Warwick  School.      (London,  1906.) 

— —  Hist.  Winchester  College.     (New  York,  1899.) 

ANHALT,      DUCHY     OF,      EDUCATION 

IN.  —  Sei'  (!En.M.\N  Emi'IUE,  Educatio.n  in. 

ANIMAL  PSYCHOLOGY.  —  Our  natural 
impulse  when  we  watch  the  Ijehavior  of  the 
lower  aninial.s  is  to  interpret  that  behavior  as 
if  it  were  accompanied  by  thoughts  and  emo- 
tions like  those  of  human  beings.  Xot  only  do 
animals  seem  more  interesting  to  the  ordinary 
observer  if  they  are  thus  humanized,  but  even 
such  writers  as  Darwin  and  Romanes  have 
wished  to  prove  that  the  animal  and  the  human 
mind  are  very  similar,  their  aim  being  to  show 
that  in  the  course  of  evolution  no  sharp  break 
has  intervened  between  the  highest  develop- 
ment of  animal  intelligence  and  the  appearance 
of  human  intellect.  While  the  supposed  facts  of 
animal  behavior  were  being  collected  merely 
by  chance  observations  and  anecdotes  of  re- 
markable animal  actions,  little  restraint  of  this 
humanizing  tendency  was  possible;  but  with 
the  application  of  the  experimental  method 
to  the  study  of  such  behax'ior,  an  opposite  tend- 
ency arose.  The  earliest  formal  experiments 
in  this  field  were  made  by  physiologists  rather 
than  psychologists,  and  this  fact,  together 
with  the  scientific  caution  naturally  accom- 
panying exact  experimentation,  led  to  the 
view  that  even  the  simplest  forms  of  conscious- 
ness in  the  lower  animals  must  not  be  assumed 
to  exist  unless  such  an  assumption  is  absolutely 
necessary.  Loeb  in  1888  undertook  to  show 
that  when  an  animal  seeks  or  avoids  a  certain 
stimulus  its  action  is  as  fatally  determined  by 
the  stimulus  as  the  attraction  of  iron  by  a 
magnet  or  the  growth  of  a  plant  by  light.  The 
movement  of  the  animal  is  a  "  tropism,"  its  direc- 
tion determined  by  the  fact  that  the  animal 
is  forced  by  the  action  of  the  stimulus  to  take 
up  a  position  where  symmetrical  points  on  op- 
posite sides  of  its  body  will  be  equally  stimu- 
lated. Thus  the  animal  does  not  mo\'e  toward 
the  stimulus  because  it  "likes"  it,  but  because 
its  body  is  forced  into  such  a  position  that  it  can 
move  in  no  other  way.  Following  Loeb,  other 
phy.siologists,  such  as  Beth,  hold  that  the 
behavior  of  all  invertebrate  animals  at  least 
can  be  explained  on  the  supposition  that  they 
are  entirely  unconscious,  and  maintain  that  it 
is  really  impossible  to  know  anything  about 
the  mind  of  the  lower  animals  in  general.  Thus 
animal  psychology  has,  on  this  \'iew,  no 
claim  to  be  regarded  as  a  science.       It  is  true 


that  the  human  interpretation  of  animal  be- 
havior must  be  abandoned.  Careful  study 
of  such  behavior  reveals  its  many  points  of 
difference  from  human  conduct,  and  the  un- 
like iiodily  structure,  especially  sense-organ 
structure,  of  the  lower  animals  and  man  makes 
it  certain  that  the  animal  mind  must  be  unlike 
the  human  mind.  On  the  other  hand,  to  argue 
that  we  can  know  nothing  of  the  animal  mind 
because  we  can  never  observe  it  directly,  is  to 
attack  the  basis  ui)on  which  human  psychology 
itself  rests,  for  we  can  have  only  an  indirect  and 
inferential  knowledge  of  other  human  minds. 
Loeb  suggested  that  we  should  infer  the  pres- 
ence of  mind  in  an  animal  only  when  its  response 
to  a  stimulus  shows  the  influence  of  a  former 
stimulus  which  occurred  together  with  the  one 
now  acting:  this  phenomenon  he  called  "asso- 
ciative memory."  In  one  form  or  another 
such  an  influence  of  the  animal's  past  individual 
experience  has  been  taken  by  various  authorities 
as  proof  of  mind.  But  this  influence  exists 
in  so  many  degrees,  especially  as  regards  the 
rapidity  with  which  an  animal  is  affected  by  it, 
that  its  practical  value  as  a  criterion  is  small; 
and  moreover  its  absence  does  not  prove  that 
an  animal  is  mindless.  On  the  whole,  we 
may  sa}^  that  the  existence  of  mind  in  the 
higher  animals  is  nearly  a.s  probable  as  its  exist- 
ence in  our  fellow  men;  that  there  is  no  point 
in  the  animal  kingdom  below  which  we  can 
assert  that  it  does  not  exist;  but  that  our 
inferences  regarding  its  nature  must  be  care- 
fully guarded. 

Assuming  consciousness  in  the  lower  animals, 
there  are  two  principal  ways  in  which  we  maj' 
infer  that  a  given  stimulus  produces  a  specific 
sensation  in  the  animal  mind:  first,  if  the 
animal  reacts  to  that  stimulus  in  a  manner 
different  from  its  mode  of  reacting  to  other 
stimuli,  and  second,  if  it  possesses  a  special  sense 
structure  without  which  reaction  does  not  occur. 
These  two  lines  of  evidence  reveal  the  following 
facts  about  the  senses  of  the  lower  animals. 
The  earliest  sense  to  be  differentiated  from 
sensibility  to  mechanical  contact  is  probably  the 
food  sense,  by  which  edible  and  nonedible 
substances  are  distinguished.  The  sense  of 
smell,  descended  from  the  food  sense,  attains 
high  development  in  certain  animals:  (1),  in 
the  mating  of  insects  it  appears  to  be  responsive 
to  stinmli  through  a  great  distance;  (2)  many- 
animals,  the  ant  and  the  dog  for  instance,  seem 
able  to  analyze  complex  smells  as  human 
beings  cannot;  (3)  in  insects,  wdiose  smell 
organs  are  the  movable  antennae,  smell  may 
be  a  spatial  sense  giving  rise  to  perceptions  of 
form  and  size.  Of  hearing  there  is  little 
e\'idence  in  invertebrate  animals;  structures 
which  were  formerly  regarded  as  auditory 
organs  are  now  thought  to  be  concerned  with 
preserving  the  balance  of  the  bodJ^  Authorities 
differ  with  regard  to  the  existence  of  hearing 
even  in  fish.  An  important  problem  con- 
cerning the  sense  of  sight  touches  the  existence 


130 


ANIMAL  PSYCHOLOGY 


ANNA   SOPHIA 


in  an  animal  of  true  color  discrimination.  If 
an  animal  apparently  distinguishes  colors,  it 
may  do  so  as  a  totally  color-blind  person  does; 
that  is,  the  colors  may  be  seen  as  different  shades 
of  gray.  When,  to  disprove  this  supposition, 
we  substitute  for  the  colors  the  grays  that  a 
totally  color-blind  person  sees  in  their  place, 
and  show  that  the  animal  cannot  discriminate 
these,  there  still  remains  the  possibility  that  the 
animal  may  be  color-blind,  but  may  see  in 
place  of  colors  grays  different  from  and  more 
readily  distinguishable  than  those  seen  by  a 
color-blind  human  being.  For  instance,  there 
is  evidence  that  red  is  much  darker  to  some 
animals  than  it  is  to  human  beings.  The  for- 
mation of  a  visual  image  seems  to  be  dependent 
on  the  possession  either  of  an  eye  mth  a  lens, 
or  of  the  compound  eye  found  in  arthropods. 
A  recent  experimental  te.st  of  the  presence  of 
an  image  has  subjected  various  animals  to  the 
action  of  two  sources  of  light  of  equal  intensity 
but  unequal  area:  if  an  animal  that  naturally 
seeks  light  goes  toward  the  source  having 
greater  area,  it  is  concluded  that  the  area  is 
perceived  as  such. 

The  most  interesting  question  in  animal  psy- 
chology is  that  regarding  animal  methods  of  learn- 
ing. Broadly  speaking,  when  a  human  being's 
conduct  is  modified  by  his  past  experience,  this 
experience  may  function  in  either  of  two  ways. 
The  person  may  behave  differently  toward  a 
present  stimulus  because  of  previous  ex- 
perience with  it,  as  when  we  recognize  a  for- 
eign word  on  hearing  it.  Or  a  memory  image 
of  a  previously  experienced  stimulus  may  be 
suggested  when  the  stimulus  is  not  actually 
present,  as  when  we  recall  a  foreign  word  men- 
tally. That  animals  learn  in  the  first  sense, 
with  varj'ing  degrees  of  rapidity,  there  is  much 
evidence:  they  learn  to  choose  stimuli  with 
which  presumably  pleasant  experiences  have 
been  associated,  to  work  simple  mechanisms 
by  which  they  may  obtain  food  or  release  from 
confinement,  and  to  traverse  certain  paths 
leading  in  a  similar  way  to  "  desirable"  results. 
But  there  are  reasons  for  thinking  that  animals 
rarely  show  the  second  kind  of  learning,  in- 
volving'the  revival  of  a  memory  idea  of  an 
absent  object.  For  instance,  (1)  they  often  learn 
a  movement  very  slowly,  only  graduall_y  ceas- 
ing to  perform  many  superfluous  movements, 
and  at  no  point  seeming  to  "  get  the  idea  " 
of  the  right  movement;  (2)  only  in  the  case 
of  monkeys  is  there  good  evidence  that  they 
imitate  each  other  except  in  a  blind,  instinctive 
fashion:  an  animal  that  does  not  know  how  to 
get  out  of  a  box  by  working  a  mechanism  is 
not  helped  by  watching  another  animal  per- 
form the  trick;  (3)  instinctive  behavior  that 
would  in  human  beings  be  accompanied  by 
ideas  seems  not  to  be  so  accompanied  in  animals, 
as  when  a  wasp  in  feeding  larvae  bites  off  a 
piece  of  a  larva's  body  and  offers  it  to  the  same 
larva  as  food.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rapid 
learning  of  certain  higher  vertebrates,  monkeys 


and  raccoons,  for  example,  makes  it  possible 
that  they  may  possess  memory  ideas,  although 
in  far  less  measure  than  human  beings.  If 
it  is  thus  doubtful  whether  the  lower  animals 
have  the  power  to  form  ideas  at  all,  it  is  evident 
that  they  can  make  no  use  of  abstract  or  general 
ideas  in  the  human  sense  of  those  terms,  and  that 
their  "  reasoning  "  processes  must  be  rudimen- 
tary. The  absence  of  language  is  in  itself  a 
sufficient  obstacle  to  the  development  of  abstract 
thought.  In  the  same  way  the  emotional  life 
of  animals  must  be  influenced  by  the  limited 
function  of  ideas  in  their  consciousness. 
While  the  fundamental  human  emotions,  in- 
dividual and  social,  are  represented  in  the 
animal  mind,  they  are  necessarily  profoundly 
modified  by  the  inability  of  their  possessors 
to  reflect  freely  on  the  past  and  forecast  clearly 
the  future.  M.  F.  W. 

The  influence  of  animal  psychology  on  the 
scientific  study  of  educational  processes  has 
been  large.  First,  the  study  of  animals  has 
concentrated  attention  on  the  fact  that  there 
are  different  methods  of  learning,  and  the 
student  of  human  education  has  seen  the 
importance  of  distinguishing  between  these 
different  types  of  learning  and  the  methods 
of  cultivating  them.  Second,  it  has  appeared 
with  all  clearness  that  ideas  and  all  adaptations 
dependent  on  ideas  are  distinctly  human. 
The  relation  of  human  education  to  such  natu- 
ral activities  as  play,  and  to  instinctive  forms  of 
behavior,  is  clearly  understood  only  when  the 
general  relation  is  clearly  defined  between  activi- 
ties accompanied  by  ideas,  and  activities  inde- 
pendent of  ideas.  Third,  animal  psychology  has 
furnished  a  field  of  experimentation  in  which 
methods  of  studjdng  mental  development  have 
been  refined,  and  these  methods  have  been  sug- 
gestive to  students  of  human  mental  develop- 
ment. 

References:  — 

MonG.\N,  C.  Lloyd.     Introduction  to  Comparative  Psy- 
chology.     (London,  1894.) 

Jenning.s,    H.    S.     Behavior    of   the    Lower    Organistns. 
(Nfw  York,  1906.) 

Thorndike,  E.  L.     Associative    Processes    in    Animals. 
(Boston,  1900.) 
Mental  Life  of  the  Monkeys.      (Columbia  Contrib.  to 
Philo.s.  Psych,  and  Educ,  1901.) 

Yerkes,    R.    M.     The  Dancing  Mouse.     (New   York, 
1907.) 

Washburn,   M.  F.     The  Animal  Mind.     (New  York, 
1908.) 


ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS,  INSTRUCTION 
CONCERNING    CARE    OF.  —  See    Humane 

Education  and  N.\ture  Study. 


ANIMISM. 


See  PRiMiTn-E  Education. 


ANNA  SOPHIA  (1584-1652).  —  Wife  of 
Count  Karl  Giinthcr  von  Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
stadt.  A  great  friend  of  education,  she  aided 
and  protected  Ratke,  from  whom  she  took 
instruction  in  Latin  and  Hebrew. 


131 


ANNISTON  NORMAL 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


ANNISTON  NORMAL,  INDUSTRIAL, 
AND  THEOLOGICAL  COLLEGE,  ANNIS- 
TON, ALA.  —  An  institutioih  for  the  education 
of  colored  boys  and  girls,  founded  in  1S97  by  the 
present  president,  Augustus  A.  Battle.  The  aim 
of  the  institution  is,  however,  to  develop  instruc- 
tion on  the  industrial  side.  The  normal  course 
follows  the  eight  years  of  elementary  work. 
There  is  a  four  years'  college  iireparatory  course. 
A  three  years'  course  of  study  is  ofl'ered  for 
ministers. 

ANSCHAUUNG.  —  A  German  term  meaning 
direct,  concrete  observation.  It  has  been  very 
frequently  used  in  describing  concrete  instruc- 
tion (Anschaiiungsiintcrrichi),  that  is,  instruc- 
tion based  upon  objects  which  can  be  directly 
perceived  by  the  student.  The  word  has 
sometimes  been  translated  by  the  English 
word  "intuition."  This,  however,  is  mis- 
leading, for  intuition  as  commonly  used  refers 
to  some  unusual  insight  on  the  part  of  the 
individual. 

ANSELM.  —  Father  of  scholasticism  and 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury;  born  in  Piedmont  in 
1033  and  died  at  Canterbury,  England,  in  1109. 
For  the  purposes  of  this  work  it  is  not  the 
ecclesiastical-political  activities  which  he  was 
compelled  against  his  will  to  undertake  that  arc 
significant  so  much  as  his  labors  as  a  writer 
and  scholar.  He  entered  the  monastery  of  Bee, 
where  he  succeeded  the  eminent  Lanfranc 
as  prior  and  afterwards  became  abbot.  Bee, 
already  famous,  became  under  Anselm  the 
principal  center  of  learning  in  western  Europe. 
Here  he  wrote  his  works  on  Truth,  The 
Grammarian,  the  Freedom  of  the  Will,  the 
Monologion  and  the  Proslogion.  Driven  from 
England,  where  William  Rufus  had  in  a 
moment  of  penitence  appointed  him  to  the  long- 
vacant  see  of  Canterbury,  he  wrote  his  theo- 
logical work  Cur  Deus  homo.  Anselm  boldly 
appealed  to  reason  to  establish  the  Christian 
theology,  founded'  the  medieval  realism  iq.v.) 
about  which  so  many  scholastic  controversies 
were  afterwards  centered,  elaborated  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity,  and  stimulated  the  fruit- 
ful opposition  of  the  nominalist  Roscellin  and 
the  conceptualist  Ab^lard  (q.v.).  The  vigor 
and  lucidity  of  his  argiunents  not  onh'  stimu- 
lated his  contemporaries,  but  affected  the  whole 
subsequent  development  of  philosophy  and 
Christian  theology.  P.  R.  C. 

References  :  — 
Ad.\m.s.     Saint    .\nsplm,    in    Great    English  Churchmen, 

pp.  1-16.      (1S79.) 
Anselm.     Proslogium,  Monologium,  etc.     Tr.  by  S.  N. 

Deane.      (Chicago,   1903.) 
Opera,  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lai.  V,  149. 
Church.     Saint  Ansdm.      (London,  1892.) 
TowNSEND.     Great    Schoolmen    of    the    Middle    Ages. 

(London,  1881.) 
WiLKS.      Three  Archbishops.      (London,  1858.) 

ANTHON,  CHARLES  (1797-1867).  — The 
author  of   more  than    fifty   Latin  and   Greek 


texts  for  secondary  schools  and  colleges;  edu- 
cated in  private  schools  and  at  Columbia  Col- 
lege; rector  of  a  grammar  school;  instructor 
and  professor  of  ancient  languages  in  Colum- 
bia College  (1830-1867).  W.  S.  M. 

ANTHROPOLOGY.  —  The  science  of  ant  hro- 
jioliigy  deals  with  the  characteristics  of  man  as 
a  member  of  social  groups.  At  the  present  time 
the  science  is  treated  from  three  fundamental 
))oints  of  view,  —  the  biological,  ethnological, 
and  linguistic.  Biological  anthropology  deals 
with  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  body 
of  man  as  found  in  different  races  and  in  differ- 
ent social  groups  of  the  same  race.  Ethnology 
deals  principally  with  the  customs,  institu- 
tions, and  beliefs  of  primitive  people,  whiles 
the  treatment  of  more  advanced  groups  is 
generally  left  to  the  study  of  history  and 
sociology.  The  linguistic  aspect  of  anthro- 
pology deals  viith  the  unwritten  languages  of 
primitive  people.  To  these  branches  must  be 
added  the  subject  of  prehistoric  archaeology, 
which,  however,  is  closely  related  to  the  study 
of  somatology  and  of  ethnology  in  the  same 
way  as  paleontology  is  related  to  the  study 
of  living  beings.  The  object  of  anthropological 
study  is  the  elucidation  of  biological  and  psy- 
chological laws  governing  the  development  of 
mankind,  and  the  reconstruction  of  the  j)re- 
historic  history  of  civilization. 

The  development  of  anthropology  is  quite 
recent,  and  consequently  the  subject  was  intro- 
duced into  the  curriculum  of  colleges  and 
universities  at  a  late  date.  It  appears  from 
the  description  of  the  field  of  anthropology 
given  here,  that  the  affiliations  of  the  subject 
are  manifold.  Physical  anthropology  is  closely 
related  to  biological  subjects,  and,  owing  to 
the  social  aspect,  from  which  anatomical  and 
l)hysiological  questions  are  treated,  its  affilia- 
tions with  medicine,  particularly  with  hygiene 
and  with  education,  are  marked.  The  study 
of  ethnology  is  closely  related  with  subjects  like 
psychology  and  philosophy,  and  is  even  to  a 
certain  extent  coterminous  with  sociology.  It 
also  has  very  close  relations  to  the  study  of  the 
history  of  civilization.  Linguistic  studies  are 
intimately  related  to  the  philological  depart- 
ments of  knowledge  and  to  the  history  of  litera- 
ture. Owing  to  these  manifold  aspects  of  the 
science  of  anthropology,  the  teaching  of  the 
subject  has  been  taken  up  from  different  points 
of  view,  according  to  the  peculiar  conditions 
of  the  institution  where  it  was  introduced. 

The  first  American  institutions  in  which 
systematic  instruction  in  anthropology  was 
introduced  were  Harvard  Universitv  and 
Clark  University,  in  1S88  and  1SS9.  In  Har- 
vard University,  instruction  in  anthropology 
was  originally  primarily  archceological  and 
somatological,  because  it  developed  from  the 
work  of  the  Peabody  Museum  of  American 
Archa>ology,  and  was  based  on  the  collections 
contained  in  that  museum.     In  Clark  Univer- 


132 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


sity,  anthropology  was  introduced  as  a  branch 
of  psychology,  and  consequently  particular 
stress  was  laid  upon  the  somatological  differ- 
ences of  various  races  as  a  basis  of  the  study  of 
mental  processes,  and  upon  the  psychological 
aspects  of  ethnological  problems.  In  Yale 
University  Professor  Sumner  developed  an- 
thropological studies  from  the  point  of  view  of 
sociology  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  Department 
of  Political  and  Social  Science;  the  first  course 
was  given  in  1885-1886.  The  development  in 
Columbia  University  in  New  York  is  also  char- 
acteristic of  the  different  lines  of  approach 
from  which  the  modern  study  of  anthropology 
develops.  Ethnology  was  first  introduced  at 
that  institution  in  1S9.3,  in  the  De])artnient  of 
Psychology.  About  the  same  time  special 
courses  on  the  development  of  the  races  of 
Europe  were  established  in  the  Faculty  of 
PoHtical  Science,  while  in  1896  physical  an- 
thropology was  introduced  in  the  Faculty  of 
Pure  Science.  In  1902  anthropology  had 
developed  in  American  universities  in  such  a 
way  that,  of  31  universities  and  colleges  of- 
fering more  or  less  systematic  courses  in  an- 
thropology, it  was  affiliated  with  sociology  in 
9,  with  philosophy  in  5,  with  psychology  in 
3,  with  geology  and  zoologj^  in  5,  with  medi- 
cine in  1  institution.  In  8  institutions  anthro- 
pology was  given  without  special  affiliations 
with  other  subjects. 

Anthropology  as  a  University  Study. —  As 
a  university  study,  anthropological  depart- 
ments aim  to  train  expert  students  of  anthropo- 
logical science.  Up  to  the  present  time  there 
is  not  a  single  university  in  which  the  subject 
is  taught  adequately  in  its  entirety,  but  dif- 
ferent aspects  —  according  to  the  interests  of 
the  representatives  of  the  department  —  are 
given  decided  preference.  Thus  in  Harvard 
University,  American  archseology  is  given 
decided  preference  over  other  subjects;  while 
in  Columbia  University,  American  ethnology 
and  linguistics  are  treated  more  frequently 
than  other  subjects.  The  close  affiliation  of 
the  Harvard  department  with  the  Peabody 
Museum  also  brings  it  aljout  that  material 
culture  is  treated  with  great  intensity,  while 
the  separation  of  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History  of  New  York  from  Columbia 
University  brings  it  about  that  psychological 
questions  are  given  greater  prominence.  Close 
affiliations  between  museums  and  universities 
or  colleges  exist  in  Harvard  University,  Yale 
University,  Universitj'  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
the  University  of  California,  to  a  lesser  extent 
in  the  University  of  Chicago.  In  Columbia 
University  and  in  the  University  of  Chicago 
there  is  no  formal  relation  between  the  large 
museums  of  these  cities  and  the  universities. 
Up  to  the  present  time  graduate  work  in  an- 
thropology is  carried  on  particularly  at  Colum- 
bia University  and  Harvard  University,  to  a 
less  extent  in  the  University  of  Chicago  and 
in    the    University   of    California,   while    less 


extended  graduate  work  is  done  in  a  number 
of  other  institutions. 

It  would  seem  that  the  ultimate  organiza- 
tion of  graduate  work  in  anthropology  will 
necessitate  a  somewhat  different  arrangement 
of  these  studies  than  what  is  found  at  the 
present  time  in  any  American  institution.  It 
seems  particularly  necessary  that  the  working 
anthropologist  should  specialize  in  one  of  the 
three  important  lines  mentioned  before,  while 
the  two  other  subjects  should  be  subsidiary 
to  his  principal  study.  The  equal  preparation 
for  these  three  branches  is  particularly  difficult, 
because  the  methods  of  approach  of  physical 
anthropology  and  of  linguistics  are  so  entirely 
distinct,  and  seem  to  attract  quite  different 
types  of  mind.  Somatology  deals,  on  the 
whole,  with  small  differences  between  different 
types  of  man,  and  requires,  for  this  reason,  the 
application  of  refined  bionietrical  methods, 
which  are  based  on  the  study  of  biology  and  of 
mathematics.  Linguistics,  on  the  other  hand, 
requires  a  thorough  philological  training  such 
as  at  present  can  be  attained  only  in  depart- 
ments dealing  with  Indo-European  languages. 
It  appears,  therefore,  that  for  teaching  purposes 
the  biological  aspect  of  anthropology  should  be 
associated  with  biological  deijartments;  that 
the  linguistic  study  should  be  associated  with 
philological  departments;  while  the  anthropo- 
logical department,  properly  speaking,  should 
devote  most  of  its  energies  to  the  study  of  eth- 
nology. Obviously  a  rigid  classification  of  a 
science  which  occupies  so  extensive  a  border- 
land between  a  great  variety  of  sciences  will 
never  be  possible;  but  the  peculiar  char- 
acter of  anthropology  at  any  university  will 
always  depend  upon  the  particular  interests 
and  methods  of  the  instructors. 

Modern  development  of  a  number  of  sciences 
indicates  very  clearly  that  anthropological 
methods  may  be  applied  to  advantage  in  many 
problems,  and  this  will  lead  increasingly  to  a 
demand  for  anthropological  instruction,  which 
will  give  the  student  a  grasp  of  certain  kinds  of 
anthropological  methods.  Thus  the  hygiene 
of  childhood  leads  to  numerous  questions,  which 
can  be  solved  only  by  anthropometrical  methods, 
and  which  must  be  approached  with  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  application  of  anthropology  and 
sociology.  (See  article  on  Growth.)  In  a 
similar  way  the  study  of  the  early  develop- 
ment of  civilization  brings  out  even  more 
clearly  the  great  importance  of  the  psycho- 
logical problems  of  anthropology  as  well 
as  the  results  of  inquiries  into  prehistoric 
archaeology.  The  future  development  of  an- 
thropology as  a  university  study  will  have  to 
serve  not  only  the  purpose  of  training  the  an- 
thropologist, but  also  of  giving  opportunity  to 
students  of  other  sciences  to  acquire  a  knowl- 
edge of  anthropological  methods,  so  far  as  these 
may  be  required  by  them. 

Anthropology  as  a  College  Study.  —  Many 
American  colleges  have  introduced  full  courses 


133 


ANTHROPOMETRY 


ANTIOCH 


or  partial  courses  in  anthropology.  The  gen- 
eral tendency  seems  to  be  to  utilize  the  sub- 
ject matter  of  antliropology  to  develop  the 
idea  of  the  evolution  of  modern  society  from 
primitive  forms.  These  courses  are  generally 
elective,  and  their  correlation  with  other  sul)- 
jects  is  not  very  intimate.  It  would  seem  that 
the  general  function  of  a  course  in  antliropology 
would  ))('  to  give  to  the  student  a  wider  view  of 
liistory  than  can  be  oi)taincd  from  a  considera- 
tion of  the  later  history  of  the  Euroiican  race 
alone,  and  that  a  true  appreciation  of  the  sig- 
nilicancc  of  the  achievements  of  our  civilization 
in  relation  to  the  achievements  of  other  races 
can  be  attained.  The  essential  difficulty  in 
the  effective  use  of  anthropology  for  these  pur- 
poses lies  in  the  fact  that  the  college  student 
can  hardly  be  led  beyond  the  most  general  facts 
of  this  science,  and  that  consequently  the  con- 
centration of  his  attention  upon  the  subject  is 
inade<iuate.  It  might  seem  that  the  method 
which  has  been  developed  in  a  number  of  insti- 
tutions, of  utilizing  anthropology  as  an  intro- 
duction to  semi-historical  courses,  is  more 
promising;  but  it  is  certainly  necessary  that 
the  affiliations  between  this  subject  and  other 
related  subjects  should  be  made  closer  than 
they   are  at  the  jjresent  time. 

Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools.  —  More 
or  less  successful  attempts  have  been  made 
during  the  last  fifteen  years  to  utilize  the 
results  of  anthropology  for  the  purposes  of 
elementary  and  secondary  education.  For 
some  time  much  stress  has  been  laid  upon 
the  theory  of  recapitulation  (see  Culture 
Epoch),  according  to  which  the  development 
of  the  child  sliould  follow  in  a  way  the  general 
evolution  of  civilization;  so  that  the  occupa- 
tions of  the  young  cliild  should  be  similar  to 
the  manifestations  of  life  among  primitive 
people,  while  with  increasing  age  the  com- 
plexit}'  of  occupations  should  increase  in  a  way 
comparable  to  the  deveIo])ment  of  culture.  I 
believe  this  point  of  view  has  been  essentially 
discarded,  while  at  the  same  time  the  inclina- 
tion remains  of  utilizing  anthropological  mate- 
rial in  the  early  stages  of  manual  training  and 
also  in  connection  with  the  teaching  of  geog- 
raphy, history,  and  literature.  In  secondary 
schools  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  develop 
the  foundation  of  history  on  an  anthropologi- 
cal basis;  and  there  seems  little  doubt  that  a 
much  broader  view  of  the  development  of  so- 
ciety can  be  attained  by  paying  attention  to  the 
earliest  history  of  invention,  to  the  contribu- 
tions made  to  our  civilization  by  different  races, 
and  to  the  contributions  of  man  and  woman 
to  the  advance  of  civilization.  F.  B. 

ANTHROPOMETRY.  —  See  Growth. 

ANTHROPOTOXIN  (av^pajTros,  man,  and 
TofiKoV,  poison). — A  term  used  by  the  older 
German  investigators  to  indicate  the  poison 
supposed  to  exist  in  expired  air.     Recent  in- 


vestigations by  Bergey  fail  to  find  positive 
proof  of  any  volatile  organic  poison  in  expired 
air,  and  indicate  that  tlie  bad  effects  due  to 
unventilated  rooms  are  chiefly  caused  by  the 
extreme  heat,  unfavorable  conditions  of  hu- 
midity, and  perhaps  the  bad  odors,  and  several 
other  factors,  a  view  corroborated  more  re- 
cently by  the  investigations  of  Paul  in  Brcs- 
lau.  W.  H.  B. 

See  Air  of  the  Schoolroom;  Carbon 
Dioxide;    Heating  and  Ventilation. 

ANTIOCH,  THE   SCHOOL  OF.  — Antioch 

was  foundeil  not  long  after  .'{00  h.c,  and  even 
in  pre-Christian  times  was  celebrated  as  a 
center  of  intellectual  life.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury A.D.  it  was  the  tliird  city  in  importance  in 
the  world,  and  the  first  of  the  Roman  Kmpire 
in  the  East,  and  was  a  famous  seat  of  sophistical, 
or  oratorical,  study.  The  nio.st  of  our  informa- 
tion about  the  School  of  Antioch  is  obtained 
from  Libanius,  who  was  a  native  of  the  city, 
a  teacher  there  from  .3.54  to  the  year  of  his 
death,  394,  and  one  of  the  most  famous  soph- 
ists (i.e.  teachers  of  oratory)  of  his  time. 

There  seems  to  have  been  at  Antioch  in  the 
fourth  century  a.d.  a  fairly  well  organized 
school  system.  The  school  (called  a  x°P°''i 
chorus)  of  which  Libanius  was  the  head  com- 
prised, be.sides  himself,  four  "rhetors"  (seem- 
ingly teachers  of  the  more  elementary  or  tech- 
nical side  of  oratory)  and  at  least  one  "gram- 
marian," as  well  as,  probably,  at  one  time  a 
teacher  of  Latin  and  a  teacher  of  law.  Each  of 
these,  as  well  as  Libanius  himself,  was  in 
receipt  of  an  official  salary  (w'hich  in  the  case 
of  the  under  teachers  was  paid  by  the  council, 
and  in  the  case  of  Libanius  came  partly  from 
Antioch  and  partly  from  Phoenicia),  and  they 
received  their  appointment  from  the  local 
council;  Libanius's  position  was  an  imperial 
endowment,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  part  of 
his  salary  came  from  outside  the  city.  That 
there  were  other  schools  of  the  sort  at  Antioch 
is  probable;  possiblj',  however,  this  was  the 
only  rhetorical  school  the  members  of  which 
received  their  appointment  from,  and  were  paid 
by,  the  state.  There  may  have  been  a  school 
of  philosophers,  as  there  was  in  the  neighbor- 
ing town  of  Apamea,  and  there  were  probably 
some  private  schools  with  fewer  instructors. 
It  is  certain  th.at  there  were  other  official 
sophists  at  Antioch,  but  whether  they  were  the 
Heads  of  schools  similar  to  the  school  of  Libanius 
is  not  known.  Two  of  these  official  sophists 
probably  occupied  chairs  which  were  imperially 
endowed. 

Apart  from  the  schools,  there  were  other, 
individual,  teachers  of  various  grades,  who  had 
no  official  appointment.  All  these,  together 
with  the  schools  above  mentioned,  constituted 
what  may  be  called  the  School  of  Antioch, 
and  of  this  school  —  not  simply  of  his  own 
corps  of  rhetors  —  Libanius  was  head.  The 
full  details  of  his  official  relation  to  the  various 


134 


ANTIOCH   COLLEGE 


APHASU 


schools  and  teachers  cannot  be  made  out  with 
definiteness.  He  seems  to  have  had  some 
general  oversight  of  matters  pertaining  to  the 
teachers  and  schools  of  the  city,  subject  to 
the  direction  of  the  municipal  council  and  the 
Emperor,  and  he  acted  as  the  mouthpiece  of 
council  and  teachers  in  their  dealings  \vith 
each  other.  He  sometimes  selected  teachers 
to  receive  appointment  from  the  city,  and  his 
influence  was  sufficient  to  secure  at  times  an 
increase  of  salary  for  a  teacher.  By  \'irtue  of 
his  position  as  head  of  the  School  of  Antioch 
Libanius  was  called  "  The  Sophist  of  Antioch." 
The  center  of  university  life  at  Antioch 
seems  to  have  been  the  Museum,  but  Libanius 
and  his  corps  of  teachers  had  rooms  in  the 
senate  house.  The  schools  of  Antioch  in  the 
fourth  century  drew  students  from  all  parts 
of  Asia.  As  the  fourth  century  wore  on,  and 
law  and  Latin  usurped  in  the  popular  favor 
the  place  of  Greek,  chairs  of  these  subjects  were 
established  at  Antioch.  We  know  little  about 
the  school  in  the  fifth  century,  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  rhetorical  studies  declined  at 
Antioch  then,  as  they  did  throughout  the 
eastern  part  of  the  empire.         J.  W.  H.  W. 

Reference:  — 

Walden,  John  W.  H.  The  Universities  of  Ancient 
Greece.     (New  York,  1909.) 

ANTIOCH  COLLEGE,  YELLOW  SPRINGS, 
OHIO.  —  Founded  in  18.52,  with  Horace  i\Linn 
as  first  president.  The  college  is  nonsectarian 
and  coeducational.  The  institution  has  had 
some  of  the  most  notable  American  educators  on 
the  faculty  at  one  time  or  another.  The  four 
college  buildings  are  situated  on  a  picturesque 
campus,  twenty  acres  in  extent.  For  an  in- 
stitution of  its  standing  Antioch  furnishes  an 
education  at  a  very  cheap  rate,  students' 
expenses  averaging  about  .8150  a  year.  Pre- 
paratory, college,  engineering,  normal,  summer 
school,  and  music  departments  are  maintained. 
Admission  is  by  certificate  from  an  accredited 
high  school  or  by  an  examination  requiring 
fifteen  units.  Degrees  are  given  in  classical 
and  scientific  courses.  The  course  in  ci\il 
engineering  may  be  completed  in  two  years 
or  taken  as  part  of  the  college  course.  The 
value  of  the  plant  is  about  •?  145,000,  the  pro- 
ductive endowment  is  .§105,000,  and  annual 
income  about  $6500.  There  are  8  professors, 
1  associate  professor,  and  4  instructors  in 
the  faculty.  S.  D.  Fess,  LL.D.,  is  the  presi- 
dent. 

Reference:  — 

HuBBELL.  G.  A,  Horace  Mann  in  Ohio,  a  study  of  the 
application  of  his  public  school  ideals  to  college  ad' 
ministration.      (New  York,  1900.) 

APHASIA. —  A  difficulty  or  an  inability, 
due  to  cerebral  disease,  (1)  to  understand  one 
or  more  of  the  forms  of  expressing  ideas,  and 
(2)  to  produce  the  appropriate  movements  for 


idea  expression,  in  an  individual  who  had  been 
able  to  understand  and  to  express  his  ideas. 
It  will  be  seen  that  this  definition  does  not  in- 
clude the  inability  of  the  idiot  to  express  ideas 
or  to  understand  them,  nor  does  it  include  the 
inability  of  the  uneducated  to  understand 
certain  forms  of  expression,  e.g.  printing, 
writing,  etc.,  or  their  inability  to  express  ideas 
in  all  the  ways  in  which  an  educated  individual 
may. 

In  1861  Broca  reported  the  condition  of  the 
brain  of  a  patient  that  had  been  unable  to 
express  himself  by  means  of  vocal  speech,  and 
showed  that  the  left  hemisphere  had  been 
diseased  anteriorly,  especially  in  the  third 
frontal  convolution.  This  report  and  the 
reports  of  subsequent  similar  studies  soon  led 
to  the  general  adoption  of  the  lielicf  that  the 
left  third  frontal  convolution  of  the  cerebrum 
is  the  seat  or  the  center  for  motor  speech.  At 
later  dates  Wernicke  described  the  clinical 
form  of  aphasia  in  which  the  individual  is 
unable  to  understand  what  is  said  to  him,  and 
Kussmaul  that  in  which  there  is  an  inability 
to  understand  the  meaning  of  written  and 
printed  words.  Since  these  early  studies  many 
different  kinds  of  aphasia  have  been  described 
and  the  anatomical  localizations  are  as  nu- 
merous as  the  forms. 

Certain  varieties  of  aphasia  have  been 
briefly  mentioned  above:  motor  aphasia,  the 
inability  to  elicit  the  coordinated  movements 
of  the  vocal  apparatus  necessary  for  the  pro- 
duction of  sounds  that  have  idea  meanings; 
ivord  dcafncs-'i,  or  sensory  aphasia,  the  absence 
of  or  the  deficiency  in  the  ability  to  associate 
sounds  with  ideas;  and  verbal  blindness,  or 
alcria  (q.v.),  the  loss  of  the  power  to  read 
understandingly  what  is  written  or  printed. 
In  addition  to  these  more  frequent  forms,  the 
following  aphasic  conditions  have  been  de- 
scribed: agraphia  (q.v.),  the  loss  of  the  ability 
to  express  one's  ideas  in  writing;  amusia  (q.v.), 
the  loss  of  the  ability  to  understand  music 
as  such;  asymbolia,  or  asymboly  (q.v.),  the 
defect  or  inability  of  production  or  of  under- 
standing of  movements  expressing  ideas,  e.g. 
gesture;  apra.Tia  (q.v.),  the  inability  to  ap- 
preciate the  forms  of  objects  and  to  properly 
use  them;  paraphasia  or  jargon  apha.sia,  the 
use  of  wrong  words  or  of  nonsense  sounds  for 
the  expression  of  ideas.  Agnosia  has  at  times 
been  used  as  a  synonym  of  sensory  aphasia; 
anarthria,  aphemia  (q.v.),  and  aphonia  (q.v.) 
are  sometimes  used  for  motor  aphasia;  and 
asetnia  has  at  times  been  employed  as  a  sj^n- 
onym  of  aphasia  (general). 

The  symptoms  in  the  more  commonly  ob- 
served types  of  aphasia  are  grouped  in  the  ac- 
companying table,  and  there  are  added  the  quite 
generally  admitted  cerebral  localizations  corre- 
sponding to  the  different  types  of  this  disorder. 
From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  there  are  well- 
marked  differences  in  speech  ability  associated 
with  disease  or  destruction  of  different  parts 


135 


APHASIA 


APHASIA 


TABLE  OF  SYMPTOMS  IN   DIFFERENT   FORMS   OF   APHASIA 
(Combined  from  Various  Sources) 


Forms  of  Speech  Associations  Retained 

Clinical 
Vabieties; 

Ceredral  Localizations 

Understanding 
of  spoken 
words 

J!    O    (— 

§53 

If! 
1  = 

■§2.0- 

f 

1 

Word  deafness 

Posterior  two    i     .„-*:„„]      . 

no 
no 

yes 
yes 

no 
no 

yes 
yes 

no 
no 

no 
no 

yes 
poor 

Motor 

Foot  of  3 
Frontal 

cortical 
subcortical 

yes 
yes 

yes 
yes 

no 
no 

yes 
poor 

yes 
poor 

DO 

no 

no 
no 

Visual  (alexia) 

Angular  gyrus 

cortical 
subcortical 

yes 
yes 

no 
no 

ves 
yes 

yes 
poor 

no 
poor 

no 
no 

yes 
yes 

Agraphia 

2  Frontal 

cortical 
subcortical 

yes 
yes 

yes 
yes 

yes 
yea 

no 
poor 

no" 
poor 

yes 
yes 

yes 
yes 

Paraphasia, 
etc. 

Between  T. 
and  0. 

subcortical 

poor 

poor 

yes 

yes 

no 

yes 

yes 

Between  T.       1 

and  F.  (Is-             subcortical 

land  of  Reil)     1 

poor 

yes 

no 

yes 

no 

yes 

DO 

of  the  cerebral  cortex  or  of  the  underlying  asso- 
ciation fibers.  It  should  be  noted,  however, 
that  in  most,  if  not  in  all,  cases  of  aphasia  the 
speech  disorder  is  not  so  simple  as  might  be 
inferred  from  the  preceding  paragraphs  and 
from  the  table.  It  seems  likely  that  simple 
cases  are  the  exception  and  that  careful  in- 
quiry will  disclose  a  combination  of  defects, 
showing  a  marked  diminution  in  one  or  two  of 
the  normal  speech  abilities  (sensory  or  motor). 
[At  this  point  it  is  well  to  mention  that  a  cer- 
tain school  of  neurologists  (led  by  P.  Marie) 
denies  the  existence  of  special  forms  of  aphasia 
and  of  separate  cerebral  localizations  for  dif- 
ferent speech  abilities,  and  it  attempts  to  ex- 
plain all  such  cases  on  the  basis  of  a  dementia. 
(For  this  point  of  view  see  the  work  of  Moutier 
given  in  the  bibliography  below.)  The  value 
of  this  destructive  work  of  Marie  and  of  his 
pupils  appears  to  be  largely  a  critical  one,  in 
that  it  calls  attention  to  the  inadequacy  of 
previous  psychological  and  anatomical  ob- 
servations.) 

The  history  of  the  aphasia  doctrine  is  an  ex- 
cellent example  of  the  popular  method  of  psychol- 
ogizing, for  apparently  it  has  been  tacitly  as- 
sumed that  the  analysis  of  mental  symptoms  is 
extremely  simple.  At  first  the  speech  associa- 
tion mechanism  was  divided  into  sensory  and 
motor,  and  at  the  present  time  this  division  is 
still  deemed  satisfactory  by  some.  Later  each 
of  these  general  forms  was  subdivided  into 
two;  the  sensory  into  visual  and  auditory,  and 
the  motor  into  vocal  and  writing.  That  on 
the  psychological  side  such  a  division  does 
not  represent  the  facts  is  evident  when  an 
analysis  of  speech  function  is  undertaken. 
The  ways  in  which  ideas  may  be  conveyed  are 
greater  than  four,  and  it  requires  no  great  analyt^ 


ical  skill  to  show  that  a  dozen  does  not  exhaust 
the  probabilities.  In  any  individual  who  is  sus- 
pected of  an  acquired  speech  defect  the  following 
is  the  minimum  of  conditions  that  should  be 
investigated  to  demonstrate  a  definite  disturb- 
ance of  the  speech  mechanism:  — 

(1)  Voluntary  speech,  the  ability  of  the  indi- 
vidual to  make  his  wants  known,  to  carry  on 
a  conversation,  etc.;  (2)  reading  aloud  printed 
and  written  words,  that  there  may  be  obtained 
an  idea  of  the  ability  to  associate  visual  and 
motor;  (3)  reading  (not  necessarily  aloud) 
printed  and  written  words  and  indicating  by 
actions  (speech  or  by  arms,  legs,  etc.)  that  the 
sensations  were  understood  Or  appreciated; 
(4)  writing  from  copy  (connection  between 
visual  and  motor);  (5)  writing  from  dictation 
(connection  between  auditors  and  motor); 
(G)  writing  spontaneously;  (7)  repeating  words 
that  are  spoken  (connection  between  audi- 
tory and  motor);  (8)  understanding  of  spoken 
language,  as  shown  by  the  ability  of  the  in- 
dividual to  respond  in  an  appropriate  man- 
ner; (9)  recognition  of  objects  and  their  use, 
as  indicated  by  the  ability  of  the  patient  to 
take  an  object  in  the  hand,  for  example,  or 
to  look  at  it,  etc.,  and  to  show  by  action  how 
the  particular  object  is  to  be  used;  (10)  naming 
of  objects;  (11)  a.ssociation  of  name  that  is 
seen  or  heard  with  an  object  that  is  sensed 
through  visual,  auditory,  tactual,  olfactory, 
gustatory,  or  the  so-called  stereognostic  senses. 

Any  one  of  these  speech  associations  may 
be  wanting,  and  there  are  many  possible  combi- 
nations of  disorders,  as  has  been  indicated  above. 
The  combined  disorders  are,  as  has  been  said, 
most  common,  and,  possibly,  the  sole  clinical 
forms.  For  discussion,  however,  we  shall  assume 
the  occurrence  of  the  simple  types  and  give 


136 


APHASIA 


APHASIA 


their  anatomical  correlates.  The  description 
of  the  anatomical  localization  of  speech  func- 
tions may  well  be  introduced  by  a  brief  general 
consideration  of  the  relation  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem to  mental  states. 

Neurologists,  physiologists,  and  most  psychol- 
ogists assume  for  the  cerebrum  a  multiplicity 
of  function,  with  the  capacity  for  unification. 
AH  the  functions  that  the  cerebrum  has  may, 
for  convenience,  be  classed  as  sensory,  motor,  and 
associational.  (See  for  full  detail  the  article 
on  the  Nervous  System,  especially  that  deal- 
ing with  the  cerebrum.)  All  of  these  functions 
are  mediated  through  the  cerebral  cortex  and 
the  connecting  fibers  or  through  the  collections 
of  cells  in  certain  places,  which  collections  are 
called  basal  ganglia.  The  collection  of  cells 
making  up  the  basal  ganglia  may  for  present 
purposes  be  disregarded.  We  may  say  that  any 
definite  collection  of  cortical  cells  or  of  fibers 
differs  in  function  from  all  other  collections, 
although  all  are  cross-connected  and  in  the  most 
intimate  anatomical  and  functional  relation. 
This  is  the  general  ground  from  which  all  the 
anatomical  localizations  of  speech  functions 
arise. 

On  the  psychological  side,  the  aspects  of 
speech  are  sensory,  motor,  and  associational. 
These  three  groups  may  be  further  subdivided 
into:  sensory  —  visual,  auditory,  gustatory, 
tactual,  olfactory,  etc.;  motor  —  vocal  speech, 
writing,  gesture,  the  production  of  print  or  of 
other  symbols,  etc.;  and  association  —  the 
connection  between  any  two  or  more  of  the 
sensory  and  motor  elements.  Each  of  these 
arbitrarily  divided  elements  is  conceived  to 
have  a  seat  or  to  have  its  center  in  some  part 
of  the  cerebrum  (similarly  arbitrarily  divided). 
The  normal  speech  function  persists  only  so 
long  as  the  separate  brain  areas  are  intact  and 
the  connections  unbroken.  If  any  area  be- 
comes diseased  by  reason  of  hemorrhage, 
the  choking  of  an  artery,  or  from  any  other 
kind  of  injury,  certain  functions  will  be  inter- 
fered with,  but  it  will  be  possible  to  have  cer- 
tain other  functions  carried  on  in  a  normal 
manner.  Thus  it  is  with  the  speech  centers 
and  their  connections.  If  the  centers  be  affected 
certain  definite  functions  will  be  lost  or  im- 
paired, and  if  the  association  tracts  are  inter- 
fered with,  there  will  be  losses  of  speech,  but 
of  different  kinds  to  the  losses  observed  after 
destruction  of  the  cortical  areas,  because  the 
connections  have  been  broken  rather  than  the 
storehouses.  Lesions  of  appropriate  portions 
of  the  cerebrum  may  result,  therefore,  in  a 
number  of  different  kinds  of  aphasia,  simple 
or  complex,  depending  upon  the  location  of 
the  injury  and  upon  the  number  of  "centers" 
or  "connections  "  involved.  The  foregoing  table 
gives  the  symptoms  in  ten  of  the  rather  simple 
uncomplicated  aphasias,  and  it  is  possible  from 
this  table  to  reconstruct  others  in  which  the 
combinations  of  aphasias  are  represented. 

The    cerebral    localizations    of    the    simple 


aphasias  are  noted  in  the  table,  and  some  of 
them  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram. 
In  addition,  there  are  given  the  location  of 
certain  lesions  not  productive  of  aphasic  con- 
ditions.    It  will  be  noticed  that  the  so-called 


Illustrating  the  localization  of  cortical  brain  lesions 
productive  of  aphasias  and  other  defects,  (a)  The 
general  localization  of  the  speech  centers,  according  to 
Dejerine.  The  cross-hatched  portions  are  those  most 
intimately  concerned  with  the  speech  functions.  (6) 
Localization  of  a  blood  clot  that  produced  a  .simple  motor 
aphasia  (Hotchkiss).  (r)  Lesion  of  cortex,  productive 
of  psychical  blindness,  (d)  Anatomical  localization  of 
a  lesion  in  a  case  of  alexia  (Pick),  (c)  Cortical  destruc- 
tion, productive  of  word-deafness  (Wernicke).  (/)  Lo- 
calization of  cyst,  causing  spasm  of  head  and  eyes,  with- 
out aphasia  (Starr),  (g)  Lesion  causing  astcreognosis. 
(h)  Lesion  causing  paralysis  of  hand  and  arm. 

motor  aphasias  (vocal  and  writing)  are  due  to 
lesions  of  the  frontal  lobe  on  the  left  side,  close 
to  the  centers  for  the  movement  of  the  right 
hand,  arm,  and  face,  and  that  the  so-called 
sensory  aphasia  centers  border  upon  the 
sensory  areas  in  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
hemisphere.  The  subcortical  aphasias  can- 
not be  represented  on  this  diagram,  but  the 
location  of  the  lesions  causing  these  conditions 
may  be  made  fairly  well  if  the  motor  speech 
centers  are  connected  by  lines  with  the  sensory 
areas,  and  lesions  supposed  to  exist  at  sorne 
portion  of  the  lines  which  are  drawn.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  many  of  the  lines  approach 
the  part  of  the  cerebrum  called  the  Island  of 
Reil,  and  in  this  region  we  do,  in  fact,  find 
many  le-sions  causing  aphasias  of  the  subcorti- 
cal varieties. 

In  no  case  of  aphasia  due  to  unilateral  cerebral 
lesion  is  speech  entirely  lost;  a  certain  amount 
of  ability  to  understand,  if  it  be  a  sensory 
aphasia,  or  ability  to  vocalize,  if  it  be  a  motor 
aphasia,  remains.     It  is  possible  to  show  that 


137 


APHASIA 


APHTHONIUS  OF   ANTIOCH 


some  thiugs  arc  understood  or  some  things 
are  said  in  a  proper  manner,  and  this  condition 
is  supjjosed  by  some  to  bo  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  left  hemisphere  is  not  entirely  the  seat  of 
the  physiological  [jroeesses  that  make  up  speech 
aliility,  but  that  the  right  hemisphere  takes  a 
part,  though  rather  a  minor  one.  It  also  is 
well  known  that  there  is  great  capacity  for 
reeducation  of  aphasies,  and  this  rci'ducation 
has  been  supposed  to  take  place  through  the 
inter\ention  of  the  right  half  of  the  cerebrum. 
The  little  careful  work  that  has  been  pul)lished 
on  the  |)rocess  of  reeducation  indicates  that  it 
takes  ])lace  in  the  same  manner  as  does  the  edu- 
cation of  an  indi\idual  not  previously  trained  in 
this  ])articular. 

On  the  side  of  education  the  study  of  the 
speech  disturbances  known  under  the  general 
term  of  aphasia  is  of  consideralile  importance. 
The  analysis  of  the  speech  function  shows  that 
wc  use  all  kinds  of  sensory  impressions  to 
produce  a  speech  reaction,  and  that  if  one 
sensory  stimulus  does  not  produce  a  cjuick  or 
clear  motor  result,  recourse  may  be  had  to 
impressions  through  other  sensory  channels. 
The  aphasic  may  understand  a  word  if  he 
traces  it  by  hand,  even  if  his  eye  docs  not  con- 
vey to  him  the  impulses  that  result  in  apper- 
ception or  an  appreciation.  He  may  also  gain 
an  understanding  of  a  situation  if  he  has  pre- 
sented to  him  a  combination  of  visual  and  audi- 
tory impressions.  It  is  the  same  with  the  child. 
The  combination  of  stimuli,  all  meaning  the 
same,  will  ])roduce  a  result  much  more  quickly 
and  more  effectively  than  any  one  stimulus, 
unless  there  be  added  to  the  one  stimulus  an 
emotional  element  lacking  in  the  combination. 
In  certain  defectives  it  is  not  possible  to  pro- 
duce speech  associations  when  the  children  are 
approached  through  only  one  sensory  channel, 
and  all  the  avenues  of  approach  must  be  tried 
simultaneously  if  good  results  are  to  follow. 
Other  important  pedagogical  suggestions  are  to 
be  obtained  from  a  consideration  of  the  relation 
of  motor  and  sensory  defects  to  speech  ability, 
although  many  of  these  defects  are  not  properly 
described  as  aphasic  conditions. 

For  speech  defects  due  to  motor  incoordina- 
tion, see  Speech,  Defects  of.  S.  I.  F. 

References:  — 

Fur  special  bibliographies  of  certain  aphasias,  look 
under  the  articles  Agh.vphia,  .Alexia,  Awusi.\,  Apk.\xi.\, 
and  AsYMBOLiA. 

Bastian,    H.    C.     Aphasia   and    other  Speech    Defects. 

(London,  1S9S.) 
Bolton.     The  higher  functions  of  the  human  cerebrum, 

pp.  318-345,  hi  HUl,  Further  Advances  in  Physiology. 

(London,  1909.) 
Collins,  J.      The  Genesis  and  Dissolution  of  the  Faculty 

of  Speech.      (New  York.  US9S.) 
Dejerine,  J.     L'aphasie  sensorielle.     Presse  mid.,  1906, 

437-440. 
L'aphasie  motrice.     Presse  mid.,  1906,  453-457. 
Fr.\nz.      Reeducation     of   an     aphasic.     Jour.  Philos., 

Psychol,  and  ,Sci.  Methods.  190.5,  5S9-597. 
KnssMAUL,    A.     Die  Storungen  der  Sprache.     (3  Aufl. 

1885.) 


Marie,    P.      Revision    de    la    question    de    l'aphasie. 

Sem.  mcd.,  190U. 
MoUTiEn,  F.     L'aphasie  de  liroca.      (Paris,   1908.) 
Pick,    von     Monakow,    Liepmann,   and    Hahtmann. 
Diseujj.sion  on  .\phasia.     Comptc  rendu  des  Iramux 
dii  /"■  Congris  internal,  de  psychialr.,  de  neuroL,  de 
psychoL,  etc.,  pp.  341-378.     (Amsterdam,  1908.) 
Stkicker.      Studiert  ilber  die  SprachstOrungen.      (Wien, 

1880.) 
Wernicke,  C.     Gesammelte  Aufsatze.     (Berlin,   1893.) 
Wyllie,    J.      The    Disorders    of    Speech.      (Edinburgh, 
1895.) 

APHEMIA.  —  The  inability,  or  the  distur- 
bance in  the  ability  to  iiroducc  vocal  speech. 
Sometimes  used  as  a  synonym  of  aphasia,  but 
not  at  present  commonly  used. 

APHONIA.  —  The  inability,  partial  or  com- 
plete, to  produce  the  sounds  that  make  what 
is  called  speech.  The  term  has  been  used, 
but  incorrectly  so,  as  a  synonym  of  aphasia 
iq.v.),  but  is  properly  applied  to  all  motor 
speech  losses  due  to  any  cause,  whether 
in  the  nervous  system  or  in  the  peripheral 
speech  mechanism.  Paralysis  of  the  vocal 
cords  may  cause  permanent  aphonia,  and  in- 
flammation may  produce  a  temporary  loss. 
Whispering  and  hoarseness  arc  called  limited 
aphonias.     (See   Speech,    Defects   of.) 

References:  — 

Baumcarten.  VoUstandige  Recurrenzparaljse  mit 
totaler  .Aphonic.  Med.-Chir.  Presse,  xxxix,  478. 
(Budapest,  1903.) 

BuRoH.^KT,  H.  G.  Ueber  functionelle  Aphonic  hei 
Mdnnern  und  Simulation  der  Stimmlosigkeit.  (Ber- 
lin, 1892.) 

MuNGER,  C.  E.  —  Aphonia.  Proc.  Conn.  Med.  Soc, 
1906,  129-136. 

OsANN,  G.    Ueber  Aphonia  spastica.    (Wiirzburg,  1882.) 

APHRASIA.  —  The  inability  to  speak,  such 
as  that  of  the  feeble-minded  and  the  insane,  from 
defects  or  deterioration  of  the  intelligence. 
Sometimes  used  to  describe  the  aphasic  di.sordcr 
in  which  an  individual  has  not  the  ability  to 
connect  words  so  they  may  make  phrases  and 
sentences.     (See  Aph.\si.\.)  S.  I.  F. 

APHTHONIUS  OF  ANTIOCH.  —  A  rheto- 
rician and  sophist  who  lived  about  .\.i).  314, 
of  whose  life  no  details  are  known.  His  place 
in  the  hi.story  of  education  is  of  importance, 
because  he  wrote  the  Progijmnasmata  in 
Greek.  This  liook  illustrates  the  methods 
employed  by  the  Romans  in  teaching  boys 
so  as  to  be  prepared  for  the  schools  of  the 
rhetoricians.  Aphthonius  became  the  favorite 
textbook,  as  had  been  that  of  Hcrmogenes. 
After  the  Renais.sance  Aphthonius  was  re- 
discovered, and  the  schools  and  univei-sitics  took 
special  delight  in  using  a  textbook  in  rhetoric 
which  had  been  actually  employed  in  the 
ancient  Roman  education.  The  book,  origi- 
nally designed  for  elementary  pupils,  was 
adopted  as  a  standard  authority  for  older  pupils, 
and  the  editions  through  which  it  ran  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  in  Eu- 
ropean countries  were  numerous.     The  Editio 


138 


APOLLONIUS 


APPARATUS 


priticeps  was  in  the  Aldine  Rlirtores  Greed, 
Venice,  1508,  fol.  About  a.d.  1520  Richard 
Pynson  published  in  London  a  translation  into 
Latin,  edited  by  G.  Hervet,  and  in  1582  Henry 
Marsh  issued  in  London  a  Latin  translation  by 
Rodolph  Agricola  and  J.  M.  Catanipus.  In  1620 
Aphthonius'  Progymnasmata  had  become  the 
property  of  the  Stationers'  Company.  The 
recognized  position  of  Aphthonius  in  Eng- 
lish schools  is  further  shown  by  John  Brins- 
ley,  Ludus  Lilerarius,  1612,  who  explicitly 
states  that  "the  custom  in  schools,"  in  start- 
ing boys  on  Latin  theme-writing,  is  to  "  read 
them  some  of  Aphthonius'  rules  "  and  to  be- 
gin with  the  models  suggested  by  Aphthonius. 
This  often  proved  hard  for  young  wits,  and 
one  interlocutor  in  Brinsley's  book  says  the 
insistence  on  Aphthonius'  methods,  involving 
logic  and  "  moral  matters,"  drove  the  "scholar 
to  use  all  devices  to  leave  the  school  or  else 
caused  him  to  live  in  a  continual  horror  and 
hatred  of  learning,  and  to  account  the  school 
not  Ludus  Literarius  but  carnificina  or  pixtri- 
nuin  literarium."  Charles  Hoole,  in  the  Mm^lcr's 
Method  (1660),  defers  the  use  of  Aphthonius 
for  the  pupil  in  rhetoric  till  he  reaches  the 
fifth  form,  when  it  is  to  be  read  in  Greek  as 
well  as  Latin.  Aphthonius,  like  /Esop,  wrote 
fables,  and  Hoole  required  fifth-form  pupils  to 
translate  the  fables  and  themes  (from  Greek) 
into  pure  English  and  to  repeat  them  (when 
tran.slated)  in  both  Greek  and  Latin  "  that  they 
may  gain  the  method  of  these  kinds  of  exercise 
and  inure  themselves  to  pronunciation." 

F.W. 

APOLLONIUS.  —  One  of  the  greatest 
teachers  of  and  writers  upon  mathematics 
among  the  Greeks.  He  was  born  at  Perga, 
in  Pamphj'lia,  about  260  b.c,  and  died  about 
200  B.C.  He  studied  in  Alexandria,  and  was 
very  likely  connected  with  the  great  school 
there,  but  very  little  is  known  of  Ms  life. 
His  great  treatise  on  conies  {q.v.)  was  to 
that  subject  what  Euclid's  {q.v.)  was  to  ele- 
mentary geometry.  It  remained  the  stand- 
ard authority  in  its  field  until  supplanted  by 
the  analytic  treatment  (see  Analytic  Geom- 
etry) invented  by  Descartes  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  Apollonius  also  wrote  on  other 
branches  of  geometry  and  on  arithmetic.  He 
was  held  in  such  esteem  by  his  contemporaries 
that  he  received  the  name  of  "Great  Geometer." 

See  also  the  article  on  Alexandria,  School 

AND    UNn-ERSITY    OF.  D.  E.  S. 

APPARATUS.  —  The  history  of  school  ap- 
paratus is  necessarily  closely  associated  with  the 
attempt  on  the  part  of  teachers  to  accommodate 
the  mind  of  the  learner  to  the  material  embodied 
in  the  curriculum.  Before  much  thought  was 
given  to  what  material  is  best  suited  to  the 
mental  development  and  comprehension  of 
children,  and  to  what  information  they  should 
be  required   to    compass,  the  curriculum  was 


139 


largely  fashioned  to  suit  the  thought  life  of 
adults.  Xaturally,  therefore,  many  things 
were  introduced  into  school  work  making  un- 
warranted demands  on  the  intellectual  powers 
of  children,  and  to  overcome  these  difficulties 
discerning  teachers  introduced  helps  in  order 
to  objectify  and  illustrate  principles  too  ab.stract 
or  intangible  for  their  pupils  to  comprehend. 
When  reading  was  taught  by  the  alphabet 
method,  the  alphabet  wheel,  letter  blocks, 
some  supposedly  significant  rhyme,  as 

Zaeheus  he. 
Did  climb  a  tree, 
His  Lord  to  see, 

nonsense  word  lists,  or  even  cakes  in  the  shape  of 
letters,  were  introduced  as  means  to  stimulate 
the  memory  and  interest  of  the  children.  As 
the  word  and  sentence  methods  were  developed, 
charts  and  word  frames,  with  books  planned 
to  suit,  took  the  place  of  alphabet  methods. 
At  the  present  day,  blackboards  and  large 
sheets  or  rolls  of  ordinary  wrapping  paper, 
fastened  together  or  on  rollers,  with  well- 
planned  textbooks,  furnish  teachers  sufficient 
means  to  teach  reading.  Anything  beyond 
this  is  likely  to  perplex  more  than  aid. 

When  arithmetic  included  much  that  was  puz- 
zling and  more  that  premature  minds  could  not 
grasp,  numeral  frames,  notation  and  numeration 
charts,  blocks  for  cube  and  square  root,  and 
various  geometrical  devices  were  used  to  help 
the  pupils  along. 

In  the  teaching  of  a.stronomy  and  mathe- 
matical geography,  tellurians,  complicated  or- 
reries, globes,  and  other  pieces  of  apparatus 
were  introduced,  and  at  one  time  were  thought 
indispensable.  All  these  save  globes  are  now 
rarely  found  in  our  common  schools. 

The  teaching  of  physiology,  which  was 
chiefly  anatomy,  began  in  a  general  way  about 
fifty  years  ago,  and  to  meet  the  needs  of  teachers 
who  knew  verj^  little  about  the  subject,  gaudily 
colored  manikins  and  charts  were  sold  in 
great  numbers.  Some  of  these  were  very 
ingeniously  made,  so  that  by  beginning  with 
the  outer  form  of  the  human  body,  and  contin- 
ually peeling  off  layer  by  layer,  "the  true  skin, 
the  muscles,  the  blood  vessels,  the  lungs,  vis- 
cera, etc.,  were  exposed  in  due  order.  But 
as  soon  as  teachers  came  to  have  any  real  and 
true  first-hand  knowledge  of  this  subject,  and 
could  dissect  with  any  degree  of  skill  and 
had  at  least  some  knowledge  of  comparative 
anatomy,  the  use  of  such  apparatus,  com- 
paratively speaking,  has  been  greatly  reduced. 

Naturally  the  study  of  the  sciences,  especially 
physics  and  chemistry,  has  demanded  more  and 
more  apparatus  as  the  pupils  themselves  have 
been  increasingly  required  to  learn  through 
doing.  But  when  these  subjects  were  first 
introduced  into  the  elementary  schools,  the 
pieces  of  apparatus  selected  (as  one  may  sec  by 
referring  to  lists  recommended  and  on  the 
market  fifty  years  ago)  were  for  the  most  part 


APPARATUS 


APPARATUS  FOR  EXERCISES 


those  which  gave  spectacular  effects,  and  upon 
the  use  of  which  the  teacher  relied  for  some 
show  of  scientific  reputation. 

The  tendency  now  is  to  deal  objectively  and 
as  simply  as  possible  with  tliose  physical  and 
chemical  properties  everywhere  in  evidence 
in  practical  affairs.  This  reduces  reliance  on 
mere  experiment,  and  at  the  same  time  turns  the 
attention  of  the  pupil  to  the  significance  of  the 
principles  illustrated.  Furthermore,  with  the 
better  adaptation  of  the  curriculum  to  the  ca- 
pacities of  children,  and  to  the  needs  of  life, 
it  has  been  found  that  such  apparatus  is  often 
more  distracting  than  helpful.  Too  much 
exj)erimentation  in  the  beginning  of  scientific 
training  may  even  put  children  in  the  attitude 
of  the  country  boy,  who  said  that  he  could  not 
see  the  town  for  the  houses. 

The  progress  of  the  teaching  of  physical 
geography  during  the  last  decade  or  two 
has  been  rapid,  but  the  methods  used  illustrate 
fairly  well  the  principle  enunciated,  that  as  soon 
as  teachers  have  acquired  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  a  subject  and  practical  skill  in  teaching 
it,  they  rely  less  on  apparatus.  For  example, 
instead  of  the  cumbersome  appliances  often 
found  some  years  ago,  designed  to  illustrate 
erosion  and  the  carrying  power  of  water,  a 
neighboring  stream  or  gully,  after  a  rain,  now 
suffices.  Physical  geography  is  fast  becoming 
an  out-of-door  study,  much  to  the  delight  and 
assistance  of  the  children.  Nature  is  experi- 
menting every  day  for  those  who  can  see.  So 
too  with  nature  study  in  general.  Those  who 
know  and  can  point  out  nature's  methods  are 
inclined  to  offer  no  substitutes,  which  all  too 
frequently  hinder  rather  than  help. 

On  the  whole,  we  use  less  illustrative  material 
in  the  way  of  charts,  models,  etc.,  in  our  ele- 
mentary schools  than  is  used  in  corresponding 
schools  in  Germany,  France,  or  England.  Our 
books  are  better  printed,  and  contain  a  larger 
amount  of  illustrative  material  than  is  generally 
found  in  the  textbooks  used  in  foreign  schools, 
and  hence  the  need  for  charts  here  is  not  so 
great.  The  teacher,  in  most  European  schools,  is 
the  source  of  far  more  of  the  information  pupils 
get  than  is  the  case  here;  and  this  partly 
explains  the  need  for  such  helps. 

In  each  school  of  any  size  in  Germany  there 
is  generally  a  room  set  apart  for  teaching  helps, 
and  these  helps  are  drawn  out  by  the  teachers 
when  needed.  This  material  (Lehrmittrl)  covers 
a  wide  range  of  instruction;  wall  pictures  and 
charts  representing  history,  geography,  archi- 
tecture and  art  in  its  various  forms,  anatomy, 
physiology,  botany,  zoology,  history  of  religion, 
manufacturing,  commerce,  invention,  and  all 
phases  of  active  German  life  are  furnished  in 
great  abundance.  Besides  these,  the  local 
museums  often  contain  rooms  or  sections  set 
apart  for  pedagogical  purposes.  These  often 
contain  models  of  farming  tools,  school  benches, 
tools  for  working  wood  and  iron,  mineral  cabi- 
nets, in  addition  to   an   abundant  supply   of 


maps,  charts,  and  prints  on  all  phases  of  instruc- 
tion.    (See  AIusEUM,  Edic.\tion'.\l.) 

When  we  compare  the  secondary  schools  in 
this  regard,  our  best  high  schools  are  as  thor- 
oughly equipped  with  a[)paratus  as  those  of 
like  type  found  abroad.  In  fact,  we  are  spend- 
ing more  for  scientific  apparatus  and  equip- 
ment for  high  school  laboratories  than  is  gen- 
erally spent  in  Europe.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
are  not  so  careful  in  our  selection  of  apjiaratus. 

The  general  principles  which  seem  to  be 
emerging  to  guide  us  in  matters  of  school  appa- 
ratus may  be  summed  up  and  stated  as  follows: 

1.  The  more  thoroughlv  teachers  are  edu- 
cated and  trained  for  their  work,  the  less  the 
need  for  specially  prepared  and  complicated 
apparatus. 

2.  The  better  the  curriculum  is  adjusted  to 
the  needs  and  capabilities  of  children,  the  fewer 
the  requirements  for  experiments  or  methods 
demanding  apparatus  beyond  the  power  of 
the  teacher  to  supply. 

3.  The  simpler  the  apparatus  and  the  more 
natural  the  experiment  or  method,  the  more 
satisfactory  are  the  results  for  children  of  the 
elementary  and  high  school  grades. 

4.  Apparatus  made  by  the  pupils  and  teach- 
ers working  together,  or  by  the  pupils  them- 
selves, often  serve  to  impress  the  essential  pur- 
pose of  an  experiment  to  better  advantage  than 
more  perfect  laboratory  appliances  furnished 
ready  made. 

5.  It  is  better  for  the  pupils  themselves  to 
perform  a  simple  significant  experiment  illus- 
trative of  some  important  truth  than  it  is  for 
the  teacher  to  perform  in  their  presence  a  more 
elaborate  experiment  directed  toward  the  same 
end. 

6.  School  appliances  designed  to  illustrate 
those  forces  and  phenomena  of  nature  which 
have  proved  themselves  significant  are  more 
important  than  those  which  give  spectacular 
results  not  readily  seen  outside  the  school- 
room, and  less  obviously  related  to  the  imme- 
diate needs  of  life. 

7.  Good  teachers  are  increasingly  utilizing 
machine  shops,  electric  lighting  plants,  water 
sy.stems,  scientific  agriculture,  and  manufactur- 
ing industries  of  all  sorts,  to  supplement  school 
experiments  and  to  render  them  more  significant. 

There  is  a  growing  use  of  photographs,  pic- 
ture post  cards,  illustrated  magazines,  stereop- 
ticon  slides,  and  projectiscopes,  to  bring  dis- 
tant scenes  within  reach  of  school  children.  The 
only  danger  here  is,  that  such  material  may  ab- 
sorb an  undue  share  of  time,  and  the  real  world 
around  them  mav  never  be  made  significant. 

F.  B.  D. 

See  Bl.\ckbo.\rds  ;  L.\bor.\tory  ;  Chem- 
istry,    Methods     of    Te.\chixg  ;     Physics, 

^IeTHODS    of    TE.iCHING,    ETC.;     TRAINING    OF 

Te.\chers  :    Visu.^L  Aids. 


APPARATUS     FOR      EXERCISES.  —  See 
Athletic    Fields;     Gymnasium    Equipment. 


140 


APPARATUS 


APPERCEPTION 


APPARATUS,     PSYCHOLOGICAL.  —  See 

Laboratory,  Psychological. 

APPERCEPTION.  —  Literally,  added  to  per- 
ception. In  the  current  usage  of  to-day  two 
somewhat  distinct  meanings  are  apparent. 
The  psychologist  means  by  apperception  the 
interpretation  of  sensations.  Thus  to  him 
apperception  is  necessary  in  order  to  get  per- 
ception, since  the  latter  is  a  form  of  conscious- 
ness in  which  sensations  and  their  meanings 
are  fused.  To  recognize  an  object,  or  to  give 
it  position  and  shape,  or  to  ascribe  to  it  reality, 
is  to  apperceive  it.  On  the  other  hand,  in  edu- 
cational discussions  apperception  usually  means 
not  the  making  of  a  perception,  but  rather  the 
adding  to  the  bare  perception  the  richer 
significations  that  are  brought  by  a  broader 
experience.  Thus  the  educational  use  of  the 
term  conforms  a  little  more  closelj'  to  its  ety- 
mology than  does  the  psychological  one. 

The  philosopher  Leibnitz  introduced  the  use 
of  the  expression.  By  him  mere  perception 
was  regarded  as  a  purely  immediate  form  of 
sentiency.  When  we  become  conscious  of  our 
perceptions,  they  are  apperceived.  Appercep- 
tion thus  relates  the  perceptions  to  the  self, 
organizes  them  as  its  property,  and  as  the  rep- 
resentations by  which  it  endeavors  to  describe 
to  itself  the  external  world.  Before  the  ad- 
vent of  apperception,  therefore,  there  is  no 
self-consciousness,  but  only  a  confused  mass  of 
isolated  mental  elements.  Apperception  trans- 
forms these  into  genuine  consciousness. 

The  next  philosopher  of  importance  to  make 
special  use  of  the  term  "apperception  "was  Kant. 
To  him  also  it  meant  the  unification  of  percep- 
tion. By  apperception  one's  perceptions  are 
all  united  in  being  referred  to  a  self  which  is 
aware  of  them  in  various  moments  of  time. 
Again  they  are  unified  as  referring  to  external 
objects,  all  of  which  belong  to  one  world. 
Perception  merely  singles  out  the  object  in 
space  and  time.  Apperception  relates  the 
perception  to  the  self  and  to  the  world.  Thus 
Kant  emphasizes  the  organizing  factor  in  ap- 
perception, while  Leibnitz  lays  special  .stress 
on  the  factor  of  self-consciousness  therein. 
The  two  uses  of  the  term  do  not  differ  funda- 
mentally. According  to  both,  apperception 
is  the  spontaneous  activity  of  the  self,  in  reflect- 
ing upon  and  becoming  conscious  of  its  percep- 
tions, and  this  process  inevitably  organizes 
them  in  relation  to  each  other  in  a  self,  and  also 
constitutes  their  external  objects  into  the 
world  of  things. 

There  is,  however,  one  difference  between 
the  views  of  Leibnitz  and  of  Kant  that  leads 
directly  over  to  the  Herbartian  conception  of 
apperception.  According  to  Kant,  appercep- 
tion unifies  by  applying  its  own  principles  of 
organization  to  the  material  given  by  sense. 
The  product  consists  therefore  of  two  factors, 
the  organizing  warp  of  a  priori  forms  and  the 
organized  woof  of  o  posteriori  content.     Both 


elements  are  equally  distinguishable  in  the 
texture  of  experience.  Thus  apperception, 
and,  indeed,  perception,  are  to  Kant  the  estab- 
lishment of  relations  among  the  data  given  by 
experience,  but  these  relations  are  not  ab- 
stracted from  experience  by  the  analytic 
activities  of  a  reflective  mind.  Rather  they 
are  added  to  experience  by  the  synthetic 
activity  of  a  constructive  mind.  Experienc- 
ing is  the  clash  between  the  organizing  form  and 
the  data  of  sense,  and  both  factors  are  clearly 
discernible  in  the  finished  product.  To  Leib- 
nitz, however,  as  to  all  whose  psychology  fol- 
lows the  lines  of  the  faculty  theory,  mental 
activity  consists  in  a  manipulation  of  the  data 
of  sense  by  which  these  are  set  in  certain  rela- 
tions, and  made  to  reveal  certain  principles. 
Thus  both  form  and  content  are  analyzed  out 
of  experience  by  the  differentiating  power  of  in- 
telligence. 

The  Herbartian  like  the  Kantian  theory  of 
apperception  is  based  on  the  conception  that 
mental  activity  consists  in  the  clash  of  two 
factors ;  that  both  unite  to  form  the  experience. 
But  with  Herbart  these  two  factors  are  not  a 
content  given  to  the  mind  on  the  one  hand  and 
a  form  given  by  the  mind  on  the  other.  On 
the  contrary,  he  conceives  them  to  be  on  the 
one  hand  a  new  datum  for  experience  and  on 
the  other  the  mass  of  organized  experience 
through  which  this  new  datum  obtains  mean- 
ing and  interest.  To  be  sure  the  apperceiving 
ideas  according  to  Herbart  differ  from  that 
which  is  apperceived  in  being  organized,  related, 
assimilated,  and  therein  lies  their  power  to 
apperceive  the  new  idea.  But  they  are  not, 
as  with  Kant,  mere  principles  of  organization, 
forms  to  be  appliecl  to  new  given  content. 
Thej'  are  simply  old  experiences  that  have 
already  been  apperceived,  and  have  thus 
acquired  the  power  of  apperceiving  the  new 
ones.  Thus,  experiencing  to  Herbart  is  the  clash 
of  two  factors  of  content,  a  synthetic  process 
as  with  Kant,  but  not  a  synthesis  of  factors 
radically  different  in  quality.  The  idea  that 
apperceives  differs  from  the  one  that  is  apper- 
ceived only  in  having  previously  enjoyed  the 
advantage  of  having  been  taken  in,  assimilated, 
or  apperceived  by  the  mind. 

The  differences  between  these  views  of  ap- 
perception may  be  figuratively  represented  as 
follows.  The  apperception  of  Leibnitz  is  like 
the  activity  of  a  machine  that  manufactures 
by  combining  certain  raw  materials  into  fin- 
ished products.  The  apperception  of  Kant 
is  like  the  activity  of  a  machine  that  manu- 
factures by  adding  certain  constituent  elements 
to  the  raw  material,  as  the  warp  that  binds  it 
together.  The  apperception  of  Herbart  is 
like  the  assimilation  of  food  by  the  body.  As 
new  material  is  assimilated,  it  becomes  part  of 
the  living  tissue,  by  contact  with  which  new 
food  can  be  made  to  live.  According  to  Leib- 
nitz, the  mind  thinks  or  apperceives  its  percep- 
tions.    According  to  Kant,  this  process  means 


141 


APPERCEPTION 


APPERCEPTION 


the  imposition  of  forms  of  organization  upon 
tlic  perceptions.  Ilenec  one  is  not  far  wronp;  in 
saying  tliatwitli  Kant  tlie  o /jri'or/ forms  do  tlie 
apperceiving  or  thinlcing.  Aecording  to  Her- 
bart  it  is  one  perception,  one  idea,  tliat  mal<es 
or  appereeives  anotiier.  Ideas  arc  not  dead 
products  of  an  active  mind.  Tliey  are  living 
forces.     They  are  in  a  very  real  sense  the  mind. 

The  Ilcrhartian  conception  of  apperception 
has  two  fundamentally  important  ai)plieationH 
to  educational  theory.  In  the  first  place,  it 
involves  the  rejection  of  the  faculty  theory, 
and  consequently  the  theorvof  formal  discipline 
(q.v.)  as  ortlinarily  held.  In  the  second  place, 
it  leads  to  a  formulation  of  method  and  curric- 
ulum from  the  ])oint  of  view  of  the  experience 
already  attained  by  the  child.  The  ques- 
tion of  formal  discipline  is  considered  in  a  sepa- 
rate article.  Here,  however,  it  may  be  in 
place  to  note  that,  since  according  to  the 
faculty  theory  the  ability  to  carry  on  the  mental 
process  is  a  function  of  certain  abstract  inner 
powers,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  to 
one  who  accepts  this  theory  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  need  be  of  any  educational  conse- 
quence except  in  so  far  as  it  affords  a  means  of 
disciplining  these  faculties.  We  do  not  think 
because  we  have  ideas,  but  because  we  have 
faculties.  We  do  not  improve  our  powers  of 
thought  by  increasing  our  stock  of  idea.s,  but  by 
strengthening  our  power  to  manipulate  them. 
According  to  the  p.sychology  implicit  in  the 
theory  of  Locke  and  Leibnitz,  and  even  that 
of  Kant,  since  it  is  the  faculty  that  appercei^'es, 
the  teacher  should  strive  to  improve  this  power 
by  training.  On  the  other  hand,  according 
to  the  psychology  of  Herbart,  since  it  is  the 
idea  that  appereeives,  the  teacher  should  strive 
to  increase  the  stock  of  assimilated  experience 
in  the  child's  mind  by  instruction. 

The  Herbartian  theory  of  apperception 
throws  the  emphasis  not  on  the  quality  of  the 
mind,  but  rather  on  its  content;  not  on  the  self- 
activity  by  which  according  to  many  the  child's 
development  is  wholly  conditioned,  but  rather 
upon  the  activity  of  the  ideas,  the  efficiency  of 
which  depends  upon  the  thoroughness  with 
which  they  have  been  assimilated.  Now 
effective  assimilation  with  Herbart  is,  to  say 
the  least,  very  largely  dependent  upon  the 
arrangement  of  material  in  instruction.  In 
other  words,  the  excellence  of  the  child's 
abilities  is  mainly  the  consequence  of  the 
efficiency  with  which  he  has  been  taught. 
However,  it  is  perfectly  evident  that  good 
teaching  produces  very  different  results  on 
different  minds.  This  fact  is  not  neglected  by 
Herbart.  He  grants  the  importance  of  the 
individuality  of  the  child.  But  to  him  this 
individuality  seems  not  so  much  the  source  of 
those  energies  by  which  mental  development  is 
to  be  brought  about,  as  rather  a  mass  of  factors 
likely  to  interfere  with  the  proper  apperception 
of  the  material  of  instruction.  Thus  the  posi- 
tive factor  in   mental  growth  is  afforded   by 

142 


instruction.  The  inner  characteristics  of  the 
child  are  regarded  rather  as  negative  influ- 
ences, interfering  with  or  distorting  the  natural 
effects  that  might  be  supposed  to  s|)ring  from 
the  teaching  that  has  been  given.  Certain 
l^eculiarities,  temperament,  emotions,  disease, 
are  all  physiological  hindrances  to  the  pure 
mental  i)roccss  of  apperceiition.  They  must 
be  known,  not  to  be  utilized,  but  to  be  coun- 
teracted. 

Thus  according  to  llerliart  the  fundamental 
consideration  in  education  is  the  order  in 
which  material  is  iiresented  to  the  child's 
mind.  From  the  point  of  view  of  method,  this 
leads  to  the  so-called  fariiial  steps  {q.r.)  in  in- 
struction. From  the  point  of  view  of  subject 
matter,  it  involves  the  arrangement  of  the  course 
of  study  in  such  an  order  that  each  iiiece  of  work 
constitutes  the  natural  preparation  for  the  next. 
Apperception  with  Herbart  is  analyzed  into 
two  processes:  concentration,  or  absorption, 
and  reflection.  The  finst  involves  the  taking 
in  of  new  material,  and  the  second  its  organiza- 
tion in  reference  to  the  whole  body  of  ideas  in 
the  mind  of  the  learner.  Concentration  means 
that  tlie  new  idea  possesses  enough  affinity  for 
the  contents  of  the  mind  to  arouse  attention, 
that  is,  to  drag  above  the  threshold  of  consciou.s- 
ness  apperceiving  ideas.  Reflection  means 
the  gradual  reorganization  of  thought  under  the 
influence  of  the  new  idea.  To  be  absorbed, 
matter  must  be  clearly  presented.  This  first 
step  Herbart  called  clearness.  Rein  analyzed 
it  into  two,  preparation  and  presentation. 
The  teacher  must  prepare  the  way  for  instruc- 
tion by  finding  what  ideas  the  child  already 
possesses  which  may  constitute  a  basis  for 
apperceiving  the  new  tojuc.  He  must  then  so 
present  this  topic  that  it  is  readily  seized  by 
the  consciousness  thus  roused  to  expect  it. 
The  successive  topics  that  are  presented  must 
also  be  interrelated  so  that  each  throws  light 
on  the  other.  Method  must  bring  out  this 
connection.  Hence  a  second  step  of  method, 
or  association.  Associated  material  grasped 
together  in  a  unity  of  reflection  gives  system, 
the  third  stei)  in  method.  When  the  mind, 
thus  possessed  of  system,  reacts  upon  the  new 
thought,  it  docs  so  with  organized  method.  The 
step  in  instruction  that  aims  to  insure  this 
result  Herbart  calls  method.  As  we  have  seen. 
Rein  breaks  up  clearness  into  preparation  and 
presentation.  System  and  method  are  by  him 
called  condensation  and  ajiplication.  Pro- 
fessors Charles  and  Frank  McMurry  designate 
the  formal  steps  as  preparation,  presentation, 
comparison,  generalization,  and  apiilication. 

The  requirements  of  apperception  are  funda- 
mental in  determining  the  formal  steps.  They 
arc  equally  evident  in  Herbartian  schemes  for 
the  arrangement  of  the  course  of  study.  Three 
interrelated  conceptions,  deduced  either  wholly 
or  partially  from  the  princijjlc  of  apperception, 
have  governed  the  schemes  of  arrangement 
of  the  followers  of  Herbart.     These  are  corre- 


APPERCEPTION 


APPERCEPTION 


lation  (q.v.),  concentration  (q-i'-),  and  the  cul- 
ture epoch  theory  (q.v.).  By  correlation  is 
meant  such  arrangement  of  the  different  lines  of 
work  in  the  school  that  the  work  in  each  con- 
stantly bears  upon  the  work  that  is  being  done 
at  the  same  time  in  the  other  subjects.  There 
are  many  schemes  and  degrees  of  correlation, 
but  it  is  evident  that  the  principle  always  is 
largely  an  application  of  the  idea  of  apper- 
ception. So,  too,  concentration,  which  means 
that  one  subject  of  study  is  selected  as  the 
central  one  in  the  curriculum  and  all  others 
are  studied  as  means  of  comprehending  it 
better,  is  merely  a  close  application  of  the  prin- 
cijjle  of  presenting  the  new  through  its  relation 
to  the  old. 

The  scheme  of  concentration  has  usually  been 
associated  with  the  culture  epoch  theory  ((/.v.). 
According  to  this  theory,  the  studies  should  be 
presented  to  the  child  in  the  order  of  their 
appearance  in  the  history  of  the  race.  Thus 
the  child  will  be  led  through  a  series  of  "  cul- 
ture epochs  "  corresponding  to  those  in  the 
history  of  civilization.  The  justification  for 
this  order  of  study  lies  in  that  it  is  supposed  to 
be  the  order  of  clearest  apperception  on  the 
part  of  the  child.  Two  reasons  may  be  offered 
for  this;  and  each  illustrates  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent view  in  regard  to  the  process  of  apper- 
ception. According  to  one  of  these  views  the 
order  of  growth  in  culture  is  its  natural,  its 
logical,  its  inevitable  order.  The  child  must 
pass  through  these  stages  because  the  nature 
of  the  material  of  culture  is  such  that  each  stage 
is  the  logical  and  necessary  preparation  for 
the  apperception  of  the  next.  Here  we  find 
the  views  of  Lessing,  Herder,  and  Hegel.  Her- 
bart,  who  himself  gave  a  suggestion  toward  the 
culture  epoch  theory,  may  be  said  to  have 
found  in  hi.story  the  clew  to  the  logical  order 
of  apperception. 

The  second  consideration  that  led  to  the  cul- 
ture epoch  theory  was  that  of  psychological 
recapitulation.  This  view  was  intimately 
related  to,  and  indeed  founded  upon,  that  of 
biological  recapitulation.  According  to  it,  the 
child  manifests  successively  certain  instincts. 
These  instincts  appear  in  the  order  of  their 
racial  evolution.  Upon  them  depend  the 
child's  interests  and  activities,  and  upon  in- 
terest and  activity  depend  his  ability  to  appcr- 
ceive.  To  teach  a  child  of  6  what  appeals  to 
instincts  that  do  not  develop  until  12  is  to  fail 
utterly  in  results.  The  child  apperceives  only 
what  he  is  interested  in,  and  he  is  interested 
only  in  that  which  appeals  to  instincts  that 
have  at  least  begun  to  ripen. 

According  to  the  first,  the  Herbart.ian  con- 
ception of  culture  epochs,  the  lack  of  apper- 
ception when  culture  material  belonging  to 
later  civilizations  is  presented  to  a  young  child 
is  due  to  the  lack  of  experience.  According 
to  the  second  conception,  it  is  not  thus  caused, 
but  is  rather  the  result  of  immaturity  of  the 
instincts  to  which  the  ideas  and  feelings  of  this 


later  culture  appeal.  Xo  amount  of  mere 
experience  with  words  and  facts  can  make  a 
child  of  8  comprehend  full.y  tales  of  romantic 
love.  Mere  physical  maturity  brings  with  it  a 
pyschological  maturity  that  after  all  counts 
most  for  power  of  apperception. 

So  far  as  the  culture  epoch  is  concerned,  it 
is  doubtless  true  that  both  lines  of  argument 
in  support  of  it  are  in  a  measure  justifiable. 
But  for  the  treatment  of  the  conception  of 
apperception  the  differences  between  them  is 
of  great  importance.  It  serves  as  an  introduc- 
tion to  a  modern  interpretation  of  appercep- 
tion somewhat  different  from  that  of  Herbart. 
Just  as  with  Herbart  apperception  is  made  to 
depend  upon  the  activity  of  previously  assimi- 
lated ideas,  instead  of  as  formerly  upon  that 
of  abstract  faculties,  so  in  this  modern  theory 
it  is  made  to  depend  upon  the  activities  initiated 
by  the  instincts  rather  than  upon  the  mere 
functioning  of  experience  accjuired  earlier  by 
the  individual.  Thus  in  a  sense  the  more 
modern  tendency  has  been  to  revive  the  notion 
of  an  inner  activity  Ijdng  behind  the  mental 
content  and  vi\-ifying  it. 

There  are  two  methods  of  conceiving  this  in- 
ner activity.  According  to  the  one,  the  concep- 
tion of  Wundt,  apperception  is  "  the  activity 
of  the  otU  in  the  realm  of  ideas."  The  will  is 
an  agency  determinative  of  the  direction  of 
attention,  and  in  fulfilling  this  function  it  lifts 
certain  ideas  into  the  focus  of  consciousness  or 
apperceives  them.  According  to  the  other  con- 
ception, apperception  is  incidental  to  the  func- 
tioning of  the  instinctive  activities.  When 
these  activities  meet  a  check,  that  is,  when 
they  fail  to  gain  in  an  automatic  manner  the  re- 
sults for  which  they  exist,  then  dissatisfaction  is 
aroused,  attention  is  drawn  to  the  situation,  its 
characteristics  are  analyzed,  and  eventually 
their  significance  is  so  interpreted  that  a  satis- 
factory learned  reaction  is  substituted  for  the 
original  instinctive  one.  Thus  apperception 
is  a  mental  activity  roused  by  the  need  of  read- 
justment, and  operative  only  on  those  factors 
that  must  be  distinguished  and  interpreted  in 
order  to  secure  this  result.  In.stead  of  being 
merely  a  function  of  previous  experience,  it  is 
rather  a  function  of  those  inner  instinctive 
needs  around  the  satisfaction  of  which  both 
the  physical  and  the  mental  activities  of  the 
individual  center. 

The  Wundtian  theory  differs  from  this 
instinct-motor  theory  of  apperception  only  in 
that,  after  the  fashion  of  Leibnitz  and  Kant, 
it  emphasizes  rather  more  the  spontaneous 
activity  of  a  purely  mental  factor.  The  mind 
in  apperception,  according  to  Wundt,  asserts 
itself,  fixing  the  attention,  clarifying  the  ideas, 
and  thus  rousing  certain  corresponding  physio- 
logical activities.  We  feel  our  mental  energy 
innervating  the  muscles.  Apperception  is  cona- 
tion. It  is  the  struggle  of  the  will  to  deter- 
mine the  conduct  of  the  individual.  Thus 
it  is  immediately  connected  with   movement, 


143 


APPERCEPTION 


APPLICATION 


and  in  fact  the  sense  of  the  physical  activi- 
ties that  apperception  initiates  intensifies 
tlie  absorption  of  the  mind  in  the  worlc  of 
appcrceiving. 

Right  here  the  instinct-motor  or  genetic  the- 
ory makes  its  point  tluit  apperception  appears 
only  when  there  is  forced  upon  the  mind  a  sense 
of  its  activities  through  some  failure  of  adjust- 
ment. Thus  apiierception  is  not  merely  a  con- 
dition of  willed  movements  as  with  Wundt,  but 
also  a  result  of  a  failure  to  move  in  a  satisfac- 
tory manner.  This  failure  rouses  the  mind  to 
discover  what  it  wishes  to  do,  in  what  respect 
it  has  failed  to  acconi])lish  its  instinctive  pur- 
poses, and  the  various  factors  in  the  situation 
that  may  suggest  tliis  or  that  reaction  as  likely 
to  prove  a  successful  method  of  dealing  with  it. 
The  two  theories  are  not  antagonistic  to  each 
other.  Rather  they  may  be  said  to  supple- 
ment each  other.  To  Wundt  apperception  is 
the  intellectual  phase  of  conation.  To  the 
genetic  theory  it  is  the  intellectual  phase  of  re- 
adjustment. Wundt  finds  in  it  the  manifesta- 
tion of  the  free  inner  energy  of  the  self.  The 
genetic  theory  finds  it  to  be  the  attention  of  the 
mind  to  its  inner  needs  when  these  fail  to  be 
satisfied  by  hereditary  reactions.  When  we 
pass  to  the  educational  application  of  these 
conceptions  of  apperception,  we  find  that  they 
lie  essentially  in  the  view  that  interest  and  ef- 
fective application  to  any  school  work  is  not 
directlj'  a  function  of  experience  in  similar  lines, 
but  is  immediately  dependent  upon  a  sense  of 
the  value  of  this  work  in  satisfying  the  inner 
needs  of  the  self.  It  is  true,  experience  may  lead 
one  to  see  a  value  in  work  that  to  the  inex- 
perienced would  seem  mere  useless  drudgery. 
But  the  experience  merely  makes  clear  the 
connection  between  the  work  and  the  need. 
It  cannot  create  the  need.  The  energy  in  a 
motive  comes  from  within,  from  instinct  or 
free  jjersonality.  Experience  merely  enables 
this  energy  to  acquire  clearness  and  direction, 
and  thus  to  become  a  conscious  motive. 

Thus  the  modern  schoolmaster,  following  the 
genetic  theory  of  apperception,  does  not  ex- 
pect to  get  children  interested  in  the  matter  of 
instruction  merely  by  connecting  it  with  some- 
thing already  known  by  the  child.  It  is  nec- 
essary rather  to  show  that  the  schoolroom  tasks 
are  worth  while.  There  are  many  things  con- 
cerning which  we  know  much  and  at  the  same 
time  wish  to  know  no  more.  Often  enough 
the  child  betrays  this  attitude  in  the  school. 
Instruction  breeds  the  indifference  of  mere 
familiarity  unless  it  connects  itself  with  needs 
that  to  the  child  seem  vital.  Objects  do  not 
excite  attention  because  they  are  well  known. 
Indeed,  the  familiar  thing,  unless  it  suggests  to 
us  some  new  problem  that  we  feel  to  be  impor- 
tant, does  not  seize  the  attention  at  all.  The 
important  first  step  in  instruction  is  not  mere 
preparation  that  simply  calls  up  what  the  child 
knows  of  a  subject,  but  rather  the  foreshadow- 
ing of  the  application  which  is  to  be  the  final 


step,  and  in  which  all  that  is  to  be  learned  will 
finil  its  meaning  and  value.  E.  N.  H. 

References:  — 

liAiiLEY.     1'hc  Educative  Process.    (New  York,  1908.) 
J.\.MEs.    Talks   to  Teachers  on  Psychology.     (New  York, 

1902.) 
L.4NGE.     Apperception.     (Boston,  1S93.) 
McMuRBY.     General  Method.     (New  York,  190S.) 

APPLETON,  JESSE  (1772-1819). —  Author 
and  educator,  attended  Dartmouth  College; 
teacher  in  New  England  academies;  presi- 
dent of  Bowdoin  College  (1S07-1S19);  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Maine  Education  Society; 
author  of  two  volumes  of  essays  on  educational, 
social,  and  religious  subjects.  W.  S.  M. 

APPLICATION.  —  In  teaching,  that  gen- 
eral ])rinciple  which  calls  for  the  acquisition 
or  fixing  of  knowledge  through  action,  exijres- 
sion,  or  i)ractice:  also  given  as  the  fifth  step 
in  the  method  of  the  recitation  laid  down  by 
the  Herljartians.  (See  Hekhart;  IMethod, 
General;  Formal  Steps.)  The  popular  peda- 
gogical statement  that  there  shoukl  be  "no 
impression  without  expression"  in  teaching 
coincides  with  this  ])rinciple.  The  principle 
of  application  has  had  its  fullest  exposition  at 
the  hands  of  the  followers  of  Herbart  in  their 
treatment  of  the  Herbartian  ''dcveloimient 
lesson,"  where  it  is  the  fifth  or  final  "step"  of 
the  recitation.  In  Herbart's  original  and 
exjiandcd  outline  it  was  known  as  the  stage  of 
"  method  "  and  was  the  fourth  and  final  "step." 
In  modern  pedagogical  practice,  the  principle 
has  two  modes  of  expres.sing  itself:  (1)  In 
requiring  that  the  original  acquisition  of 
knowledge  and  values  be  the  product  of  action, 
as  in  any  process  of  "learning  by  doing." 
This  is  the  characteristic  mode  that  the  prin- 
ciple takes  in  the  "active  learning"  of  the 
kindergarten  and  the  more  modern  type  of 
jjrimary  school.  It  is  also  noted  especially 
in  the  teaching  of  manual  training,  laboratory, 
science,  drawing,  singing,  and  similar  subjects 
affording  a  large  opportunity  for  action.  (2)  In 
requiring  that  knowledge  largely  communicated 
through  conversation,  or  the  printed  page, 
be  given  actual  application  as  a  final  safe- 
guard against  defective  mastery.  The  prin- 
ciple takes  this  second  characteristic  mode 
in  the  teaching  of  the  more  abstract  subjects 
(physics,  ethics,  etc.)  to  mature  students. 
In  this  way  general  laws,  truths,  and  precepts 
are  brought  into  effect,  tested,  and,  if  necessary, 
reconstructed. 

The  principle  of  "  application  "  has  been  given 
an  emphasized  and  extended  importance  since 
the  advent  of  modern  psychological  influence 
in  teaching  theory  and  the  introduction  of 
"active"  subjects  (manual  traiiung,  nature 
study)  into  the  curriculum.  The  advantages 
which  accrue  from  its  use  in  the  teaching  or 
learning  process  are  numerous.  A  few  may 
be  noted:  (1)  It  guarantees  a  right  selection 
and  elimination  of  facts;   (2)  These  are  learned 


144 


APPLICATION 


APPORTIONMENT 


in  association,  rather  tlian  in  isolation  or  in 
detached  groups;  (3)  The  ideas  involved  in 
a  given  subject  are  properly  emphasized  in 
the  thought  system;  (4)  They  are  associated 
in  the  order  of  practical  need;  (5)  The  think- 
ing process  is  improved  by  the  increased  interest 
and  attention  which  comes  through  doing; 
(6)  The  expressed  result  is  a  more  or  less  im- 
mediate and  effective  check  on  error  in  memory 
and  reasoning;  and  (7)  The  stimulus  which 
comes  from  successful  achievement  is  one  of  the 
best  incentives  to  further  effort. 

The  school  has  many  situations  and  materials 
through  which  to  exercise,  express,  or  apply 
what  it  teaches.  The  school  of  the  past  de- 
pended almost  completely  on  verbal  expression, 
just  as  the  modern  movement  tends  to  regard 
the  constructive  or  manual  arts  as  the  major 
means  of  ap]3lying  its  ideas  in  the  concrete. 
Beside  these,  there  are  the  fine  arts  of  drawing, 
painting,  and  music,  and  the  subtle  expressive- 
ness of  face  and  posture  which  reveal  the 
ideas  and  motives  of  children  in  the  social 
relations  of  playground  and  classroom. 

To  neglect  any  one  of  the  characteristic 
types  of  expression,  or  any  species  of  them, 
may  be  to  lose  effective  means  for  giving  a 
better  knowledge  to  children  than  that  they 
have,  or  to  leave  them  with  undiscovered  intel- 
lectual defects.  Rote  repetitions  of  words 
meant  to  express  moral  laws  will  not  compensate 
for  that  loss  of  spontaneous  self-expression 
which  accompanies  a  repressive  school  atmos- 
phere. In  carrying  out  the  principles  of  "  ap- 
plication" with  the  materials  at  hand  in  school 
life,  four  suggestions  might  be  made:  (1)  No 
form  of  application  or  expression  should  be 
neglected.  Opportunity  for  play  and  socia- 
bility on  the  school  ground  has  a  fitness  for 
expressing  the  real  moral  knowledge  of  children 
vastly  superior  to  any  facts  about  morality 
which  they  may  express  verbally  in  the  class- 
room. (2)  No  form  of  action  or  application 
should  be  used  when  another  is  more  efficient 
for  the  purpose  involved.  With  the  average 
child,  talking  about  an  irregularlj^  shaped 
tract  of  land  is  much  inferior  to  making  a  dia- 
gram of  it.  (3)  When  either  of  two  forms 
will  do  almost  equally  well,  the  teacher  may 
well  use  the  most  convenient  and  economical 
method,  even  though  it  be  more  artificial.  In 
the  case  of  advanced  students,  it  is  certainly  less 
wasteful  of  time  and  energy  to  present  a  mathe- 
matical problem  through  symbols  than  through 
objects,  the  latter  method  being  conceivably 
better  with  younger  pupils.  (4)  It  will  fre- 
quently be  advisable  to  use  several  forms  of 
application  as  supplementary  to  each  other. 
Frequently  any  one  method  would  be  inade- 
quate. An  account  of  a  school  excursion  for 
botanical  study  may  well  include  oral  descrip- 
tions, rough  drawings,  and  the  display  of  objects 
collected.  H.  S. 

See  Appkrception;  Method;  Teaching, 
Principles  of;  Recitation,  Method  of. 

VOL.  I  — L  145 


References:  — 
Bagley.     Educative  Procecs,  Chaps.  XIX,  XX. 
Earhart.     Teaching  Children  to  Study;  Chap.  II. 
McMnRRT.    Method    of    the     Recitation,    Chap.    IX; 

How  to  Study  and  Teaching  to  Study,  Chap.  VIII. 

Thorndike.     Principles  of  Teaching,  Chap.  X. 

APPOINTMENT  BOARDS.  —  See  Boards 

OF  Education;  Teachers,  Appointment  of; 
Teachers,  Agencies;   University  Boards  of 

Appointment. 

APPOINTMENT    OF    TEACHERS.  —  See 

Teachers,  Appointment  of. 

APPORTIONMENT  OF  SCHOOL  FUNDS. 

—  After  taxes  have  been  levied  for  the  support 
of  a  system  of  schools,  the  proceeds  of  such 
taxation  must  be  distributed,  except  in  the 
case  of  district  or  town  taxation,  which  is  ex- 
pended where  collected,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  secure  the  object  for  which  the  taxes  were 
raised.  Theoretically  the  object  to  be  kept  in 
mind  in  such  a  distribution  is  a  greater  equali- 
zation of  both  the  burdens  and  the  advantages 
of  education.  (See  article  on  Taxation  fob 
Education.)  The  different  plans  in  use  in 
the  different  states  vary  much  in  nature  and 
in  the  success  with  which  they  accomplish  this 
purpose.  The  different  bases  for  distribution 
may  be  arranged  in  an  ascending  scale,  accord- 
ing to  their  success  in  attaining  this  object. 

I.  Single  Bases  of  Apportionment.  —  By 
a  single  basis  is  meant  a  plan  by  which  all  the 
school  money  distributed  by  the  state,  or  by  a 
county,  or  both,  is  distributed  to  the  smaller 
subdivisions  on  one  single  basis,  such  as  enroll- 
ment or  attendance.  This  differs  from  a  com- 
bination basis,  upon  which  a  part  of  the  money 
is  distributed  on  one  basis  and  the  remainder 
on  one  or  more  different  bases,  the  result- 
ing apportionment  being  a  combined  result  of 
the  use  of  two  or  more  bases.  Under  the  single 
basis  plan  we  have  the  follomng  tj'pes,  ar- 
ranged in  their  order  of  merit. 

1.  Taxes-where-paid  Basis.  — This  is  the  low- 
est and  the  poorest  basis  of  apportionment  in 
use.  By  it  the  state,  or  the  county,  merely 
becomes  a  tax-collector  and  gives  back  to 
each  school  unit  the  money  which  it  has  just 
forced  the  school  unit  to  pay  to  it  in  the  form 
of  a  tax.  The  Minnesota  "  local  mill  tax  "  is  an 
example  of  this,  where  the  county  levies  a  one- 
mill  tax  on  all  property  and  then  gives  it  to 
each  school  district  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
paid  by  each.  In  the  early  days  of  school 
taxation  this  basis  was  commonly  used,  but  it 
is  little  used  at  present,  produces  no  equaliz- 
ing effect,  and  its  use  as  an  apportionment 
basis  probably  will  be  entirely  discontinued 
before  many  years. 

2.  Taxable  Property  Basis.  —  By  this  the  in- 
come from  taxation  is  distributed  to  the  counties 
or  districts  on  the  basis  of  the  taxable  property 
of  the  county  or  districts,  as  shown  by  the 
last  assessment  list,  and  without  reference  to 


APPORTIONMENT 


APPORTIONMENT 


whether  the  taxes  for  the  year  have  been  paid 
or  not.  In  this  last  respect  it  is  more  just  than 
the  preceding  basis,  because  it  provides  funds 
for  the  maintenance  of  schools  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  children  whether  their  fathers  have 
been  able  to  pay  their  taxes  or  not.  The 
basis  is  used  by  Pennsylvania  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  one  tliirtl,  and  by  Xew  Jersey  for  the 
distribution  of  !)0  per  cent  of  the  state  appropria- 
tion. Like  the  preceding  basis,  it  was  once  much 
used,  but  has  now  been  abandoned  by  nearly 
all  states.  It  posses.ses  no  educational  sig- 
nificance, and  produces  little  equalizing  effect. 

3.  Total  Population  Basis.  —  This  basis 
marked  a  first  step  toward  a  distribution  bear- 
ing some  relation  to  the  number  of  children  to 
be  educated,  and  was  once  used  much  more  than 
it  is  to-day.  New  York  still  uses  it  as  a  partial 
basis  for  the  distribution  of  state  funds,  as 
also  does  Vermont.  Its  defects  lie  in  that  a 
census  is  taken  only  infrequently,  while  changes 
in  population  are  frequent  and  rapid;  that  the 
total  population  bears  no  real  relation  to  the 
number  of  children  in  the  community,  even 
in  rural  districts;  ami  that  it  bears  no  rela- 
tion to  the  number  of  schools  that  must  be 
maintained. 

4.  School  Population  Basis.  —  This  is  com- 
monly known  as  the  school  census  basis,  the 
money  being  distributed  in  direct  proportion  to 
the  number  of  children  of  school  age  (see 
School  Census)  in  the  county  or  district. 
It  appears  at  first  glance  to  be  a  just  basis,  and 
its  extensive  use,  38  states  using  it  in  whole  or 
in  part  as  a  basis  for  the  distribution  of  school 
funds,  would  indicate  that  it  has  been  so  re- 
garded by  legislators  and  schoolmen.  Any 
careful  calculation  as  to  its  results,  however, 
will  show  that  it  is  a  very  unsatisfactory  basis 
to  use.  It  bears  no  relation  to  the  real  cost 
of  maintaining  schools,  viz.,  the  number  of 
teachers  who  must  be  employed  to  teach  the 
children.  It  greatly  favors  the  city  as  opposed 
to  the  country,  and  the  large  school  as  opposed 
to  the  small  school.  It  places  no  premium 
on  the  many  educational  efforts  which  com- 
munities should  be  encouraged  to  make  for 
themselves,  such  as  the  provision  of  good 
teachers,  small  classes,  enforcement  of  atten- 
dance laws,  provision  of  extra  educational 
efforts  so  as  to  attract  a  larger  proportion  of 
the  children  into  the  public  schools,  and  the 
awakening  of  a  community  pride  in  the  schools 
themselves.  To  stimulate  a  community  to 
educational  activity  is  more  important  than  to 
reduce  its  taxes. 

5.  Enrollment  Basi.^.  —  This  is  a  distinct  ad- 
vance over  the  census  basis,  in  that  a  community 
is  paid  only  for  the  number  of  children  it  gets 
into  the  schools  for  a  definite  period  of  time, 
instead  of  for  the  number  of  names  of  children 
it  gets  on  the  census  lists.  It  is  used  as  a  basis 
of  apportionment  in  Xew  Hampshire  and  in 
Minnesota,  where  a  10-day  and  a  40-day  en- 
rollment, respectively,  are  required.     It  places 


a  premium  on  getting  the  child  into  the  school, 
and  in  Minnesota  on  keeping  him  long  enough 
to  get  him  interested  in  the  school  work.  This 
basis,  however,  must  be  regarded  as  a  tran- 
sition basis  from  census  to  daily  attendance. 

0.  Average  Daily  Attendance  Basis. — This 
basis  is  used  in  whole  or  in  part  by  a  number  of 
states,  and  is  a  distinct  improvement  over 
any  preceding  basis.  Instead  of  paying  for 
children  on  a  census  roll,  or  children  enrolled  for 
a  limited  time,  payments  are  made  only  on  the 
basis  of  the  average  number  of  children  re- 
tained on  the  rolls  of  the  school  during  the 
entire  school  year.  It  is  a  form  of  "  payment 
by  results,"  as  good  daily  attendance  is  the 
result  of  many  community  efforts  which  should 
be  encouraged.  It  stimulates  conununitics  to 
educational  activity,  and  involves  all  that  the 
enrollment  basis  involves,  and  more. 

7.  Aggregate  Days'  Attendance  Basis.  —  This 
basis  is  an  attempt  to  measure  even  more  closely 
the  work  of  the  schools,  and  to  pay  only  for 
the  actual  attendance.  Average  attendance 
is  calculated  on  average  membership  (see 
separate  articles  for  definitions  of  terms), 
and  hence  includes  children  belonging  to  the 
school  and  absent  for  a  day  or  two  at  a  time 
as  well  as  those  actually  present.  Aggregate 
days'  attendance,  on  the  contrarj',  includes  only 
those  actually  present,  counting  by  half  days, 
and  the  total  amount  to  be  apportioned  is  di- 
vided by  the  total  number  of  days'  attendance, 
thus  giving  a  certain  number  of  cents  per  child 
per  day  to  be  paid.  This  basis  is  the  most 
accurate  of  all,  but  its  use  alone  would  exact 
a  heavier  penaltj'  from  the  small  country 
school  in  favor  of  the  large  city  school,  due  to 
the  longer  term  and  the  larger  number  of 
children  taught  by  one  teacher  in  the  cities,  than 
does  the  school  census  basis  now  in  use.  Com- 
bined with  some  basis  which  first  recognized 
the  unit  of  co.st  of  maintenance,  which  is  the 
teacher  or  room  maintained,  it  is  the  most  just 
of  all  bases.  It  is  so  used  by  New  Jersey  in 
making  the  county  apportionment. 

8.  District  Ba.'<is.  —  This  basis  is  used  in  part 
as  a  basis  of  apportionment  by  a  few  Western 
states.  It  is  an  indirect  attempt  to  recognize 
the  unit  of  cost  of  maintaining  a  school  and 
the  teacher  who  must  be  employed.  In  making 
apportionment  a  definite  sum  or  proportion  is 
first  set  aside  and  given  to  each  district,  without 
regard  to  size.  It  is  also  an  attempt  to  equalize 
the  apportionments  as  between  rural  and  town 
or  city  schools,  the  district  quota  being  the 
same  for  each.  Combined  with  some  other 
basis  it  can  be  arranged  so  as  to  produce  good 
results,  but  used  alone  it  would  be  impractical 
and  unjust,  except  in  a  state  where  all  the  dis- 
tricts employed  about  the  same  number  of 
teachers,  in  which  case  it  would  approximate 
the  next  basis  of  apportionment. 

9.  The  Teacher  Employed  Basi.s. — This  is 
used  as  a  partial  basis  for  the  apportionment  of 
funds  by  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 


146 


APPORTIONMENT 


APPORTIONMENT 


and  Vermont.  Delaware  alone  uses  it  as  a  single 
basis.  It  can  be  shown  by  calculation  that  it  is 
in  many  respects  the  most  just  single  basis  that 
could  be  used.  The  monej^  collected  from 
all  on  the  basis  of  wealth  would  be  distributed 
for  the  benefit  of  all  on  the  basis  of  the  number 
of  teachers  needed  to  teach  the  children  for 
whom  the  taxes  were  collected.  The  larger 
communities,  where  larger  salaries  are  paid  and 
more  children  are  taught  under  one  teacher, 
would  have  more  parents  and  more  wealth  to 
provide  any  extra  sum  needed.  The  basis, 
however,  fails  to  place  any  premium  on  many 
desirable  educational  efforts  on  the  part  of  a 
community,  and  in  this  lies  its  chief  defect. 
Combined  with  aggregate  days'  attendance 
it  forms  one  of  the  most  just  and  one  of  the 
best  combined  bases  of  apportionment  that  can 
be  devised. 

II.  Combined  Bases  of  Apportionment.  — 
A  combination  of  two  or  more  bases  is  used  by 
a  number  of  states  in  order  to  secure  a  more 
equitable  result  in  the  distribution  of  school 
monej'.  Pennsylvania,  for  example,  distrib- 
utes the  state  appropriation  on  the  bases  of 
teachers  employed,  school  census,  and  property 
valuation,  one  third  on  each;  New  Jersey  in 
making  the  county  apportionment  gives  .S200 
for  each  teacher  employed,  and  the  remainder 
is  apportioned  on  the  basis  of  aggregate  days' 
attendance;  in  Nebraska  one  fourth  of  the 
county  apportionment  is  given  to  the  school 
districts  equally  and  without  regard  to  size, 
and  the  remainder  on  the  basis  of  school  census; 
and  California,  in  making  the  county  appor- 
tionment, gives  .$550  to  each  school  for  each 
teacher,  counting  70  census  children  as  a 
teacher,  and  the  remainder  on  the  basis  of 
average  daily  attendance.  Various  combina- 
tion bases  can  be  devised,  which,  if  carefully 
calculated  out,  will  give  fairly  equitable  returns, 
but  the  best  basis,  from  an  educational  point 
of  view,  is  a  combination  of  teachers  actually 
employed  with  average  or  aggregate  days'  attend- 
ance, together  with  a  small  reserve  fund,  as 
will  be  described  later.  If  the  length  of  term 
varies  greatly  throughout  the  state,  then 
average  daily  attendance  is  the  better,  as  it 
equalizes  all  schools  as  to  terms  and  does  not 
work  injustice  to  the  rural  schools;  but  if  the 
term  is  about  the  same  throughout  the  state, 
as  in  Connecticut,  where  all  schools  are  required 
to  provide  a  nine  months'  school,  then  aggre- 
gate days'  attendance  is  the  better,  as  it  places 
a  premium  on  more  desirable  efforts  on  the 
part  of  the  community. 

III.  Effort  and  Need  Bases.  —  In  a  few 
states  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  apportion 
at  least  a  part  of  the  fund  or  taxes  with  more 
direct  reference  to  the  efforts  made  by  com- 
munities to  provide  good  schools  for  them- 
selves, and  also  with  reference  to  the  relative 
needs  of  communities.  The  setting  apart  of 
a  reserve  fund  of  from  5  per  cent  to  10  per 
cent,  to  be  used,  after  the  regular  apportion- 


ment has  been  made,  to  render  additional  assist- 
ance to  those  communities  which  have  made 
a  maximum  effort  and  are  still  in  need  of  addi- 
tional assistance  to  enable  them  to  maintain 
a  school  the  length  of  time  required  by  law,  is 
the  simplest  form  of  such  aid.  The  regular 
apportionment  basis  continues  to  be  used, 
and  the  reserve  fund  is  used  only  to  render 
additional  assistance  to  those  communities 
whose  peculiar  circumstances  warrant  extra 
aid.  Tlie  State  Board  of  Education  usually 
distributes  the  reserve  fund,  and  only  after 
investigation.  Indiana's  5.2  per  cent  reserve 
fund  is  an  example  of  this  form  of  extra  aid. 
Vermont  and  New  Hampshire  give  somewhat 
similar  assistance  to  those  towns  whose  tax 
for  schools  has  exceeded  a  certain  rate.  Massa- 
chusetts uses  the  entire  income  from  its  school 
fund  to  help  poor  towns,  distributing  the  fund 
only  to  those  towns  having  a  total  valuation  of 
taxable  property  of  less  than  .$2,500,000,  and 
having  a  graded  schedule  based  on  valuation 
and  the  proportion  of  the  total  town  tax  de- 
voted to  schools,  those  having  the  lowest  valua- 
tion and  devoting  the  largest  proportion  of 
their  taxes  to  schools  receiving  the  largest 
amounts.  The  principle  involved  in  the  setting 
aside  of  a  reserve  fund  for  the  aid  of  necessitous 
communities  is  one  that  ought  to  secure  for  it 
a  wide  adoption  and  usefulness.  After  the 
best  uniform  apportionment  plan  that  can  be 
devised  has  been  put  into  use,  there  will  still 
be  a  few  poor  communities  which  cannot  meet 
the  demands  of  the  state,  though  thej'  raise 
the  highest  amount  of  tax  allowed  by  law. 

In  Connecticut  a  still  further  extension  of 
the  principle  of  the  equalization  of  opportuni- 
ties and  advantages  has  been  made  bj'  a  law 
which  virtually  equalizes  the  advantages  of 
education  to  every  child  in  the  state  up  to 
$25.00  per  year,  on  a  basis  of  average  daily 
attendance,  and  at  the  same  time  equalizes 
the  burden  of  support  on  every  taxpayer  down 
to  a  tax  of  four  mills  on  the  dollar. 

High  School  Apportionments.  —  In  most 
states  no  distinction  is  made  in  the  apportion- 
ment of  funds  between  elementary  schools  and 
high  schools,  the  money  going  to  a  common 
school  fund  and  any  balance  needed  being 
raised  by  extra  local  taxation.  In  a  few  other 
states,  California  being  an  example,  all  funds 
for  the  two  classes  of  schools  are  carefully 
segregated,  and  extra  aid  for  high  schools  is 
apportioned  at  a  different  time  and  in  a  dif- 
ferent manner  from  that  for  elementary  schools. 
In  a  number  of  other  states  where  this  segrega- 
tion of  funds  is  not  made,  some  form  of  extra 
aid  is  granted  for  the  maintenance  of  high 
schools.  For  a  consideration  of  this,  see  High 
Schools,  Support  of.  E.  P.  C. 

Europe. — The  apportionment  of  school  sup- 
port in  European  countries  is  far  more  com- 
plicated than  in  the  United  States,  and  fre- 
quently involves  traditions  and  vested  interests 
that     are     hard    to    disentangle.     In     general, 


147 


APPORTIOXMENT 


APPORTIONMENT 


however,  it  may  be  said  that  Great  Britain 
distributes  its  large  national  grant  to  public 
education  partly  to  relieve  local  burdens  and 
partly  to  stimulate  local  effort;  and  that  in  the 
centralized  administrative  schemes  of  France 
and  the  German  states  the  state  grants  are 
contributions  to  aid  the  communities  in  carry- 
ing out  prescribed  governmental  measures. 
In  England,  for  example,  local  authorities 
fix  salaries;  on  the  Continent  the  state  or 
nation  does  so  (at  least  the  minimum).  Eng- 
land may  withhold  a  grant  to  a  community  pay- 
ing salaries  deemed  too  low;  in  France  the 
state  simply  pays  the  prescribed  salaries; 
and  in  Prussia  the  state  aids  the  community 
in  paying  such  salaries. 

Apportinnment  in  England. — Governmental  rec- 
ognition of  education  came  in  England  through 
natural  grants  to  subsidize  private  or  philan- 
thropic effort.  Somtimcs  grants  were  simply 
lump  sums;  sometimes  based  on  numbers  of 
children  dealt  with.  By  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  an  elaborate  scheme  of  payment 
by  results  had  developed.  National  money  was 
distributed  to  privately  managed  schools,  not  on 
the  basis  of  mere  mimbers,  but  on  the  basis  of 
the  numbers  who  could  reach  grades  of  scholar- 
ship tested  by  examinations.  The  scheme  was 
logical,  but  the  sj'stem  of  examination  proved 
impossible  in  the  case  of  young  children.  The 
scheme  was  abandoned  for  elementary  educa- 
tion (though  long  continued  for  technical  and  art 
education),  and  there  developed  a  complicated 
system  of  grants:  (1)  An  average  attendance 
grant  of  22  shillings  for  older  children,  17  shil- 
lings for  infants;  (2)  A  fee  grant  for  those 
schools  (now  all  elementary  schools)  that  did 
not  collect  fees  from  parents  (by  Act  of  1891, 
amounts  to  10  shillings);  (3)  A  special  subject 
grant,  for  manual  training,  cookery,  and  agri- 
culture, where  equipment  and  teachers  are 
excessively  expensive;  (4)  An  aid  grant  of 
4  shillings  per  child  in  attendance  plus  IJ  d. 
for  every  2  d.  that  a  rate  (tax)  of  1  penny  yields 
less  than  10  shillings  per  scholar;  (5)  A  small 
population  grant,  which  in  effect  grants  £10  or 
£15  to  small  rural  schools;  and  (6)  A  temporary 
special  aid  grant  for  hijghly  rated  communities 
(applies  in  effect  to  rapidl.v  growing  communi- 
ities  where  local  improvements  are  a  heavy 
burden). 

The  above  complicated  scheme  does  (a) 
give  an  outright  contribution  to  public  educa- 
tion, (/))  aid  weaker  communities,  and  (c) 
stimulate  local  effort.  By  a  sj-stem  of  inspec- 
tion the  government  seeks  to  preserve  stand- 
ards, and  maj'  withhold  all  or  part  of  its  grant 
as  a  penalty  for  inefficiency.  Various  stand- 
ards are  prescribed  as  (a)  quality  of  build- 
ings, (fc)  number  of  pupils  per  teacher,  (c) 
salary  schedule  of  teachers,  (d)  number  of 
trained  teachers,  (e)  equipment,  etc.;  the  net 
effect  of  which  is  that  the  national  Board  of 
Education  can  practically  impose  any  stand- 
ard it  sees  fit. 


In  1906-1907  the  national  government  con- 
tributed to  the  support  of  elementary  educa- 
tion in  England  over  850, 000,000  (  f  10,408,000) 
whilst  local  contributions  were  about  844,000,000 
(£8,930,000).  The  state  thus  contributed  nearly 
55  per  cent. 

Since  1855  the  national  government  had 
also  subsidized  technical  and  art  education  by  a 
variety  of  grants  calculated  to  encourage 
local  enterprise  and  supplement  local  effort  in 
case  of  necessity.  These  were  the  South 
Kensington  grants,  and  their  bestowal  carried 
the  right  of  inspection.  The  basis  of  appor- 
tionment was  very  complicated,  resting  partly 
on  the  principle  of  payment  for  results  and 
partly  on  need  of  assisting  in  local  equip- 
ment. These  grants  have  now  been  transferred 
to  the  Board  of  Education,  for  administration, 
who  thus  control  the  expenditure  of  about 
82,800,000  (£450,000)  in  1907-1908.  The 
Board  of  Education  also  makes  special  grants 
to  encourage  the  local  training  of  those  destined 
to  be  teachers;  and  under  the  Act  of  1902,  it 
was  empowered  to  subsidize  secondary  educa- 
tion where  approved  standards  were  main- 
tained. 

Germamj.  The  revenue  for  the  support  of 
elementary  education  in  Germany  is  derived 
from  two  main  sources  —  state  and  local. 
In  1900-1901  the  education  of  each  pupil  cost 
47  marks,  of  which  on  the  average  the  state 
contributed  13.6  marks,  or  31  per  cent.  In 
Prussia  the  contribution  of  the  state  had  risen 
from  5  per  cent  in  1871  to  27  per  cent  in  1901, 
while  during  the  same  period  the  contributions 
of  school  fees  had  fallen  from  19  per  cent  to  a 
negligible  quantitj-,  a  fraction  of  1  per  cent  for 
nonresidents. 

The  principles  of  apportionment  may  be 
illustrated  from  Prussia.  There  the  first  prin- 
ciple in  relation  to  elementary  education  is  that 
the  local  community  (Gemeinde)  must  erect 
buildings  and  pay  the  teachers.  This  burden 
rests  on  heads  of  families  or  householders 
(HauKvatcr)  with  or  without  children,  but  it 
may  be  distributed  according  to  confession  — 
each  church  member  contrilniting  to  his  own 
school.  This  household  tax  is  distributed 
according  to  possessions.  There  is  added  a 
tax  on  the  ground  landlord. 

The  second  principle  is  that  state  aid  shall 
be  given  to  enhance  the  pensions  and  insurance 
of  teachers.  For  the  first  teacher  of  the  com- 
munity, 500  marks,  for  the  other  male  teacher, 
300  marks,  and  for  the  female  teachers,  150 
marks,  is  the  state  contribution.  This  con- 
tribution may  not  be  given  for  more  than  25 
teachers  in  any  one  district,  however.  Also  it 
adds  to  the  pension  fund  up  to  600  marks,  and 
proportionately  to  widows'  and  orphans'  pen- 
sions.    (Lexis,  Das  Unterrichtswesen,  III,  96.) 

The  third  principle  has  reference  to  needy 
communities,  or  those  that  have  already 
heavily  taxed  themselves.  Here  state  con- 
tributions may  be  made  to  extraordinary  ex- 


148 


APPOSITION 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND  EDUCATION 


penses  in  regard  to  buildings,  etc.,  and  always 
on  the  condition  of  a  full  exercise  of  local  effort. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  the  State  fixes  (mini- 
mum) salaries,  qualifications,  and  pensions 
of  teachers.  Hence  it  is  under  no  obligation 
to  induce  local  effort  in  these  directions  through 
its  state  funds.  But  it  does  aid  in  improving 
the  status  of  the  teacher  and  in  helping  the 
community  to  better  equip  its  schools. 

In  regard  to  secondary  and  higher  education 
the  same  principles  do  not  apply.  Many  of  the 
secondary  schools  are  traditionally  royal  or 
state  institutions,  and  as  such  derive  their 
revenue  from  endowments,  fees,  and  direct 
government  appropriations.  Others  are  sup- 
ported by  municipalities  with  the  aid  of  some 
state  contributions.  To  this  class  belong 
especially  the  scientific  secondary  schools 
(Reahchulen).  Higher  education  is  entirely 
supported  by  the  state,  beyond  the  amount 
raised  by  fees  and  endowments. 

France.  —  There  is  in  France  little  signifi- 
cance in  the  matter  of  apportionment  of  funds 
as  that  term  is  understood  in  the  United  States. 
The  state  (or  nation)  through  central  authority 
establishes  schools  (except  infant  schools), 
fixes  salaries  of  teachers,  provides  for  salary 
augmentations  and  pensions,  and  itself  pays 
these  salaries.  In  1906  the  nation's  contribu- 
tion to  current  expenses  of  elementary  educa- 
tion was  65.5  per  cent  of  the  total.  The  com- 
munes must  provide  buildings  and  equipment, 
but  the  government  now  administers  a  con- 
siderable loan  fund  to  aid  or  stimulate  this 
work.  Efficiency  is  secured  by  state  inspec- 
tion. The  inspectorate  and  the  central  au- 
thorities decide  all  questions.  D.  S. 

See  Cost  of  Education,  and  the  articles 
on  the  various  national  systems. 

References:  — 

For  a  detailed  consideration  of  the  various  American 
plans  for  the  apportionment  of  school  funds  see 
CuBBERLEY,  E.  P.,  School  Fu7ids  and  their  Apport^on- 
meni.  (Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University, 
Contributions  to  Education,  No.  2,  1905.)  For 
statistics,  see  the  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Com- 
missioner of  Education  (Washington,  D.C.).  For 
England,  see  Statistics  of  Public  Education  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  —  A7inual  Reports  of  the  Board  of 
Education.  For  Germany,  see  Statistisches  Jahrbuch 
filr  den  Preus.tischen  Stoat;  Lexis,  Dos  Unterrichts- 


APPOSITION,  METHOD  OF.  — See  Cate- 
chism;   Colloquies. 

APPREHENSION.  —  A  term  employed  to 
translate  the  term  Perception  as  used  by 
Leibnitz  and  Wundt.  This  term  is  in  antith- 
esis to  the  term  Appcrceptioyi  as  employed  by 
these  writers.  If  the  term  Perception  is  trans- 
lated by  the  English  word  "perception"  an 
ambiguity  arises  which  was  not  present  in  the 
mind  of  these  German  WTiters  because  the  Ger- 
man equivalent  of  the  word  "  perception  "  is  not 
of  this  form. 


APPRENTICE  TEACHER.  —  A  student 
teacher;  one  assigned  to  practice  teaching  as 
part  of  a  course  of  professional  training  for 
teaching.  Such  teaching  may  be  done  (1)  in 
a  special  training  or  practice  school,  parallel 
to  the  theoretic  work,  and  under  the  direct 
supervision  of  the  faculty  of  the  professional 
school,  or  (2)  in  the  classrooms  of  the  regular 
school  system,  at  the  close  of  a  period  of  theo- 
retic training,  and  more  or  less  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  regular  school  officers.  The 
term  "  student  teacher  "  is  more  appropriately 
appUed  to  a  practice  teacher  working  under 
the  first-named  conditions,  and  "  apprentice 
teacher "  to  one  working  under  the  second- 
named  conditions.  The  conditions  of  practice 
teaching  do  not  always  fall  into  one  group  or 
the  other,  a  mixed  plan  being  used,  when  the 
terms  are  used  interchangeably.  "  Practice 
teacher "  is  a  generic  term  which  may  be 
rightly  applied  to  all  teachers  still  within  their 
period  of  training  or  probation.  H.  S. 

See  Teachers,  Training  op;  Monitors; 
Pupil  Teacher. 

APPRENTICESHIP  TEACHER.  — See  Pu- 
pil Teacher. 

APPRENTICESHIP    AND    EDUCATION. 

—  England.  — Hi.slonj.  —  The  apprenticeship  sys- 
tem arose  out  of  the  burghal  policy  of  modern 
Europe,  when  all  craftsmen  in  towns  entered 
guilds  established  for  mutual  protection.  They 
were  founded  on  the  principle  that  labor 
employed  in  mechanical  trades  required  more 
skill  and  experience  than  are  requisite  in  hus- 
bandry. It  is  not  known  precisely  when 
apprenticeships  were  first  established,  but  they 
were  first  mentioned  in  the  statutes  in  1388 
(12  Richard  II,  c.  3)  two  centuries  after  the 
establishment  of  guilds  in  England.  Henry  IV, 
complaining  that  husbandry  was  impoverished 
by  reason  of  the  peasantry  leaving  the  coun- 
try districts  to  learn  trades  in  the  cities  and 
boroughs,  passed  a  law  to  repress  the  in- 
ferior classes  from  becoming  apprentices 
(7  Henry  IV,  c.  17).  (Repealed  as  regards 
London  by  8  Henry  VI,  c.  11.  Repealed  as 
regards  Norfolk  by  11  Henry  VII,  c.  11,  and 
by  12  Henry  VII,  c.  1  in  favor  of  Norwich.) 
To  exercise  a  trade  it  was  necessary  to  be 
free  of  the  fraternity  of  that  trade,  and 
the  only  way  of  obtaining  this  freedom  was 
by  serving  an  apprenticeship  to  a  member 
of  the  fraternity.  As  the  various  trades 
became  incorporated  they  were  called  univer- 
sities (i.e.  corporation.'^),  and  are  often  men- 
tioned in  the  old  charters  of  towns.  The  term 
of  apprenticeship  in  these  incorporations  was 
7  years,  which  is  now  the  period  required  by  a 
student  to  obtain  the  title  "  master  "  in  the 
older  universities.  While  these  regulations 
have  been  relaxed  in  trades,  they  have  been 
strictly  guarded  in  the  learned  professions. 
The  great  Statute  of  Apprentices  was  passed  in 


149 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND  EDUCATION     APPRENTICESHIP  AND  EDUCATION 


the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (5  Eliz.  c.  4).  This 
act  prevented  any  one  serving  less  than  a  7 
years'  apprenticeship  from  engaging  in  any 
trade  and  was  an  attempt  to  co[)e  with  tlie  want 
of  skill  in  the  tradesman.  The  statute  has  been 
much  condemned  i)y  Adam  Smith  and  other 
writers  as  interfering  with  the  riglits  of  the  in- 
dividual, while  others  aver  that  it  (1)  led  to 
the  elimination  of  inferior  work,  (2)  maintained 
a  high  rate  of  wages.  The  statute  of  Elizabeth 
remained  in  force  for  two  and  a  half  centuries, 
when  an  improved  state  of  trade  and  manu- 
factures and  the  changes  consequent  on  the  in- 
troduction of  machinery  and  the  factory  system 
demanded  an  alteration  in  the  law.  The  result 
of  a  petition  praying  that  the  statute  might  be 
rendered  more  effectual  resulted  in  the  passing 
the  Act  54  George  III,  c.  96  (1S14),  repeaUng 
the  statute  so  far  as  it  enacted  that  no  person 
should  exercise  any  trade  without  having  served 
a  7  years'  apprenticeship  to  it.  A  reservation, 
howc\'cr,  was  made  in  favor  of  the  bylaws  of  the 
City  of  London  and  other  corporate  towns.  The 
latter  were  deprived  of  their  rights  as  to  appren- 
tices by  the  M unicipal  Corporations  Act  of  1835, 
and  London  is  now  the  only  city  which  has  its 
own  peculiar  jurisdiction  over  apprentices.  On 
the  repeal  of  the  statute  of  Elizabeth  wages 
rose  and  fell  according  to  the  demand  for 
skilled  labor. 

Influence  of  Factory  System.  —  The  intro- 
duction of  machinery,  followed  by  the  subdivi- 
sion of  many  trades,  made  the  7  years'  appren- 
ticeship no  longer  necessary  or  desirable. 
The  employee  had  now  only  to  learn  a  single 
process.  Further,  the  concentration  of  work 
into  factories  led  to  a  decrease  in  the  number 
of  apprentices  employed,  owing  to  a  repugnance 
of  parents  to  send  their  children  away  from 
home,  and  it  was  not  until  wages  of  adult  arti- 
sans had  been  reduced  very  con.siderably  that 
other  than  adult  labor  was  employed  to  any 
extent  in  mills.  The  deficiency  was  made  up 
by  the  Acts  42  George  III  and  45  William 
IV,  c.  76,  c.  46,  which  allowed  Overseers  and 
Guardians  of  the  Poor  to  bind  out  apprentices 
from  the  different  workhouses.  These  acts 
contained  no  directions  to  the  master  to  afford 
the  apprentice  any  instruction,  the  system  be- 
ing merely  a  billeting  of  the  poor  in  order  to 
relieve  the  parish  funds.  The  harsh  treatment 
meted  out  to  parish  apprentices  led  to  the  Act 
of  1S02,  passed  ''  for  the  preservation  of  the 
health  and  morals  of  apprentices  and  others 
employed  in  cotton  and  other  mills." 

Features  of  the  Old  System.  —  Three 
characteristics  distinguished  the  old  system 
of  apprenticeship:  (1)  the  indentures  which 
bound  master  and  apprentice  together  for  a 
term  of  years,  (2)  the  contract  in  which  the 
master  agreed  to  initiate  the  apprentice  in  the 
mysteries  of  his  trade,  (3)  the  custom  of  the 
apprentice  to  lodge  in  the  house  of  his  master. 
The  system  ensured  three  principles  essential  to 
social  well-being:    (1)  the  youth  of  the  coun- 


try was  under  control  up  to  the  age  of  21  years, 

(2)  the  control  was  paternal  in  character  and 
inspired    by   a   living   and   individual    interest, 

(3)  each  youth  as  he  crossed  the  threshold  of 
manhood  found  opening  out  for  him  a  career 
for  which  he  had  been  specially  trained.  That 
evils  crept  into  the  system  cannot  be  denied, 
but  the  system  recognized  and  made  provision 
for  the  efficient  discipline  and  training  of  the 
youth  of  England. 

Decay  of  Apprenticeship.  —  Under  the  con- 
ditions of  modern  industry  the  significance  of 
apprenticeship  could  no  longer  be  secured. 
The  increase  in  the  size  of  workshops  made 
impossible  the  personal  relations  between  master 
and  apprentice.  For  the  personal  relations 
there  was  substituted  the  cash  nexus  between 
the  capitalist  and  the  wage  earner.  The 
division  of  labor  and  the  tendency  to  separate 
boy's  work  from  man's  work  not  onl}'  prevented 
but  rendered  unnecessary  an  all-round  training 
in  the  various  departments  of  a  trade.  With 
the  (hsappearance  of  the  paternal  relation, 
neither  employer  nor  employed  had  any  desire 
to  bind  himself  to  the  other  for  a  prolonged 
period.  And  so,  except  where  conditions  were 
very  favorable,  in  rural  districts,  in  favorable 
trades  and  small  towns,  the  apprenticeship 
system  gradually  but  surely  began  to  decay. 
(It  has  been  computed  that  at  present  not  more 
than  10  per  cent  of  the  members  of  English 
trade  unions  have  been  indentured  apprentices 
to  the  trades  in  which  they  are  now  engaged. 
Webb,  Indu.ilrial  Democracy.  Vol.  II.  p.  474.) 
With  the  repeal  of  the  Statute  of  Apprentices  in 
1814,  and  the  reform  of  the  Poor  Law  (1833), 
the  State  definitely  disclaimed  all  responsibility 
for  the  training  and  welfare  of  the  young  until 
the  efforts  of  philanthropists  like  Shaftsbury, 
Fielder,  and  Oastler,  and  also  of  those  pioneers 
of  trades  unionism,  forced  the  State  to  recog- 
nize the  evils  which  that  age  of  uncontrolled 
liberty  had  called  into  being.  The  decay  of 
apprenticeship  was  affected  by  the  industrial 
revolution  in  two  ways:  (1)  by  the  congrega- 
tion of  communities  into  towns  where  the  boy 
was  employed  in  mills  and  factories,  and  was 
put  to  work  at  one  specialized  process  and 
nothing  more,  (2)  by  the  attempted  limitation 
of  apprentices  by  trades  unions  where  it 
could  be  effected.  The  result  was  that  the 
youth  of  the  nation  rapidly  degenerated  phys- 
ically, while  educationally  they  were  destitute. 

Neir  Forms  of  Apprentice  Education.  —  To 
meet  the  decay  of  the  apprenticeship  system 
and  to  supply  some  form  of  education  to  replace 
the  training  which  it  afforded,  mechanics'  insti- 
tutes iq.v.)  sprang  up  to  supplement  the  educa- 
tion of  the  workingman  and  boy.  Where  these 
did  not  disappear  through  inanition  and  lack 
of  support,  they  developed  into  polytechnics 
(q.v.),  technical  schools,  technological  institutes 
and  colleges,  which  were  fo.stered  by  the  grants 
of  the  Science  and  Art  Department  and  later  on 
under   the    Technical  Instruction  Act   of    1889. 


150 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION     APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION 


(See  Industrial  Education;  Technical  Edu- 
cation; England,  Education  in;  Trade 
Schools.)  The  development  of  technical  edu- 
cation has  thrown  a  new  light  on  the  possibili- 
ties of  apprenticeship  training.  It  is  being  felt 
more  and  more  that  industrial  efficiency  can 
be  promoted  only  by  having  not  only  skilled, 
but  intelligent,  theoretically  trained  workmen. 
Though  daily  instruction  for  apprentices  is  far 
from  being  generally  adopted  in  England,  signs 
are  not  wanting  that  enlightened  employers 
see  that  if  England  is  to  maintain  its  prestige 
as  a  manufacturing  nation,  an  opportunity  for 
combining  shop  work  with  technical  education 
must  be  afforded  to  the  future  mechanic.  An 
increasing  number  of  firms  in  various  trades 
have  already  taken  advantage  of  existing  facili- 
ties, and  allow  apprentices  to  attend  technical 
classes  during  their  working  hours.  This  is 
especially  noticeable  in  engineering  and  ship- 
building industries,  where  the  various  sub- 
divisions of  labor  and  the  use  of  special 
machinery  render  it  difficult  for  the  apprentices 
to  acquire  more  than  a  small  amount  of  manip- 
ulative skill  and  a  very  sUght  knowledge  of  the 
various  processes  of  the  trade  in  which  they 
are  engaged.  Various  methods  are  adopted  ac- 
cording to  the  requirement  of  the  firm,  the  chief 
being:  (1)  Apprentices  attend  technical  classes 
one  or  two  days  each  week  during  their  ap- 
prenticeship. (2)  Apprentices  attend  technical 
classes  during  slack  periods  varying  from  two 
to  four  months.  (3)  Attendance  at  a  technical 
class  for  a  specified  course  entitles  a  youth  to  a 
shorter  apprenticeship,  one  year,  and  in  some 
cases  two  years,  being  allowed. 

Five  large  railway  companies  have  estal)- 
lished  mechanics'  institutes  in  various  centers, 
notably  in  Horwich,  Crewe,  London,  Darhng- 
ton,  Gateshead,  York,  where  apprentices  attend 
during  the  daytime  without  loss  of  wages.  In  a 
number  of  works,  notably  Brunner,  Moud,  and 
Co.,  Northwich,  Cheshire;  Lever  Bros.,  Port 
Sunlight ;  Clayton  and  Shuttleworth,  Lincoln, 
attendance  at  technical  classes  is  made  a  com- 
pulsory  condition    of   apprenticeship. 

Apprenticeship  Committees.  — Along  the  lines 
here  mentioned  there  is  a  possibility  that  there 
will  be  a  recrudescence  of  apprenticeship  train- 
ing. For  this  purpose  committees  for  appren- 
ticing young  boys  are  being  established  and  are 
having  a  marked  effect  upon  the  education  of 
the  skilled  mechanic.  Originally  the  system 
was  started  by  the  Jewish  Board  of  Guardians 
in  1840  to  assist  poor  parents  to  apprentice 
their  boys  to  a  skilled  trade.  The  committees' 
functions  are  :  (1)  To  select  an  occupation 
for  the  child.  (2)  To  grant  a  loan  (premium) 
where  necessary  for  books,  clothing,  etc.  (3) 
To  indenture  apprentices  wherever  possible. 
(4)  To  watch  over  boy  or  girl  during  the  ap- 
prenticeship. Where  employers  do  not  receive 
indentured  apprentices.  Apprenticeship  Com- 
mittees have  an  indenture  form  of  their  own 
which  makes  the  boy  and  girl  realize  their  re- 

151 


sponsibility  in  the  matter.  In  most  cases  it  is 
a  compulsory  condition  that  the  boy  attends 
technical  classes,  and  wherever  possible  em- 
ployers are  chosen  who  allow  a  certain  time 
off  during  working  hours  for  the  purpose  of 
attending  technical  classes  without  lo.ss  of 
salary.  These  committees  have  united  in  a 
Central  Association  for  mutual  cooperation 
and  support.  (Address,  Denison  House, 
Vauxhall  Bridge  Road,  London,  S.W.).  This 
binding  together  of  forces  is  all  for  the  public 
weal,  and  -will  enable  the  committees  to  look  at 
the  que.stion  of  profitable  employment  in  its 
widest  aspect.  Alreadj^  their  experience  is 
being  utilized  by  juvenile  labor  exchanges  and 
employment  registry  committees  that  are 
being  established  throughout  the  country. 

Ari.sing  out  of  the  attitude  of  trade  unions 
toward  industrial  education  a  recent  proposal  has 
been  made  to  apprentice  the  young  workman 
directly  to  the  unions  instead  of  to  the  em- 
ployers. It  is  hoped  in  this  way  that  the  feared 
exploitation  of  trained  apprentices  by  employers 
will  be  prevented,  and  at  the  same  time  these 
would  not  come  into  competition  with  adult 
workers,  particularly  at  a  time  when  unemploy- 
ment is  pressing  for  immediate  attention. 

From  still  another  point  of  view  a  re\ival  of 
apprenticeship  is  being  advocated.  Technical 
schools,  it  is  claimed,  are  not  a  substitute  for 
apprenticeship,  because  they  tend  to  eradicate 
iudi\dduality  and  reduce  all  workers  to  a  dead 
level.  What  is  required  now  is  tlie  raising  of 
standard  and  ideals  of  work.  The  old  guilds 
did  not  flood  the  market  with  cheap  goods,  but 
paid  considerable  attention  to  the  artistic 
element.  On  this  side  the  revi^-al  of  appren- 
ticeship on  a  small  scale  could  be  turned  to  ad- 
vantage in  restoring  the  arts  and  crafts.  Such 
a  plan  has  the  further  recommendation  that  it 
would  not  interfere  with  the  regular  system  of 
manufacture  and  labor  by  adult  workmen. 
(See  London  DaihjNeirs,  Nov.  13,  15,  16,  1909.) 

In  June,  1910,  the  Juvenile  Labor  Bureau  was 
transferred  from  the  Board  of  Trade  to  the  Edu- 
cation Department.  By  this  latest  development, 
all  the  work  liitherto  carried  out  by  Skilled  Em- 
ployment Committees,  which  were  voluntary  or- 
ganizations working  under  gi-eat  disadvantages, 
will  be  taken  over  by  the  Borough  and  County 
Councils.  Tills,  it  is  expected,  will  lead,  either 
(1)  to  the  systematic  reorganization  of  the 
apprenticeship  system  ;  or  (2)  to  the  system  at 
present  in  vogue  in  Germany,  where  the  appren- 
tices' working  hours  are  limited  by  the  educa- 
tional authorities,  who  insist  that  the  apprentice 
shall  receive,  in  addition,  technical  instruction  in 
his  craft  up  to  the  age  of  17,  and  in  some  cases 
to  18.  Similarly  "  Scholars'  Employment  Bu- 
reaus "  are  being  organized  in  the  manufacturing 
centres  tliroughout  the  countrj'.  Their  aim  is  to 
save  boys  and  girls  from  "  blmd  aOey  "  employ- 
ments, to  which  they  are  attracted  by  the  rclatiA-e 
high  wages  of  the  early  stages.  These  com- 
mittees work  in  connection  with  the  employees, 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION     APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION 


all  of  whom  :iro  circularized  for  information,  and 
on  the  otluT  hand  tlirough  the  school  teachers. 
When  the  time  approaches  for  a  boy  to  lea\-e 
school,  his  parents  get  a  letter  from  the  head- 
master asking  tliem  to  meet  him  and  discuss  the 
lad's  future.  In  very  many  cases  the  teacher 
has  a  better  idea  as  to  where  the  boy's  special 
abilities  lie  than  have  his  parents.  The  class 
teacher  is  present  at  the  discussion,  and  it  having 
been  settled  what  calling  is  most  likely  to  suit 
the  boy,  a  card  is  filleil  up  giving  i)articulars 
about  liim,  and  if  the  authorities  or  the  sciiool 
itself  know  of  no  situation  open  that  will  suit, 
the  card  is  sent  to  the  Central  Ivlucatioti  Office, 
where,  of  course,  a  complete  register  is  kept. 

Summary.  —  With  increased  faciUties  for 
education  the  needs  of  industrial  workers  have 
created  a  widespreading  interest:  (1)  Among 
employers  of  labor,  who  expect  technical  train- 
ing to  provide  them  ultimately  with  workmen 
possessing  an  industrial  intelligence  at  present 
lacking  in  the  average  artisan  to-day,  owing  to 
the  passing  away  of  the  old  system  of  appren- 
ticeship. (2)  Among  the  rank  and  file  of 
workers,  who  see  in  it  a  means  of  escape  from 
the  monotonous  routine  which  specialized 
industry    imposes    upon    the    worker    to-day. 

(3)  Among  sociologists,  who  see  in  its  adoption 
a  means  of  securing  industrial  efficiency  lead- 
ing to  a  higher  .standard  of  life  for  the  worker. 

(4)  Among  educationists,  who  feel  that  the 
present  type  of  school  does  not  meet  with  the 
needs  of  a  great  mass  of  the  State's  children. 

Apprenticeship  Legislation.  —  There  still  sur- 
vive in  the  Statute  Book  several  regulations 
relating  to  apprentices.  Thus  by  the  statute 
of  1536  (28  Henry  VIII)  companies  cannot 
restrain  their  apprentices  from  establishing 
shops  when  they  become  free.  By  18  George 
III,  c.  47  (1777)  no  child  apprenticed  can  con- 
tinue as  such  after  the  age  of  21.  In  1814 
(54  George  III,  c.  96)  the  Statute  of  Apprentices 
(5  Eliz.  c.  4),  so  far  as  it  enacted  that  no  person 
should  exercise  any  trade  without  having  served 
7  years'  apprenticeship  to  it,  was  repealed  ex- 
cept for  customs  in  respect  for  London.  Other 
legislation  regulates  the  apprenticing  by  over- 
seers of  parishes.  The  better  protection  of 
apprentices  and  their  supervision  by  overseers 
and  guardians  is  proWded  for  by  14  and  15 
Victoria,  c.  11  (1851).  Endowments  for  the 
payment  of  apprentices'  fees  were  made  educa- 
tional endowments  by  32  and  33  Victoria,  1869. 
The  London  (City)  Apprentices  Act  (1889) 
pro\'ides  (1)  For  apprentices  of  not  less  than 
4  years  and  not  more  than  8  years.  (2)  To 
omit  the  covenant  binding  the  apprentice  not 
to  marry  during  the  period  of  apprenticeship. 
(3)  To  omit  the  covenant  on  the  part  of  the 
master  to  pro\ide  meat,  drink,  apparel,  lodg- 
ing, and  other  necessaries  for  apprentices,  and 
substitutes  payment  in  wages  to  be  mutually 
agreed  upon. 

The  following  laws  at  present  regulate 
apprenticeship:  — 


(1)  The  apprentice  must  be  bound  of  his 
own  free  will  or  with  the  consent  of  his  parent 
or  guardian.  (2)  The  apprentice  agrees  to 
faithfully  serve  the  master  or  his  representa- 
tives for  the  term  siiecified  in  the  indentures. 
X.B.  Unfaithful  service  includes  waste,  injury 
to  master's  property,  unlawful  absence  from 
w'ork,  disobedience  of  lawful  orders,  malprac- 
tices. (3)  The  father  or  guardian  must  guar- 
antee to  provide  the  apprentice  with  sufficient 
food,  clothing,  lodging,  and  all  necessaries 
(unless  as  agreement  otherwise  is  arranged 
with  the  master).  (See  5.)  (4)  The  master 
agrees  to  receive  and  instruct  (or  cause  to  be 
instructed)  adequately  the  apprentice  to  the 
best  of  his  knowledge,  power,  and  ability 
throughout  the  term  of  his  apprenticeship. 
(5)  The  master  must  provide  tlie  ajiprentice 
with  adequate  board,  lodging,  and  medical 
attendance,  and  treat  him  as  one  of  the  family 
(unless  an  agreement  otherwise  is  arranged)  (see 
3),  or  pay  a  sum  of  money  as  wages  (weekly 
or  monthly)  in  lieu  thereof.  (6)  Wages  may 
be  deducted  by  the  master  (except  in  case  of 
illness  to  be  specified  by  a  qualified  medical 
practitioner)  for  willful  default,  neglect,  or 
absence  from  service  of  the  apprentice.  (7) 
Reasonable  fines  may  be  deducted  from  wages 
for  breaking  rules  (which  must  be  set  forth) 
of  the  master's  establishment.  (8)  The  hours 
of  work  must  be  specified,  and  overtime  must 
be  paid  for  at  a  rate  specified.  (9)  The  master 
must  pay  all  travelling  expenses  of  journeys 
incurred  by  the  apprentice  in  connection  with 
the  business  of  the  said  master,  and  is  respon- 
sible for  board  and  lodging  of  the  apprentice 
when  the  latter  is  working  at  a  distance  (speci- 
fied). (10)  The  apprentice  may  be  dismissed 
for  (a)  gross  misconduct,  (6)  idleness,  (c)  in- 
capacit}'  of  the  apprentice  to  learn  his  trade. 
X.B.  (c)  at  master's  discretion,  but  the  appren- 
tice may  appeal  to  justices. 

General.  —  A  contract  of  apprenticeship  is 
one  whereby  one  person  becomes  bound  to 
teach  another  a  certain  profession  or  trade,  and 
the  latter  is  bound  to  learn  it  and  to  serve  as  an 
apprentice.  In  common  law  "  writing  "  is 
necessary  if  the  contract  be  for  more  than  a 
year ;  if  for  less  than  a  j'ear,  no  written  agree- 
ment is  necessary. 

Education  of  Appreydices.  —  Three  types  of 
facilities  are  afforded  for  the  training  of  appren- 
tices in  technical  branches.  In  the  first  rank 
are  to  be  found  the  regular  technical  schools, 
which  are  more  and  more  tending  to  adapt 
the  whole  or  part  of  their  courses  to  the  needs 
of  local  industries.  The  employers  in  many 
cases  compel  their  apprentices  to  attend  for 
part  time,  and  in  some  instances  pay  their  fees. 
The  other  practice  is  to  establish  schools 
within  the  employers'  works  under  the  charge 
of  a  superintendent  who  is  acquainted  with  the 
needs  of  the  establishment.  These  schools 
tend  to  be  very  specialized.  In  the  third  class 
employers   may   insist   that   their   apprentices 


152 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION      APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION 


attend  evening  technical  courses.  Examples 
of  each  type  will  be  given  without  mak- 
ing any  attempt  to  be  exhaustive.  At  the 
same  time  it  must  be  noted  that  these  repre- 
sent the  highest  class  of  employers  engaged  in 
industries  not  only  based  on  technical  skill,  but 
in  competition  with  other  countries  for  the 
markets  of  the  world.  At  present  their  experi- 
mentation is  of  importance  as  a  signpost  for 
other  employers  in  smaller  industries,  and  as  a 
guide  for  future  legislation. 

1.  Railway  companies  make  provision  for 
the  attendance  of  their  apprentices  at  technical 
schools  without  loss  of  salary.  Thus  appren- 
tices from  the  Great  Eastern  Railway  Co. 
attend  the  G.  E.  R.  Mechanics  Institute  at 
Stratford,  London,  for  at  least  one  session  of  6 
months.  Day  classes  are  also  held  in  the  rail- 
way works.  The  company  pays  part  of  the 
fees,  and  no  deduction  is  made  from  the  salary. 
The  Great  Western  Railway  Co.  pays  the  fees 
of  selected  apprentices  to  attend  for  1  year  in 
the  workshop  and  for  at  least  one  session  in  the 
evening  technical  classes  of  the  Technical 
School  at  Swindon.  The  London  and  North 
Western  Railway  Co.  allows  apprentices  in  the 
electrical  department  to  attend  day  classes  in 
technological  subjects  for  one  half-day  weekly 
at  the  Mechanics  Institute,  Crewe,  -which  was 
built  by  the  company.  So  the  apprentices 
from  the  London  and  South  Western  Railway 
Co.  may  attend  morning  classes  at  the  Bat- 
tersea  Polytechnic,  London;  from  the  Midland 
Railway  Co.  at  the  Technical  School,  Derby. 

2.  The  railway  companies  are  followed 
closely  by  the  engineering  and  shipbuilding 
trades.  Apprentices  from  Vickers,  Son  and 
Maxim,  Ltd.,  who  have  had  a  high  school  or 
grammar  school  education  must  attend  a  two 
years'  course  in  the  Technical  Department  of 
Sheffield  University,  either  as  a  preliminary  to 
entering  the  works  or  at  a  later  period  of  their 
apprenticeship  at  their  own  option.  In  such 
cases  the  apprentice  will  reenter  at  the  rate 
of  pay  which  he  would  have  been  receiving,  if 
these  two  years  had  been  spent  in  the  workshop. 
Selected  apprentices  from  Mather  and  Piatt, 
Salford  Ironworks,  attend  technical  courses 
at  the  Manchester  School  of  Technology  one 
afternoon  each  week  without  loss  of  salary  and 
pay  their  own  fees.  The  firm  makes  attend- 
ance at  evening  classes  a  condition  of  engage- 
ment as  apprentices.  Hans  Renold,  Ltd., 
Manchester,  pay  the  fees  of  apprentices  who 
attend  the  same  institution  for  one  whole  day 
each  week  for  technical  subjects.  Other  man- 
ufacturers in  the  neighborhood  of  Manchester 
follow  the  same  plan.  As  a  result  of  a  confer- 
ence at  Sunderland  between  the  authorities  of 
the  Technical  College  and  local  engineering 
and  shipbuilding  firms,  apprentices  during  the 
first  two  years  in  the  workshop  must  attend 
technical  classes  in  engineering  subjects.  Some 
25  studentships  are  awarded  on  the  results  of 
examinations  on  the  work  of  the  evening  classes 


which  enable  apprentices  to  attend  day  classes 
for  six  months  in  each  year  for  three  or  four 
years.  The  Belfast  Technical  School  provides 
courses  preparatory  to  apprenticeship  and  also 
for  apprentices  engaged  in  the  local  shipyards, 
who  are  allowed  to  attend  one  full  day  each 
week  without  loss  of  salary,  and  whose  fees  are 
paid  by  the  employers.  The  Bellis  and  Morcom 
Engineering  Works  exempt  apprentices  who 
attend  evening  classes  at  the  Birmingham 
Technical  Schools  from  attendance  at  work  on 
the  following  day  between  6  a.m.  and  9  a.m., 
and  also  advance  wages  on  reports  of  progress 
from  the  school  principal.  Wm.  Denny  and 
Son,  Dumbarton,  permit  those  apprentices 
who  gain  scholarships  at  the  West  of  Scotland 
Technical  College  to  attend  courses  for  6 
winter  months  and  shopwork  during  the  rest 
of  the  year.  The  time  spent  at  college  is 
counted  as  part  of  the  apprenticeship  period. 
Arrangements  are  also  made  by  employers  at 
Middlesboro'  and  Derby  for  the  attendance  of 
their  apprentices  at  the  local  Technical  Schools. 

3.  In  the  chemical  industry,  Brunner,  Mond 
and  Co.  compel  their  apprentices  to  attend 
evening  classes  at  the  Verdin  Technical  School, 
Cheshire,  and  selected  apprentices  may  attend 
day  classes  on  two  afternoons  each  week.  The 
Coalport  China  Co.  permits  apprentices  with- 
out loss  of  salary  to  attend  the  Coalportdale 
Art  School,  Salop,  at  arranged  periods  during 
the  day.  Selected  dressmaking  apprentices 
from  Debenham  and  Freebody  are  allowed  to 
attend  courses  in  dressmaking  at  the  London 
Polytechnic  on  two  afternoons  each  week.  The 
Masters'  Association  of  Painters  and  Deco- 
rators pay  the  fees  of  apprentices  to  attend  art 
courses  at  the  Bradford  (Yorkshire)  Technical 
College  from  two  to  five  days  per  week  during 
the  first  year  of  their  apprenticeship.  Arrange- 
ments are  made  for  house  painters'  apprentices 
at  Halifax  and  Manchester. 

4.  Clayton  and  Shuttleworth,  Ltd.,  Lincoln, 
manufacturers  of  agricultural  machinery,  have 
established  a  practice  which  it  is  hoped  will 
combine  the  old  sj'stem  of  apprenticeship  with 
the  modern  factory  system.  A  private  school 
is  maintained  inside  the  works  in  which  courses 
of  instruction  pertaining  to  the  various  trade 
processes  carried  on  in  the  works  are  given 
under  the  guidance  of  an  expert  superintendent 
who  has  risen  from  the  ranks.  As  far  as  pos- 
sible every  apprentice  receives  in  addition  a 
practical  knowledge  of  as  many  processes 
allied  to  his  trade  as  possible.  All  apprentices 
spend  a  certain  amount  of  each  week  at  class 
instruction,  books  and  material  being  supplied 
free.  Merit  is  recognized,  and  all  apprentices 
of  exceptional  ability  are  given  opportunities 
to  enable  them  to  get  an  all-round  knowledge 
of  the  trade  which  will  enable  them  to  take  posi- 
tions of  foremen  or  managers  of  works.  Appren- 
tices are  taken  on  at  any  age  from  15  to  22 
years,  but  all  receive  the  same  wages  at  the 
start.     The  trades  taught  are  machinist,  fitting 


153 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION     APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION 


and  erecting,  toolmaking,  wheelwright,  mohi- 
ing,  smithwork,  jjoilcr  making,  pattern  mak- 
ing, joinery.  Tiic  outcome  of  this  scheme  is 
being  watched  with  interest  by  educationists 
tliroughout  the  country. 

5.  Apart  from  these  institutions  in  which 
the  employers  themselves  take  an  active  interest, 
numerous  technical  antl  evening  schools  provide 
courses  which  are  attended  voluntarily  by 
apprentices  at  their  own  expense  outside  of 
working  hours.  Without  any  attempt  at  elab- 
oration three  objections  may  be  stated  to  this 
system,  (a)  such  courses  are  attended  only  by 
the  most  ambitious  pui)ils,  (6)  by  those  whose 
parents  can  afford  to  keep  them  at  school,  and 
(f)  evening  study  at  the  end  of  a  long  day's 
labor  is  likely  to  be  unprofitable  in  many 
cases.  This  aspect  of  apprenticeship  training, 
however,  resolves  itself  into  the  whole  ciucstion 
of  industrial  and  technical  education,  which 
will  be  found  treated  under  those  captions. 

So  far  as  any  tendency  can  be  oliserved  at 
present,  England  is  moving  in  the  direction  of 
throwing  the  onus  of  the  training  of  apprentices 
and  young  employees  on  the  employer,  who  in 
the  near  future  will  be  expected,  if  not  com- 
pelled, to  allow  those  whom  he  employs  to 
attend  courses  to  continue  their  education. 
(See  Report  of  the  consultative  committee  on  at- 
tendance at  continuation  .schools.) 

France.  —  The  institution  of  apprenticeship 
in  France  appeared  as  a  feature  in  the  life  of 
the  craft  guilds  or  trade  corporations  that  devel- 
oped from  the  eleventh  to  the  thirteenth  cen- 
turies parallel  with  the  growth  of  the  com- 
munes. The  first  record  of  the  regulations 
governing  apprentices  appears  in  Le  Litre 
dcs  Metiers,  by  fitienne  Boileau,  appointed 
provost  of  Paris  by  St.  Louis  in  1261.  The 
conditions  attaching  to  apprentices  in  all 
trades  then  existing  are  here  set  down. 

The  contract  of  apprenticeship  was  a  very 
formal  affair,  made  before  witnesses,  among 
whom  were  officers  of  the  corporation.  The 
contract  was  often  in  writing  and  placed  among 
the  archives  of  the  guild.  It  was  very  explicit 
in  regard  to  the  duties  of  the  apprentices,  and 
less  so  in  regard  to  the  responsibilities  of  the 
master.  Before  the  engagement  of  the  appren- 
tices the  officers  of  the  corporation  were  sup- 
posed to  assure  themselves  as  to  the  morality 
and  capacity  of  the  patron.  In  a  very  few- 
trades,  such  as  the  barrel  makers,  masters  were 
permitted  to  take  as  many  apprentices  as  they 
pleased,  but  such  instances  were  rare  exceptions. 
In  all  other  cases  the  number  was  explicitly 
defined.  In  some  trades  three  apprentices  were 
authorized,  but  among  the  greater  number  of 
trades  only  one  or  two  were  allowed.  It  was 
common,  however,  to  permit  an  additional 
apprentice  when  the  older  apprentice  was  in 
his  last  year.  From  the  first  the  sons  of  masters, 
and  often  the  sons-in-law,  and  even  the  sons 
from  a  prev'ous  marriage  of  the  wife,  were 
accorded  special  privileges.     The  master  could 


always  admit  his  son  as  an  apprentice  in  addi- 
tion to  the  regular  number  permitted  by  the 
guild,  anil  in  later  years  such  apprentices  were 
accordetl  increasing  freedom  from  the  require- 
ments which  were  gradually  added  to  the  at- 
tainment of  mastershi]).  In  certain  industries 
where  the  wife  plied  the  trade  with  the  husband 
two  apprentices  could  be  taken  instead  of  one. 
In  some  cases  where  the  son  had  jiassctl  through 
the  apprenticeship  and  was  working  with  his 
father,  an  additional  ai>i)rentice  was  allowed. 
Where  the  number  of  apprentices  was  deter- 
mined, the  length  of  apprenticeship  was  also 
fixed.  This  varied  in  different  trades  from  3 
to  12  years.  The  apprentice  was  required  to 
pay  the  master  a  sum  varying  from  20  to  100 
sous.  Sometimes  this  jiayment  bore  a  relation 
to  the  years  of  ai)prenticeship,  as  for  instance, 
in  one  of  the  weavers'  guilds  the  apprentice  who 
served  but  4  years  paid  4  livres;  one  who 
served  5  years  paid  3  livres,  6  years,  1  livre, 
and  one  who  served  7  years  paid  nothing. 
Under  certain  circumstances  it  was  possible 
for  apprentices  to  buy  off  a  portion  of  their 
time,  but  the  master  was  not  allowed  to  take 
another  apprentice  until  the  full  period  of  his 
contract  had  expired.  At  first  the  master  was 
permitted  to  sell  or  transfer  his  apprentice  to 
another  master,  but  on  account  of  frequent 
abuses  this  was  later  forbidden  by  statute. 
The  making  of  a  masterpiece  as  a  requirement 
for  admission  to  mastership  is  mentioned  only 
once  in  Le  Livre  des  Metiers,  indicating  that 
this  feature,  which  later  became  so  important, 
was  not  at  first  commonly  demanded. 

As  the  privileges  and  strength  of  the  corpora- 
tions grew,  the  regulations  concerning  appren- 
ticeship became  more  rigorous.  In  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries  the  number  of 
apprentices  allowed  was  often  smaller  than  in 
the  thirteenth,  and  the  time  of  apprenticeship 
was  often  increased.  In  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury the  requirement  of  a  masterpiece,  consum- 
ing much  time  and  often  involving  costly  mate- 
rials, from  candidates  for  mastership,  became 
common,  and  in  the  fifteenth  century  the  prac- 
tice was  practically  universal.  Such  a  master- 
piece, which  was  prepared  in  the  hou.sehold  of 
one  of  the  jurors,  was  not  simply  an  examina- 
tion as  to  the  skill  of  the  ai)prentice,  but  was  an 
imposition  designed  to  restrict  admission  to  the 
corporation  to  a  select  few. 

Even  the  sons  of  masters  were  often  required 
to  perform  the  chef  d'a-uvre.  They  were,  how- 
ever, commonly  freed  from  the  exaction  of 
money  payments.  Local  restrictions  against 
the  admission  of  artisans  who  had  not  served 
their  apprenticeship  in  the  particular  town  are 
often  found.  This  was  especially  the  case  in 
the  city  of  Paris,  where  in  a  number  of  trades 
workmen  were  not  allowed  to  compete  for 
mastership  until  they  had  served  a  number 
of  years  in  the  workshops  of  that  city.  This 
was  carried  so  far  in  the  seventeenth  century 
as  to  require  masters  from  outside  places  to 


154 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION     APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION 


make  a  chef  d'auvre  before  granting  them  the 
right  of  mastership  in  Paris.  Another  new 
element  appears  in  the  statutes  of  some  trades 
in  this  century,  viz.  a  requirement  similar  to 
the  practice  which  had  long  obtained  in  Ger- 
many that  the  graduate  apprentice  should  work 
for  a  number  of  years  as  a  journeyman  (valet) 
before  becoming  a  master. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  corporations 
had  become  trade  aristocracies  in  which  a  few 
well-to-do  masters  held  a  monopoly  of  trade 
privileges.  All  requirements  for  admission, 
including  the  chef  d'ceuvre,  which  was  more 
complicated  and  most  costly,  had  become  very 
burdensome.  In  addition  to  the  money  paid 
by  the  apprentice  to  the  master,  he  was  obliged 
to  pay  also  a  fee  to  the  corporation. 

These  conditions  made  the  corporations 
increasingly  unpopular,  and  certain  edicts  were 
passed  under  Louis  XVI  looking  to  the  reform 
of  some  of  their  abuses.  In  1791  their  privi- 
leges were  abolished  by  the  National  Conven- 
tion. This  action,  which  did  away  with  all 
legal  regulations  and  restrictions  as  to  appren- 
ticeship, created  no  substitute,  and  only  the 
voluntary  maintenance  of  the  old  customs 
provided  a  means  of  training  new  workers. 
A  law  of  1803  which  created  a  consulting 
Chamber  of  Arts  and  Manufactures  contained 
some  articles  designed  to  guarantee  the  execu- 
tion of  the  apprentice  contract  on  the  part  of 
the  masters.  The  execution  of  this  law  was 
lodged  in  the  police  officials. 

By  the  year  1830  division  of  labor,  machine 
tools,  steam  power,  quantity  production,  and 
capitalist  direction, — all  the  features  of  the 
factory  system,  —  were  well  established.  The 
specialist  with  a  narrow  range  of  training  had 
become  an  important  factor  in  industry,  and 
thoroughly  trained  apprentices  were  fast  de- 
creasing in  number.  An  inquiry  by  the  Paris 
Chamber  of  Commerce  showed  that  the  con- 
tract of  apprenticeship  had  neither  the  impor- 
tance nor  the  good  consequences  that  it  should 
have  —  that  only  a  few  contracts  were  written, 
and  that  the  conditions  were  not  precise  and 
permitted  frequent  changes.  The  law  of  1851 
attempted  to  regulate  this  situation  and  to  lay 
down  legal  restrictions  as  to  the  contract  and 
to  otherwise  protect  the  apprentice  by  defining 
the  responsibilities  of  masters  as  to  instruction. 
The  law,  however,  failed  to  provide  any  super- 
vision of  the  master,  and  made  no  pro\dsion  to 
guarantee  his  capacity.  As  a  consequence  of 
this  weakness,  certain  benevolent  societies  came 
into  being  which  endeavored  to  perform  this 
task  and  to  place  boys  with  competent  masters. 

In  1845  the  Municipal  Council  of  Paris,  seek- 
ing to  improve  the  conditions  of  apprenticeship, 
instituted  a  number  of  apprentice  prizes  or 
subventions.  One  prize  was  awarded  to  a 
scholar  in  each  of  the  primary  schools  for  boys 
and  girls  in  the  city.  By  the  terms  of  this  plan 
the  master  taking  the  scholar  as  an  apprentice 
received  450  francs,  of  which  200  francs  were 


paid  the  first  year,  150  francs  the  second,  and 
100  francs  the  third  year  of  the  apprenticeship. 
By  this  arrangement  one  of  the  best  scholars 
was  each  year  given  the  opportunity  of  appren- 
ticeship under  favorable  conditions.  In  1855 
the  plan  was  modified  so  as  to  apply  rather  to 
the  poorer  boys  and  to  those  deemed  best  fitted 
for  apprenticeship  rather  than  to  the  brightest 
scholars.  Under  these  conditions  the  measure 
fell  into  disrepute,  and  was  discontinued  in  1872. 

In  France  more  than  in  any  other  country 
the  effort  has  been  made  to  develop  not  only 
technical  and  art  schools  supplementary  to 
apprenticeship,  but  schools  actually  to  perform 
the  function  and  take  the  place  of  apprentice- 
ship. From  the  first  the  policy  of  the  French 
people  has  been  to  effect  these  results  mainly 
through  public  schools  controlled  by  the  central 
government.  See  Industrial  Education; 
Technical  Education;  Feance,  Education  in. 

Germany.  —  Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  guilds  in  this  country  had 
acquired  and  exercised  great  power.  The  move- 
ment to  transmute  the  guilds  from  powerful 
autocratic  bodies  into  legal  corporations  began 
in  Prussia  in  1810-1811.  By  the  law  of  1869 
all  guilds  were  changed  into  free  corporations 
(freie  Irmiaigcn),  which  had  no  power  to  compel 
members  to  join,  and  consequently  could  only 
regulate  for  apprentices  of  their  own  members. 
The  free  corporations,  however,  have  gradually 
acquired  considerable  influence,  and  while  they 
cannot  interfere  with  the  freedom  of  their 
members  in  their  vocations,  they  can  and  do 
regulate  the  system  of  apprenticeship.  A  more 
recent  development  has  been  the  passing  of  a 
law  empowering  those  who  follow  the  same 
calling  within  any  town  or  district  to  form  com- 
pulsory corporations  (Zu'angsinmmgen)  by 
agreement  of  a  majority.  Such  corporations 
have  tended  to  increase.  An  important  func- 
tion exercised  by  them  has  been  the  regulation 
of  apprenticeship,  the  establishment  and  sup- 
port of  continuation  and  professional  schools 
(Fachschulen),  the  holding  of  professional  ex- 
aminations at  the  end  of  the  period  of  appren- 
ticeship and  for  admission  of  journeymen  to  the 
status  of  masters.  By  law  (Reichsgeircrbe- 
ordming,  1900  §  127)  all  indentures  for  appren- 
ticeship must  be  completed  in  writing  within 
four  weeks  after  it  has  been  entered  upon.  The 
contents  must  set  forth:  the  trade  concerned 
or  its  branch,  the  duration  of  the  period  of 
apprenticeship,  the  premium,  the  agreement 
(if  any)  to  provide  board,  lodging,  sick  pay,  etc., 
the  conditions  under  which  it  can  be  resolved. 
The  indenture  is  to  be  signed  by  the  employer 
and  parent  or  guardian  of  the  apprentice.  The 
employer  is  bound  to  instruct  the  apprentice 
in  anything  pertaining  to  the  trade,  to  compel 
his  attendance  at  school  and  supervise  his 
work,  to  exercise  a  moral  influence  over  him 
and  stimulate  him  to  industry  and  diligence. 
The  duration  of  apprenticeship  must  be  at  least 
three  years  and  not  more  than  four.     At  the  end 


155 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND  EDUCATION  APPRENTICESHIP  AND  EDUCATION 


of  the  stipulated  period  the  apprentice  must  be 
examined  by  a  commission  appointed  cither  by 
tiie  corporation  of  the  trade  or  by  the  local 
chamber  of  trades,  a  body  representing  several 
corporations. 

So  far  as  the  education  of  the  apprentices  is 
concerned,  tiie  most  obvious  feature  in  Germany 
during  the  last  half  century  has  been  the  pro- 
vision by  the  State  of  special  continuation  and 
technical  schools  and  the  compulsion  exercised 
by  the  State  over  employers  to  permit  the 
attendance  of  their  api)rentices  and  young 
employees.  Particularly  is  this  fact  true  of 
Saxony,  Bavaria,  Baden,  and  Wiirtemberg. 
In  Prussia  there  is  a  permissive  law  giving 
power  to  towns  which  desire  it  to  provide  com- 
pulsory technical  schools.  So  far  as  the  state 
system  is  concerned,  and  that  includes  the 
greater  part  of  the  provision  of  facilities  for 
apprenticeship  education,  it  will  be  treated 
under  separate  titles  (see  German  Empire, 
Edlc.\tiox  in;  Continuation  Schools;  Tech- 
nical Education;  etc.). 

But  considerable  private  effort  remains, 
particularly  in  the  north.  Xot  only  do  the 
corporations  (Innungen),  which  include  jour- 
neymen in  many  cases  as  well  as  master  work- 
men, support  local  public  schools,  but  many 
maintain  their  own  schools.  Thus  in  Berlin 
the  Merchants'  Association  (  Kaufmannscliaft) 
maintains  some  six  schools  to  provide  continua- 
tion and  commercial  education  for  apprentices 
and  young  employees.  The  Tailors'  Associa- 
tion also  maintains  an  interesting  apprenticeship 
school  under  the  supervision  of  a  committee. 
All  the  instructors,  except  in  mathematics,  are 
master  tailors  or  cutters  and  designers  in  large 
houses.  The  pupils,  who  arc  between  15  and 
18,  attend  the  course  in  winter,  twice  a  week, 
for  four  years.  Similar  schools  are  maintained 
by  the  Tinsmiths'  Association  and  the  Boot- 
makers' Association. 

While  the  system  of  private  training  on  the 
premises  of  the  employer  was  the  rule,  it  is 
now  the  exception,  and  is  found  only  in  large 
concerns.  Thus,  the  clothing  establishment  of 
Herzog  in  Berlin  selects  for  special  training  a 
few  of  the  apprentices  for  important  positions 
in  the  business.  A  large  firm  of  locomotive 
manufacturers  in  the  neighborhood  of  Berlin 
makes  similar  provision  for  the  training  of  its 
apprentices,  who  in  most  cases  are  already  grad- 
uates of  one  of  the  secondary  schools. 

On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that  in  Germany, 
as  in  other  countries,  apprenticeship  education 
in  the  workshop  is  being  replaced  by  regular 
instruction  in  schools  of  different  types,  which 
are  more  and  more  coming  under  state  control. 
The  employers  find  it  to  their  interest  to  accept 
the  state  regulations  for  the  compulsory  attend- 
ance of  their  young  workpeople  in  technical 
schools  for  a  certain  number  of  hours  each 
week.  The  combination  of  workshop  and 
school  is  the  contribution  of  Germany  to  the 
problem  of  training  apprentices. 


Switzerland.  —  The  German  system  of  school 
and  shop  training  has  been  adopted  in  Switzer- 
land. The  shops  arc  supplemented  by  indus- 
trial continuation  schools,  handicraft  trade 
schools,  intermediate  technical  schools,  and 
technical  high  schools.  Grants  made  to  can- 
tons, communes,  and  private  school  committees 
may  amount  to  one  half  the  total  annual  expen- 
diture. 

Legislation  for  Education  of  Apprentices.  — 
The  federal  government  has  passed  no  general 
law  governing  the  education  of  the  apprentice 
except  to  forbid  the  employment  of  children 
in  factories  under  15  years  of  age  and  to  restrict 
the  hours  of  labor  for  workers  under  16  years  of 
age  to  1 1  per  day,  but  the  Canton  of  Zurich 
passed  an  Apprenticeship  Law  in  1905  contain- 
ing the  following  ])ro visions:  — 

(Section  5)  The  master  shall  be  bound  to 
instruct  the  apprentice  to  the  best  of  his  ability 
either  in  person  or  through  a  reliable  represent- 
ative. (Section  11)  The  master  is  bound  to 
allow  the  apprentice  at  least  four  hours  weekly 
out  of  his  legal  working  hours  to  attend  classes 
for  trade  instruction  or  general  education  if 
such  opportunity  is  available  in  the  vicinity. 
(Section  16)  The  right  to  have  apprentices 
may  be  withheld  from  persons  found  guilty 
of  gross  neglect  of  duty  to  his  apprentice  or  for 
moral  unfitness.  (Section  19)  Every  appren- 
tice at  the  end  of  his  period  shall  be  summoned 
by  his  master  to  undergo  a  test  to  prove  his 
ability  and  technical  knowledge  of  his  trade. 
N.B.  The  examination  expenses  are  borne  by 
the  Canton.  (Section  23)  To  successful  ap- 
prentices a  certificate  of  apprenticeship  shall 
be  issued.  (Section  30)  Infringement  of  this  law 
punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  (40  dollars). 

The  Apprenticeship  Act  of  the  Canton  of 
Basle  (1906)  contains  similar  provisions  to  that 
of  Zurich.  (See  further  Switzerland,  Edu- 
cation in.) 

United  States.  —  Since  the  term  "apprentice" 
is  loosely  used  to  designate  almost  any  shop 
learner  or  employee  below  the  journeyman,  it 
is  important  to  point  out  that  fundamental 
to  true  apprenticeship  is  the  indenture,  a  legal 
instrument,  in  the  terms  of  the  laws  of  New 
York,  "  whereby  a  minor  is  bound  out  to  serve 
as  a  clerk  or  servant  in  any  trade,  profession, 
or  employment,  or  is  apprenticed  to  learn  the 
art  or  mystery  of  any  trade  or  craft."  An 
indenture  implies  mutual  obligation  of  service 
in  preparation  for  a  definite  occupation,  and 
apprenticeship  is  therefore  a  sharply  defined 
and  strictly  limited  type  of  vocational  educa- 
tion. The  variations  in  the  type  are  many; 
yet  they  may  reasonably  be  classified  into 
two  main  groups:  the  old  apprenticeship,  in 
which  there  were  close  personal  and  even  do- 
mestic relations  between  master  and  appren- 
tice, with  little,  if  any,  provision  for  definite 
education;  and  the  new  apprenticeship,  in 
which  the  personal  element  has  practically 
disappeared,   but  in  which  there  is  a  contin- 


156  , 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION     APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION 


ually  growing  emphasis   upon   both   intensive 
and  extensive  training. 

At  no  time  has  apprenticeship  failed  to  have 
some  footing  in  the  United  States.  The  old 
form,  reaching  its  maximum  in  the  early  nine- 
teenth century,  steadily  waned  as  the  factory 
system  grew,  and,  while  still  existent,  has  been 
of  little  importance  since  the  Civil  War.  The 
new  form,  having  its  rise  in  the  exigencies  of 
certain  industries,  has  been  steadily  making 
way,  during  the  last  fifty  years,  against  indif- 
ference and  prejudice,  until  to-day  it  finds  itself 
one  of  the  major  means  through  which  the  fast 
growing  demand  for  adequate  vocational  edu- 
cation seems  likely  to  be  met. 

"  Not  only  herein  the  United  States  is  the  apprentice- 
ship system  in  process  of  being  resuscitated  along  expan- 
sive lines,  in  order  to  meet  modern  conditions  of  produc- 
tion in  great  manufacturing  establishments,  but  many 
countries  in  Europe  have  for  some  years  been  perfecting 
this  process,  coordinating  the  apprenticeship  system  with 
general  trade  and  industrial  instruction. " — Wright,  The 
Apprentice  System,  p.  19. 

The  apprenticeship  of  colonial  days  and  of 
the  earlier  j'ears  of  the  national  existence  was 
that  of  the  Old  World,  and  exhibited  like  advan- 
tages and  evils.  Among  the  advantages  was 
the  direct  association  of  the  inexperienced 
youth  with  the  skilled  master  versed  in  his 
special  trade  and  imparting  all  its  practical 
details  to  the  apprentice.  Where  the  master 
was  not  only  efficient,  but  conscientious,  the 
apprentice  doubtless  secured  the  best  possible 
acquaintance  with  the  ramifications  of  the 
trade.  Domestic  intercourse  with  such  a  type 
of  master  was  also  of  high  educational  value. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  length  of  the  indenture 
—  usually  seven  years,  or  until  the  apprentice 
came  of  age  —  was  then,  as  it  would  be  to-day, 
altogether  too  great.  Consequently,  a  large 
part  of  the  time  of  the  apprentice  was  neces- 
sarily given  to  matters  in  no  way  connected 
with  the  industry  itself.  He  was  employed  in 
sweeping  out  the  shop,  taking  care  of  the  horses 
and  wagons,  doing  household  chores,  and  run- 
ning errands  for  all  the  members  of  the  master's 
family.  A  typical  example  given  by  Mr.  E.  P. 
BuUard,  Jr.,  in  an  addre.ss  before  the  National 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Educa- 
tion (q.v.),  outlines  the  duties  of  an  apprentice 
bound  to  a  coach-lamp  maker:  — 

"He  had  to  get  up  out  of  bed  at  half-past  four  in  the 
morning,  sweep  out  the  shop,  then  liuild  the  kitchen  fires 
for  the  lady  in  the  house,  had  to  sweep  the  house  after- 
wards and  do  any  other  work  around  the  house  that  was 
required,  had  to  take  care  of  the  old  man's  horses,  and 
along  in  the  afternoon,  sometimes,  not  always,  he  had  an 
opportunity  to  go  and  see  how  they  made  coach-lamps." 

The  indentures  were  often  strongly  obli- 
gatory on  the  side  of  the  apprentices,  but  not 
so  on  the  side  of  the  master.  (This  lack  of 
obligation  on  the  part  of  the  master,  while 
frequent  in  the  indentures  of  the  early  period, 
was  not  universal.  Many  contracts  used  the 
words  "  and  the  said  master  on  his  part  doth 
hereby  promise,  covenant  and  agree  to  teach 


and  instruct  said  apprentice  or  cause  him  to  be 
taught  and  instructed  in  the  art,  trade  or  call- 
ing of  ...  by  the  best  ways  and  means  he 
can.")  The  indenture  of  the  apprentice  re- 
ferred to  above  read:  "  The  master  shall 
endeavor  to  teach  or  cause  to  be  taught  said 
apprentice."  The  master  could  claim,  there- 
fore, fulfillment  of  the  obhgation,  if  he  showed 
an  attempt  on  his  part  to  teach.  The  compen- 
sation, moreover,  was  always  very  small.  In 
this  particular  instance  the  master  was  to  pro- 
vide the  apprentice 

'*  with  sufficient  meat,  bunk  and  lodging  and  to  pay 
him  twenty-five  dollars  per  year  and  furnish  his  clothes." 

Suited  to  small  and  scattered  industries  and 
to  the  semi-domestic  crafts,  the  old  apprentice- 
ship system  was  wholly  inadequate  to  the  con- 
ditions of  a  modern  factory,  and  was  destined, 
therefore,  to  decay.  Throughout  the  two  cen- 
turies of  its  actual  existence  in  the  American 
Colonies  and  the  United  States,  it  labored, 
moreover,  under  peculiar  difficulties.  The 
pioneer  youth  was  naturallj^  restless  under 
provisions  which  tied  him  down,  unless  by 
extraordinary  labor  he  could  "  buy  his  time," 
till  his  majority,  and  under  laws  which  classed 
him  'with  servants  and  with  slaves.  Where 
opportunity  for  independent  activity  was  so 
easy,  where  personal  liberty  was  so  jealously 
guarded,  and  where  the  very  atmosphere  was 
one  of  change,  only  a  relatively  small  propor- 
tion of  young  men  could  be  found  voluntarily 
to  assume  obligations  which  were  always  uncer- 
tain, generally  unfair  to  the  apprentice,  and 
from  which  it  was  difficult  and  expensive  to 
escape.  It  is  not  hard  to  see,  then,  why  many, 
if  not  most,  of  those  early  apprentices  were 
either  public  charges  indentured  by  the  parish 
without  regard  to  their  personal  wishes  in  the 
matter,  or  orphans  taken  care  of  by  their 
guardians  in  this  easy  way. 

As  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Motley  in  Appren- 
ticeship in  American  Trade  I'nions,  the  laws 
relating  to  apprenticeship  in  the  United  States 
recognized  two  purposes:  one  industrial,  that 
every  boy  of  the  artisan  class  might  learn  a 
trade  under  conditions  favorable  to  the  master; 
the  other  philanthropic,  that  there  might  be 
"  guaranteed  to  poor,  unfortunate  or  neglected 
children  the  opportunity  to  learn  a  trade  so 
that  they  might  in  time  become. useful  citizens 
and  not  public  charges."  Neither  purpose 
furnished  a  very  attractive  motive  for  appren- 
ticeship to  American  youth. 

With  the  great  manufacturing  evolution  which 
had  its  rise  in  the  middle  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  the  main  features  of  which  were 
the  rapid  introduction  of  labor-saving  ma- 
chinery and  the  resulting  subdivision  of  pro- 
cesses, came,  naturally  but  gradually,  the  dying 
out  of  a  never  very  deeply  seated  and  a  now  no 
longer  effective  method  of  industrial  training. 
On  the  statute  books,  however,  the  early  laws 
were  retained  for  many  years  after  new  methods 


157 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION     APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION 


had  been  inaugurated  in  practice;  and  while  it 
is  often  stated  that  "  the  apprenticeship  system 
is  dead,"  yet  even  to-day,  isolateil  though  not 
infrequent,  instances  may  be  found  of  the 
employment  of  apjirentices  under  practically 
the  old  forms  of  indenture. 

The  process  of  finding  and  adopting  substi- 
tutes for  this  moribund  system  was  neither 
rapid  nor  easy.  As  early  as  1850  manufacturers 
were  complaining  bitterly  of  the  scarcity  of 
skilletl  labor;  and  the  rapid  industrial  develop- 
ment following  the  Civil  War  made  this  ques- 
tion even  more  acute.  The  blindness  of  the 
manufacturers  of  that  period,  both  to  the  need 
and  to  the  nature  of  industrial  education,  and 
the  fear  of  the  worker  lest  the  labor  market 
be  over-supplied,  united  to  make  experimenta- 
tion cautious  and  development  extremely  slow. 
This  was  particularly  true  as  regards  the  growth 
of  the  "  new  ap]5rcnticeship  ";  for  into  this 
phase  of  vocational  education  enter  complicated 
elements  due  to  trade  unionism,  to  specializa- 
tion of  processes,  to  mobility  of  labor,  and  to 
the  personal  equation.  From  their  beginning 
the  unions  have  guarded  with  most  careful 
regulations  the  nature  and  number  of  appren- 
tices; in  the  high  specialization  of  manufactur- 
ing processes  there  is  bound  to  be  conflict 
between  the  employer  who  wants  the  increased 
output  which  comes  from  holding  an  emplo3'ee 
to  a  simple  process  and  the  workman  who  de- 
sires to  get  an  extensive  range  of  skill;  in  view 
of  the  well-known  tendency  of  American 
workers  to  migrate,  hoping  to  better  their 
condition,  the  manufacturer  hesitates  to  train 
apprentices  only  to  see  them  employed  by  his 
rivals;  while  the  factory  system  itself  makes 
it  exceedingly  difficult  to  secure  to  the  appren- 
tice right  teaching  or  to  guard  him  from  petty 
tyranny  at  the  hands  of  those  in  whose  charge 
he  must  be  placed.  Not  only  has  there  been 
disinclination  on  the  part  of  the  average  fore- 
man really  to  teach  the  apprentice,  but  the 
former's  striving  for  efficiency  has  led  him, 
for  economic  reasons,  to  keep  the  apprentice  at 
a  single  process.  Skill  in  such  a  special  pro- 
cess, moreover,  commands  higher  wages,  and 
has  therefore  given' the  apprentice  himself  a 
powerful  incentive  to  stick  to  that  single 
activity  without  regard  to  the  ultimate  effect 
upon  his  mental  condition  or  his  material 
future. 

Despite  these  difficulties,  the  demand  for 
skill  has  been  so  pressmg  that  many  establish- 
ments, especially  in  the  machine-building 
trades,  have  given  much  study  and  experi- 
mentation to  the  problem  and  have  evolved 
therefrom  differing,  but  usually  effective, 
systems  of  apprenticeship.  In  the  infinite 
complexity  of  modern  industry  it  is  evident  that 
no  one  method  will  suit  all  cases.  Certain 
industries  have  machine-tending  operations  in 
which  very  slight  skill  and  training  are  neces- 
sary; in  others  a  few  expert  directors  are  suffi- 
cient to  control  a  large  body  of  unskilled  labor; 


while  others  require  not  only  high  technical 
efficiency,  but  also,  because  of  rapid  evolution, 
unusual  adaptability.  The  manufacture  of 
engines,  locomotives,  or  intricate  and  delicate 
tools,  for  example,  demands  large  numbers  of 
such  highly  expert  workers. 

Carroll  D.  Wright,  in  his  report  on  the 
Apprenticeship  System  iti  its  Helation  to  Iiidus- 
trinl  Eduention,  estimating  that  there  are  in 
round  numbers  22.5,000  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments in  the  United  States,  says:  — 

"It  is  impossible  without  taking  a  census  of  the 
whole  number  to  ascertain  liow  man\-  have  adopted  any 
form  of  apprenticeship,  but  from  all  that  can  be  learned, 
there  must  be  many,  many  thousands." 

In  the  Report  of  the  New  York  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics  for  lOOS,  the  nundier  of  appren- 
tices per  100  employees  of  high-grade  skill  is 
given  as  4.S.  If  this  percentage  holds  for  the 
other  manufacturing  states,  it  is  evident  that 
apprenticeship  is  an  important  force  in  indus- 
try. Moreover,  in  a  Report  on  Industrial 
Education,  published  in  1910  by  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor,  we  find  these  statements: — 

"It  is  of  more  than  passing  interest  to  note  that  the 
ro\-i\al  of  apprenticeships  by  large  corporate  interests 
through  comprehensive  and  sane  regulations  is  gradually 
taking  form.  With  the  growing  feeling  that  the  old-time 
apprenticeshij)  system  nnist  be  modified  to  meet  modern 
conditions  of  life,  there  looms  up  the  question  of  a  substi- 
tute which  shall  keep  the  best  and  most  necessary  of  the 
older  customs,  and  meet  modern  requirements.  It  is 
further  recognized  that  the  old  apprenticeship  system 
possessed  many  features  that  were  uneconomic  and  un- 
just, but  with  the  preservation  of  much  that  was  good 
and  its  application  by  proper  blending  with  the  modern 
idea  of  perfection  in  theory,  it  would  le.ad  to  more  satis- 
factory results.  A  marked  tendency  towards  apprentice- 
ship is  taking  place,  and  the  feeling  expressed  by  both 
employer  and  employee  is  that  a  gradual  return  will 
take  place  if  such  training  is  conducted  sanely  and 
advantageously  to  the  American  Youth." 

This  revival  of  apprenticeship  is  proceeding, 
roughly  speaking,  along  four  main  lines.  The 
first  is  where  the  indu.strial  establishment  and 
the  school  system  cooperate  in  the  education 
of  the  apprentice,  practice  in  the  shop  being 
supplemented  and  illuminated  by  cognate 
school  study  of  mathematics,  drawing,  physics, 
chemistry,  etc.  The  second  is  where  the  em- 
ployer provides  such  school  exercises  within 
his  own  establishment.  The  third  is  where 
the  industrial  establishment  recommends  or 
requires  school  study  without  making  any  pro- 
vision, direct  or  through  affiliation,  for  such 
supplementary  training.  The  fourth  is  where 
the  apprenticeship  training  is  practically  con- 
centrated upon  a  single  process  or  range  of 
processes  for  the  purpose  of  securing  special- 
ized skill. 

These  varying  forms  are  best  illustrated  by 
specific  instances.  These  are  given,  however, 
without  prejudice  to  similar,  equally  effective, 
examples,  which,  for  lack  of  space,  must  be 
omitted.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  instance 
of  the  first  type  of  apprentice-training,  the 
cooperative  plan,   exists  in   Cincinnati,   where 


158 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION     APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION 


the  University  of  Cincinnati  has  engineering 
courses  of  six  years'  duration,  during  which 
the  students  work  alternate  weeks  in  the  shops 
of  the  city  throughout  the  scholastic  year,  and 
through  the  summer  on  full  time.  The  practi- 
cal work  at  the  shops  is  as  carefully  planned  as 
the  theoretical  work  at  the  university,  and  in 
all  cases  the  students  follow  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble the  path  of  the  machine  from  the  raw 
material  to  the  finished  product.  The  students 
are  paid  for  their  ser\'ices  on  a  scale  of  wages 
beginning  at  10  cents  an  hour  and  increasing  at 
the  rate  of  1  cent  an  hour  about  every  6  months. 
The  total  earnings  in  the  6  years  amount 
to  about  $2000.  This  plan  has  had  over 
three  years  of  successful  operation,  and  has 
received  the  highest  commendation  from  the 
manufacturers  of  the  city.  Moreover,  under 
the  initiative  of  the  Cincinnati  branch  of  the 
National  Metal  Trades  Association,  this  coop- 
erative plan  has  been  extended  to  the  high 
school,  the  plan  being  to  furnish  the  manu- 
facturers with  skilled  mechanics  for  the  shops. 
Instances  of  the  second  type,  in  which  shop 
and  school  are  intimately  associated,  are  the 
General  Electric  Company  of  Lynn,  Mass., 
the  New  York  Central  Lines,  the  Grand 
Trunk  Railway,  and  other  railroads,  the  Lud- 
low Manufacturing  Associates  of  Ludlow, 
Mass.,  the  Westinghouse  Air-Brake  Company 
of  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  the  Southern  Bell  Tele- 
phone Company  of  Atlanta,  Ga.,  the  William 
Tod  Company  of  Youngstown,  Ohio,  the 
George  V.  Cresson  Company  of  Philadelphia, 
Penn.,  and  the  Yale  and  Towne  Manufactur- 
ing Company  of  Stamford,  Conn.  To  quote 
from  M.  W.  Alexander,  Supervisor  of  Appren- 
tices of  the  General  Electric  Company,  at 
Lynn,  Mass.:  — 

"The  training  room  is  simply  a  part  of  the  whole 
factory  set  aside  for  the  purpose  of  training  apprentices, 
and  is  provided  with  a  complement  of  machines  and  tools, 
and  the  mo.st  instructive  work  that  the  factory  contains 
at  any  time."  "The  apprentice  remains  in  the  training 
room  for  a  period  of  about  a  year  and  a  half  to  two  years, 
.  .  .  and  during  that  time  is  given  an  opportunity  to 
work  witli  the  different  macliines  and  tools  and  to  per- 
form different  operations  on  a  variety  of  work.  .  .  . 
The  apprentice  is  transferred  from  the  training  room  at 
the  end  of  about  two  years  to  different  departments  of 
the  factory.  A  school  has  been  established  in  connection 
with  the  apprenticeship  course,  in  which  instruction  of  an 
eminently  practical  character  is  given  for  the  purpose  of 
supplementing  and  amplifying  the  practical  work  of  the 
shop.  Each  apprentice  is  obliged  to  spend  sLx  hours  a 
week  out  of  his  regular  time  of  employment  in  the  class- 
room, during  which  time  he  receives  the  same  wages 
as  if  he  were  working  at  the  bench  or  at  the  machine. 
The  teachers  in  the  classroom  are  selected  from  the 
staff  of  engineers,  draftsmen,  and  foremen  of  the  com- 
pany, and  devote  part  of  their  time  to  the  work  of  teach- 
ing. They  are  chosen  in  preference  to  professional 
educators  on  account  of  their  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
needs  of  the  factory  and  the  industries  in  general.  Their 
work  covers  instruction  in  that  branch  of  mathematics, 
physics,  engineering  and  mechanical  drawing  which  is 
a  necessary  part  of  the  equipment  of  a  skilled  artisan. 

In  the  New  York  Central  Lines  and  other 
railroads,  the  relation  between  practice  and 
theory  is  even  closer,  drawing,   mathematics. 


etc.,  being  based  wholly  upon  shop  problems 
which  must  be  worked  out  by  the  individual 
apprentice  according  to  his  ability. 

Instances  of  the  third  type  of  apprentice- 
ship are  the  R.  Hoe  and  Company's  School, 
where  the  young  employee  in  the  shops  pur- 
sues evening  courses,  conducted  outside  the 
establishment  but  devised  to  furnish  knowl- 
edge of  things  relating  to  the  work  in  which  he 
is  engaged;  and  the  Brown-Ketcham  Iron 
Works  of  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  which  give  six 
months'  time  on  their  apprenticeship  to  those 
boys  who  follow  the  course  of  instruction  in  a 
special  night  school  organized  by  the  Y.M.C.A. 

It  is  evident,  however,  that  where  the  indus- 
try involves  many  operations  and  processes, 
there  must  always  be  a  strong  tendency  to  use 
the  time  and  capacity  of  a  boy  in  thoroughly 
mastering  the  special  details  of  a  single  depart- 
ment. The  National  Association  of  Machine 
Tool  Builders  has  adopted  a  system  of  inden- 
turing apprentices  to  a  single  department  for 
terms  varying  from  one  to  two  years.  While 
this  secures  special  skill,  it  docs  not  enable  the 
apprentice  to  learn  the  trade  as  a  whole.  To 
quote  from  a  letter  explaining  this  fourth  plan: 

"It  was  the  custom  in  the  saw  trade  originally  to 
indenture  apprentices  and  bind  them  for  four  years' 
apprenticeship  at  very  small  wages,  and  boys  so  in- 
dentured were  taught  every  branch  of  the  business. 
In  this  present  day  of  specialization,  a  boy  appren- 
ticed to  the  sawsmith's  trade  is  limited  entirely  to  the 
work  of  straightening  and  tensioning  saws  of  all  kinds. 
The  practice  of  instructing  apprentices  has  not  been  given 
up  entirely,  but  the  work  in  a  saw  factory  is  so  specialized 
in  these  days  that  an  apprentice  boy  learns  only  one 
special  part  of  the  work.  They  are  taken  on  as  appren- 
tices at  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  old,  and  they  serve 
four  years  under  instruction,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
they  are  entitled  to  journeyman  wages,  and  are  given 
certificates  of  graduation,  as  it  were,  in  their  particular 
branch  of  the  business." 

Of  such  specialization  Mr.  Higgins  of  the 
Norton  Company  of  Worcester  remarks:  — 

"Specialization  is  both  a  good  thing  and  a  bad  thing. 
It  is  good  because  it  enables  the  individual  who  is  low 
in  opportunity  and  outlook  to  get  a  footing  in  the  field 
of  productive  life,  so  that  he  becomes  quickly  self- 
supporting  and  has  entered  a  career  that  io  ever  open  at 
the  top.  .  .  .  The  system  of  narrow  specialization  is 
l3ad  whenever  the  individual  is  induced  to  take  a  short 
cut  and  be  a  narrow  specialist  when  he  might  have  done 
better  by  a  broader  all-round  training." 

Col.  Wright  defines  the  proper  apprentice- 
ship system  as  one  that  "  will  guarantee  to  the 
boy  the  opportunity  of  learning  his  trade  as  a 
whole  at  a  fixed  wage  with  a  steady  increa.se." 

The  Fore  River  Ship  Building  Company  of 
Quincy,  Mass.,  has  mapped  out  careful  courses 
of  instruction  for  apprentices  in  more  than  a 
dozen  specific  lines.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
these  divisions,  which  include  special  instruc- 
tion for  blacksmiths,  coppersmiths,  electri- 
cians, ship-carpenters,  pattern-makers,  joiners, 
riveters,  ship-fitters,  anglesmiths,  sheet-iron 
workers,  etc.  The  Brown  and  Sharpe  Manu- 
facturing Company  of  Providence,  R.  I., 
have  special  instruction  for  core-makers,  iron- 


159 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION     APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION 


moulders,  machinists,  and  pattern-makers. 
In  tlicso  companies  the  apprenticeship  agree- 
ments vary  in  accordance  with  the  special 
branch  of  work  to  be  pursued  by  the  apprentice, 
and  they  all  serve  as  excellent  illustrations  of 
what  is  called  the  "  special  apprenticeshij) 
system." 

A  practically  unique  form  of  apprenticeship 
training  is  that  furnished  by  the  Williamson 
Free  School  of  Mechanical  Trades.  Under  the 
foundation  deed:  — 

"All  scholars  admitted  to  the  school  shall  be  fed  with 
good,  wholesome  food  :  plainly,  neatly  and  comfortaMy 
clad,  and  decently  and  fitly  housed  and  lodged.  They 
shall  also  ...  be  thornui;lil\'  instructed  and  groundeci 
in  the  rudiments  of  a  cimd  lOntrlish  common-school  edu- 
cation, embracing  spelling,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
grammar,  geography,  history,  particularly  of  the  United 
States,  and  also  such  of  the  natural  and  physical  sciences 
and  lower  mathematics  as  in  the  opinion  of  the  Trustees 
it  may  be  important  for  them  to  acquire  to  fit  themselves 
for  the  trades  they  are  to  learn.  ...  I  expressly  direct 
that  each  and  every  scholar  shall  be  compelled  to  learn 
and  be  thoroughly  instructed  in  one  good  mechanical 
trade,  so  that  when  they  leave  the  school  on  the  comple- 
tion of  their  indentures  they  may  be  able  to  support 
themselves  by  the  labor  of  their  own  hands." 

Another  rather  unusual  form  is  that  prosecuted 
by  the  Printing  School  of  the  North  End  Union, 
in  which  the  cooperation  between  the  master 
printers  and  the  school  is  so  close  as  to  make 
the  latter  virtually  an  adjunct  to  the  printing 
establishments  themselves. 

So  far  consideration  has  been  had  only  to  the 
employer  and  employee.  As  has  been  sug- 
gested, however,  trade  unionism  has  been  a 
large,  if  not  a  controlling,  factor  in  the  whole 
modern  development  of  apprenticeship.  As 
a  general  rule,  the  trade  unions  have  undertaken 
to  determine  apprenticeship  regulations.  In 
the  early  days  of  unionism,  local  conditions 
naturally  defined  the  apprenticeship  rules. 
Limitation  of  the  number  of  apprentices  was 
very  common,  on  the  ground  that  the  introduc- 
tion into  a  trade  of  a  large  number  of  trained 
apprentices  would  cause  a  lowering  of  wages. 
The  problem,  and  the  attitude  of  organized 
labor,  is  fairly  stated  in  the  report  on  Indus- 
trial Education  (1910)  of  the  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labor:  — 

"The  problem  of  industrial  education  and  trade 
training  is  made  very  complex  by  the  present  system  of 
Bpecialization,  and  unless  great  care  is  exercised  the 
exploitation  of  boys  who  desire  to  enter  upon  a  career 
as  skilled  craftsmen  is  probable.  A  proper  apprentice- 
ship system  which  will  guarantee  to  the  youth  the 
opportunity  of  learning  his  trade  as  a  whole  is  verj-  much 
desired.  One  of  the  disadvantages  of  many  apprentice- 
ship systems  is  that  establishments  have  become  so  large 
and  with  so  many  departments  with  their  divisions  and 
subdivisions  and  processes  that  the  time  of  the  boy  is 
fully  employed  in  mastering  details  of  one  department  to 
the  exclusion  of  all  other  departments.  Public  indus- 
trial schools  or  schools  for  trade  training  should  never 
become  so  narrow  in  their  scope  as  to  prevent  an  all- 
round  shop  training.  The  action  of  the  National 
Tool  Builders'  Association  in  boldly  stating  that 
they  expect  to  train  specialists  will  do  more  to 
call  to  the  attention  of  the  public  the  necessity  for 
broad  industrial  training  before  the  age  of  seventeen 
than    any    other  procedure,    hence    a    \'ital    question 


to  be  considered  is  how  best  to  provide  for  the 
future  entrance  into  skilled  trades  without  o\'ercrowding 
them,  and  finally  the  problem  is  of  so  training  the 
workers  that  they  become  the  best  kind  of  workers  the 
world  produces  and  at  the  same  time  develop  conditions 
which  go  w'ith  increased  efficiency,  increasing  wages, 
and  increasingly  better  living  conditions." 

There  have  almost  always  been  serious  dif- 
ferences regarding  ap|ireiiticeship  between  the 
employers  and  the  unions,  cs)3ecially  in  connec- 
tion with  the  limitation  of  numbers.  A  strong 
union  would  succeed  in  enforcing  its  regulations, 
while  emi)loyers  would  overrule  the  weak.  Of 
late  years,  however,  conciliation  has  been  the 
moving  princijjle  in  all  disputed  questions,  and 
apprenticeship  regulations  have  been  determined 
by  joint  boards. 

"Of  the  120  national  and  international  trade  unions 
with  a  total  of  1.676.200  members  affiliated  in  1904  with 
the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  50  unions  with  a 
membership  of  766.417  do  not  attempt  to  maintain  ap- 
prenticeship systems.  The  remaining,  together  with 
pbout  half  a  dozen  unaffiliated,  national  unions,  try  more 
or  less  successfully  to  enforce  apprenticeship  regulations. 
The  majority  of  the  unions  in  which  apprenticeship  is  not 
a  prerequisite  to  membership  are  composed  of  members 
who  perform  unskilled  labor.  Ordinarj'  intelligence  and 
physical  strength  are  the  qualities  chiefly  required  from 
these  workers." — Motley,  Apprenticeship  in  American 
Trade  Unions. 

The  purposes  of  apprenticeship  rules  are 
primarily  a  shorter  working  day,  an  increased 
wage,  and  more  favorable  conditions  of  em- 
ployment, these  being  the  ends  aimed  at  by 
unions  and  apprenticeship  regulation  being  the 
machinery  used  to  attain  these  ends.  Admis- 
sion to  the  union  is  the  final  step  in  apprentice- 
ship, special  inducements  being  offered  to  secure 
such  entrance. 

As  stated  further  by  Dr.  Motley  :  "The  apprentice- 
ship system  in  nearly  all  the  unions  is,  however,  unsatis- 
factory. .  .  .  This  may  be  attril)uted  to  three  general 
causes  :  (a)  the  large  influence  of  local  unions  in  deter- 
mining apprenticeship  rules  ;  (ft)  the  effect  of  changes  in 
business  organization  and  industrial  technique ;  (c) 
the  disregard  of  apprenticeship  rules  both  by  employers 
and  the  unions."      He  continues,  however  :  — 

"The  most  promising  tendency  in  the  direction  of 
bettering  the  conditions  of  apprenticeship  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  apprenticeship  regulations  are  in  an  increasing 
number  of  cases  formed  by  joint  agreement  between  the 
employer  and  the  union,  and  not,  as  formerly,  by  the 
union  or  the  employer  alone.  .  .  .  The  acceptance  of 
the  agreement  by  employers  and  unions  tends  to  con- 
centrate the  best  thought  of  both  parties  upon  the 
subject,  with  the  result  that  in  many  instances  elaborate 
and  efficient  rules  have  been  jointly  enacted  and  en- 
forced." 

In  view  of  this  changing  attitude  of  both 
employers  and  labor  unions,  and  in  view,  more- 
over, of  the  success  of  such  experiments  as 
that  at  Cincinnati  and  those  upon  many  of  the 
railroads,  it  would  seem  safe  to  predict  that 
apprenticeship  education  will  occupy  an  increas- 
ing place  in  vocational  training,  and  that,  in  this 
development,  it  will  follow  substantially  two 
main  lines, —  one  leading  towards  closer  co- 
operation between  public  education  and  indus- 
trial establishments;  and  the  other  tending 
towards  an  intensive,  practical,  but  nevertheless 


160 


APPRENTICESHIP  AND   EDUCATION 


APTITUDE 


broad,  apprenticeship  training  conducted,  with- 
in the  establishments  themselves,  by  men  who 
are  educators  as  well  as  experts  in  their  special 
fields.      J.  S.,  C.  R.  R.,  I.  L.  K.,  and  J.  P.  M. 

See  articles  on  Industrial  Education  ;  Trade 
Unions  and  Education;  Trade  Schools;  Vo- 
cational Education;  etc. 

References  :  — 

Gwat  Britain. 

Apprenticeship  and  Skilled  ErapIojTnent  Association  Co. 
Trades  for  London  Boys.      (London,   190S.) 
Trades  for  London  Girk.      (London,  1909.) 

Association  of  Technical  Institutions.  Cooperation  of 
Employers  and  Technical  Institutions.  (London, 
1905.) 

CAMP.tGN.tc,  E.  T.,  and  Russell,  C.  E.  B.  School 
Training  and  Employment  (Lancashire  Children). 
(London,  1903.) 

Consultative  Committee.  Report  on  Attendance,  Com- 
pulsory or  otherwise,  at  Continuation  Schools,  Vol.  J. 
(London,  1909.) 

Creaset,  C.  H.  Technical  Education  in  Evening  Schools. 
(London,  1905.) 

Jackson.  Cykil.  Report  on  Boy  Labour  (Royal  Com- 
mission).    (London,   1909.) 

Leeds  Education  Committee.  Higher  Education. 
(Leeds,  1906.) 

London  Education  Committee.  Report  on  Apprentice- 
ships.    (London,  1906.) 

Millis,  C.  T.     Employment  and  Education.     (London, 
1906.) 
A'eed  for    Systematic   Courses    of   Technical    Instruc- 
tion.    (London.) 

Sadler,  M.  E.  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and 
Elsewhere.     (Manchester,  1907.) 

Sandiford,  Peter.  Compulsory  Continuation  Schools. 
University  Review,  April,  1907.      (Manchester.) 

Shadwell,  a.     Industrial  Efficiency.     (London,  1906.) 

Webb,    Sidnev    and     Beatrice.      History    of    Trades 
Unioniii?n.     (London,  1904.) 
Industrial  Democracy.      (London,  1897.) 
Germany. 

Brentano.     Die  Arbeitergilden  der  Gegenwart,    (Leipzig, 
1S71-1S72.) 
On   the    History   and    Development    of  Gilds   and  the 
Origin  of  Trade  Unions.      (London,  1870.) 

Leonhard,  H.  Der  Handwerker  in  Staat  und  Recht. 
(Leipzig,  1909.) 

Pope.  Die  Regelung  des  Lehrlings-  und  Gesellenpriifungs- 
wesens.     (Leipzig,  1902.) 

Verein  fiir  Socialpolitik.  Die  Reform  des  Lehrlingswesens. 
(Leipzig,  1875.) 

Wolff,   M.     L'Apprentissage  en  Allcmagne,  in  Musee 
Social,     Memoires     et     Documents,     1903,     No.     5. 
(Paris,  1903.) 
France. 

BnissoN,  F.  Dictionnaire  de  Pedagogic.  (Paris,  1887.) 
S.v.  Apprenjis,  Apprentissage. 

Cacheux,  E.  Elats  actuel  en  France  du  PatroTiage  et  de 
V Enseignement  des  Apprentis.      (Paris,   1889.) 

Chatelin,  D.  Les  Ecoles  d' Apprentissage  h  Paris. 
(Paris,  1906.) 

Ministe^re  du  Commerce,  de  I'lndustrie,  des  Postes  et 
des  Telegraphes.     L'Apprentissage  induslriel:   Rap- 
port sur  r Apprentissage  dans  les  Industries  d'Ameu- 
blement.     (Paris,  1905.) 
Conseil  superieur   du   Travail,   Session   de   1902,    Ai>- 

prcntissage.     (Paris,  1902.) 
Office   du     Travail,    L'Apprentissage   Industriel,   Rap- 
port sur  I' Apprentissage  dans  I'Imprimerie.      (Paris, 
1902.) 
American. 

American  Federation  of  Labor.  Industrial  Education, 
First  Edition,  1910. 

Bureau  of  Labor  of  the  State  of  Minnesota.  Fourth 
Biennial  Report,  1S93-1S94  contains  a  historical 
account  of  the  apprenticeship  system. 

E.\TON,  J.  Shirley.  Education  for  Effixciency  in  Railroad 
Service.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bull.  1909, 
No.  10. 


Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  Labor.  Part  I, 
Annual  Report  for  1906.  The  Apprenticeship 
System. 

Motley,  James  M.  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade 
Unions.  Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies  in 
History  and  Political  Science,  1907. 

Richards,  Charles  R.  Itulustrial  Training.  New- 
York  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.  Contains  a  bib- 
liography.    (New  York,  1908.) 

Sadler,  M.  E.  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and 
Elsewhere.      (Manchester,    1908.) 

School  of  Printing,  North  End  Union,  Boston,  Mass. 
Apprenticeship  Bulletin,  Vol.  1,  1907  ;  Vol.  II,  1908; 
Vol.  Ill,  1909. 

Wright,  Carroll  D.  The  Apprenticeship  System  in  its 
Relation  to  Industrial  Education.  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education,  Bull.  No.  6,  contains  a  bibliography 
and  a  digest  of  apprenticeship  laws  from  the  Tenth 
Report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Labor.  (Wash- 
ington, 1908.) 

APPRENTICESHIP  EDUCATION  UNDER 
THE  POOR  LAW. —  See  Poor  Law  and 
Education. 

APRAXIA.  —  A  kind  of  aphasia  (g.v.),  in 
which  there  is  an  inability  to  appreciate  the 
forms  of  objects  and  to  properly  use  them. 
Tlie  objects  may  belong  to  any  field  of  activity, 
e.g.  pen  or  pencil,  knife  or  fork,  hammer  or 
saw,  table  or  chair,  etc.,  and  be  sensed  by 
means  of  any  of  the  sense  organs. 

References  :  — 

Bechterew,  W.  v.  Ueber  die  Localisation  der  motor- 
ischen  Apraxie.  Monatsch.  far  Psychiat.  u.  Neurol., 
XXV,  1909,  42-51. 

Hartm.vnn,  F.  Beitrage  zur  Apraxielehre.  Monatsch. 
fur  Psychiatr.  u.  Neurol. .Vol.  XXI,  97-118  ;  248-270. 

LiEPMANN,  H.  Das  Krankheitsbild  der  Apraxie.  Mo- 
natsch. fur  Psychiat.  u.  Neurol.,  1900. 

MoNAKOw,  C.  V.  Ueber  den  gegenwiirtigen  Stand  der 
Frage  nach  der  Localisation  im  Grosshirn.  Apha- 
sie,  Agnosie,  Apraxie.  In  Asher  und  Spiro : 
Ergcbnisse  der  Physiologic,  Vol.  VI,  1907,  pp. 
334-605. 

APROSECHIA  NASALIS,  called  bv  French 
and    English  writers    APROSEXIA    NASALIS 

(d-irpoue^ia,  inattention,  and  na.sali.s,  nasal). — 
This  term  was  invented  by  Guye  to  indicate  the 
form  of  inattention  that  is  apt  to  occur  in  case 
of  children  suffering  from  adenoid  growths. 
The  child  is  apt  to  be  dull,  Hstless,  unable  to 
accomplish  satisfactory  school  work,  and  some- 
times distinctly  stupid.  The  effect  of  an  oper- 
ation removing  the  adenoid  is  usually  great 
improvement  of  the  power  of  attention  and  of 
the  mental  abihty  generally. 
See  article  on  Adenoids. 

APTITUDE.  —  Mental  capacity,  native  or 
acquired.  An  aptitude  is  that  part  of  a  person's 
mental  equipment  which  gives  him  a  special 
fitness  for  any  kind  of  endeavor.  Such  an 
aptitude  may  be  the  result  of  either  an  innate 
endowment  or  of  special  training,  or  both. 

Individuals  differ  greatly  in  their  gifts  and  ca- 
pacities, such  differences  being  both  quantitative 
and  qualitative.  Thus  in  general  there  are 
three  classes  of  individuals,  differing  quantita- 
tively  with   respect   to   their   general    mental 


IGl 


AQUATICS 


AQUINAS 


equipment.  They  are  the  talented  or  gifted 
persons;  the  average  person,  or  person  of 
medium  ability;  and  the  subnormal.  Within 
each  of  these  classes  there  are  various  sub- 
classes. This  is  especially  true  of  the  last 
class,  which  comprises  those  who  are  weak- 
minded  and  those  who  arc  merely  lacking  in 
mental  aljility  though  below  the  average  in 
capacity.  The  former  are  still  further  sub- 
divided into  the  idiots  and  imbeciles,  who  differ 
somewhat  in  the  degree  of  their  mental  ability. 

The  mental  and  physical  ([ualitics  giving  ri.sc 
to  differences  in  aptitude  are  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish. Apparently  differences  in  the  purely 
sensory  basis  of  the  mental  life  are  compara- 
tively insignificant,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
many  persons  deprived  of  some  of  their  senses 
reach  a  high  degree  of  mental  development. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  probable  that  a  natural 
tendency  to  emphasize  the  reproduced  elements 
of  one  or  another  of  the  spheres  of  sense  maj'  be 
at  the  basis  of  many  aptitu<les  which  express 
themselves  in  choice  of  callings  and  talented 
performance.  Fundamental  differences  of  this 
sort,  for  example,  are  often  at  the  basis  of  the 
high  degree  of  perfection  attained  by  artists, 
musicians,  etc. 

Another  fundamental  group  of  differences  in 
mental  qualities  are  differences  in  attention 
which  to  a  large  extent  govern  a  person's 
mental  aptitudes.  The  type  of  a  man's  atten- 
tion (distributive  or  intensive,  etc.)  has  un- 
doubtedly a  great  influence  upon  the  direction 
taken  by  liis  mental  development.        E.  H.  C. 

References  :  — 
Meu-\i.\nn.     E.     Experimenielle     Padogogik,     Vol.     I. 

(Leipzig.   1909.) 
MiJNSTERBERG.     Psychology  and  the  Teacher,  pp.  212- 

230. 

AQUATICS    or    WATER    SPORTS.  —  See 

Athletics,  Educational;  Rowing;  Swim- 
ming;  Water  Polo. 


A  QUA  VIVA. 

System  or. 


See    Jesuits,    Educational 


AQUINAS,  ST.  THOMAS  (122.5-1274).— 
The  greatest  and  most  influential  philosopher  of 
the  ^Middle  Ages.  He  studied  first  at  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  of  Monte  Casino,  and,  later, 
at  the  University  of  Naples.  After  his  entrance 
into  the  Dominican  order  in  1243,  he  became 
a  pupil  of  AUsert  the  (Jreat  {q.v.)  at  Cologne 
and  at  Paris.  In  1251,  he  began  to  teach 
at  Paris,  but  did  not  obtain  his  license  as 
Magister,  or  Doctor,  until  12.56.  Between  the 
years  1260  and  1270,  he  taught  at  Rome, 
Bologna,  Viterbo,  Perugia,  and  Naples.  His 
greatest  work,  a  summary  of  Catholic  philos- 
ophy and  theology  entitled  Summa  Theologica, 
begun  in  1271,  was  left  incomplete.  Besides 
this,  he  wrote  a  more  popular  controversial  or 
apologetic  summary,  Summa  Contra  Gentiles, 
various  theological  and  philosophical  Opuscula, 


special  treatises  {Quaestioncs  Disputatae),  com- 
mentaries, exegetical  works,  etc.  The  best 
editions  of  his  Opera  Omnia  are  the  Roman 
of  1570,  the  Parma  edition,  1852-1859,  the 
Paris  edition,  1875,  the  New  Roman,  or  Leonine, 
edition,  1S82  ff.,  of  which  12  volumes  have  been 
published  up  to  date. 

St.  Thomas  attained  very  widespread  fame 
as  a  teacher  of  philosophy  and  theology.  His 
method  did  not  differ  essentially  from  that  of 
the  monastic  teachers  of  the  early  Middle 
Ages.  He  expounded  and  commented  on  a 
text,  using  in  his  philoso|)hical  course  the  text 
of  Aristotle  (a  sjiccial  translation  was  made  at 
his  rec|uest  directly  from  the  CJreek  by  William 
of  Moerbeke  (q.v.)  about  1260)  and  in  his 
theological  courses  either  the  Latin  Vulgate 
translation  of  the  Bible  or  the  Books  of  Sen- 
tences of  Peter  the  Lombard  (q.v.).  His  manner 
of  treating  these  texts  was,  however,  original, 
and  even  novel  to  the  point  of  arousing  the 
opposition  of  the  reactionaries  of  his  day^ 
"He  was  original,"  writes  his  disciple  William  ~ 
Tocco  (Acta  Sanctorum  Martii,  Vol.  I,  pp.661  ff.) 
"in  the  subjects  which  he  introduced  into  his 
lectures,  in  the  manner  in  which  he  drew  his 
conclusions,  in  the  reasons  which  he  gave  for 
his  conclusions;  nay,  he  did  not  hesitate  to 
teach  and  to  write  new  opinions."  This  orig- 
inality of  manner  and  matter  attracted  un- 
favorable attention  on  the  part  of  his  rivals 
and  opponents  in  the  great  struggle  between 
the  "regulars" and  "seculars  "  which  threatened 
to  disrupt  the  University  of  Paris  during  the 
thirteenth  century.  He  was  attacked  also 
by  the  Franciscan  teachers,  headed  by  William 
of  Lamarre.  In  1277,  three  years  after  his 
death,  the  two  greatest  universities  of  Chris- 
tendom, Paris  and  Oxford,  condemned  certain 
of  his  teachings.  He  had,  however,  defenders 
as  well  as  opponents.  In  1278,  a  General 
Chapter  of  the  Dominican  order  held  at  Milan 
approved  him  as  a  teacher,  and  before  the  end 
of  the  century  his  doctrines  were  generally 
acknowledged  as  unassailable  from  the  point 
of  view  of  orthodoxy.  ,His  authority  as  a 
teacher  grew  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries.  His  works  received  special  com- 
mendation from  Councils  and  Popes,  until  in 
our  own  day  he  was  proposed  by  Pope  Leo 
XIII  as  patron  of  Catholic  schools  throughout 
the  world,  and  his  writings  prescribed  as  a  text 
in  Catholic  colleges,  seminaries,  and  universities. 

Among  the  works  of  St.  Thomas  there  is' 
none  which  treats  in  an  exhau.stive  manner  of 
the  principles  of  education.  In  the  commen- 
tary on  the  Politics  of  Aristotle,  he  accepts  the 
Stagirite's  principles  in  regard  to  the  educa- 
tional function  of  the  state.  The  treatise 
De  Magistro,  incorporated  in  the  Quaestio 
Disputata  de  Veritate,  is  theological  and  pliilo- 
sopliical  rather  than  pedagogical.  It  is  divided 
into  four  articles.  The  first  inquires  whether 
one  man  can  teach  another  and  so  be  called 
"Master,"    or    whether    this    title    belongs    to 


162 


AQUINAS 


ARABIC   EDUCATION 


God  alone.  The  second  article  discusses 
whether  one  may  be  said  to  be  his  own  teacher. 
The  third  takes  up  the  question  whether  man 
may  be  taught  by  an  angel.  The  fourth  is 
devoted  to  the  question  whether  teaching  be- 
longs to  the  active  or  to  the  contemplative 
life.  Here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  Quaestiones 
Disputatae,  the  contents  of  the  tract  are  deter- 
mined not  so  much  by  the  requirements  of  a 
strictly  logical  division  of  topics  as  by  the  im- 
mediate needs  of  the  controversy  which  had 
arisen  in  the  schools.  The  question  to  which 
the  first  article  is  devoted  is  discu.ssed  also 
in  the  Sumina  Theologica,  la,  CXIII,  Art.  I. 
-In  both  places  St.  Thomas  expounds  a  view 
which  recalls  the  Socratic  doctrine  of  develop- 
ment. There  are,  he  says,  in  the  human  mind, 
as  it  were,  seeds  of  knowledge  (quaedam  scien- 
liarum  seinuia),  general  principles,  which  con- 
tain potentially  the  more  definite  knowledge 
of  particulars. 'The function  of  the  teacher  is  to 
propose  general  principles  to  the  mind  of  the 
pupil,  who,  by  the  natural  light  of  reason, 
perceives  them  to  be  true,  and  then  to  aid  him 
in  passing  to  particular  applications.  Thus 
the  process  of  teaching  follows  the  path  mapped 
out  by  nature  itself;  for  teaching  is  an  art,  and 
the  first  canon  of  art  is  to  follow  nature.  • 

Among  the  Opuscula  is  a  letter  addressed  to 
a  student  who  had  inquired  what  is  the  best 
way  to  acquire  knowledge,  human  and  divine. 
St.  Thomas  answers  in  a  brief  summary  of  the 
dispositions,  mental,  moral,  and  spiritual,  which 
are  requisite  for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
Among  the  counsels  which  he  gives  is  this:  Be- 
gin by  what  is  less  difficult  and  so  proceed  by 
easy  stages  to  more  difficult  questions:  do  not 
enter  at  once  into  the  sea  of  knowledge,  but 
approach  it  by  the  streams  that  lead  to  it. 
{Opusc.  LXI,  in  Paris  edition,  Vol.  XXVIII, 
pp.  46  ff.)  The  Opusculum  De  Eruditione  Prin- 
cipum,  which,  however,  is  of  doubtful  authen- 
ticity, contains  a  lengthy  discussion  of  the  duties 
of  parents  in  regard  to  the  education  of  their 
children,  and  enumerates  the  qualities  which  a 
teacher  should  possess.  These  last  are  reduced 
to  five:  ability  (especially  originality),  correct 
living,  humble  knowledge,  eloquence,  and  skill 
in  teaching  (perilia  docendi).  Skill  in  teaching 
is  conditioned  by  a  talent  for  clearness,  the 
ability  to  be  brief  without  being  obscure,  an 
appreciation  of  the  useful,  kindness  (suaintas), 
and  deliberatene.ss  (i.e.  mediocrilns  inter  velo- 
citatem  et  tarditatem).  The  requirements  on 
the  part  of  the  learner  are,  likewise,  treated 
at  length.  Throughout  the  discussion  there 
is  an  interweaving  of  intellectual,  moral,  and 
.spiritual  considerations  {Opu.fc.  XXXVII,  in 
Paris  edition,  Vol.   XXVII,  pp.  5.51  ff.). 

W.  T. 

References  :  — 

Dra.ne,  a.  T.  Christian  Schools  and  Scholars.  (Lon- 
don. 18,S1.) 

Pace.  St.  Thomas'  Theory  of  Education,  in  Catholic 
University  Bulletin,  July,  1902. 


163 


Sandys,  J.  E.     History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  Vol.  I. 

(Cambridge,   190.3.) 
St.  Thomae  Aquinatis.    Opera  Omnia.     (Paris,  1875.) 
TowNSEND,  W.  J.     The  Great  Schoolmen  of  the  Middle 

Ages.     (London.  ISSl.) 
Turner,  W.     History  of  Philosophy.     (Boston,   190.3.) 
Vaughan.     St.  Thomas  of  Aquin.      (London,  1872.) 

ARABIC  EDUCATION.  — TWs  subject  is 
chiefly  of  interest  to  students  of  Western 
civilizations  from  the  fact  that  it  contributed 
to  illumine  the  period  of  the  so-called  "  Dark 
Ages."  It  was  essentially  Greek  rather  than 
Arabian  in  character  and  origin.  It  is  true, 
indeed,  that  the  early  or  Bedouin  period 
of  the  Saracenic  people  was  adorned  by  a 
certain  indigenous  culture.  Arabic  poetry 
originated  in  a  period  of  most  remote  antiquity; 
and  the  Kitab  al-AJghani,  or  Book  of  Songs, 
contains  a  store  of  information  of  pre-Moham- 
medan  culture.  But  the  coming  of  Mohammed, 
in  571,  gave  a  new  character  to  the  Arabian  . 
civilization,  sounding  a  note  of  war  against  the 
infidel  which  accompanied  the  banner  of  Islam 
throughout  Western  India,  northern  Africa,  and 
Spain.  Spain  was  completely  conquered,  ex- 
cept for  the  Christians  who  remained  in  the 
mountains,  by  715  a.d.  In  the  East,  the  rise 
of  the  Abbasid  dynasty,  which  involved  the 
removal  of  the  Khalifate  from  Damascus  to 
Baghdad,  inaugurated  a  new  and  brilliant 
period  of  civilization. 

The  Abbasids  made  a  deliberate  attempt  to 
extend  and  popularize  education.  Under  their 
patronage  a  diligent  search  for  books,  and  a 
systematic  process  of  translating  foreign  writings, 
was  instituted.  Syrian  monks  had  long  been 
engaged  in  the  translation  of  Greek  works  into 
Syriac;  and  now  the  Nestorians,  an  exiled  and 
persecuted  sect  of  Christians,  were  employed 
to  make  Arabian  versions  from  the  Syriac  for  the 
khaUfs.  Carrhae,  the  Haran  of  the  Scriptures, 
became  a  celebrated  center  of  astronomical 
and  scientific  knowledge.  Each  mosque  estab- 
lished a  public  school  for  reading  and  writing 
the  Koran.  It  is  said  that  over  one  thousand 
students  attended  the  medical  college,  hospital 
for  clinical  instruction,  and  chemical  laboratories 
of  the  second  of  the  Abloasids.  One  even  hears 
of  a  Nestorian  as  "  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction." 

An  impetus  was  given  to  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation in  7.S6  by  the  accession  to  the  Khalifate 
of  Haroun-al-Raschid,  whose  efforts  on  behalf 
of  enlightenment  were  only  surpassed  by  those 
of  his  son  and  successor  Al-mamum.  Both 
caused  mosques  and  academies  to  be  built;  Al- 
mamum  founded  a  university,  a  library,  and  an 
observatory  at  Baghdad,  proceeded  to  accept 
books  and  even  pictures  and  maps  as  tribute, 
endowed  professorial  chairs,  assisted  indigent 
students,  bought  rare  instruments  and  manu- 
scripts, and  addicted  himself  to  study.  About 
this  time  was  effected  a  famous  translation  of 
Ptolemy's  Geography  and  Astronomy,  under 
the  name  of  the  Almngefil :  and  tran.slations 
were  also  made  of  Aristotle's    Categories  and 


ARABIC   EDUCATION 


ARABIC   EDUCATION 


Poetics,  Plato's  Republic  and  Timctus,  the 
Elements  of  Euclid,  and  the  works  of  (Jalen  on 
medicine.  Meantime,  in  the  way  of  indigenous 
literature,  history  was  voluminously  repre- 
sented by  a  mass  of  rather  superfic'ial  and 
credulous  chronicles.  Romance  of  a  strictly 
native  and  Eastern  character  appeared  in  the 
Thovsand and  OneNigldff  and  other  tales,  which 
seem  to  have  originated  in  Baghdad  probably 
in  the  cour.se  of  the  eleventh  century. 

The  Moorish  conquerors  of  Spain  were  divided 
in  their  aims  and  ambitions;  and  it  was  not 
until  the  establishment  of  Abelu-r-rahmen  I 
on  the  throne  of  an  independent  Spanish 
Khalifate  that  order,  civilization  and  learning 
became  concentrated  in  this  region  of  Europe. 
From  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh  century,  Spain 
was  the  principal  seat  of  Western  culture. 
From  the  educational  point  of  view,  it  is  not 
perhaps  the  palaces,  mosques,  public  baths, 
aqueducts,  market  places,  street  lamps,  and 
street  pavements  of  the  period  that  ought  to 
claim  attention ;  nor  yet  such  luxuries  as  flowers, 
gold,  silver,  ivory,  marble,  citron,  and  sandal- 
wood, pearls,  crystal,  and  lapis  lazuli  brought 
from  abroad;  nor  the  paintings,  chandeliers, 
perfumes,  fountains,  stained  glass  windows,  mo- 
saic floors,  and  hot  and  cold  water  frequently  to 
be  found  in  the  houses;  but  rather  the  libraries, 
schools  of  the  mosques,  and  universities  that 
attract  our  involuntary  attention  and  admi- 
ration. Many  of  the  teachers  were  Jews.  It 
was  fashionable  for  men  of  power  and  wealth 
to  collect  manuscripts  and  place  their  libraries 
at  the  disposal  of  scholars.  In  particular,  the 
Khalif  Al-hakem  II  (961-976)  assembled  copyists 
and  bookbinders,  encouraged  learned  men 
at  his  court,  and  is  even  said  to  have  collected 
600,000  volumes  for  his  magnificent  library. 
Cordova  was  perhaps  the  most  enlightened 
city  of  the  world,  being  splendidly  rivaled  by 
Toledo,  Granada,  and  Seville. 

The  field  of  Mohammedan  learning  from  the 
ninth  to  the  eleventh  centuries,  if  one  may 
omit  the  study  of  the  Koran  as  not  bearing 
closely  upon  European  development,  comprised 
two  principal  parts,  practical  science  and 
phOosophy.  Arabian  mathematics  were  based 
upon  the  Greek,  but  profited  by  the  introduction 
of  Hindu  numerals.  The  Arabians  improved 
the  method  of  solving  quadratic  equations; 
and  added  to  trigonometrv  the  use  of  sines 
for  chords,  tables,  and  formulae.  Arabian  geom- 
etry was  based  upon  the  Greek,  but  the  algebra 
and  the  arithmetic  drew  upon  Hindu  sources. 
They  developed  an  astronomy,  or  astrologyCg.v.) 
more  accurate  than  that  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
though  their  success  was  principally  due  in  the 
first  place  to  a  knowledge  of  the  Ptolemaic 
system.  Al-Batani  of  Syria,  S79-920  .\.d., 
was  most  celebrated  for  the  exactness  of  his 
astronomical  calculations.  The  first  a.stronomi- 
cal  observatory  in  Spain  may  have  been  that 
constructed  in  1196  by  the  Moor  Geber  at 
Seville.     Arabic  algebra  was  primarily  derived 


from  India;  Arabic  geometry  from  Greece.  In 
geometry  the  Arabians  fully  appreciated  the 
Greek  masters  Euclid,  ApoUonius,  and  the 
others,  and  made  practical  applications  of  their 
knowledge  to  hydra ulics.  They  used  sighted 
tubes  to  observe  the  stars,  knew  the  earth  to  be 
round,  measured  a  degree  of  latitude,  computed 
the  angle  of  the  ecliptic,  made  a  close  determina- 
tion of  the  length  of  the  year,  taught  geog- 
raphy bv  means  of  globes,  and  named  many 
of  the  stars.  Western  Europe  still  retains  the 
Arabic  terms  algebra,  azimuth,  zenith,  nadir, 
etc. 

Medicine  was  a  fundamental  subject  of  study 
among  the  Arabians.  Most  of  the  sciences 
were  subordinated  to  it;  and  even  astrology 
was  pressed  into  its  service.  Although  the 
prohibitions  of  the  Koran  restricted  anatomical 
investigations,  even  dissection  was  practiced 
more  or  less  in  Spain.  The  earlier  medical 
texts  were  translations  from  the  Greek,  and 
followed  Hippocrates  and  the  Alexandrians. 
Physicians  were  required  to  pass  an  exami- 
nation before  being  permitted  to  practice. 
Diet,  drugs,  and  disea.ses  such  as  fevers  and 
leprosy  were  thoroughly  studied.  Chemistry 
came  to  be  studied  in  connection  with  medicine 
and  particularly  in  relation  to  the  search  for  the 
elixir  of  life,  as  well  as  the  philosopher's  stone. 
The  khalifs  were  liberal  in  the  support  of 
laboratories  as  well  as  libraries.  Geber  dis- 
covered nitric  acid  and  aqua  regia ;  Rhazes 
discovered  sulphuric  acid.  Substances  were 
reduced  to  their  constituent  elements,  and  the 
properties  of  gases  investigated.  In  physics 
it  was  Alhazen  who  corrected  the  mistaken 
theories  of  sight  that  had  been  fornuilated  by 
the  Greeks,  and  showed  the  relation  of  the  eye 
to  rays  of  light.  Studies  were  also  pursued  in 
problems  of  gravity,  capillary  attraction,  and 
the  weight  and  velocitj'  of  bodies.  One  may 
also  recall  that  the  skill  of  the  Arabians  in 
metal  work  was  amply  attested  by  their 
bitterest  foes,  the  Crusaders;  and  that  they  ex- 
celled in  all  manner  of  fine  workmanship. 

Arabic  philosophy  preserved  the  unfettered 
forces  of  Hellenic  genius  during  their  long  period 
of  partial  exile  from  the  intellectual  life  of 
western  Europe.  It  was  founded  principally 
upon  Aristotle  {q.v.),  but  influenced  also  by  the 
\eo-Platonic  {q.v.)  and  Hebrew  philosophies. 
Avicenna  {q.v.)  (980-1037)  before  he  was 
seventeen  years  of  age  had  read  parts  of  Aris- 
totle, it  is  said,  forty  times  over;  but  it  was  the 
Spanish  INIoor,  Averroes  {q.v.)  who  became  the 
medium  whereby  a  practically  complete  posses- 
sion of  the  works  of  the  great  Greek  master  came 
to  enrich  the  thought  of  medieval  Europe. 
In  the  twelfth  century  the  principal  works  of 
Ari.stotle,  together  with  the  Commentaries  of 
Averroes,  found  their  way  into  Latin,  probably 
through  the  medium  of  Hebrew.  Toledo,  after 
its  capture  in  1081  by  Alphonso  \l,  became 
an  important  center  of  learning,  and  it  was 
here  that  the  translators  pursued  their  task  of 


164 


ARABIC   NOTATION 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


rendering  Arabic  into  Latin.  Tlirough  their 
labors,  by  tlie  end  of  tlie  twelftli  century  West- 
ern Europe  had  inherited  not  only  Aristotle, 
but  a  knowledge  of  the  Arabic  or  Hindu  no- 
tation, the  Almagest,  Euclid,  and  Arabian 
algebra.  There  was  still  much  material  for 
which  Europe  was  not  ripe,  including  great 
dictionaries  and  encyclopedias,  innumerable 
biographies  and  histories,  treatises  in  science 
and  philosophy,  and  disquisitions  on  art  and 
antiquities. 

The  direct  bearing  of  Arabic  culture  upon 
European  education  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
facts  that  Gerbert  (later  Pope  Sylvester  II) 
studied  in  Spain;  Gerard  of  Cremona  sought 
a  copy  of  the  Almagest  in  Toledo;  Daniel  de 
Morlai  left  the  University  of  Paris  for  Toledo, 
and  brought  thence  to  England  many  precious 
books;  Michael  Scott  studied  at  Toledo,  and 
a  monk  of  !Monte  Cassino  named  Constantino 
at  Baghdad;  Athelard  of  Bath  pursued  Arabic 
science  and  philosophy  in  Asia  Minor,  Egypt, 
and  Spain;  while  Arabic  textbooks  in  medicine 
for  a  long  time  dominated  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion given  at  the  celebrated  medical  school  at 
Montpellier.  P.  R.  C. 

See  Semitic  Education. 

References:  — 

Cajori.     History  of  Mathematics.     (New  York,   1906.) 

CoPPEE.  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Arab 
Moors. 

Draper.    Intellectual  Development  of  Europe. 

Hallam.     Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Hu.iRT.     History  of  Arabic  Literature.    (New  York,  1903.) 

HoNGERFORD.  Rise  of  Arab  Learning  (Ail.  Monthly, 
Vol.  LVIII). 

LACfioix.    Science  and  Literature  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Rashdall.  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
(Oxford,   1895.) 

Sandys.  History  of  Classical  Scholarship.  (Cambridge, 
1903-1908.) 

Tow.NSEND.  Great  Schoobnen  of  the  Middle  Ages.  (Lon- 
don, 1881.) 

Traill.     Social  England.      (New  York,    1894-1897.) 

White.     Warfare  of  Science.     (New  York,  1888.) 

ARABIC  NOTATION.  —  See  Notation. 

ARABIC  NUMERALS.  —  See  Numerals. 

ARBOR  DAY.  —  See  Special  Days. 

ARCADIA  COLLEGE  AND  URSULINE 
ACADEMY,  ARCADIA,  MO.  —  An  institu- 
tion for  the  education  of  girls  established  in 
1877  and  under  the  control  of  the  Ursuline 
nuns.  A  curriculum  is  provided  for  a  course 
of  11  years,  8  in  the  primary  and  3  in  the 
academic  departments.  Commercial  and  fine 
arts  subjects  are  also  taught. 

ARCHAEOLOGY.  —  Greek.  —  The  science  of 
Greek  antifiuities  includes  within  its  scope 
all  the  material  remains  of  the  Greek  people. 
As  there  could  be  no  such  science  until  the 
works  of  the  Greeks  had  been  discovered, 
studied,  and  classified,  the  science  of  Greek 
archaeology  antedates  by  but  little  the  begin- 


ning of  the  nineteenth  century.  Its  develop- 
ment, however,  has  been  remarkably  rapid,  and 
each  year  additions  to  the  materials  for  study 
occasion  constant  modifications  of  theories  and 
classifications. 

The  early  history  of  this  subject  is  coincident 
with  the  growth  of  interest  in  the  antiquities  of 
Rome.  As  early  as  the  fifteenth  century  papal 
princes  and  other  wealthy  men  in  Rome, 
Florence,  Naples,  and  elsewhere  in  Italy  began 
to  accumulate  collections  of  ancient  statues 
which  with  few  exceptions  were  Roman  copies 
of  Greek  originals.  During  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  the  enthusiasm  for  col- 
lecting antiquities  rapidly  developed  and  spread 
from  Italy  into  foreign  countries,  being  espe- 
cially fostered  in  England  by  wealthy  noblemen. 
The  supply  of  ancient  objects  in  Ital_v  could  not 
equal  the  demand,  and  therefore  as  early  as 
1630  the  Earl  of  Arundel  sought  objects  from 
Greece.  But  during  the  seventeenth  century 
France  is  particularly  prominent  in  the  inves- 
tigation of  Greek  antiquities.  The  French 
consuls  at  Athens  .studied  the  visible  remains 
in  the  city.  The  French  monks  applied  them- 
selves to  topography  and  prepared  a  map  of  the 
city,  while  descriptions  of  visits  there  are  re- 
corded by  the  French  ambassador,  Louis  des 
Haves  (1630),  and  the  French  priest,  Robert 
de  Dreux  (1669). 

Much  more  important,  however,  was  the 
tour  of  Greece  made  by  the  Marquis  de 
Nointel  in  1674,  for  in  his  party  were  several 
artists  who  made  drawings  of  various  ancient 
buildings,  as  well  as  of  the  sculptures  in  the  pedi- 
ments of  the  Parthenon.  The  sketches  of  the 
Parthenon  are  of  peculiar  importance,  as  they 
represent  the  state  of  the  building  prior  to  its 
bombardment  by  the  Venetians  in  1687.  About 
this  same  time  (1675-1676)  another  important 
tour  of  exploration  of  Greece  was  undertaken  by 
a  French  physician,  Jacob  Spon,  and  George 
Wheler,  an  Englishman. 

The  violent  conflicts  between  Turks  and 
Venetians  for  the  mastery  of  Greece  at  the 
end  of  this  century  occasioned  the  destruction 
of  many  ancient  buildings  that  had  previously 
been  visited  and  described.  For  the  next  fifty 
years,  apart  from  some  Italian  studies  of 
minor  importance  inspired  by  the  brief  Venetian 
occupation  of  Athens,  we  have  no  reports  on 
the  antiquities  of  Greece.  But  in  the  j'ear  1733 
an  event  destined  to  have  great  influence  on  the 
development  of  public  interest  in  Greece  was 
the  formation  of  the  Society  of  Dilettanti  in 
London.  Members  of  this  society  furnished 
support  to  the  publication  of  the  most  ambitious 
work  on  Greek  remains  undertaken  up  to  this 
time.  In  1751  two  Englishmen,  James  Stuart, 
a  painter,  and  Nicholas  Revett,  an  architect, 
began  in  Greece  a  careful  and  accurate  study  of 
ancient  buildings  and  sculptures  which  occupied 
them  for  several  years  and  resulted  in  the  publi- 
cation of  an  epoch-making  work  in  four  volumes, 
The  Antiquities  of  Athens  (1762-1816).     Before 


165 


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ARCHEOLOGY 


the  second  volume  of  this  work  had  appeared  an 
expedition  was  sent  out  (1764)  by  tlie  Soeicty 
of  Dilettanti  to  make  a  similar  extensive  study 
of  the  anticiuities  of  Ionia.  Revett  as  archi- 
tect again,  with  his  associates  Richard  Chandler 
and  Pars  an  artist,  published  the  discoveries  in 
two  volumes  (1769,  1797).  About  this  time 
too  appeared  (1763)  a  great  work,  the  History 
of  Ancient  Art,  by  a  German  scholar,  Johann 
Joachim  Winckelmann  (1717-1768).  Although 
Winckelmann  never  visited  Greece  and  had 
liractically  no  Greek  originals  before  him  in 
Rome,  his  vision  was  so  broad  and  his  insight  so 
keen  that  his  work  was  for  many  years  the 
highest  authority  on  Greek  art,  and  he  is  justly 
regarded  as  the  father  of  Greek  archaeology. 

The  popular  interest  in  Greek  antiquities  that 
was  fostered  in  England  by  the  Society  of 
Dilettanti,  by  the  collections  of  noblemen,  and 
by  the  foundation  of  the  British  Museum  (1759), 
in  (iermany  by  the  researches  of  Winckelmann 
and  others,  was  aroused  equally  among  the 
French  by  the  victories  of  Napoleon,  who  plun- 
dered Italy  and  other  parts  of  Europe  of  many 
works  of  art  in  order  to  form  in  Paris  a  Mus^e 
NapoMon.  Under  Napoleon  too  the  royal  col- 
lection in  the  Louvre  was  opened  to  the  public 
as  the  Mus6e  Frangais  (1798),  and  Visconti,  a 
distinguished  Italian  scholar,  was  placed  in 
charge  of  antiquities  in   France. 

Napoleon's  booty,  which  came  largely  from 
Italy,  was  naturally  Roman  for  the  most  part, 
but  in  England  in  the  meanwhile  a  constantly 
increasing  number  of  Greek  antiquities  was 
being  gathered  in  the  Museum  as  well  as  in 
private  collections.  Then  in  the  opening 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century  occurred  a 
notable  event  in  the  history  of  our  subject. 
Lord  Elgin,  the  British  Ambassador  to  Constan- 
tinople, received  permission  from  the  Ottoman 
government  to  remove  some  sculptures  from 
the  Acropolis  in  Athens,  a  concession  which, 
freely  interpreted,  resulted  after  a  year's  work 
(1802-1803)  in  a  shipment  to  England  of  many 
sculptures,  chiefly  from  the  Parthenon,  the  Erec- 
theum,  and  the  temple  of  Athena  Nik^.  The  im- 
mediate effect  of  their  arrival  in  England  was  a 
Cjuarrel  as  to  their  artistic  value,  which  was  be- 
littled by  the  Society  of  Dilettanti  under  the 
leadership  of  Richard  Payne  Knight,  so  that  it 
was  not  until  after  distinguished  foreign  scholars, 
notably  Visconti  and  Canova,  had  expressed 
their  admiration  of  them,  that  the  sculptures  were 
acquired  by  the  English  government  for  a  com- 
paratively small  sum  and  placed  in  the  British 
Museum  (1816),  where  the  Elgin  marbles  are 
still  the  chief  artistic  treasure  of  the  people. 

In  the  meantime  other  Englishmen  were  seek- 
ing and  studying  antiquities  in  Greece.  Among 
them  those  who  achieved  most  important  re- 
sults were  the  architects  Cockerell  and  Foster, 
who,  together  with  two  Germans,  Haller  von 
Hallerstein  and  Linckh,  discovered  in  1811 
most  of  the  pedimental  sculptures  belonging 
to  the  temple  of  Aphaia  on  the  island  of  iEgina. 


These  were  purchased  at  auction  in  1812  by 
Crown  Prince  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  and  were 
placed  eventually  in  the  Glyptothek  at  Munich. 
Another  important  work  undertaken  by  mem- 
bers of  this  same  party  in  1811  was  the  inves- 
tigation and  excavation  of  the  temjile  of  Apollo 
at  Bassir  in  Arcadia,  which  contributed  much 
to  the  knowledge  of  Greek  architecture  and 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  many  pieces  of 
sculpture,  mainly  from  the  frieze,  which  were 
bought  for  the  British  Museum  in  1814.  About 
this  time,  too,  investigations  were  made  by 
Cockerell  and  other  English  architects  of  the 
ruined  temples  of  Sicily,  at  Girgenti  and  Seli- 
nunte;  while  in  1828  Northern  Italy  furnished 
a  large  amount  of  new  material  for  the  study 
of  Greek  art  in  the  discovery  of  several  thou- 
sand painted  vases  on  the  estate  of  Lucien 
Bonaparte  at  Vulci  in  Etruria.  Collections  of 
painted  vases  had  long  been  in  existence,  the 
oldest  catalogue  of  such  a  collection  being 
dated  as  early  as  1696,  and  perhaps  the  most 
notable  was  that  made  by  Sir  William  Hamilton 
which  he  sold  to  the  British  Museum  in  1767. 
As  many  of  these  vases  were  found  in  tombs 
in  Etruria,  they  were  generally  regarded  as  ex- 
amples of  Etruscan  art,  although  Winckel- 
mann in  his  History  of  Art  had  declared  that 
they  were  wholly  Greek,  a  view  which  did  not 
receive  wide  acceptance  until  similar  examples 
of  painted  pottery  had  been  found  in  various 
sites  of  Greece,  and  Otto  Jahn  in  1854  had  made 
an  accurate  and  comparative  study  of  all  the 
material  available. 

In  the  years  immediately  preceding  and 
during  the  tumult  of  the  Greek  struggle  for 
independence  (1821-1832)  no  archa>ological 
study  was  possible  in  Greece,  though  on  the 
Lsland  of  Alelos  in  1S20  was  found  the  statue 
of  Aphrodite,  which  was  acquired  by  the 
French  Amba.ssador  in  Constantinople,  who 
presented  it  to  the  Louvre,  where  it  was  placed 
on  exhibition  in  1821.  With  the  successful 
termination  of  the  revolution  and  the  election 
of  the  Bavarian  Prince  Otto  to  the  throne  of 
Greece  in  1832  a  new  era  dawned  for  Greek 
archaeology.  A  German  scholar,  Ludwig  Ro.ss, 
was  appointed  Conservator  of  Antiquities,  under 
whose  direction  the  Acropolis  was  cleared  of 
all  but  ancient  buildings,  the  temple  of  Athena 
Nik^, which  had  been  torn  down  for  a  Turk- 
ish fortification,  was  restored  to  its  original 
position,  and  many  fragments  of  sculpture  and 
architecture  were  carefully  collected.  Ross 
was  succeeded  as  Conservator  of  Antiquities 
in  1836  by  a  Greek,  Pittakes,  and  the  growing 
interest  of  the  natives  in  the  ancient  remains 
of  their  land  was  evidenced  by  the  formation 
of  a  Greek  archaeological  society  in  1827.  For- 
eigners, however,  still  continued  to  make  the 
most  important  researches.  In  1846-1847 
an  English  architect,  F.  C.  Penrose,  made  care- 
ful and  accurate  studies  of  the  Parthenon  and 
Propylaia,  and  in  this  decade  the  German 
savants   Ross   and    Ulrichs   traveled    through 


166 


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ARCHEOLOGY 


many  parts  of  the  Greek  world,  making  notes 
and  observations  which  are  still  of  value. 
English  expeditions  to  Lycia  in  1842-1844 
brought  to  the  British  Museum  many  of  the 
sculptures  of  the  "Harpy  Tomb"  and  the 
"  Nereid  Monument,"  while  later  expeditions 
secured  to  England  the  greater  part  of  the 
Mausoleum  of  Halicarnassits. 

In  1846  was  founded  the  French  School 
of  Archaeology  in  Athens.  This  incident 
marked  an  epoch  in  Greek  archaeology  because 
the  French  method,  which  has  been  imitated 
by  other  nations,  has  been  to  train  young  men 
by  residence  in  Greece,  through  whom  elaborate 
and  systematic  excavations  could  be  conducted. 
From  the  discovery  of  the  BeuM  gateway  of 
the  Acropolis  in  1852  up  to  the  present  time 
the  French  School  has  Ijeen  engaged  in  a  series 
of  works  of  the  first  importance.  They  have 
made  excavations  at  Myrina  in  Asia  Minor, 
at  Mount  Potus  in  Bceotia,  at  Tegea  in 
the  Peloponnesus,  and  they  have  uncovered 
two  great  sanctuaries  of  Apollo  at  Delos  and 
Delphi.  At  both  of  these  sites  work  has  been 
conducted  for  many  years  and  is  not  yet  com- 
pleted. At  both  places  blocks  of  buildings 
have  been  unearthed,  wliich  yielded  many  in- 
scriptions, vases,  and  coins,  much  information 
on  architecture,  and  some  important  sculptures, 
of  which  the  most  famous  is  the  bronze  chari- 
oteer found  at  Delphi  in  1896  and  exhibited 
there  now  in  the  local  museum. 

The  Athenian  branch  of  the  German  Archae- 
ological Institute  was  founded  in  1874,  but 
throughout  the  century  Germans  had  played 
an  important  role  in  the  development  of  archae- 
ology, and  shortly  before  that  date,  Heinrich 
Schliemann  had  given  a  new  impetus  to  the 
study,  and  opened  a  new  field  for  research  by 
the  discovery  (1871)  of  the  mythical  city  of 
Troy,  where  were  found  treasures  of  gold  and 
gems,  and  examples  of  art  and  craft,  which, 
known  before  only  by  vague  refeiences  in  an- 
cient authors,  were  supposed  to  be  creations  of 
poetic  fancy.  Further  excavations  in  Troy 
were  made  by  Schliemann  in  1878  and  1890, 
and  the  work  there  was  finished  in  1893-1894 
by  Wilhelm  Dorpfeld,  who  for  more  than 
twenty-five  years  was  in  charge  of  the  In- 
stitute at  Athens.  Confirmation  of  the  exist- 
ence of  an  advanced  civilization  prior  to  the 
beginning  of  Greek  history  was  sought  and 
found  by  Schliemann  at  Mvcena"  (1874)  and 
at  Tiryns  (1884).  _  A  sketch  of  the  other 
manifold  activities  in  the  province  of  Greek 
archaeology  in  which  Germans  have  been 
engaged  during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century 
would  require  a  lengthy  treatise.  Only  their 
most  extensive  and  important  campaigns  may 
be  mentioned.  In  the  years  1875-1880  the 
entire  precinct  of  Olympia  was  excavated  under 
the  direction  of  Ernst  Curtius  by  means  of 
funds  provided  by  the  German  Empire.  This 
was  the  first  great  scientific  excavation  which 
for  accuracy  of   work   and   record  set  a  new 


standard  for  archaeologists.  The  results  were 
particularly  important  for  architecture,  as  the 
Heraeum,  one  of  the  oldest  Doric  temples, 
was  uncovered  beside  the  larger  and  later 
temple  of  Zeus;  and  for  sculpture  in  the  un- 
earthing of  the  pedimental  statues  and  metopes 
from  the  Zeus  temple,  the  Nike  of  Paeonius, 
and  the  Hermes  of  Pra.xiteles,  all  now  exhibited 
in  the  Museum  at  Olympia.  Another  great 
German  undertaking  was  the  excavation  of 
Pergamum  by  the  Berlin  Museum  (1878-1886), 
as  a  result  of  which  the  important  reliefs  from 
the  famous  altar  of  Zeus  were  secured  to  the 
city  of  Berlin.  Since  1900  the  German  Insti- 
tute has  been  continuing  work  on  this  site 
under  Dorpfeld's  direction,  in  order  to  lay  bare 
the  entire  city.  Another  city  dating  for  the 
most  part  from  Hellenistic  times  which  has  been 
excavated  by  the  Berlin  Museum  is  Priene 
(1895-1899),  under  the  direction  of  T.  Wiegand, 
and  under  the  same  auspices  Miletus  (1899) 
and  Didyma,  where  work  is  not  yet  entirely 
completed.  Other  important  work  has  been 
carried  to  completion  at  Thera  (1896-1901) 
by  Hiller  von  Gaertringen,  and  at  ^Egina 
(1901-1904)   by  Adolf  Furtwangler. 

While  Germany  has  been  the  most  active 
and  successful  nation  engaged  in  Greek  archae- 
ology, the  representatives  of  other  nations 
have  not  been  idle.  In  1882  the  American 
School  of  Classical  Studies  was  founded  in 
Athens,  and  Americans  have  been  engaged  in 
three  large  undertakings,  at  Assos  (1881-1883), 
at  the  Argive  Heraeum  (1892-1893),  and,  since 
1896,  at  Corinth,  where  many  landmarks  of 
the  ancient  city  have  been  located,  notably 
the  agora,  the  theater,  and  the  famous  fountain 
of  Pirene.  The  American  School  also  has 
nearly  completed  (1910)  an  elaborate  and  ex- 
haustive study  of  the  Erechtheum  in  Athens, 
which  is  expected  soon  to  be  published.  Fur- 
thermore, Americans  have  ju.st  set  hand  to 
two  undertakings  which  promise  to  outrank 
in  magnitude  and  importance  any  they  have 
hitherto  attempted,  namely,  the  excavation  of 
Sardes,  capital  of  Lydia,  under  the  direction 
of  H.  C.  Butler,  and  of  Cyrene  in  Libya  by 
the  Archaeological  Institute  of  America.  The 
English,  who  in  1879  had  organized  a  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Hellenic  Studies  in  Lon- 
don, founded  a  school  at  Athens  in  1885,  by 
which,  among  other  works,  excavations  have 
been  made  at  Megalopolis  (1890-1891),  on 
Melos  (1896-1899),  and  since  1906  have  been 
conducted  successfully  at  Sparta.  But  Eng- 
land's greatest  claim  to  fame  in  this  line  rests 
on  the  remarkable  results  attained  by  Arthur 
Evans  in  Crete,  where  since  1900  he  has  con- 
ducted excavations  at  Knosos  which  have 
proved  that  as  early  as  2000  b.c.  the  people  of 
this  island  had  developed  a  high  degree  of 
knowledge  in  art  and  sculpture,  construction 
and  design,  comfort  and  sanitation,  and  pos- 
sessed an  elaborate  system  of  writing,  attested 
by  over  6000  inscriptions,  still  undeciphered. 


167 


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ARCHEOLOGY 


These  results  have  been  confirmed  at  many 
other  places  in  Crete,  notably  at  Phrcstus  and 
Agia  Triada  by  the  Italian  scholars  Halbherr 
and  Pernier,  at  Gournia  by  Americans,  at 
Palaikastro  and  elsewhere  by  the  British 
School.  Among  the  activities  of  other  nations 
Austria  should  not  be  overlooked,  for  from  her 
originated  several  important  undertakings,  an 
expedition  to  Samot brace  (1875),  to  Giolbaschi 
(1882),  whence  were  brought  to  Vienna  the 
remarkable  sculptured  friezes,  and  finally  the 
uncovering  of  the  city  of  Ejjhesus  (1895-1905). 
The  Austrians  also  maintain  an  archaeological 
mis.sion  at  Athens  as  a  branch  of  the  Archaeo- 
logical Institute  in  Vienna  (1898).  Danish 
excavations  have  been  conducted  in  Rhodes 
since  1902  by  Kinch  and  Hlinkenbcrg  with 
unvarying  success.  Italians  have  limited  them- 
selves to  Crete,  but  the  founding  of  a  school  in 
Athens  which  has  been  recently  determined 
by  the  Italian  government  will  undoubtedly 
lead  Italian  scholars  into  other  branches  of 
this  subject. 

While  the  Greeks  have  thus  generously 
accorded  to  foreigners  the  privilege  of  conduct- 
ing these  important  and  extensive  undertak- 
ings in  their  land,  they  themselves  have  been 
engaged  in  archsological  works  of  equal  mag- 
nitude, which  have  been  carried  out  by  their 
trained  scholars  \\-ith  scientific  accuracy,  and 
have  yielded  notable  results.  The  present 
Ephor  of  Antiquities,  Panagiotes  Kavvadias, 
excavated  the  entire  surface  of  the  Acropolis 
to  bed  rock  (1885-1891),  finding  among  other 
objects  many  architectural  fragments  which 
proved  the  existence  of  two  early  temples  of 
Athena  antedating  the  Persian  Invasion,  and  a 
series  of  fifteen  statues  of  women,  still  retaining 
brilliant  coloring,  although  buried  since  480  b.c, 
which  furnished  a  new  chapter  to  the  study  of 
the  development  of  Attic  art.  Another  great 
work  successfully  completed  by  Kavvadias 
was  the  excavation  of  the  precinct  of  Asklepios 
at  Epidaurus  (1881-1903),  the  most  famous 
health  resort  and  sanatorium  of  ancient  Greece. 
The  Greeks  have  also  completed  important 
and  successful  work  at  Eleusis  (1882-1890), 
at  the  Amphiaraion  of  Oropus  (18S4-18S7), 
at  Lykosoura  (1889),  and  elsewhere. 

As  a  result  of  this  ceaseless  activity  during 
the  past  quarter  century  Greece  is  known  to  us 
better  than  she  has  ever  been  known  before. 
Her  history  has  been  pushed  back  a  thousand 
years,  so  that  ages  before  Homer's  time  we  can 
trace  the  migration  of  Hellenic  people,  their 
invasions,  their  attacks,  their  defeats.  Her 
artistic  bloom  in  the  time  of  Pericles  we  know 
to  be  a  renascence  of  the  IMinoan-Mj-censean 
period  that  reached  its  acme  a  thousand  years 
earlier,  and  moreover  we  can  follow  the  decline 
of  the  one  period  and  watch  the  growth  of  the 
second.  The  development  of  the  artistic  prin- 
ciple, according  to  canons,  and  in  distinct 
schools,  is  clear  to  us,  and  the  widespread  publi- 
cation   of   reproductions    of    Greek    sculpture 


and  architecture  has  had  a  wholesome  influ- 
ence upon  the  artists  and  architects  of  our  own 
day.  Furthermore,  through  the  excavation 
of  entire  cities,  the  habits  and  customs  of  the 
average  (!reek  are  familiar  not  only  to  scholars, 
but  to  the  average  man  to-tlay,  througli  the 
scattering  of  ancient  objects  of  all  kinds  from 
Italy  and  Greece,  and  their  cxhil)ition  in  the 
many  museums  of  the  world,  among  the  most 
important  of  which  must  now  be  reckoned 
the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  in  New  York 
and  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in  Boston,  which 
furnish  to  Americans  a  first-hand  knowledge 
of  many  departments  of  Greek  art  and  life. 

The  institutions  where  Greek  archaeology 
may  be  most  satisfactorily  studied  are  here 
named,  together  with  a  statement  of  courses 
occasionally  offered  bj'  each:  — 

American.  —  University  of  California:  Intro- 
duction to  classical  arclurology;  History  of 
Greek  art;   Topography  of  Athens. 

University  of  Chicago:  Greek  life  studied 
from  monuments;  Ancient  Athens;  Olj'nipia 
and  Deljihi;  Inscriptions;  Art;  Sculpture; 
Vases;   Architecture;   Greek  and  Roman  coins. 

Columbia  University:  Introduction  to  Greek 
archaeology;  Sculpture;  Epigra])hy;  Vases; 
Acropolis  of  Athens. 

Cornell  University:  Greek  archaology; 
Pausanias;  History  of  Greek  sculpture;  Greek 
life. 

Harvard  University:  Greek  archa>ology; 
Topography  and  monuments  of  ancient  Athens;. 
Paleography;    Epigraphy;   Vase-painting. 

Johns  Hopkins  University:  Greek  archipol- 
ogy;  Topography  of  Greece  and  of  Asia  Minor  ; 
Vase-painting;  Sculpture;  Epigraphy;  Pale- 
ography; Architecture;  Greek  life. 

University  of  ISlichigan:  Pausanias  and  the 
topography  and  monuments  of  ancient  Athens; 
Ancient  Athenian  life;  History  of  Greek  art; 
Paleography;  Epigraphy. 

University  of  Pennsylvania:  Greek  archsB- 
ology;    Greek  life;    Epigraphy;    Pausanias. 

Princeton  University:  Topography  of  Attica; 
Greek  inscriptions;  Greek  dialects;  Greek 
theater. 

Yale  University;  Topography  and  monu- 
ments of  Athens;  Greek  sculpture,  and  the 
lesser  arts;    Architecture. 

Similar  courses  are  offered  at  all  the  more 
important  foreign  universities,  of  which  may 
be  mentioned  particularly:  — 

German:  The  Universities  of  Berlin,  Bonn, 
Halle,  Leipzig,  and  Munich. 

French :  the  Sorbonne,  and  Ecole  du  Louvre 
at  Paris.  T.  L.  S. 

Roman.  —  Roman  archa>ology  may  be  rough- 
ly defined  as  the  science  which  deals  with 
the  tangible  remains  of  ancient  Roman 
civilization.  By  the  study  of  these  remains 
in   the  light    of    ancient   literary   records    the 


168 


X 


ARCHEOLOGY 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


archaeologist   attempts   to    restore   the    exter- 
nal surroundings  of  the  Romans  of  antiquity. 

The  history  of  Roman  archaeology  may  be 
said  to  begin  in  the  Middle  Ages  with  the  guide- 
books to  the  city  which  were  prepared  for  the 
use  of  pilgrim  visitors  at  a  time  when  most  of 
the  ancient  buildings  had  already  disappeared. 
The  destruction  of  ancient  Rome  had  been  due 
in  some  measure  to  early  Christian  fanaticism, 
which  wished  to  remove  all  reminders  of  pagan 
religion,  and  in  greater  measure  to  the  plunder- 
ing spirit  of  barbarian  invaders.  But  the 
greatest  offenders  of  all  were  the  Romans  them- 
selves, who  even  until  Renaissance  times  looked 
upon  the  monuments  chiefly  as  valuable  reposi- 
tories of  building  material.  In  the  fourteenth 
century,  however,  the  ignorance  and  careless- 
ness of  the  Middle  Ages  began  to  give  way 
before  a  growing  intelligent  curiosity,  and  Cola 
di  Rienzo  (lSIO-1354)  sought  to  connect  the 
Rome  of  his  day  with  the  glorious  past  and  to 
find  grounds  for  the  reestablishment  of  the 
Roman  republic  in  his  interpretation  of  ancient 
ruins  and  inscrijitions.  From  this  time  on  the 
sentiment  in  favor  of  preserving  the  monu- 
ments increased,  and  museums  of  antiquities 
began  to  be  established  in  Italy.  As  early  as 
1467  statues  were  brought  together  from  all 
parts  of  the  city  by  Pope  Paul  II,  the  Capito- 
line  Museum  was  founded  by  his  successor 
Sixtus  IV  (1471),  and  the  earliest  of  the  Vatican 
collections  (Belvidere)  began  to  take  form  under 
Julius  II  in  1510  (Michaehs,  in  Jahrbuch 
d.  K.  D.  Arch.  Inst.,  V,  1890,  p.  10).  Mean- 
while interest  in  the  topography  of  ancient 
Rome  had  been  aroused  bv  Poggio  Bracciolini 
(1380-1449)  and  Flavio  B'iondo  (Roma  Instau- 
rata,  1446),  and  in  sculpture  by  Andrea  Fulvio 
and  others,  but  these  and  their  successors  in 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  had 
little  or  no  sense  of  the  development  of  antiq- 
uity. All  periods  were  alike  to  them;  the 
historical  method  had  not  yet  been  formulated. 
By  the  eighteenth  century  the  number  of 
marbles,  bronzes,  and  other  ancient  objects 
accumulated  in  the  museums  had  vastly  in- 
creased, and  a  master  hand  was  needed  to  bring 
order  out  of  this  chaos.  The  necessary  im- 
pulse was  given  by  the  discovery  of  Hercula- 
neum  in  1720  and  of  Pompeii  in  1748,  and  the 
historical  and  scientific  method  which  is  still 
pursued  was  definitely  introduced  into  archaeo- 
logical studies  by  Winckelmann  (1717-1768), 
though  Count  Caj'lus  (Recueil  d' Antiquites, 
1752-1754)  had  already  made  a  beginning  in 
this  direction.  Winckelmann's  most  important 
works  were  Geschichte  der  Kunst  des  Alter- 
thunis,  Dresden,  1764-1767  (tr.  by  G.  H.  Lodge, 
2  vols.,  1880)  and  Monumenti  Inediti,  Rome, 
1767.  In  these  he  laid  down  and  applied  the 
principles  now  everywhere  recognized,  that  the 
artistic  product  of  antiquity  must  always  be 
studied  in  the  light  of  the  history  and  customs 
of  the  time,  and  that  the  development  of  art 
must  be  traced  stej)  by  step  from  its  primitive 


beginnings  to  its  highest  excellence  and  its 
final  decay. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  excavation  of  Pompeii  was  carried 
forward  with  the  support  of  the  Bourbon  rulers 
of  Naples,  considerable  digging  was  done  in 
Rome,  and,  especially  after  1827,  many  Etrus- 
can tombs  were  discovered  at  Corneto,  Chiusi, 
Ccrvetri,  and  elsewhere,  and  their  wall  paint- 
ings, bronzes,  and  painted  vases  brought  to  light. 
The  great  increase  in  archaeological  material 
now  emphasized  the  need,  already  felt,  of  a 
definite  organization  for  systematic  study  and 
publication.  This  led  to  the  establishment  at 
Rome  in  1829  of  the  Istituto  di  Correspondenza 
Archeologica,  which -was  at  first  international, 
but  in  course  of  time  became  the  Imperial 
German  Archaeological  Institute.  Among  its 
publications  were  the  Annali  delV  Istituto  di 
Corr.  Arch.  (vols.  1-57,  1829-1885),  from  1886 
known  as  the  Jahrbuch  desK.  D.  Arch.  Insti  uts 
(Vol.  XXV,  1910);  and  the  BuUettino  dell' 
Istituto  di  Corr.  Arch.  (1829-1885),  from  1886 
known  as  the  Mitthcilungen  des  K.  D.  Arch. 
Instituts,  romische  Abtheilung  (Yo\.  XXV,  1910). 
Catalogues,  too,  of  the  collections  of  antiquities 
in  Rome  were  prepared,  and  extensive  projects 
of  publication,  for  example,  the  Corpus  Inscrip- 
tionum  Latinarum,  were  undertaken.  In  fact, 
the  Institute  served  and  still  serves  as  a  kind 
of  archfeological  university.'   , 

In  1875  was  organized  I'Eeole  fran^aise  de 
Rome  to  give  archa>ological  training  to  French 
students.  Its  chief  organ  is  the  Melanges  d'ar- 
cheologie  et  histoire,  published,  one  volume  each 
year,  since  1881,  though  it  shares  with  the 
French  school  at  Athens  responsibility  for  a 
series  of  valuable  monographs  on  archaeological 
subjects  begun  in  1876  with  the  general  title 
Bibliotheque  des  Ecoles  fran^aises  d' Athenes  et 
de  Rome.  Next  the  American  School  of  Classical 
Studies  in  Rome  (Via  Vicenza  5)  was  organized 
in  1895  by  the  Archaeological  Institute  of 
America  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  to  grad- 
uates of  American  colleges  advanced  instruc- 
tion and  guidance  in  tho.se  studies  which  may 
be  best  pursued  in  Rome.  The  investigations 
of  its  members  have  been  published  regularly 
in  the  American  Journal  of  Archwologij  (second 
series.  Vol.  XIV,  1910),  and  two  volumes  of 
"  supplementary  papers  "  have  appeared. 
This  school,  through  its  former  professors  and 
students  now  teaching  in  many  American  insti- 
tutions of  learning,  is  exerting  a  real  and  steadily 
increasing  influence  upon  claissical  studies  in 
America.  The  latest  of  the  foreign  schools  to 
be  established  was  the  British  School  at  Rome, 
opened  in  1901.  Under  its  auspices  four  vol- 
umes of  researches,  with  the  title  Papers  of 
the  British  School  at  Rome,  have  been  published. 

While  all  this  archsological  work  has  been 
done  by  the  foreigners  in  Italy,  the  Italians 

'  An  excellent  account  of  this  movement  i-s  given  by 
A.  Michaelis  in  the  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  Vol.  X, 
1889,  pp.  190-215. 


169 


ARCHiEOLOGY 


ARCHiEOLOGY 


thcmselvps  have  not  been  idle.  Almost  all  the 
excavation  in  Italy  in  recent  years  has  been 
conducted  by  the  Italian  government,  whose 
official  organ  of  ])ul)lication  is  the  Nutizie 
degli  scai'i  di  anticliiU'i  (monthly  since  1870), 
now  in  Vol.  VI  (1910),  Series  5  of  the  Atli  dclla 
Reale  Accademia  dci  Lincei.  By  the  authority 
of  the  same  academy  are  published  the  Roidi- 
conti  (Vol.  19,  1910),  and  the  Monumenti 
Anlichi  (Vol.  22,  1910).  The  municipal  archa>- 
ological  commission  of  Rome,  too,  issues  the 
BuUctti no  delta  Commi^n.  Arch.  Comiin.  di  Roma 
(Vol.  38,  1910),  and  the  Societa  llaliana  di 
anitcologia  c  storia  dell'  arte  recently  established 
its  own  beautifully  illustrated  magazine  Ausonia 
(Vol.  4,  1910).  All  these  periodicals,  together 
with  others  of  less  sjjecial  importance  for  Rome, 
record  the  history  of  archaeological  progress 
year  by  year,  and  must  be  read  con.stantly  by 
those  who  desire  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times 
in  this  rapidly  developing  subject. 

The  principal  fields  included  under  the 
general  head  of  Roman  archieology  are  architec- 
ture, sculpture,  painting,  and  the  minor  arts. 
In  all  these  Rome  was  debtor  first  to  the  art 
of  Etruria  and  afterward  to  the  Greek  art  of 
the  Hellenistic  period.  From  Etruria,  her 
only  teacher  of  art  during  the  early  days  of  the 
Republic,  she  took  over  the  arch  and  the 
vault,  the  so-called  Tuscan  order  or  Etruscan- 
Doric  column,  the  structure  of  the  temple,  and 
the  type  for  dwellings  and  tombs,  as  well  as 
derived  a  certain  tendency  to  realism  in 
sculpture  and  her  whole  technique  in  the  minor 
arts.  From  Greece  she  took  the  Ionic  and 
Corinthian  orders  and  the  general  plan  of  such 
buildings  as  the  theater,  the  circus,  the  portico, 
and  the  basilica.  The  fora,  surrounded  by 
great  public  buildings,  were  modeled  after 
the  Greek  ayopui,  and  under  Greek  in- 
fluence private  houses  became  more  luxurious 
and  more  elaborately  decorated,  and  a  feeling 
for  beauty  was  developed  in  every  field  of  art. 
Until  the  third  century  b.c.  and  even  later, 
the  Roman  had  been  so  intent  on  defending  his 
independence,  extending  his  sway,  and  develop- 
ing his  political  organization,  that  he  had  little 
time  for  the  cultivation  of  art.  But  when  all 
this  was  past  and  he  had  nothing  more  to  fear, 
that  is,  when  he  was  at  last  in  a  position  to 
develop  an  art  of  his  own,  he  found  himself  face 
to  face  with  a  competitor  so  immeasurably 
his  superior  in  all  things  artistic  that  he  yielded 
complctel.y  and  once  for  all  to  the  Greek 
influence. 

And  yet  the  Roman  was  not  merely  a  slavish 
imitator.  Though  he  borrowed  the  elements 
from  Etruria  and  Greece,  he  impressed  them 
with  his  own  stamp  and  developed  an  art  which, 
if  not  equal  to  Greek  art  from  the  point  of 
view  of  ideal  beauty,  yet  had  its  own  strength 
and  characteristic  features  quite  in  harmony 
with  the  genius  of  a  conquering,  organizing, 
and  governing  people.  He  found  new  ways 
of  using  the  architectural  elements,  he  developed 


the  composite  order  and  the  honorary  column 
with  sculptures  in  relief,  he  transformed  the 
agora,  the  basilica,  the  theater,  and  the  circus, 
he  invented  the  amphitheater  and  the  baths, 
and  he  surpassed  all  the  peoples  of  antiquity, 
if  not  of  all  time,  in  his  great  works  of  public 
utility,  such  as  bridges,  aqueducts,  and  mili- 
tary roads.  In  short,  in  all  the  arts  the  Roman 
struck  out  new  ways  for  himself,  adai)ting  his 
arti.stic  heritage  in  accordance  with  his  own 
tastes  and  needs.  The  highest  level  of  artistic 
excellence  was  reached  in  the  first  century  and 
a  half  of  the  Empire,  after  which  Roman  art, 
yielding  more  and  more  to  the  national  tend- 
ency to  the  colossal  in  construction  and  to  the 
florid  in  decoration,  rapidly  declined. 

The  branch  of  art  in  which  the  Romans  were 
most  original  was  architecture,  and  the  chief 
fundamental  elements  employed  by  their  archi- 
tects wore  the  arch  and  the  vault.  It  was 
largely  through  increasing  freedom  and  boldness 
in  the  use  of  these  elements  that  Roman  archi- 
tecture developed  a  national  character  and 
was  able  to  inclose  vast  interior  spaces  unencum- 
bered by  columns.  It  began  in  simplicity, 
following  closelj'  the  Etruscan  models,  then 
took  over  the  Greek  orders  and  changed  them, 
graduall}'  grew  more  elaborate  and  profuse  in 
rich  ornamentation,  especially  with  colored 
marble,  and  finally  degenerated  into  mere 
bigness  and  ponderosity.  The  available  mate- 
rials were  at  first  only  the  soft  volcanic  tufa 
of  the  neighborhood,  later  supplemented  by 
peiierino  from  the  Alban  region,  and  travertine 
from  the  valley  of  the  Anio  near  Tibur,  but 
by  the  end  of  the  Republic  the  use  of  baked 
bricks,  concrete  and  imported  marble,  the 
standard  building  materials  of  the  Empire,  had 
commenced.  A  combination  of  lime  and  the 
red  volcanic  earth  known  as  pozzolana  pro- 
duced an  hydraulic  cement  which,  mixed  with 
fragments  of  stone,  of  brick,  or,  in  later  times, 
of  marble,  formed  a  concrete  of  unequaled 
hardness  and  durability.  Most  walls  of  im- 
perial times  were  constructed  of  this  concrete 
with  a  facing  of  bricks  or  small  stones  of  regular 
shape  with  points  tailing  inward,  this  again 
being  furnished  with  a  covering  of  stucco  or  of 
richly  colored  marble  slabs  (H.  W.  PuUen, 
Handbook  of  Ancient  Roman  Marbles,  London, 
1894).  Solid  arches  also  and  vaultings  were 
made  of  this  concrete  —  a  fact  which  more  than 
anything  else  accounts  for  the  characteristics 
and  development  of  Roman  architecture. 

In  this  method  of  construction  the  column  had 
no  structural  function  and  was  friMpiently 
engaged  as  a  mere  decorative  element  on  the 
surface  of  walls  or  pillars  of  concrete,  though 
there  were  many  exceptions,  especially  in 
temples  or  porticoes,  in  which  columns  were 
used  independently  to  sustain  the  entablature 
and  the  roof.  Of  the  Greek  orders  the  Doric 
and  Ionic  met  with  comparatively  little  favor  at 
Rome,  as  they  were  too  simple  and  severe  to 
appeal  strongly  to   Roman  taste  in   any   but 


170 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


ARCHEOLOGY 


the  early  period.  When  the  Doric  does  appear, 
it  is  not  in  the  pure  Greek  form,  Ijut  in  tlie  so- 
called  Tuscan  form  which  had  been  adopted 
from  the  Etruscans.  In  this  type  of  column  a 
base  was  placed  under,  the  fluting  was  omitted, 
and  various  ornamental  elements  were  added  at 
the  top.  During  the  Empire  this  order  was 
usually  limited  to  exterior  use  and  in  the  lowest 
story  of  buildings  like  the  Colosseum  and  the 
Theater  of  Marcellus,  in  which  a  series  of 
columns  of  the  Ionic  order  form  part  of  the 
exterior  ornament  of  the  second  story.  Far 
more  popular  with  the  Romans  was  the  more 
elaborate  and  ornate  Corinthian  order,  which 
they  used  with  a  very  rich  entablature.  By  a 
combination  of  the  Corinthian  with  the  Ionic 
capital  a  new  order  was  developed,  the  most 
elaborate  and  most  characteristically  Roman 
of  all.  This  so-called  Composite  capital  was 
frequently  enriched  in  fantastic  ways,  and 
sometimes  even  human  figures  were  intro- 
duced, as,  for  example,  a  figure  of  Hercules  in 
a  capital  at  the  Baths  of  Caracalla. 

The  entry  of  the  Italian  troops  into  Rome, 
and  the  establishment  of  the  national  capital 
there  in  1870  mark  an  important  era  in  archseo- 
logical  studies.  The  excavations  made  in 
connection  with  the  building  of  new  streets  and 
new  houses  laid  bare  many  previously  unknown 
ancient  structures  and  brought  to  light  so 
many  statues  and  other  artistic  products  of 
antiquity  that  the  museums  could  not  con- 
tain them.  And  in  addition  to  these  accidental 
discoveries  great  advances  were  made  in  the 
systematic  campaign  of  excavation  carried  on 
by  the  new  government.  On  the  Palatine  Hill 
the  Villa  Farnese  had  passed,  in  1861,  into  the 
hands  of  Napoleon  III,  who  had  caused  exten- 
sive excavations  to  be  made  for  the  purpose  of 
laying  bare  the  remains  of  the  imperial  palaces. 
In  the  course  of  this  work  (1869)  the  lower 
levels  of  the  so-called  House  of  Livia  had  been 
cleared  and  the  three  rooms  mth  fine  wall 
paintings  brought  to  light.  These  explorations 
were  now  continued  and  extended  over  almost 
the  whole  surface  of  the  hill  until  a  fairly  clear 
idea  of  the  appearance  of  this  aristocratic 
region  of  imperial  Rome  was  obtained.  The 
original  palace  of  Augustus,  which  was  enlarged 
and  rebuilt  in  more  sumptuous  fashion  by 
Domitian,  is  still  to  a  large  extent  concealed 
under  the  buildings  and  grounds  of  the  Villa 
Mills,  but  the  government  is  now  in  possession 
of  this  also,  and  will  probably  excavate  it  at 
an  early  date.  The  year  1907  witnessed  the 
excavation  of  the  lower  levels  at  the  west  corner 
of  the  hill,  which  has  always  been  associated 
with  the  foundation  of  Rome.  Here  forti- 
fication walls  and  a  reservoir  for  water  of  very 
early  times  were  discovered,  and  also  a  cemetery 
with  primitive  burials,  which,  taken  in  con- 
nection with  similar  prehistoric  cemeteries 
found  in  recent  years  in  the  Forum  and  on  the 
Quirinal,  seem  to  show  that  more  than  one 
settlement  must  have  occupied  the  region  of 


the  "seven  hills"  as  early  as  the  ninth  or  tenth 
century  B.C.  The  full  significance  of  these 
latest  discoveries,  however,  is  not  yet  apparent. 

In  the  Roman  Forum  long-continued  ex- 
cavations have  changed  the  picturesque  Campo 
Vaccino  of  a  hundred  years  ago  into  a  dreary 
waste  —  relieved  here  and  there  by  recently 
planted  trees  and  flowers  —  full  of  ruins  and 
architectural  fragments.  For  this  loss  of 
natural  beauty,  however,  there  is  ample  com- 
pensation in  our  increa.sed  knowledge  of  Roman 
topography  and  antiquities  and  in  the  light  that 
has  been  shed  on  Roman  history,  particularly 
of  the  earher  periods.  In  the  first  half  of  the  last 
century,  especially  under  the  direction  of  Carlo 
Fea,  and,  after  1827,  of  Antonio  Nibby,  con- 
siderable portions  of  the  northwestern  end  of 
the  Forum  were  uncovered  and  the  slope 
of  the  Capitoline  Hill  with  the  foundation  of 
the  Tabularium  was  laid  bare.  After  1870  the 
work,  which  had  been  neglected  for  seventeen 
years,  was  again  taken  up  by  the  new  govern- 
ment, and  has  been  vigorously  pushed  forward 
• —  with  interruptions  —  till  the  present  time, 
particularly  under  the  supervision  of  Rosa, 
Fiorelli,  Lanciani,  and  Boni.  The  whole  area 
of  the  Forum  was  now  freed  from  earth  and 
rubbish,  the  temples  of  Vesta  and  Divus  luhus 
were  excavated,  the  Sacra  Via  was  opened  up 
from  the  temple  of  Faustina  to  the  Basilica  of 
Constantine,  and  the  House  of  the  Vestals  was 
discovered.  Still  more  important  are  the  re- 
sults of  the  latest  campaign,  which  began  in 
1898.  The  excavated  area  is  now  fully  twice 
as  great  as  it  was  ten  years  ago,  and  exploration 
has  been  pushed  to  deeper  levels  than  ever 
before,  but  without  destroying  the  monuments 
of  later  times  which  often  rest  upon  those  of  the 
earlier  periods.  The  most  striking  discoveries 
made  in  the  course  of  this  work  were  the  so- 
called  Lapis  Niger  with  the  shrine  and  very 
ancient  inscribed  stele  beneath,  the  spring  and 
shrine  of  Juturna,  the  early  Christian  Basilica 
of  S.  Maria  Antiqua,  the  primitive  cemetery, 
the  base  of  the  equestrian  statue  of  Domitian, 
the  Lacus  Curtius,  and  the  Tribunal  Pratorium. 
In  1908  workmen  were  engaged  in  clearing  the 
Basilica  ^Emilia  and  in  digging  near  the  Arch  of 
Titus  in  the  effort  to  locate  the  site  of  the 
temple  of  Juppiter  Stator.  Other  excavations  in 
and  near  the  Forum,  especially  in  the  Comitium, 
will,  it  is  hoped,  proceed  as  rapidly  as  possible 
and  still  further  valuable  results  be  reached. 

Mention  should  be  made  in  pa.ssing  of  the 
splendid  house  of  the  Augustan  period  which 
came  to  light  in  the  garden  of  the  Farnesina 
across  the  Tiber  during  the  building  of  the  new 
river  embankment  in  1878.  Its  well-preserved 
wall  paintings  belong  to  the  so-called  second 
style,  and  for  beauty,  richness,  and  at  the  same 
time  good  taste  are  as  far  superior  to  most  of 
the  Pompeian  paintings  as  the  capital  of  the 
empire  was  superior  to  the  little  country  town 
of  Campania.  The  ceilings  of  stucco,  too, 
ornamented   with   graceful   patterns   in   relief. 


171 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


ARCHEOLOGY 


so  different  from  the  more  elaborate  and  gaudy 
work  of  later  times,  furnish  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  specimens  of  ancient  decorative  art, 
and  are  among  the  most  valued  treasures  of  the 
National  Museum. 

Apart  from  these  and  other  results  of  ex- 
cavation in  Rome,  the  raiiid  arclueological  prog- 
ress of  the  last  thirty  years  has  been  due  in 
large  part  to  a  more  thorough  study  of  monu- 
ments that  have  long  been  familiar  in  con- 
nection with  those  more  recently  brought  to 
light.  From  these  researches  has  come  forth 
a  better  appreciation  of  Roman  plastic  art, 
which  is  no  longer  considered  merely  as  a 
subordinate  and  unimportant  development  of 
Greek  sculjiture,  but  as  a  phase  of  art  in  many 
ways  independent  and  quite  worthy  of  study 
by  itself  and  for  its  own  sake.  About  ISSO 
F.  von  Duhn  showed  that  a  number  of  monu- 
mental reliefs  in  the  Villa  Medici,  the  Lou\tc, 
and  elsewhere  were  parts  of  the  Ara  Pacis 
Augustae  decreed  by  the  Senate  in  13  b.c.  in 
honor  of  Augustus  and  in  commemoration  of  the 
world-wide  peace.  Later  Eugen  Petersen  con- 
tinued the  study  of  this  subject  and  after  fur- 
ther excavation  and  discovery  on  the  site  of  the 
altar  itself  was  able  to  give  a  fairly  complete 
idea  of  its  size  and  shape  and  of  the  arrange- 
ment and  significance  of  its  historical  and 
decorative  reliefs  (1894).  This  magnificent 
monument  is  purely  Roman  in  conception  and 
execution,  and  is  now  justly  regarded  as  the 
finest  example  of  Roman  plastic  art  in  the  early 
days  of  the  Empire.  Next  followed  a  series  of 
brilliant  researches  in  the  later  periods.  Franz 
Wicklioff  studied  the  reliefs  of  the  Arch  of  Titus 
(1895)  and  gave  a  more  definite  idea  of  the 
technical  methods  and  conceptions  of  the 
Flavian  artists.  Konrad  Cichorius  pulslished 
in  beautiful  plates  with  explanatory  text  (1896- 
1900)  the  historical  reliefs  of  the  column  of 
Trajan.  About  the  same  time  (1895)  casts  and 
photographs  of  the  reliefs  on  the  column  of 
M.  Aurelius  (Piazza  Colonna)  were  made  at  the 
expense  of  the  German  Emperor,  and  thus  it 
was  possible  for  the  first  time  to  study  these  two 
honorary  columns  in  connection.  From  this 
comparison  the  spiral  band  of  relief  representing 
scenes  from  the  expeditions  of  JNI.  Aurelius 
against  the  Germans,  though  of  great  interest, 
especially  for  the  ethnologist,  was  more  dis- 
tinctly recognized  as  vastly  inferior  in  artistic 
value  to  the  apparently  similar  band  on  the 
earlier  column.  The  Arch  of  Constantine,  too, 
near  the  Colosseum,  came  in  for  its  share  of 
attention,  and  Petersen  enabled  us  to  distin- 
guish clearly  between  the  fine  round  medal- 
lions stolen  by  Constantine  from  some  monu- 
ment of  Trajan  and  the  oblong  sculptured 
panels  of  the  time  of  M.  Aurelius;  even  the 
unpractised  eye  can  discern  by  a  single  glance  at 
the  reliefs  that  belong  to  the  period  of  Con- 
stantine the  almost  incredible  decadence  of  art 
in  the  fourth  century.  This  arch  thus  holds 
a  unique  position  among  the   monuments  of 


Roman  art  in  that  it  presents  at  the  same  time 
examples  of  the  artistic  workmanship  of  three 
distinct  periods. 

The  ruins  of  Pompeii  and  the  objects  found 
there  —  now  i)reserved  mainly  in  the  Naples 
Museum  —  con.stitute  one  of  the  chief  sources 
for  our  knowledge  of  ancient  Roman  life  and 
in  particular  of  the  Roman  house,  its  furniture 
and  decoration.  After  1860,  when  Bourl)on  mis- 
rule came  to  an  end,  the  Italians  put  the  ex- 
cavations in  charge  of  Giuseppe  Fiorelli,  who 
carried  the  work  forward  with  great  energy  and 
careful  scientific  method.  Now  for  the  first 
time  the  upper  stories  of  buildings  were  care- 
fully preserved  and  a  much  more  complete 
idea  of  the  structure  of  the  house  was  possible. 
At  the  same  time,  through  the  broad-minded 
policy  of  Fiorelli,  opportunity  to  study  these 
materials  was  freely  given  to  all,  an  opiiortunity 
of  which  archa'ologi.sts  were  not  slow  to  avail 
themselves.  The  extant  paintings  of  Pompeii 
and  Herculaneum  were  catalogued  by  W. 
Helbig,  who  argued  in  a  scries  of  brilliant  in- 
vestigations that  the  paintings,  though  exe- 
cuted in  Roman  times,  were  merely  inferior 
copies  or  adaptations  of  Hellenistic  masterpieces. 
This  view  was  subsequently  much  modified  by 
the  studies  of  Otto  Donner  and  others,  who 
showed  that  these  wall  decorations,  while  in 
many  cases  derived  from  the  Greek,  are  yet  in 
some  respects  quite  independent  and  have 
characteristics  \vhich  are  purely  Roman.  In 
1873  Fiorelli  published  the  results  of  liis  long- 
continued  study  of  the  materials  and  methods 
em])loycd  in  the  building  of  Pompeii,  a  subject 
which  has  been  treated  also  by  R.  Schoene, 
H.  Nissen,  and  since  1879  by  A.  Mau  (died 
April,  1909). 

The  earliest  period  of  Pompeian  architecture 
—  leaving  out  of  consideration  the  Doric  temple 
and  the  city  walls  —  is  the  so-called  "  period 
of  the  limestone  atriums,"  in  which  the  houses 
were  built  mainly  of  the  limestone  taken  from 
the  bed  of  the  neighboring  river  Sarno.  They 
were  without  columns,  without  paintings,  and 
of  one  story  in  height.  The  best  remaining 
example  of  this  type  is  the  House  of  the  Sur- 
geon. This  period  was  followed  about  200  is.c. 
or  a  little  later  by  the  "tufa  period"  which 
roughly  coincides  with  the  second  century  b.c. 
The  use  of  columns  now  led  to  an  extension  of 
the  earlier  Italic  plan  of  the  house,  and  a  peri- 
style and  other  Greek  elements,  together  with 
a  second  story,  began  to  be  added.  At  the  same 
time  the  interior  walls  were  colored,  but  not 
adorned  with  paintings.  Residences  of  palatial 
size  and  grandeur,  like  the  House  of  the  Faun, 
were  now  con.structcd,  and  fine  public  buildings, 
such  as  the  large  theater,  baths,  and  temples, 
arose.  All  this  points  to  the  strong  influ- 
ence of  Greek  art  and  Greek  culture  during  this 
period,  which  came  to  an  end  with  the  conver- 
sion of  the  city  into  a  Roman  colony  by  Sulla. 
From  this  time  forward  bricks  were  used  along 
with  tufa  and   lava,  as  the    favorite  building 


172 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


ARCHEOLOGY 


material,  and  the  interior  walls  of  houses  are 
now  no  longer  colored  only,  but  are  decorated 
with  real  paintings. 

The  earlier  students  of  Pompeian  archae- 
ology had  given  only  superficial  attention  to 
the  wall  paintings,  and  it  remained  for  Mau  to 
show  that  the  "  Pompeian  style  "  was  in  reality 
a  series  of  several  different  styles  quite  distinct 
from  one  another.  As  has  been  indicated  above, 
it  was  with  the  strong  Hellenistic  influences 
of  the  "  tufa  "  period  that  Greek  fondness  for 
color  made  itself  felt  at  Pompeii,  but  only  in  so 
far  as  to  cause  the  introduction  of  the  "  first 
style  "  of  decoration,  in  which  the  wall  covered 
with  stucco  was  made  to  imitate  by  color  and 
relief  a  surface  veneered  with  slabs  of  colored 
marble.  The  most  fitting  floor  to  accompany 
these  walls  was  mosaic  pavement,  such,  for 
example,  as  the  mosaic  picture  of  Alexander 
in  battle,  discovered  in  1831  in  the  House  of  the 
Faun.  In  the  period  of  the  Roman  colony  a 
new  method  of  wall  decoration  came  into  vogue, 
the  "  second  "  or  Architectural  stj'le,  which 
still  imitated  the  veneering  of  marble,  though 
without  the  aid  of  relief,  but  added  various 
architectural  designs.  This  stjde  "remained  in 
vogue  to  the  time  of  Augustus,  and  then  gave 
place  to  the  'third'  or  Ornate  style,  which  is 
characterized  by  a  freer  use  of  ornament  and 
the  introduction  of  designs  and  scenes  sugges- 
tive of  an  Egyptian  origin."  It  is  therefore 
natural  to  associate  this  style  with  the  period 
which  followed  the  conquest  of  Egypt  and  its 
conversion  into  a  Roman  province  (30  B.C.). 
"The  'fourth'  or  Intricate  style  came  in  about 
the  year  50  .\.d.  and  represents  with  its  involved 
and  fantastic  designs  the  last  stage  in  the  devel- 
opment of  Pompeian  wall  decoration  "  (Mau- 
Kelsey,  pp.  43  ff.) .  Mau,  as  the  quotations  show, 
held  that  these  four  stages  followed  one  another 
in  turn,  and  as  far  as  the  first  and  second  stjdes 
are  concerned  this  is  perfectly  clear.  But  it 
cannot  be  considered  established  that  the  third 
and  fourth  were  not  contemporaneous.  The 
final  victory  of  the  fourth  over  the  third  style 
in  the  reign  of  Nero  was  finite  in  harmony  with 
the  tendencies  of  the  time.  It  is,  of  course, 
perfectly  obvious  that  this  development  of  wall 
decoration  was  not  confined  to  the  compara- 
tively unimportant  Campanian  town.  Rome 
has  jaelded  some  examples,  and  specimens 
have  come  to  light  elsewhere,  but  the  study  of 
origins  and  influences  in  the  history  of  ancient 
wall  decoration  is  as  yet  only  well  begun.  The 
materials  are  becoming  abundant,  —  the  House 
of  the  Vettii,  discovered  in  1894-1S95,  alone  has 
scores  of  pictures, — and  steady  progress  toward 
fuller  knowledge  seems  assured. 

Similar  rapid  advances  have  been  made  in 
our  knowledge  of  the  minor  arts  of  antiquity. 
To  give  even  a  superficial  account  of  the  vast 
materials  in  this  field  which  are  now  treasured 
in  the  museums  would  require  a  volume;  for 
the  present  purpose  an  illustration  or  two  mu.st 
suffice.       In    1894-1S96,    through    excavations 


wliich  were  made  at  Boscoreale  near  Pompeii, 
we  had  our  first  glimpse  into  the  arrangements  of 
an  ancient  country  residence.  The  most  im- 
portant "  find  "  was  an  elaborate  set  of  silver 
dishes  and  utensils  —  103  pieces  —  which  the 
owner  had  been  unable  to  carry  away  with  him 
at  the  time  of  the  disaster  which  overwhelmed 
Pompeii  and  its  vicinity,  though  he  had  already 
gathered  it  together  for  that  purpose.  Not- 
withstanding the  efforts  of  the  Italian  govern- 
ment to  prevent  its  export,  this  priceless  treas- 
ure of  ancient  toreutic  art  soon  found  its  way 
to  Paris,  where  it  is  now  preserved  in  the  Louvre. 
The  two  cups  with  the  skeletons  in  high  relief 
grouped  with  philosophers  and  poets  probably 
came  from  Alexandria;  the  bowl  with  the 
high  relief  in  the  bottom  representing  Alex- 
andria as  a  goddess,  if  not  itself  executed  in 
Egypt,  is  surely  a  copy  of  an  Alexandrine  work. 
On  the  other  hand,  those  pieces  which  portray 
historical  scenes  from  the  lives  of  Augustus  and 
Tiberius,  and  those  which  are  adorned  with 
Roman  portrait  heads,  are  of  course  Roman  in 
origin.  Most  of  the  pieces  are  doubtless  of 
Roman  execution  and  probably  of  the  Augustan 
age,  though  the  influence  of  Alexandrine,  and 
in  general  of  Hellenistic,  models  must  not  be 
forgotten.  Another  silver  table  service,  little, 
if  at  all,  inferior  to  that  of  Boscoreale,  was 
found  in  1868  at  Hildesheim  and  is  now  in 
Berlin.  These  two  collections,  together  with 
some  others  of  less  importance,  and  the  indi- 
vidual objects  unearthed  in  various  places, 
give  a  fairly  complete  idea  of  the  work  of  the 
Roman  silversmiths. 

For  the  study  of  ancient  pottery,  as  well  as 
of  workmanship  in  gold,  bronze,  iron,  ivory, 
glass,  and  precious  stones,  extensive  materials 
are  now  available.  Readers  who  desire  to 
pursue  the  subject  further  will  find  the  neces- 
sary direction  in  the  selected  bibliography 
given  below. 

As  a  subject  of  study  in  the  college  and  in 
the  university,  Roman  archaeology  has  never 
claimed  and  does  not  yet  recei-\-e  as  much  atten- 
tion as  Greek  archaeology  and  art.  There 
are  signs,  however,  of  improvement  in  this 
regard,  and  most  of  the  better  American  and 
Canadian  institutions,  following  the  example 
of  German  universities  especially,  now  offer 
instruction  in  one  or  more  branches  of  the 
subject.  The  courses  most  commonly  given 
are  those  in  Roman  Private  Life,  but  in  some  of 
the  leading  universities,  more  particularly  those 
which  have  graduate  schools  of  high  rank,  in- 
stniction  is  usually  offered  in  general  Roman 
Archaeology,  Roman  Art  and  Architecture,  to- 
pography and  monuments  of  Rome,  and  in 
a  few  places,  for  example,  Chicago,  Columbia, 
and  Johns  Hopkins,  in  numismatics.  Some- 
times, as  at  Yale,  a  man  who  is  primarily  inter- 
ested in  the  Greek  field  gives  courses  on  the 
Roman  side  also,  more  often  the  Roman  archae- 
ology is  divided  among  the  Latinists  and  the 
Greek  archaeologists,  as  it  is,  for  example,  at 


173 


ARCHEOLOGY 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


Chicago,  Harvard,  and  Princeton,  hut  in  most 
])laces  this  work  falls  to  the  busy  professor  of 
Latin.  Few  institutions,  possibly  only  Cohini- 
bia  and  .Johns  Ilojikiiis,  have  men  of  profes- 
sorial rank  whose  time  is  devoted  exclusively 
or  almost  exclusively  to  this  department.  ()f 
late  years  some  of  the  leading  universities  have 
been  accumulating  arelueological  materials  for 
teaching  puri)oses,  and  mu.seums  of  greater 
or  less  extent  devoted  to  Roman  anti(iuities 
and  inscriptions  are  coming  to  be  regarded  as 
indispensalile  for  work  of  a  high  order  in  this 
field.  The  most  notable  of  such  collections 
for  the  use  of  students  are  probalily  those 
of  Columbia,  Johns  Hopkins,  Michigan,  and 
Pennsylvania.  H.  L.  W. 

References:  — 

Periodicah :  — 
American  Journal  of  Archo'ologi/. 
Annual  of  the  British  Schaol  at  Athens. 
Bulletin  dc  Correspondenee  hcllenique. 
Bulletinn   della   commissione  archeologiea  communale  di 

Ho  ma. 
Ephvmeris  arcluiiologike. 
Jahrhuck  des  fcaiserlich  deutschen  arch&ologischen  Insti- 

luts. 
Jahresheftc  des  wsterrciehi-sehen  archiiologischcn  Instituts. 
Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies. 
Mitteilungen  des  kaiserlich  deuLschen  archaologischen  In- 

.^litul^,  alhenische  Abteilung  und  romische  Ahteilung. 
Notizie  degli  Scavi. 
Revue  archSologique. 

General  Works:  — 

Baumf.isteh,  A.  DenkmalcT  des  klassischen  AUeTlhums. 
(Munich,   1SS4-1S8S.) 

CtROTTi,  G.  A  History  of  Art,  Vol.  I,  Ancient  art,  re- 
vised by  Mrs.  Strong,  tr.  bv  Alice  Todd,  540  illustra- 
tions. (London  190S.)  This  little  book  deals  with 
Oriental,  Greek,  Etruscan,  and  Roman  art  and 
contains  excellent  classified  bibliograi)hies. 

Dare.mbero  and  S.\ulio.  Dictionnaire  des  anliquilcs 
grccques  et  romaines. 

Herders.  Bilderntlas  zur  Kunstgeschichte,  I,  Altertmn  it. 
Millclaltcr.  76  Tafeln  mit  720  Bildern.  (Freiburg 
in  Brei.sgau,  1905.) 

LnCKENBAca  e  .\dami,  C.  Arte  e  storia  ncl  mondo  aniico. 
Ell.   Maggiore.      152  plates.      (Bergamo,    1907.) 

MlCH.^ELis,  A.  Die  archaologischen  Entdeckungen  dts 
neunzehnten  Jahrhunderts  (Leipzig,  1906),  tr.  by 
Bettina  Kahnweiler.     (London,  1908.) 

Perrot  and  Chipiez.  Histoire  del'art  dans  I'antiquite, 
Vols.  VI,  Vn,  and  VIH.      (Paris,  1894-190.3.) 

Reinach,  S.  .ipollo.  Eng.  tr.  by  F.  Simmonds. 
(London,   1907.)      Good  bibliography. 

RoscHER,  W.  H.  Au.\fiihrliches  Lexicon  der  griechijichen 
und  romischen  Mythologic.     (Leipzig,  1884-1910.) 

Springer,  .\..  and  Mithaells,  A.  Handlmch  der 
Kunslijcschichte,  Vol.  \,  7th  ed.      (Leipzig.  1904.) 

Steudinc,  H.  Denktndler  antiker  Kunst  fiir  d.  Gymna- 
sium ausgewdhlt.  2d  Aufl.  66  plates.  (Leipzig, 
1907.) 

Win'ter.  F.  Kxinstgcichichtc  in  Bildern.  \,  Das  AUertum, 
100  plates.     (Leipzig  and  Berlin,  1900.) 

Special   Works  on  Greek  Archasology :  — 
BuRROW.s,  R.  M.      The  Discoveries  in   Crete.     (London, 

1907.) 
D'OocE,  M.  L.      The  Acropolis  of  Athens.      (New  York 

and  London,  1908.) 
Fowler,  H.  N.,  and  Wheeler,  .1.  R.     A  Handbook  of 

Greek  Archeeology.      (New  York,  1909.) 
Fr.\zer,     ,7.     G.     Pausanias*     Description     of    Greece. 

(London,    1898.) 
Furtwangler,  .\.,  and  Reichhold,  K.     Die  grieehische 

Vasenmalerci.      (Munich,    1900.) 
G.\RDNER,  P.     A  Grammar  of  Greek  Art.      (London  and 

New  York,  1905.) 


OvERBECK,  ,1.     Die  antiken  Schriftqiiellen  zur  Geschichte 

der   liildendcn   Kiinste  bei  den   Griechen.     (Leipzig, 

1868.) 
Roberts,   E.  S.     An  Introduction  to  Greek  Epigraphy. 

(Cambridge,    1887-1905.) 
TsouNTAs,  Ch.,  and  Manatt,  J.  L     The  Mycenean  Age. 

(Boston,  1897.) 

Topography  and  Monuments  of  Rome:  — 
Ameldng,  \V..  and  Holtzin'ger,  H.      The  Museums  and 

Ruins  of  Rome.    Vol.11.     The  ruins,  by  Holtzinger. 

(London,  1906.)     Brief  and  accurate  description  of 

the  monuments. 
Huelsen,    Ch.      The    Roman    Forum,    its    History   and 

Monuments,  tr.  by  J.  B.  Carter,  2d  ed.    (Home,  1909.) 

The  best  outline,  with  detailed  bibliography. 
Jordan,    H.      Topographie  d.   Stadt   Rom    im   AUertum, 

P   by  Ch.   HueLsen,   Berlin,    1907.      (I',   I=,   and   II 

appeared  more  than   20   years   ago.)      Covers  the 

city  except  Fora  and  Capitol. 
Lanciani,  R.     Storia  dcgli  Scavi  di  Roma.    3  vols,  have 

appeared  (1902-1907),  bringing  the   history  down 

to  1565. 
The    Destruction    of  Aticicnl   Rome.     (New   York, 

1899.) 
Perschinka,  F.    Das  alte  Rom.    (Wien,  1908.)     A  brief 

(61  pp.)  introduction  to  the  whole  subject,  with  88 

goorl  illustrations. 
Platner,  S.    B.      The    Topography   and   Monuments   of 

Ancient  Rome.    (Boston,  1904.)     2d  ed.  soon  to  be 

issued. 
RicHTER,    O.     Topographie   d.    Stadt   Rom,    2te.    Aufl. 

(Munchen,  1901.) 
RoDOCANAfHi,  E.     The  Roman  Capitol  in  Ancient  and 

Modern  Times.    Eng.  tr.  bv  F.  Lawton.      (London, 

1906.) 

Roman  Art  and  Archeeology  (in  General)  :  — 
Gentile,  I.,  and  Ricci,  R.  Trattato  generale di  archeologia 
e  storia  delt'  arte  Italica,  Etrusca,  e  Romano,  .3d  ediz. 
(Milano,  1901.)  Excellent  elementary  work  with 
full  bibliographies  and  supplementary  volume  of 
illustrations. 
Marth.\,   Joles.     L' Archiologie  Etrusque  et  Romaine. 

(Paris.) 
WiCKHOFF,  F.  Roman  art;  .some  of  its  Principles  and 
their  Appli^-ation  to  Early  Christian  Painting. 
Eng.  tr.  by  Mrs.  Strong.  (London.  1900.)  Empha- 
sizes the  individuality-  and  independence  of  Roman 
art. 

Architecture :  — 
Anderson,    W.,    and    Spiers,    P.      The  Architecture    of 

Greece  and  Rome.     Illustrated.      (London,  1907.) 
DuRM,  J.     Baukunst   d.  Etrusker  u.  Romer.      (2d  .Aufl., 

Stuttgart,  1905.)     Standard  work  with  illustrations 

and  bibliography. 
Die  Baukunst  der  Griechen    (Handbuch   der  Archi- 

tectur).  Vol.  II,  3d  ed.      (Darmstadt,  1910.) 
Marqc.\nd,    .\.     Greek   Architecture.      (New   York   and 

London.  1909.) 
Sturgis,    R.     Hislon/    of    Architecture,     I     (antiijuity). 

(New  York,   1900.) 

Sculpture:  — 

Bernoulli.  J.  J.  Rom.  Ikonographie.  3  vols.  (Stutt- 
gart,  1S92-1.S94.) 

Bbunn-Brcckjuann-.^rndt.  Denkmalcr  griech .  u  rom. 
Skulptur.  This  expensive  collection  of  large  plates 
begiin  at  Munich  in  1897,  together  with  the  Griech. 
«.  rom.  Portrats,  begun  in  190l,  is  still  in  progress, 
and  furnishes  the  best  available  illustrations. 

Gardner,  E.  A.  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  2d  ed. 
(London  and  New  Yf)rk,  1900.) 

Mach,  E.  v.  a  Handbook  of  Greek  and  Roman  Sculp- 
ture.    (Boston,  1905.) 

Reinach,  ,S.  Ripertoire  dc  la  statuaire  Grecque  el 
Romaine,  3  vols.  (Paris,  1897-1904.)  Inex- 
pensive   collection    of    small    cuts. 

Strong,  Mr.s.  .Vrthur  (Eugenie  Sellers).  Roman 
Sculpture  from  Augustus  to  Constantine.  (London 
and  New  York,  1907.)  This  has  good  illustrations 
which  may  be  supplemented  by  the  University 
Prints  accomijanying  the  following. 


174 


ARCH^OLOGICAL  INSTITUTE 


ARCHDEACON 


Painting,  Pompeii,  Herculaneum  :  — ■ 
GiRARD,    P.     Histoire   de   la   peinture   antique.      (Paris, 

1892.) 
Hermann,      P.     DenkniUler     der     Malerei.     (Munich, 

1907.) 
Mau,    a.     Geschichte    d.    decorativcn    Wandmalerei    in 

Pompeii.     (Berlin,  1882.) 
Pompeii:    its  life  and  art.      Eng.  ed.  (revised)  by 

F.  W.  Kelsey.      (New  York.  1902.)      Many  illustra- 
tions    and     good      bibliography.     New     enlarged 

German   cd.      (Leipzig.    190S.) 
Rodenwaldt,  G.      Die  liumposition  dcr  pompcianischen 

Wandgemdlde.     Illustrated.      (Berlin,  1909.) 
Waldstein,  C,  and  Shoobridge,  L.     Herculaneum,  past, 

present,   and  future.      (London,    1908.)      Numerous 

fine  illustrations  and  bibliography. 
VVoLTMANN,  A.,  and  Woermann,  K.    History  of  painting. 

Vol.  I  (ancient  painting).      Eng.  ed.  by  S.  Colvin. 

(London,   1880.) 

Minor  Arts:  Numismatics:  — 
Babelon,  E.     Description  historique  et  chronologigue  des 

monnaies    de    la    repuhlique    Romaine.      Two    vols. 

(Paris,  1885-1S86.)       (See  as  above.) 
Traite   des    monnaies  grecques   et  romaines.  Vol.  I, 

1904.  II  and  III,  1907.      (Paris.) 
f'OHEN,   H.     Description  historique    des  monnaies  frap- 

pees  sous  I'empire  Romain.    8  vols.    2d  ed.     (Paris, 

1880-1892.) 
FuRTWAXGLER,    A.     Die   antiken    Gemmen.     Geschichte 

der    Steinschncidekunst    im     klassischen     Altertum. 

(Leipzig,   1900.) 
Gnecchi,  F.      Roman   coins.      2d  ed.,  Eng.    trans,    by 

A.    W.   Hands,    London,    1903.      Contains   illustra- 
tions  and    bibliography.      3d   Italian   ed.     (Milan, 

1907.) 
Head,   B.   V.     Historia  Numorum,  a  Manual  of  Greek 

Numismatics.      (Oxford,   1887.) 
PoTTiER,   E.     Les  statuettes  de  terre  cuite  dans  I'antiquiti. 

Illustrated.     (Paris,   1900.) 
Walters,  H.  B.     Catalogue  of  the  Bronzes  in  the  British 

Museum.      (London,  1899.) 

History  of  Ancient  Potteru.      (London,   1905.) 

Winter.    F.     Die    Tijpen    der   figiirlichen    Terrakotte?i. 

(B.-rlin  and  Stuttgart,  1903.) 

ARCH^OLOGICAL        INSTITUTE       OF 

AMERICA. —Founded  in  Boston  in  1879  and 
incorporated  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1906; 
it  has  its  headquarters  in  Washington,  D.C. 
Its  purpose  is  to  promote  archaeological 
research  by  founding  schools  and  maintaining 
fellowships,  by  conducting  excavations  and 
explorations  and  aiding  in  those  conducted 
by  others,  by  publishing  the  results  of  archaeo- 
logical research,  by  holding  meetings  for  the 
presentation  and  discussion  of  archaeological 
subjects,  and  by  maintaining  courses  of  public 
lectures. 

The  work  of  the  Institute  is  organized  in  the 
following  departments,  each  of  which  is  in 
charge  of  its  own  managing  committee:  Greek, 
Roman,  Oriental,  American,  Renaissance.  To 
these  Egyptian  i.s  now  being  added.  The 
American  School  of  Cla.ssical  Studies  at  Athens, 
established  in  1881,  has  conducted  excavations 
at  the  Argive  Heraeum  and  in  Corinth  as  well 
as  at  several  less  important  sites  in  Greece, 
and  has  published  several  volumes  of  Papers, 
Bulletins,  and  Reports.  The  American  School 
of  Classical  Studies  in  Rome  was  founded  in 
189.5,  and  though  not  permitted  to  excavate,  has 
published  two  volumes  of  "  Supplementary 
Papers  "  and  many  si)ecial  monographs.  The 
American  School  of  Oriental  Study  and   Re- 


.search  (Jerusalem)  was  organized  in  1900,  and 
has  already  done  important  work  of  exploration 
in  Palestine.  In  1907  the  School  of  American 
Archaeology  (Santa  F6)  was  founded  as  a 
school  of  research  to  direct  investigations  in 
the  American  field.  Its  activities  have  extended 
to  Arizona,  Utah,  New  Mexico,  Mexico,  and 
Central  America.  The  work  in  Medieval  and 
Renaissance  studies  is  pursued  chiefly  under 
the  direction  of  the  School  in  Rome,  where  a 
large  library  is  deposited  for  that  purpose. 

In  addition  to  the  researches  and  publications 
of  the  schools,  the  Institute  itself  has  carried 
through  large  undertakings  of  publication  and 
excavation.  For  example,  it  conducted  ex- 
tensive excavations  at  Assos,  and  is  now  (1910) 
beginning  work  at  Cyrene.  Besides  its  special 
publications,  it  regularly  issues  the  American 
Journal  of  Archceology  and  the  Bulletin  of  the 
Archmological  Institute  of  America. 

The  Institute  consists  of  32  affiliated  So- 
cieties, with  a  total  membership  of  about  .3000, 
situated  in  the  chief  cities  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  To  each  of  these  are  sent  an- 
nually several  lecturers,  both  American  and 
foreign,  to  present  the  newer  phases  of  progress 
in  the  different  fields  of  archaeological  research. 
Fuller  information  with  regard  to  the  Institute 
may  be  had  from  the  Secretary,  George  Wash- 
ington University,  Washington,  D.C. 

See  Archaeology. 

ARCHDEACON.  —  It  has  been  assumed  or 
suggested  by  a  good  many  writers  on  the  his- 
tory of  educational  institutions  that  the  arch- 
deacon was  the  primary  educational  authority. 
But  there  is  nothing  in  the  canon  law  to  suggest 
that  teaching  or  inspection  or  government  of 
schools  and  scholars  formed  any  part  of  the 
archidiaconal  functions.  In  the  Institution  of 
St.  Osmund,  c.  1090,  the  archdeacon's  duties  are 
summed  up  in  the  terms,  "the  archdeacons' 
powers  lie  in  the  cure  of  souls "  {archidiaconi 
in  cura  pollent  animarum).  They  exercised,  by 
devolution  from  the  bishop,  whose  eyes  they 
are  said  to  be  (that  is,  inspectors  on  his  behalf), 
and  to  whom  they  reported,  jurisdiction  over 
offen.ses  against  morality  and  sins  of  a  character 
absolution  for  which  was  not  reserved  to  the 
bishop  or  the  Pope  himself .  In  the  case  of  an 
ordinary  bishopric  or  cathedral,  the  educational 
authority  was  not  the  archdeacon,  but  the 
schoolmaster,  later  called  chancellor.  In  some 
cathedrals,  however,  the  archdeacon  was  the 
principal  person  next  after  the  bishop,  and 
it  so  happened  that  this  was  the  case  with 
Bologna  iq.i'.),  the  seat  as  some  say  of  the 
first,  and  at  all  events  of  one  of  the  first  and 
most  famous  of  universities  and  the  specially 
legal  university.  In  this  position  he  seemed 
to  have  exercised  the  same  kind  of  power  in 
regard  to  the  university  as  the  Chancellor  of 
Notre  Dame  did  at  Paris.  But  it  is  noticeable 
that  in  perhaps  the  earliest  mention  of  him 
in  this  capacity  he  is   called   archdeacon   and 


175 


ARCHDEACON 


ARCHES 


chancellor,  viz.  of  the  cathedral,  and  in  1404 
is  called  head  and  chancellor  of  the  university, 
and  the  position  was  formally  conferred  by 
Papal  bull  of  Honorius  III,  an  cx-archdeacon 
of  BoloRne  himself.  This  ca.se,  though  it  is  in 
fact  no  i)roof  of  archidiaconal  authority  in 
education,  but  rather  the  contrary,  may  have 
given  rise  to  claims  of  the  same  sort  by  other 
archdeacons.  In  England  the  archdeacon  seems 
to  have  been  unknown  before  the  Xorman  Con- 
quest. Archdeacons  only  apjiear  in  three  or 
four  charters,  all  of  them  marked  as  spurious. 
As  the  system  of  schools  was  fully  established, 
this  seems  to  be  conclusive  against  their  possess- 
ing in  England  educational  jiowcr  ex  officio. 
The  schoolmaster  and  chancellor  used  this  in 
the  secular  cathedrals,  while  the  bishops  (see 
Bishop's  Schools)  in  the  case  of  the  monastic 
cathedrals  retained  this  educational  power  of 
supervising  schools  and  appointing  masters  in 
their  own  hands.  The  presence,  however,  of 
the  Archdeacon  of  Oxford,  when  some  statutes 
were  made  for  the  grammar  schools  there  in 
1306,  has  been  inferred  to  show  archidiaconal 
control  over  them.  But  he  was  accompanied 
by  the  official  (later  called  chancellor)  of  the 
Bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  seems  to  have  been 
acting  jointly  with  the  official  as  the  bishoji's 
representative.  At  Cambridge,  30  years  earlier, 
the  Archdeacon  of  Ely  seems  to  have  contestetl 
with  the  Chancellor  of  the  University  the  juris- 
diction over  the  grammar  schools  there,  which 
were  no  doubt  older  than  the  university,  and 
not  part  of  it,  and  the  master  of  which  exercised 
independent  jurisdiction  over  his  scholars  as  his 
brother  of  Canterbury  did.  The  appointment 
of  this  master  of  '  glomery '  or  grammar  seems 
indeed  to  have  belonged  to  the  archdeacon, 
and  the  reason  no  doubt  was  that  it  had  been 
assigned  to  him  by  the  bishop,  Ely  being  a 
monastic  see,  and  his  cathedral  therefore  not 
possessing  a  chancellor.  At  Worcester  it  would 
appear  that  the  archdeacon  claimed  a  similar 
authority,  and  in  1312,  when  the  bishop  ap- 
pointeil  a  master  of  the  grammar  school  of  the 
city  of  Worcester,  he  said  that  he  did  so  whether 
the  power  of  appointment  belonged  to  him  by 
episcopal  or  by  archidiaconal  authority,  thus 
overriding  whatever  claim  the  archdeacon  may 
have  made.  At  Canterbury  from  1306  to  1450 
the  archbishop  himself  appointed  the  master, 
and  so  at  Winchester  as  late  as  14.55.  The  en- 
graving given  in  Emil  Reiche's  German  Lehrer 
in  1901,  purporting  to  be  an  archdeacon  teach- 
ing boys  reading  and  music,  must  be  a  case  of 
mistaken  identity.  The  person  in  question  has 
on  a  doctor's  cap.  There  is  no  evidence  forth- 
coming of  an  archdeacon  acting  as  teacher. 

After  the  Reformation,  when  chancellors  of 
cathedrals  ceased  to  exercise  any  educational  su- 
pervision, and  the  officials  had  become  merely 
judges  of  the  bishop's  courts,  the  archdeacons 
were  emploj'ed  as  the  bishops'  representatives  to 
make  inquiries  as  to  schools  for  the  enforcement 
of  the  canon  and  statute  law  imposing  tests  on 


schoolmasters.  It  was  a  regular  part  of  their 
duty  at  visitations  to  inquire  whether  the  schools 
were  kept  by  persons  projjcrly  licensed  and  who 
had  taken  the  necessary  oaths,  and  whether  they 
were  susiiected  of  papacy  or  nonconformity. 
This  was  ])artic'ularly  the  case  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  and  we  find  instances  wherever 
the  records  of  visitations  can  be  found.  So, 
when  the  Barons  of  the  Exchequer  wanted  to 
be  satisfied  in  1572  that  the  sciiools  continued 
by  the  Chantry  commissioners  were  in  work- 
ing order  and  ileserved  the  stipends  paid  out  of 
the  Exchequer,  the  inquiry  was  directed  to  the 
bishop,  who  deputed  the  archdeacon  to  visit  the 
place  and  sec,  and  he  reported  to  the  bishop, 
who  made  return  to  the  Exche(iuer  court.  After 
the  Toleration  Act,  when  the  ordinary  ceased 
to  have  power,  the  archdeacons  cea.sed  to  make 
inquiries  about  schools,  and  all  connection  with 
them  ceased.  A.  F.  L. 

References:  — 

Cm-ims  Juris  Cononici;  ed.  Leipzig,  ISSl. 

ARCHES,  SCHOOL  OF  THE.  —  A  school 
in  London  of  early  origin,  attached  to  the 
Church  of  St.  Mary  Le  Bow,  which  stood  upon 
arches  and  was  known  as  the  Ecclesia  Sanctae 
IMariae  dc  Arcubus  (bow  was  the  usual  Saxon 
term  for  an  arch  or  bridge,  sec  Hutton,  A.  W., 
.1  Short  Ilixiory  and  Description  of  Bow  Church). 
The  school  was  po.ssibly  held  in  the  ancient 
crypt,  which  still  exists,  though  the  church 
itself  was  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  1666. 
There  is  knowledge  of  the  school  in  the  elev- 
enth century.  Tlie  School  of  the  Arches,  and 
the  schools  of  St.  Paul's  and  St.  Martin's  Le 
Grand  were  the  only  three  schools  in  London 
which  had  the  exclusive  right  to  educate  as 
against  strange  unqualified  masters  who  at- 
tempted to  open  schools  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  the 
secular  courts  supported  the  strange  masters 
against  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  who  pro- 
tected the  three  schools.  This  action  of  the 
secular  courts  was  reflected  in  the  decision  in  the 
Gloucester  Grammar  Sciiool  case  (1410).  In 
1446  the  number  of  recognized  schools  rose  to 
five,  but  the  claim  was  again  questioned  in  the 
following  3'ear,  owing  to  the  great  need  of 
grammar  schools  in  London. 

From  this  date  the  history  of  the  School  of  the 
Arches  is  obscure.  It  is  probable  that  the 
grammar  school,  like  many  others  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  was  converted  into  an  elemen- 
tary parochial  school  and  was  taken  over  in 
1701  by  the  Charity  School  Movement  (q.v.). 
The  school  became  a  w-ard  school  for  boys  and 
girls  in  1714:  was  removed  to  Old  Change  in 
17G6,  to  Distaff  Lane  in  1S18,  and  in  1855  out 
of  London  to  Anglcsea  House,  Shooter's  Hill, 
above  Woolwich.  To  this  day  the  children 
from  this  school  are  taken  annually  on  St. 
Mark's  day  to  a  church  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  St.  Mary  Le  Bow,  to  the  Church  of 


176 


ARCHIMEDES 


ARCHITECTURAL   EDUCATION 


St.  Mary  Aldermary,  to  hear  a  sermon  on  "  the 
excellency  of  the  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of 
England."  It  is  tempting  to  believe  that  this 
church  is  attended  by  mistake,  and  that  the 
children  are  intended  to  go  to  the  church  that 
is  almost  entirely  built  on  the  site  of  a  Roman 
temple,  to  the  church  where  the  Court  of 
Arches  sat  for  seven  or  more  centuries,  to  the 
church  where  the  curfew  bell  about  the  year  of 
Grace  1375  called  Dick  Whittington  back  to 
London.  J.  E.  G.  de  M. 

See  articles  on  Te.a.chers,  Licensing  of; 
Middle  Ages,  Education  in. 

References:  — 

DuGDALE.     History  of   St.   Paul's   Cathedral,   ed.    1658, 

P-  9- 
HuTTON,  A.  W.     A   Short   History    and    Description  of 

Bow  Church. 
Montmorency,    J.    E.    G.    de.      State  Intervention  in 

English  Education.      (Cambridge,  1902.) 
Newcouhts  History  of  the  Diocese  of  London,  ed.  1708, 

p.   109. 

ARCHIMEDES.  —  The  greatest  mathe- 
matician of  Greece,  and  a  prolific  and  profound 
writer  on  mathematics  and  physics.  He  was 
born  probably  about  287  b.c,  and  was  killed  at 
the  sack  of  Syracuse  by  the  Romans  in  212  b.c. 
He  visited  and  probably  studied  at  Alexandria. 
In  elementary  mathematics  he  is  known  chiefly 
for  his  mensuration  of  the  circle  by  a  method 
still  in  use  in  the  schools,  and  for  his  treatise 
on  the  sphere  and  cylinder.  Among  the  propo- 
sitions enunciated  by  him  is  the  one  assert- 
ing that  the  area  of  the  surface  of  a  sphere  is 
four  times  that  of  one  of  its  great  circles, 
and  the  one  comparing  the  volume  and  the 
surface  of  a  sphere  with  those  of  the  circum- 
scribed cylinder.  The  style  of  Archimedes 
was  not  like  that  of  Euclid  {q.v.).  The  latter 
was  essentially  a  teacher,  and  a  genius  in 
textbook-making;  but  Arcliimedes  was  a  dis- 
coverer, and  his  writings  were  less  suited  to 
the  use  of  the  beginner.  D.  E.  S. 

See  Alexandria,  School  and   Uni\'ersity 


ARCHITECTURAL  EDUCATION.— His- 
torical. —  Systematic  provision  for  the  technical 
training  of  architects  for  their  profession  is  a 
comparatively  modern  institution.  The  oldest 
existing  school  of  architecture  is  that  of  the 
French  Academy  at  Rome  established  by 
Louis  XIV,  in  1671.  But  this  was  not  a  school 
with  a  complete  curriculum  of  professional 
study,  and  it  was  not  until  1816,  under  Louis 
XVIII,  that  the  firstcompletely  organized  train- 
ing school  for  architects  was  established  — 
that  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  at  Paris. 
Previous  to  that  date  preparation  for  the  prac- 
tice of  architecture  was  obtained,  as  for  most 
other  callings,  by  apprenticeship  to  practitioners 
already  in  the  exercise  of  their  profession. 
This  was  true  not  only  of  Europe  in  the  Middle 
Ages  and  in  the  Renaissance,  but  probably 
also  of  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome  in  antiquity. 

VOL.   I  —  N  177 


We  have  no  records  to  enlighten  us  in  de- 
tail as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  architects 
of  the  classic  ages  received  their  special  edu- 
cation, as  we  certainly  should  have  had  if  there 
had  been  specially  organized  professional 
schools  of  architecture.  It  is,  however,  known 
that  the  building  crafts  were  in  the  hands  of 
guilds  which,  under  the  later  emperors  at  least, 
were  hereditary  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  in 
each  guild  there  were  schools  or  other  means  pro- 
vided for  teaching  the  craft,  besides  the  ap- 
prenticeship of  sons  to  fathers  or  to  other  mas- 
ters. It  is  also  a  well-known  historical  fact 
that ''the  Emperor  Constantino  did,  in  the 
fourth  centur)',  establish  such  a  school  at 
Rome  for  the  training  of  the  architects  to  be 
employed  in  building  his  new  capital  at  Byzan- 
tium on  the  Bosphorus,  the  existing  supply 
of  capable  practitioners  being  unequal  to  the 
extraordinary  task  of  transforming  a  second- 
rate  provincial  town  into  a  completely  equipped 
imperial  capital.  But  this  was  an  exceptional 
provision  for  an  exceptional  emergency,  and 
passed  away  with  "the  emergency  which  had 
called  it  into  existence. 

It  is  not  known  how  or  where  men  like 
Anthemius  and  Isodorus,  the  architects  of 
Ilagia  Sophia,  two  hundred  years  later,  were 
educated  for  their  stupendous  task,  or  their 
successors,  W'ho  continued  for  nearly  a  thousand 
years  to  maintain  in  Southeastern  Europe  the 
traditions  of  the  Byzantine  style.  But  as  it 
was  predominantly  an  ecclesiastical  style,  it 
was  probably,  to  some  extent  at  least,  the 
Greek  and  Byzantine  monasteries  that  supplied 
the  technical  and  artistic  part  of  that  education. 

With  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  there  be- 
gan in  Western  Europe  a  revival  of  architecture, 
which  took  on  an  extraordinarj^  development 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  eleventh  and  during 
the  twelfth  century.  This  revival,  which  was 
itself  but  one  phase  of  a  marvelous  and  wide- 
spread intellectual  awakening,  was  chiefly 
monastic  and  ecclesiastical  in  character,  and 
it  was  in  the  great  monasteries,  especially 
those  of  the  Benedictine  and  Cistercian  orders, 
that  the  men  were  trained  who  built  the 
great  abbeys,  cloisters,  and  churches  of  the 
Romanesque  style.  This,  at  least  is  true 
of  England,  France,  and  Germany.  It  is 
probable  that  there  was  a  much  larger  secu- 
lar element  in  the  development  of  archi- 
tecture in  Italy  at  the  same  time,  though  just 
how  important  was  the  part  played  by  the 
maestri  comacini,  or  guilds  of  masons,  at  that 
time  is  not  certainly  known.  (Cf.  Leader 
Scott,  The  Cathedral  Builders.)  But  so  far  as 
Western  Europe  is  concerned,  it  was  in  the  great 
monasteries  that  the  master  builders  of  the 
Romanesque  period  learned  their  crafts.  These 
monasteries  were  the  chief  homes  and  nurseries 
both  of  learning  and  of  the  fine  arts  in  those 
days,  and  come  nearest  to  offering  a  parallel  to 
the  architectural  schools  of  our  own  time.  But 
it  must  not  be  imagined  that  there  was  anything 


ARCHITECTURAL  EDUCATION 


ARCHITECTURAL  EDUCATION 


like  the  organized  currieiiluni  and  discipline  of 
tiie  modern  sciiools.  The  various  departments 
of  architectural  training  had  not  been  reduced 
to  precise  canons  and  scientific  formulation. 
The  methods  were  those  of  apprenticeship; 
constructive  and  engineering  principles,  so  far 
as  they  had  been  formulated  at  all,  had  been 
worked  out  empirically,  as  the  results  of  hard 
experience;  architecture  was  not  a  profession, 
but  a  craft,  embodying  traditions  that  had  been 
gradually  accumulated  in  the  building  expe- 
rience of  the  monasteries,  to  be  mastered  by 
practice,  not  erudition.  The  work  of  design 
and  building  was  not  divided  in  the  lines  of 
modern  practice,  and  the  training  required 
was  totally  unlike  that  needed  by  the  modern 
architect.  The  design,  certainly  the  type,  of 
each  buikiing,  was  based  on  that  of  some  other 
building  of  the  same  class  already  erected,  with 
such  improvements  as  the  experience  of  that 
building  suggested.  Neither  in  general  design 
nor  in  details  w^as  there  necessity  for  com- 
pletely new  invention.  The  number  of  kinds 
of  buildings  required  was  comparatively  small; 
the  requirements  changed  little  and  slowly. 
The  monastic  apprenticeship  sufficed  for  the 
occasion. 

With  the  decline  of  the  paramountcy  of 
the  monastic  orders,  the  practice  of  architeeture 
passed  chiefly  into  the  hands  of  the  guilds  of 
the  masons  and  other  building  trades,  and  its 
problems  were  multiplied  by  the  addition  of 
civic  structures  —  town  halls,  courts  of  justice, 
and  palaces.  The  master  masons  were  trained 
by  apprenticeship  in  their  guilds,  very  much 
as  they  had  formerly  learned  their  trade  in 
the  monasteries.  There  was  no  real  change 
in  the  system  of  training  until  the  Renaissance 
revolutionized  the  art  and  practice  of  architec- 
ture, and  introduced  wholly  new  elements  into 
design  which  the  guilds  were  ill  fitted  to 
supply.  In  the  first  place,  the  revival  of 
classic  studies  and  the  effort  to  restore  the 
classic,  that  is  Roman,  forms  and  ideals  in 
architecture,  made  necessary  an  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  Roman  details  and  gave  rise  to  the 
archaeological  study  of  antique  monuments. 
In  the  second  place,  the  development  of  secular 
and  palace  architecture,  of  landscape  gardening 
and  architecture,  and  the  adoption  of  the  dome 
in  place  of  the  Gothic  groined  vaulting  as  the 
distinctive  feature  of  church  architecture,  revo- 
lutionized construction,  and  made  almost  use- 
less the  entire  traditional  apparatus  of  the 
mediaeval  architectural  teaching.  Architecture 
became  more  than  formerly  an  art  of  pure  de- 
sign, less  one  of  struct  ural  exigency.  Its  success- 
ful practice  required  the  training  of  the  taste 
and  of  the  sense  of  proportion  and  decoration, 
skill  in  drawing,  and  a  thorough  mastery  of 
the  classic  alphabet  of  architectural  elements, 
rather  than  the  apprenticeship  of  the  mason's 
shop  and  stoneyard.  Design  and  execution 
became  separate  and  independent  activities,  and 
except    where   the   building   of   a   great   dome 


in  masonry  called  for  special  experience  in 
scientific  construction,  there  were  seldom 
structural  difficulties  of  a  kind  to  call  for  any 
special  scientific  training  on  the  part  of  the 
designer.  Hence  during  the  earlier  Re- 
naissance goldsmiths,  painters,  sculptors,  and 
inlayers  successfully  attempted  architectural 
design,  while  in  the  later  Renaissance  of  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  architec- 
ture was  successfully  practiced  by  learned  ama- 
teurs and  members  of  other  professions.  The 
east  facade  of  the  Louvre  and  Christ  Church 
in  Philadelphia  were  designed  by  physicians 
(Dr.  Perrault  and  Dr.  Kearsley  respectively), 
while  the  greatest  of  all  English  architects, 
Sir  Christopher  Wren,  was  a  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Oxford  when  he  began  his  career 
as  an  architect. 

Modem  Architectural  Instruction.,  ■ —  The 
present  section  of  architecture  of  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux-Arts  (see  Art  Schools  .\nd  Art  In- 
struction IN  ErROPE)  was  definitely  consti- 
tuted in  1816  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XVIII.  This 
school  has  supplied  a  pattern  for  all  other 
French  schools  of  architecture,  and  for  the 
American  schools  to  a  considerable  degree,  and 
has  strongly  influenced  even  the  Cerman  and 
Austrian  systems.  It  was  in  this  school  that 
the  principles  and  the  various  categories  of 
architectural  knowledge  were  first  analyzed 
and  separated  into  distinct  groups  or  courses 
of  instruction,  and  the  ancient  methods  of 
apprenticeship  training  in  the  ateliers  or  offices 
of  leading  practitioners- — which  had  previously 
offered  the  only  available  means  of  acquiring 
the  art  —  were  modified  and  adapted  to  the 
purposes  and  systematic  organization  of  a  great 
school.  The  theory,  mathematics,  and  science 
of  architectural  design  and  construction  were, 
and  still  are,  taught  by  lectures  to  large  classes 
at  once.  The  drawing  and  the  design  proper 
were,  and  are,  taught  in  various  studios  or 
ateliers  maintained  by  different  masters,  sub- 
ject to  competitive  tests  from  time  to  time  in 
both  drawing  and  design.  In  Great  Britain 
preparation  for  the  profession  is  still  in  large 
measure  acquired  by  apprenticeship;  the  student 
pays  an  annual  premium  to  enter  the  office  of 
a  practitioner  as  an  articled  pupil,  and  receives 
such  instruction  as  the  master  may  choose  to 
give  him,  working  meanwhile  as  a  draftsman  on 
his  master's  business,  when  not  receiving  in- 
struction. Elsewhere  in  Europe  architectural 
education  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  govern- 
ment, in  connection  either  with  technological 
schools  or  schools  of  art.  Thus  in  Switzerland 
the  chief  school  of  architecture  is  that  of  the 
Zurich  Polytechnicum;  in  Vienna  it  is  in  con- 
nection with  the  Imperial  School  of  Art;  in 
Germany  there  are  departments  of  architec- 
ture in  various  Technixehe  Hochschttlen,  while  in 
Turkey  a  school  of  architecture  is  maintained 
by  the  Imperial  Museum  of  Art  at  Constanti- 
nople. The  Italian  architects  are  trained  chiefly 
in  schools  of  engineering. 


178 


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ARCHITECTURAL  EDUCATION 


This  variety  in  modern  methods  of  technical 
education  in  architecture  is  due  to  the  manifold 
aspects  and  relations  of  architecture.  It  is 
at  once  a  science,  an  art,  and  a  learned  pro- 
fession; its  practitioner  must  furthermore  be 
familiar  with  a  number  of  mechanical  trades; 
and  the  knowledge  and  experience  it  calls  for 
are  of  the  most  varied  character.  One  system 
of  training  may  emphasize  its  scientific  side, 
dwelling  upon  the  mathematics,  mechanics,  and 
engineering  necessary  for  the  proper  designing 
of  foundations,  retaining  walls,  roofs,  vaults, 
columns,  and  girders,  or  upon  the  physics, 
chemistry,  and  electrical  science  required  for 
the  proper  construction,  wiring,  and  heating 
and  ventilating  equipment  of  a  modern  build- 
ing; and  these  are  subjects  best  taught  in  a 
school  of  engineering.  Another  sy.stem  may  em- 
phasize the  artistic  side  of  architecture,  giving 
special  importance  to  the  teaching  of  drawing, 
drafting,  shades,  and  shadows,  perspective  and 
modeling;  to  the  history  of  architectural  styles 
and  ornament,  and  to  the  theory  and  practice  of 
design.  Such  a  school  would  naturally  be 
joined  to  a  school  of  art  rather  than  to  a  techno- 
logical institute. 

Present  Position.  —  These  observations  lead 
naturally  to  a  survey  of  the  work  of  the  architect 
and  of  the  various  branches  of  study  that 
may  be  considered  as  preparatory  for  tliis 
work. 

The  function  of  the  architect  is  the  designing 
of  artistic  buildings;  that  is,  of  edifices  which, 
while  they  serve  the  utilitarian  purpose  of 
housing  and  sheltering  human  beings,  activities, 
industries,  and  material  goods  in  the  most 
convenient  and  efficient  manner,  shall  also  be 
in  themselves  beautiful,  objects  of  pleasing 
contemplation,  adornments  to  the  city  or  region 
in  which  they  are  placed.  This  combination  of 
utility  and  beauty,  this  joint  and  simultaneous 
pursuit  of  the  useful  and  the  beautiful,  is  what 
tlifferentiates  architecture  from  engineering. 
Fundamental  to  all  artistic  design  is  drawing,  as 
essential  to  the  designer  as  writing  is  to  the 
novelist  or  poet.  Fundamental  to  correct  con- 
struction in  its  higher  forms  is  mathematics 
with  its  applications  in  mechanics.  Mathe- 
matics and  drawing  are  thus  the  foundation 
studies  of  all  training  in  architectural  design. 
But  these  two  heads  cover  a  large  number  of 
distinct  subjects.  Freehand  drawing  may  in- 
clude drawing  from  the  flat,  from  casts,  from 
objects,  from  living  models,  draped  or  nude, 
in  pencil,  water  colors,  charcoal  and  crayon, 
pen-and-ink.  Architectural  drawing  or  draft- 
ing comprises  projections,  intersections,  shades 
and  shadows,  perspective,  descriptive  geometry, 
and  stereotomy;  the  drawing  of  the  orders  of 
architecture  and  of  the  elementary  forms  of 
architecture — doors,  windows,  arches,  arcades, 
vaults,  balustrades,  spires,  etc.;  the  combined 
application  of  projections  and  shades  and 
shadows  to  the  "rendering"  of  plans,  eleva- 
tions, and  sections  with  shadows  cast  and  inter- 


preted in  washes  of  India  ink  and  color;  and 
practice  in  the  making  of  office  drawings  with 
their  conventional  representations  and  systems 
of  tinting  and  figuring. 

The  scientific  study  of  construction  has  been 
greatly  complicated  in  modern  times  by  the 
marvelous  development  of  steel  as  a  building 
material,  and  lately  also  of  concrete,  and  by 
the  growing  complexity  of  modern  buildings. 
Plumbing  and  wiring,  heating  and  ventilation, 
elevators  and  mail  chutes,  have  introduced 
numberless  features  and  problems  unknown 
fifty  years  ago.  The  architect  must  provide 
intelligently  for  these  in  his  designs,  besides 
knowing  how  to  calculate  the  strength  of  col- 
umns and  girders,  arches  and  vaults.  Hence  in 
addition  to  the  prerequisite  algebra,  geometry, 
and  trigonometry,  he  should  master  analytical 
geometry,  the  calculus  and  mechanics,  graphical 
statics  and  strength  of  materials.  A  fair  knowl- 
edge of  physics  and  chemistry  and  of  their 
applications  in  sanitation,  heating  and  ventila- 
tion, and  electric  installation,  is  important. 
Indeed,  these  studies  may  be  carried  very  far 
into  their  various  subdivisions  and  applications 
without  exhausting  the  list  of  desirable  scien- 
tific attainments  of  the  architect. 

While  pursuing  these  various  studies,  the 
student  is  presumably  applying  his  newly 
acquired  knowledge  in  the  solving  of  problems 
in  design.  In  this  work  he  will  be  aided  by 
lectures  on  the  theory  of  design  and  decora- 
tion, and  by  familiarizing  himself  with  the 
history  and  characteristics  of  the  various 
styles  and  of  the  great  masterpieces  of  his  art. 
Lectures  and  seminars  on  the  history  of  archi- 
tecture and  of  ornament,  with  study  of  reference 
books  and  photographs,  ■will  provide  the  means 
for  acquiring  this  sort  of  knowledge  and  resource. 
The  problems  in  design  are  worked  out  in  the 
studio  or  drafting  room,  under  frequent  criti- 
cism and  advice,  and  in  most  schools  are 
judged  by  a  jury  of  award.  In  England 
especially,  and  also  in  some  other  European 
schools,  the  measuring  of  actual  examples  of 
historic  architecture  and  the  embodying  of  the 
results  in  carefully  elaborated  scale  drawings,  is 
a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  work  in  design.  The 
methods  and  procedures  in  the  teaching  of 
design  vary  greatly  in  different  countries  and 
in  different  schools;  some  emphasize  planning, 
some  draftsmanship ;  in  some  schools  the  teach- 
ing is  extremely  practical,  in  others  very  ideal- 
istic. Some  make  sound  construction  and 
practical  convenience  the  chief  considerations; 
others  seek  to  stimulate  the  imagination  and 
cultivate  the  power  of  artistic  expression;  while 
in  still  others  archaeological  correctness,  erudi- 
tion, and  detailed  acquaintance  with  and  use  of 
particular  historic  styles  are  insisted  on  as  sine 
quA  non  in  good  design. 

But  while  there  is  this  wide  variety  of 
method,  proportion,  and  emphasis,  there  is  a 
fairly  general  agreement  as  to  the  essential 
subjects  of  study.     They  may  be  grouped  under 


179 


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ARCHITECTURAL   EDUCATION 


the  five  heads  of  (a)  DeHneation,  iiicludiiiK  all 
graphics  and  drawing;  (/))  Construction,  di- 
vided into  science,  comprising  all  the  mathe- 
matics and  engineering  of  the  course,  and 
practice,  comprising  specifications,  materials, 
and  superintendence;  (c)  History,  treating 
both  of  architectural  styles  and  of  their  decora- 
tive details,  with  whatever  may  be  necessary 
in  the  way  of  archa'ology;  ((/)  Design,  com- 
prising theory  (theory  of  planning,  of  compo- 
sition, of  decoration,  of  color,  etc.),  and  practice 
(the  solution  of  proiilems  in  design  upon 
definite  programs) ;  and  finally  (c)  Office 
Practice:  the  principles  of  contracts,  profes- 
sional relations,  ethics,  competitions,  etc. 
Other  studies  are  often  found  in  the  programs 
of  arcliitectural  schools,  such  as  history,  eco- 
nomics, modern  languages,  or  English  litera- 
ture, but  these  are  simply  introduced  as  ele- 
ments of  liberal  culture;  they  are  not  parts  of 
an  architectural  curriculum.  Certain  other 
studies,  not  strictly  architectural,  are  neverthe- 
less desirable  as  preliminaries  or  additions  to 
an  arcliitectural  curriculum;  notablj'  such 
sciences  as  botany,  hygiene,  physics  and  chem- 
istr.y,  analytical  geometry  and  the  calculus. 

There  is  a  wide  diversity  of  opinion  and 
practice  as  to  the  best  methods  for  the  teaching 
of  design,  especially  as  to  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  imaginative  and  practical  proiilems. 
The  French  system,  which  is  also  the  basis  of 
the  systems  of  most  American  schools,  elimi- 
nates as  far  as  possible  from  the  problems  given 
out  to  be  solved  by  the  students  those  practical 
and  utilitarian  elements  which  in  real  practice 
so  often  hamper  the  freedom  of  the  designer. 
The  programs  of  these  problems  require  no 
figured  working  drawings  and  structural  de- 
tails, no  calculation  of  strains  and  stresses,  no 
minuti;p  of  flues  and  ducts,  no  consideration  of 
cost.  They  are  intended  to  stimulate  rather 
than  to  restrict  the  imagination,  and  to  give 
the  widest  possible  scope  for  artistic  expression. 
Tliey  are  usually  of  a  more  or  less  monumental 
character,  in  order  to  train  tlic  student  into  a 
due  sense  of  the  possibilities  of  large  concep- 
tions, dignified  composition,  and  harmonious 
detail.  Particular  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the 
plan,  upon  the  right  balance  and  distribution 
of  parts,  the  proper  handling  of  entrances, 
circulation,  stairs,  and  vistas,  and  an  artistic 
and  logical  correlation  of  exterior  and  interior, 
of  plan  and  section  and  elevation.  The  theory 
is  that  an  architect  so  trained  will,  under  the 
restrictions  of  practical  work,  still  conceive  his 
designs  in  a  monumental  spirit  and  upon  arti.s- 
tic  lines;  wiiilc  one  who  has  never  had  this  sort 
of  training  will  always  dwell  on  details  and 
utilitarian  considerations,  and  his  work  will 
always  lack  imagination  and  the  higher  artistic 
qualities.  In  some  quarters,  both  in  France 
and  elsewhere,  this  idea  is  decried,  and  the  stu- 
dent is  required  from  the  first  to  work  out 
problems  of  the  character  whicli  he  is  likely  to 
meet  with  in  ordinary  practice,  and  as  nearly  as 


possii)le  under  the  limitat  ions  of  ordinary  practice. 
There  is  also  considerable  variety  as  to  the  treat- 
ment of  style,  some  schools  insisting  on  classic 
or  neo-classic  details,  some  on  the  archa^ologic- 
ally  correct  use  of  historic  noncla.ssic  styles. 
Tlie  relative  inqjortance  of  artistic  draftsman- 
ship varies  greatly  in  different  schools.  Most 
<)f  the  American  scliools  follow  tlie  lead  of  the 
Ecole  des  Heaux-Arts  in  attaching  great  impor- 
tance to  the  drawing  and  "  rendering  "  of  the 
designs;  but  there  is  in  many  minds  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  danger  of  over-valuation  of  mere 
draftsmanship  as  against  design  properly  speak- 
ing. 

In  all  schools  the  student  is  required  to  do  a 
certain  amount  of  what  might  be  called  oflice 
work;  that  is,  to  prepare  working  drawings 
with  structural  details  of  one  or  more  of  the 
designs  he  has  made;  Init  here  again  there  is 
wide  variety  in  the  amount  and  character  of 
such  work.  In  the  French  system  it  is  con- 
fined to  a  single  prolilem,  the  final  task  in  the 
curriculum  for  the  diploma;  a  thesis  problem 
of  a  practical  though  monumental  character 
which  forms  the  cubuination  of  the  course  in 
scientific  construction.  Most  of  the  English 
schools  are  evening  schools  for  draftsmen  cm- 
jiloyed  in  offices  during  the  day;  and  while 
the  office  work  thus  gives  the  student  a  certain 
amount  of  practical  experience,  a  large  amount 
of  time  is  also  generally  devoted  to  the  study 
in  the  scliool  of  ijractical  construction  in  a  very 
detailed  manner,  often  with  cla.ssroom  demon- 
stration of  the  various  building  trades  by  expert 
workmen  in  those  trades. 

All  this  variety  of  theory  and  practice  in  ar- 
chitectural education  is  due  to  the  great  com- 
plexity of  architecture,  which  has  so  many 
branches,  and  is  related  to  so  many  interests 
and  so  many  kinds  of  knowledge  that  it  is 
impos.siljle  to  include  them  all  in  any  scheme  of 
teaching  that  comprises  onlj-  three  or  four 
years'  work.  Every  system  of  architectural 
training  is  therefore  of  necessity  a  conq)romise, 
and  its  real  function  can  only  be  to  eciuip  the 
student  with  a  fund  of  knowledge  upon  which 
he  can  safely  l)ase  all  his  later  acquisitions; 
and  with  a  method  of  work  and  a  habit  of 
thought  which  will  enable  him  in  his  after  prac- 
tice to  acquire  further  knowledge  and  skill  and 
u.se  these  wisely  and  well.  It  is  therefore  less 
the  particular  things  he  studies  and  does  in  the 
schools  than  the  way  in  which  he  is  taught 
to  study  and  do  them,  that  counts.  That 
school  does  the  most  for  him  which  trains  him 
best  for  the  needs  of  five  and  ten  years  after 
graduation,  rather  than  for  mere  draftsman's 
work  in  the  years  immediately  succeeding  his 
school  days. 

England.  —  In  England  the  theory  is  that 
office  work  and  academic  training  should  be 
coincident  and  complementary.  The  student 
enters  the  office  of  an  architect  as  an  "  articled  " 
student  or  apprentice  for  a  term  usually  of 
three   years,   paying   an   annual   premium   for 


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ARCHITECTURAL  EDUCATION 


that  period  and  receiving  such  instruction  as 
his  chief  may  give  him.  As  soon  as  he  is  able, 
he  passes  the  preliminary  examinations  held 
by  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects. 
His  further  studies  may  be  continued  during  his 
articled  service  by  attendance  on  evening  classes 
maintained  by  various  colleges,  boards,  and 
societies  {e.g.  the  evening  classes  of  the  Arclii- 
tectural  Association  or  of  the  South  Kensing- 
ton School  of  Art) ;  and  in  time,  usually  at  the 
end  of  four  years,  he  may  go  up  for  the  final 
examinations  of  the  Institute;  and  again,  after 
a  still  further  course  in  the  Royal  Academy 
classes,  he  may  compete  for  a  gold  medal  or  a 
traveling  bursary  or  studentship. 

This  S3'stem  is  being  considerably  modified, 
however,  by  the  multiplication  of  all-day 
courses  {e.g.  the  Edinburgh  College  of  Art, 
the  London  University  College  School,  the 
Architectural  Association  day  classes)  for 
students  who  can  afford  to  dispense  for  the 
time  being  with  office  work,  having  already 
had  two  or  three  j'ears  of  it,  or  intending 
to  take  it  up  after  the  school  course  is  fin- 
ished. But  in  few  or  none  of  the  schools 
does  pure  design,  exemplified  in  a  long  series 
of  progressive  problems  upon  ideal  programs, 
receive  the  emphasis  and  attention  which 
characterize  the  French  and  American  sys- 
tems, nor  is  academic  draftsmanship  taught 
after  the  Continental  and  American  fashion. 
On  the  other  hand,  more  is  made  of  pen  draw- 
ing and  measured  drawings  of  existing  monu- 
ments than  anywhere  else. 

France,  —r  In  France  the  young  student 
enters  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  or  one  of  the 
provincial  schools  on  passing  entrance  exami- 
nations in  the  orders,  drawing,  mathematics, 
history,  and  modeling,  and  is  enrolled  in  one 
of  the  ateliers  or  studios  of  a  professor  in  the 
school  or  of  an  outside  practitioner,  for  the  work 
in  design  in  the  "  second  class."  Upon  passing 
examinations  in  the  school  in  descriptive  ge- 
ometry, stereotomy,  analytical  geometry,  and 
construction,  and  acquiring  a  certain  number  of 
"  values  "  in  freehand  drawing,  modeling,  and 
design,  he  is  admitted  to  the  "  first  class."  In 
this  grade  he  pursues  further  studies  in  construc- 
tion, building  legislation,  and  other  technical 
branches  and  after  acquiring  further  "  values  " 
in  drawing  and  design,  he  prepares  an  elaborate 
thesis  design  with  the  structural  details  and 
engineering  calculations  fully  worked  out,  and 
graduates  with  the  diploine  (hi  gouvernement, 
which  qualifies  him  for  official  appointment  in 
any  of  the  numerous  governmental  services 
of  communes,  municipalities,  or  departments 
(counties),  or  of  the  general  government. 
Usually  a  certain  amount  of  office  experience 
has  been  acquired  by  sporadic  engagements 
during  the  scholastic  course. 

The  distinctive  excellence  of  the  French 
schooling  lies  in  its  system  of  teaching  design 
and  in  the  admirable  training  which  it  provides 
in  all  forms  of  artistic  draftsmansliip.      Archi- 


tecture is  conceived  of  throughout  as  an  art, 
and  all  constructive  science  as  subordinate  to 
and  serving  the  art  of  design.  Hence  the  work 
in  design  predominates  throughout.  In  Paris 
the  programs  of  all  the  problems  for  the  two 
classes  respectively  are  issued  by  the  Professor 
of  Theory  upon  specified  dates:  the  students 
make  summary  sketches  of  the  proposed  solu- 
tions of  these  problems,  to  which  their  subse- 
quent elaborations  of  the  design  must  essen- 
tially conform.  Two  months  are  allowed  for 
this  elaboration,'  which  is  worked  out  under 
frequent  criticism  from  the  patron  or  architect- 
master  of  the  atelier.  But  quite  as  valuable, 
in  its  way,  as  the  patron's  instruction  is  the 
free  and  constant  interchange  of  criticism  and 
assistance  between  the  students  of  the  atelier, 
the  ajiciens  or  "  elders  "  criticizing  and  instruct- 
ing the  younger  men,  who  in  turn  assist  in  the 
drafting  of  the  designs  of  the  elders.  The 
"  rendered  "  or  elaborated  drawings  are  handed 
in  on  a  fixed  date,  publicly  exhibited,  judged  by 
a  jury  composed  of  school  professors  and  of  pa- 
trons of  a  selected  list  of  ateliers,  and  "  mentions," 
"first  mentions,"  and  "medals"  are  awarded 
to  such  among  them  as  seem  to  deserve  it,  each 
award  conferring  a  certain  number  of  "values." 
Similar  judgment  is  passed  upon  the  work  in 
freehand  drawing  in  stated  competitions.  In 
addition  to  the  regular  problem  competitions, 
there  are  special  competitions  for  medals 
and  money  prizes,  in  decoration  and  architec- 
ture, such  as  the  Godebceuf,  the  Chaude- 
saigues,  and  the  Prix  Americain,  founded  by 
American  gifts,  most  of  these  prizes  being  open 
only  to  French  citizens.  Finally  there  is  the 
annual  contest  for  the  Prize  of  Rome  or  Grand 
Prix  d' Architecture.  The  preliminary  competi- 
tion, open  to  all  Frenchmen,  consists  of  a  two 
days'  sketch  problem,  as  a  result  of  which  the 
ten  final  competitors  are  chosen,  who  work, 
during  four  months,  upon  a  new  program  for  a 
large  and  elaborate  building  or  group  of  build- 
ings. The  winner  of  the  First  Grand  Prize 
is  sent  to  Rome  as  a  ■pensionnaire  of  the  Villa 
Medici,  where  he  spends  three  years,  followed 
by  two  years  of  travel  and  study  in  Italy  and 
Greece  at  the  expense  of  the  government.  This 
is  the  highest  honor  any  student  can  win.  It 
secures  him  important  official  employment  and 
confers  lasting  distinction  upon  the  winner.  It 
is  the  goal  of  the  entire  system,  and  its  influ- 
ence is  all-important  in  maintaining  the  classic 
traditions  of  monumental  design  in  France. 

The  Ecole  Speciale  d' Architecture,  on  the 
Boulevard  Montparnasse,  Paris,  is  a  private 
institution,  following  in  part  the  system  of  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  but  with  more  attention 
to  practical  details  and  less  emphasis  on  aca- 
demic traditions.  Many  architects  are  trained 
in  the  Ecole  Centrale  des  Arts  el  Manufactures, 
which  is  really  a  school  of  engineering,  with 
incidental  architectural  studies.  But  the  great 
majority  of  the  successful, French  practitioners 
have  been  trained  in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts. 


181 


ARCHITECTURAL  EDUCATION 


ARCHITECTURAL  EDUCATION 


United  Slates.  —  In  the  United  States  the 
first  organized  school  of  architecture  was  tliat 
established  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  under  the  direction  of  Professor 
William  R.  Ware  of  Boston,  in  1866.  This 
was  followed  by  the  organization  of  a  course  in 
architecture  at  Cornell  University  under  Pro- 
fessor Charles  Babcock  a  few  years  later,  and 
soon  afterwards  by  the  opening  of  a  similar 
course  in  the  Illinois  State  Industrial  Univer- 
sity at  Champaign  by  Professor  N.  Clifford 
Ricker.  In  ISSl  Professor  Ware  was  called  to 
Columbia  College  (now  Columliia  University) 
to  establish  a  department  of  architecture  in  the 
technical  sciiool,  then  known  as  the  School  of 
Mines;  and  not  long  after  a  similar  department 
was  started  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Within  the  past  20  years.  Harvard  University, 
Syracuse  University,  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia, Washington  University  at  St.  Louis, 
George  Washington  University  at  Washington, 
D.C.,  McGiU  University  at  i\Iontreal,  Canada, 
Michigan  University,  Tulane  University  at 
New  Orleans,  and  several  important  technical 
schools  have  established  more  or  less  complete 
courses  in  architecture.  The  Society  of  Beaux- 
Arts  Architects  of  America  has  also  estab- 
lished an  important  system  of  competitions  in 
design  in  two  classes,  "B  "  and  "A,"  after  the 
model  of  the  French  Ecole  competitions,  but 
it  does  not  maintain  any  school,  properly 
speaking. 

In  the  majority  of  American  schools  of  archi- 
tecture a  modification  of  the  French  system 
prevails.  The  student  passes  examinations  for 
admission,  approximately  equivalent  to  those 
for  admi-ssion  to  the  B.A.  or  college  course,  and 
pursues  for  four  years  a  curriculum  which 
combines  lecture  courses  and  recitations  in 
the  mathematics,  science,  theory,  and  history 
of  the  art,  with  drafting-room  work  on  prob- 
lems in  design  and  in  freehand  drawing.  The 
classroom  courses  cover  mathematics  through 
the  calculus,  mechanics,  graphical  statics,  and 
strength  of  materials;  shades  and  shadows, 
perspective,  descriptive  geometry  and  stereot- 
omy;  the  history  of  architecture;  the  theory 
of  design  and  decoration;  specifications,  build- 
ing construction  and  contracts,  and  in  many 
cases,  physics,  chemistry,  botany  and  geology, 
hygiene  and  sanitation,  French,  and  German. 
The  work  in  design  is  generally  patterned  after 
the  French  in  the  form  of  the  program  and  the 
kind  of  presentation  and  draftsmanship  re- 
quired; and  in  several  cases  the  professor  of 
design  is  a  Frenchman.  But  in  only  one  school, 
that  of  Columbia  University,  is  there  more  than 
one  atelier.  In  this  school  there  are  three,  each 
with  its  own  supervisor  or  supervisors,  provid- 
ing the  stimulus  of  friendly  emulation  within 
the  school  which  the  single  atelier  system  lacks, 
and  which  is  so  important  an  element  in  the 
success  of  the  Paris  system.  At  Harvard 
University  monotony  and  narrowness  of  teach- 
ing are  avoided  by  intrusting  the  preparation 


of  programs  and  the  criticism  of  the  designs 
successively  to  different  architects.  Several 
of  the  schools  adopt  the  Beaux-Arts  Society's 
problems,  which  thus  provide  an  intcrscholastic 
emulation  in  place  of  the  Parisian  and  Colum- 
bian system  of  inter-atelier  emulation  within 
the  school. 

Nearly  all  the  schools  require  a  graduating 
thesis  design  of  some  imjiortance.  Some  schools 
require  summer  vacation  work.  Columbia  re- 
(]uires  every  student  to  do  at  least  one  month's 
office  work  and  one  design  in  each  summer 
vacation. 

Several  of  the  schools  offer  for  competition 
among  their  graduates  prize  scholarships  for 
foreign  travel  and  study.  Not  only  the  winners 
of  these,  but  many  others,  graduates  or  students 
who  have  spent  two  or  three  years  in  an  Ameri- 
can school  without  graduating,  devote  from  two 
to  four  or  even  five  or  six  years  to  study  in 
Paris  at  the  Ecole,  often  with  a  view  to  winning 
the  diplome  du  gouvernement.  This  seems  to  be 
a  wasteful  course:  after  four  years  in  the 
American  school,  two  years  in  Paris  —  not 
necessarily  as  a  registered  student  in  the 
Ecole  —  should  suffice  for  acquiring  the  best 
part  of  the  French  training,  —  the  French 
criticism,  environment,  and  manner  of  attack 
and  study  of  problems  in  design,  —  and  a  year 
or  two  of  travel  in  Italy  and  other  European 
centers  of  art,  to  study  the  great  monuments  of 
architecture,  should  supply  the  further  culture 
and  information  most  needed  by  the  American 
practitioner. 

Office  training  and  experience  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  working  drawings  and  in  the  innu- 
merable details  of  construction  and  superin- 
tendence are  usually  acquired  by  the  American 
student  after  leaving  the  school.  Only  a  small 
part  of  this  training  can  be  advantageously 
provided  in  a  school,  and  this  is  fairly  well 
given  in  the  larger  schools  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  In  some  cases  the  student  enters 
the  school  after  a  year  or  two  of  office  experi- 
ence, and  many  schools  admit  office  draftsmen 
as  special  or  nonmatrieulatcd  students.  Most 
of  the  schools  confer  on  their  graduates  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science;  two  or  three  that 
of  Bachelor  of  Architecture.  Columbia  Uni- 
versity gives  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Archi- 
tecture only  to  students  who  enter  with  two 
complete  years  of  collegiate  or  scientific  school 
.study  to  their  credit;  a  Professional  Certificate 
is  given  to  graduates  who  have  entered  with 
only  a  secondary  school  training. 

The  tendency  in  the  United  States  is  toward 
a  constantly  higher  and  more  exacting  training 
for  the  architect,  and  the  profession  is  coming 
more  and  more  into  the  hands  of  highly  edu- 
cated practitioners.  Probably  the  weakest 
feature  of  the  American  schools  is  in  their  fol- 
lowing French  academic  models  too  clo.sely  in 
design  and  draftsmanship;  but  there  is  little 
doubt  that  time  will  bring  greater  independence 
and  a  healthy  originality  more  in  accord  with 


182 


ARCHITECTURE 


ARCHITECTURE 


the  American  spirit   of  initiative  than   is   now 
apparent.  A.  D.  F.  H. 

See  Arch.eology;   Art  Schools;    Arts  in 
Education;    Design;     Drawing;    etc. 

References:  — • 

Architectural  Record  for  1907.     Series  of  articles  on  the 
Teaching  of  Architecture  in  various  American  Insti- 
tutions. 
Blomfield,  R.     The  Mistress  Art.     (London.  1908.) 
Blondel.     Cours  d' Architecture.     (Paris,  1675-1683.) 
Esquire.     Traite  elementaire  d' Architecture. 
Flagg,  Ernest.    The  Kcole  des  Beaux-Arts.    Architec- 
tural Record,  1894.  two  articles. 
Gaddet.     Theorie  de  I' Architecture.     (Paris,  1902.) 
Hamlin,  A.  D.  F.    Architectural  Education  in  America. 
Journal  of  R.  I.  B.  A.,  third  series.  Vol.  XVII,  No.  4. 
.Iackson,  T.  G.   Reason  in  Architecture.    (London,  1906.) 
Reynaud,  L.    Trailed' Architecture.    (Paris,  1S63-1867.) 
Spiers.  R.  P.    The  French  Diplome  and  the  German 
System  of  .Architectural  Education.    Transactions  of 
the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  1883-1884. 
Statham,  H.  H.   Architecture  for  General  Readers.   (New 

York,  1895.) 
Sturgis,  R.  Dictionary  of  Architecture,  a.viic\es  Architect , 
and  Schools  of  Architecture.    (New  York,  1901-1902.) 
Sturgis,  R.    How  to  Judge  Architecture.    (New  York, 

1903.) 
White,  W.  H.   The  Education  and  Positions  of  Architects 
in  France  since  1871.     Transactions  of  the  Royal  In- 
stitute of  British  Architects,  1883-1884. 

ARCHITECTURE,  SCHOOL.— School  archi- 
tecture of  to-day  is  the  product  of  educational 
development  and  of  educational  faith.  Natu- 
rally, then,  if  there  are  educational  remnants 
clinging  to  our  theories,  we  may  expect  to  find 
architectural  remnants  to  correspond.  The 
school,  as  we  now  know  it,  had  its  beginnings 
in  ecclesiasticism,  and  carries  theoretical  rem- 
nants which  can  be  understood  only  by  reference 
to  its  beginnings.  Schoolhouses  grew  out  of 
church  buildings,  and  are  yet  often  burdened 
with  remnants  which  can  be  interpreted  and 
made  clear  only  by  reference  to  their  origin. 
All  the  old  churches,  and  most  of  the  new  ones, 
have  spires  or  great  towers.  Nearly  all  school- 
houses  of  any  size  built  25  or  more  years  ago 
in  this  country  likewise  bear  this  architec- 
tural feature.  Schoolhouses  of  the  modern 
era  were  first  built  in  churchyards  or  near  to 
them,  and  a  small  part  of  the  meager  room 
given  to  the  church  was  doled  out  to  the  school. 
While  the  schoolhouse  as  a  public  building  is 
no  longer  attached  to  the  church,  the  size  of 
the  lot  still  tells  the  story  of  this  part  of  its 
heritage.  In  the  churches  and  early  schools, 
the  priest-teacher  spoke  ex  cathedra;  the  fixed 
platforms  in  grammar  schools  are  remnants  of 
these.  Churches  were  for  the  most  part  cold 
and  dark,  and  gloomy  within ;  the  early  schools 
were  their  counterparts  in  these  respects,  and 
many  of  a  like  kind  are  yet  in  evidence.  Churches 
were  built  on  the  theory  that  the  congregation 
had  little  to  do  but  to  attend  regularly,  listen 
attentively,  and  keep  still.  Hence  the  win- 
dows were  not  primarily  designed  to  give 
adequate  light  for  either  reading  or  writing; 
school  buildings  inherited  not  only  the  shape 
of  their  windows,  but  the  position  and  relative 
size  of  them.     The  benches,  where  any  were 


supplied  in  the  early  churches,  were  made  to 
suit  adults;  the  schools  are  just  now  getting 
rid  of  such.  The  old  churches  had  no  adequate 
means  of  ventilation  or  heating;  the  struggle 
to  meet  these  necessities  in  our  schools  still 
continues.  And  so  in  many  other  ways  the  ear- 
marks of  church  architecture  are  still  clinging 
to  our  school  buildings,  despite  the  fact  that 
many  of  these  features  are  not  only  useless  now, 
but  never  were  needed  in  schools.  But  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century  has  seen  great  progress  in 
school  architecture,  mainly  as  a  result  of  a  cor- 
responding development  in  educational  theory 
and  practice.  Modern  school  buildings  are, 
inside  and  out,  rapidly  taking  a  form  which 
history  does  not  duplicate.  As  has  been  sug- 
gested, it  is  yet  a  difficult  problem  in  many  parts 
of  our  country  to  get  rid  of  the  useless  tradi- 
tions, especially  the  towers,  but  they  are, 
generally  speaking,   rapidly   disappearing. 

In  the  following  discussions  and  suggestions 
concerning  school  buildings  the  purpose  is  to 
consider  somewhat  briefly  the  requirements 
of  school  buildings  for  convenience,  health, 
safety  and  general  educational  fitness,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  practical  schoolman 
rather  than  of  the  professional  architect. 

Building  Materials.  — At  present  the  begin- 
ning of  a  movement  for  the  use  of  more  per- 
manent materials  in  school  buildings  is  increas- 
ingly apparent.  Earthquakes  and  disastrous 
fires  have  made  it  clear  that  in  the  long  run 
permanent  fireproof  buildings  are  far  cheaper 
than  those  buUt  of  wood,  or  of  brick,  stone,  or 
wood  combined.  With  a  well-defined  move- 
ment throughout  the  country  in  favor  of  the 
issuance  and  sale  of  long-time  bonds,  to  bear 
the  cost  of  construction,  a  community  has  a 
questionable  right  to  use  such  money  to  build 
school  buildings  of  a  perishable  material  and 
expect  a  future  generation  to  join  in  payment  for 
them.  Of  course  there  are  many  sides  to  this 
question;  but  the  one  here  pointed  out  is  not 
always  in  the  mind  of  those  who  use  the  money 
of  a  future  generation.  This,  however,  is  not 
the  most  important  question  at  issue  in  the  use 
of  materials  for  the  construction  of  public 
buildings.  The  United  States  government 
builds  all  its  public  buildings  for  permanency, 
and  safety  from  fires  and  natural  disasters  of 
every  sort,  and  as  a  result  spends  nothing  for 
insurance,  next  to  nothing  for  repairing  damages 
caused  by  the  elements,  and  a  very  small  per 
cent  for  repairs.  All  the  government  buildings 
came  out  of  the  San  Francisco  earthquake  and 
fire  with  very  little  damage,  while  wreckage 
and  disaster  appeared  on  every  side.  Make 
good  foundations,  the  best  possible,  use  good 
materials,  the  best  obtainable,  permit  none 
but  the  best  of  workmen  to  build,  employ 
safe  forms  of  construction,  insist  that  the  work 
be  done  exactly  according  to  specifications,  and 
there  is  little  danger.  These  were  the  lessons 
learned  in  San  Francisco,  but  they  cost  many 
lives  and  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars. 


183 


ARCHITECTURE 


ARCHITECTURE 


First  Floor — Tilton  School,  Chicago. 

Well-built  wooden  schoolhouses  on  good 
foundations,  those  which  reach  down  to  bed 
rock,  or  undisturbed  solid  clay,  will  stand 
earthquake  shocks,  but  are  alwa3's  in  danger 
of  being  destroyed  by  fire.  They  are  expensive 
to  keep  in  good  condition  and  not  infrequently 
are  allowed  to  look  untidy  for  lack  of  paint,  or 
needed  repairs.  They  are  hot  in  summer  and 
cold  in  winter,  even  under  the  best  methods  of 
construction.  A  very  large  percentage  of  them 
are  in  time  consumed  by  fire,  and  this  percen- 
tage is  probably  as  high  now  as  at  any  other 
time,  for  laboratories  and  electric  wiring  have 
a<lded  fuel  to  the  flame.  It  seems  probable  that 
that  period  in  the  hurried  and  rapid  develop- 
ment when  there  was  neither  time  nor  money 
to  build  more  permanent  buildings  has  nearly 
passed  away.  There  has  been  a  sudden  burst 
into  the  age  of  cement  and  steel  construction, 
and  this  gives  promise  of  safer  and  saner  use 
of  public  money  for  school  Iniildings.  A  few 
years'  more  experience  in  working  with  cement 
and  steel  framing  will  make  it  possible  to  insist 
on  fireproof  construction  for  all  large  or  even 
medium-sized  school  buildings.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  even  now  where  the  burden  of 


184 


Second  Floor  —  Tilton  School,  Chicago. 

a  mortgage  is  placed  on  future  citizens  to  help 
to  pay  for  the  construction  and  equipment  of 
school  buildings,  this  is  the  only  just  and  safe 
thing  to  do.  Brick  buildings  set  on  damp- 
proofed  concrete  foundations  are  durable  if 
the  bricks  arc  well  made  and  the  mortar  of  high 
grade.  But  brick  buildings  when  unsupported 
by  steel  frames  are  readily  broken  in  earth- 
quakes, become  very  damp  in  rainy  weather 
or  in  a  moist  climate,  and  are  sufliciently  porous 
to  allow  strong  winds  to  drive  air  through  the 
walls.  It  is  possible,  of  course,  to  treat  brick 
walls  with  waterproofing  materials  so  as  to 
largely  eliminate  the  etfects  of  driving  rains  and 
strong  currents  of  winds;  but  the  general  lack 
of  knowledge  in  the  use  of  such  materials  and 
the  expense  thus  incurred  operate  to  prevent 
much  from  being  done  in  this  direction.  When 
the  best  bricks  are  used,  put  together  by  high- 
grade  workmen,  with  cement  mortar,  and  water- 
proofing material  is  applied,  brick  buildings  cost 
nearly  as  much  as  reinforced  concrete.  Stone 
buildings  are  generally  more  expen.-^ivc  than 
those  using  any  other  kind  of  material  because 
of  the  difficulty  of  getting  durable  stone  and 
the  expense  of  preparing  and  of  handling  such 


ARCHITECTURE 


ARCHITECTURE 


Third  Floor,  Tilton  School,  Chicago. 

material.  It  seems  then  that  the  most  prom- 
ising material  for  use  in  school  buildings  is  re- 
enforced  concrete.  Such  buildings  are  readily 
made  safe  from  fires,  storms,  and  earthquakes, 
are  warm  in  winter,  cool  in  summer,  and  when 
carefully  constructed  are  free  from  moisture 
and  the  troubles  caused  by  cold  winds.  They 
will  last  indefinitely  and  become  stronger 
with  age.  They  will  soon  save  their  cost  in 
reduced  insurance,  fuel  bills,  and  the  expense 
incident  to  repairs.  It  seems  entirely  probable 
in  view  of  such  methods  as  Mr.  Robert  Aiken 
(see  "  Monolithic  Concrete  Wall  Buildings  — 
Methods,  Construction,  and  Cost,"  Proceedings  of 
the  National  Assuciation  of  Cement  Users,  1909, 
pp.  83  ff.),  Edison,  and  others  are  using,  that 
it  will  not  be  long  until  recnforced  concrete 
buildings  will  cost  less  than  first-class  wooden 
construction,  and  that  brick  and  stone  will  lie 
used  much  less  extensively  than  at  present. 
In  those  communities  where  workmen  have 
learned  to  handle  concrete,  even  under  present 
conditions,  it  seems  that  a  thoroughly  well- 
built  wooden  building  or  a  brick  building  made 
of  first-class  materials  throughout  and  built 
by  skilled  workmen  is  nearly  or  quite  as  ex- 


pensive as  one  well  built  of  reenforced  concrete. 
(Cf.  Knapp,  "The  Construction  and  Cost  of 
Small  Concrete  Houses,"  Proc.  Nat.  Ass'n  Ce- 
ment [/sees,  1909,  pp.  204  ff.)  The  growing  sim- 
plicity in  the  outward  form  of  modern  school 
buildings  suggests  a  type  which  would  readily 
lend  itself  to  the  use  of  the  latter  material. 
One  present  difficulty  seems  to  bo  that  the  artist- 
architect  does  not  yet  know  how  to  handle  con- 
crete to  the  best  advantage.  This  is  not  strange, 
or  to  be  wondered  at  in  the  least.  Time 
will  give  greater  assurance.  Finally  it  must  be 
remembered  that  wood  is  increasingly  expensive, 
cement  less  and  less  expensive  as  its  manufac- 
ture is  better  understood. 

Types  of  School  Buildings.  —  From  a  non- 
technical architectural  point  of  view,  several 
new  types  of  schoolhouses  are  in  process  of 
development  in  this  country,  while  at  the  same 
time  in  isolated  places  older  forms  are  still  re- 
tained. From  a  recent  critical  study  of  hun- 
dreds of  school  buildings  both  old  and  new 
from  all  parts  of  the  country,  the  following  sug- 
gestions relative  to  present  conditions  seem 
worthy  of  record:  — 

1.  The  old  form  of  schoolhouse  bearing  an 
incongruous  and  impertinent  tower  is  rapidly 
disappearing,  though  some  new  and  expensive 
buildings  retain  this  remnant  of  ecclesiasticism. 
These  remnants  have  clung  tenaciously,  and 
in  many  places  are  very  hard  to  get  rid  of. 
Some  few  modern  architects  have  used  smaU 
towers  on  school  buildings  with  good  taste,  but 
others  are  not  only  wasting  the  public  money 
by  the  continuance  of  such  features,  but  shock- 
ing all  sense  of  propriety  and  at  the  same  time 
introducing  danger  without  compensation.  For 
towers  are  dangerous  in  storms,  and  in  ninety- 
nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred  are  worse  than  use- 
less at  all  times. 

2.  In  the  old  form  of  school  buildings  windows 
were  invariably  found  on  three  sides  of  a  school- 
room, if  it  were  possible  to  so  place  them.  This 
too  is  passing,  and  unilateral  lighting  even  in  a 
one-room  building  will  soon  be  required  even 
by  legal  enactments.  Unilateral  lighting  has 
introduced  some  architectural  difficulties  which 
have  been  hard  to  overcome,  but  these  are  now 
being  mastered,  and  as  a  result  a  new  type  of 
construction  has  developed  to  meet  hygienic 
requirements  in  this  regard. 

3.  Until  withhi  a  very  few  years  one  of  the 
most  difficult  and  expensive  parts  of  a  large 
school  building  was  the  roof  with  its  heavy 
timbers  and  its  irregularities  of  proportion.  A 
new  type  with  a  flat  roof  is  making  rapid  head- 
way, and  in  the  main  shows  better  lines  than  its 
predecessor.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  this 
feature  has  been  adopted  from  business  houses, 
and  to  those  who  can  read  between  the  lines  it 
will  suggest  a  significant  change  in  the  educa- 
tional faith  of  the  present. 

4.  The  so-called  mi.ssion  style  of  architecture 
is  well  adapted  to  small  or  medium-sized  school 
buildings  of  one,  or  even  two  stories  in  height, 


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and  in  tlie  far  West  and  southwest  is  showing  a 
decided  influence  on  the  form  of  the  newer 
school  buildings.  This  type  of  building  re- 
quires ample  space  for  courts  and  cloisters,  or 
covered  passageways  along  the  court,  and  is 
most  effective  in  one-story  buildings  constructed 
of  cement  covered  by  a  comparatively  flat  roof 
of  red  tiles  with  broad  eaves.  Buildings  of  this 
type  blend  well  with  the  browns  and  greens 
alternately  dominant  in  these  sections  of  our 
country,  and  from  the  .strictly  architectural 
point  of  view,  this  tj'pe  gives  promise  of  a 
welcome  relief  from  the  almost  featureless 
form  of  usual  schoolhouse  construction. 

5.  The  "H"  or  "E"  type  of  buildings  is 
especially  adaptable  to  city  conditions  where 
large  buildings  must  be  erected  on  small  lots 
and  in  the  neighborhood  of  tall  business  blocks, 
dusty  and  noi.sy  streets.  These  forms  give 
opportunities  for  better  use  of  the  light  available, 
shield  the  cla.ssrooms  to  a  degree  from  noise  and 
dust,  and  furnish  some  court  space  available 
for  open-air  exercise.  New  York  City  has  used 
these  types  to  good  effect,  and  other  large  cities 
have  not  been  slow  in  taking  advantage  of  the 
suggestions  afforded.  These  types  are  especially 
helpful  where  a  lot  must  be  used  which  faces 
broad  side  to  the  north  and  south.  These 
forms  are  also  well  adapted,  where  space  per- 
mits, to  enlargements  without  destroying  the 
unity  of  the  building. 

6.  There  is  a  distinct  tendency  observable 
to  construct  buildings  for  manual  training 
high  schools  on  the  factory  plan,  as  may  be  ob- 
served in  the  great  Albert  G.  Lane  Technical 
School  in  Chicago.  This  is  a  short-sighted 
policy,  and  if  continued  will  react  against  such 
schools  to  make  them  mere  trade  schools. 
Naturally,  buildings  designed  especially  for  the 
manual  arts  must  have  a  con.struction  which 
will  be  suitable  to  their  purpose,  but  there  is 
more  need,  rather  than  less,  to  make  such 
buildings  outwardly  and  inwardly  attractive. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  everywhere  buildings 
designed  for  such  work  will  in  the  future  be  built 
by  architects  who  believe  in  the  dignity  of 
labor  and  in  the  great  value  of  good  taste  for 
all  classes  of  American  citizens. 

Foundations.  —  In  the  construction  of  foun- 
dations for  school  buildings  there  are  certain 
specific  requirements  which  deserve  special 
attention:  — 

1.  Foundations  ought  to  be  so  constructed 
as  to  prevent  moisture  from  rising  to  the  upper 
walls  on  account  of  the  force  of  capillary  attrac- 
tion. A  school  building  is  insanitary  when 
the  walls  are  damp,  for  the  reason  that  by  the 
evaporation  of  this  moisture,  the  walls  are 
left  cold,  and  the  air  in  the  room  is  contaminated 
by  such  moisture. 

2.  Dry  walls  are  necessary  to  prevent  black 
boards  from  sweating  and  the  walls  from  dis- 
coloring. 

3.  If  wooden  joists  are  used,  they  will  quickly 
rot  when  in  contact  with  damp  walls,  and  thus 


endanger  the  safety  of  the  building.  In  those 
sections  of  the  country  where  irrigation  is 
general  and  the  ground  water  line  is  thereby 
brought  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or 
when  school  buildings  are  located  on  water- 
soaked  ground,  porous  foundation  walls  have 
l)rovcd   especially   dangerous  or  unhygienic. 

4.  All  foundation  walls  should  therefore  be 
rendered  damp-proof  on  the  outside  below  the 
ground  line,  and  also  in  cross  section  a  short 
distance  above  the  ground  or  immediately 
below  the  water  table.  There  have  been  a 
number  of  methods  devised  for  breaking  this 
capillarity,  but  perhaps  the  best  now  known 
consists  in  incorporating  in  the  wall  just  below 
the  water  table  a  layer  of  Portland  cement  and 
a  good  quality  of  sand  in  the  proportion  of  1 : 1 
or  IJ.  This  layer  need  not  be  more  than  two 
or  three  inches  thick  to  get  results.  Naturally 
a  layer  so  thick  would  be  imjjracticable  or  inad- 
visable in  a  brick  wall,  and  this  may  be  over- 
come by  several  thinner  laj'ers  of  mortar.  In 
cement  walls  this  difficulty  will  not  arise. 
A  layer  of  slate  carefully  set  in  rich  cement 
mortar  renders  a  wall  impermeable  to  rising 
water,  but  there  is  some  danger  of  crushing  this 
material  in  heavy  walls.  However,  it  has  been 
used  with  good  effect  and  with  no  apparent 
resulting  weakness. 

Naturally,  the  whole  secret  of  waterproofing 
consists  in  completely  filling  the  voids  in  the 
materials  used.  Hence  thorough  mixing  be- 
fore applying  and  a  good  shaking  or  troweling 
together  when  applying  will  aid.  The  Sylvester 
Process  is  made  by  using  "one  part  cement  to 
2|  parts  of  sand  and  adding  thereto  I  of  a 
pound  of  pulverized  alum  (dry)  to  each  cubic 
foot  of  sand,  all  of  which  was  mixed  dry,  then 
the  proper  amount  of  water  —  in  which  has 
been  dissolved  about  J  of  a  pound  of  soft  soap 
to  the  gallon  of  water  —  was  added,  and  the 
mixing  thoroughly  completed."  (See  Taylor 
and  Thompson,  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced, 
p.  421.) 

The  Committee  appointed  by  the  National 
Association  of  Cement  Users  report  that, 
"No  difficulty  is  experienced  in  a  carefully 
conducted  laboratory  in  obtaining  waterproof 
mortars  in  such  lean  proportions  as  one  part  of 
cement  to  four  of  sand.  There  is  no  excuse 
for  failure  when  a  fairly  graded  natural  sand 
is  used  with  leaner  mortars,  confirming  the  fact 
that  the  necessity  of  waterproofing  treatment 
with  ordinary  field  concrete  mixtures  is  due 
either  to  the  use  of  poor  materials,  or  to  poor 
proportioning  or  bad  handling,  or  to  all  of  these 
combined."  (See  Report  of  Com.  on  Water 
Proofing  Materials,  An.  Report  Proc.  Am.  Soc. 
for  Testing  Materials,  1909,  p.  292.) 

5.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  founda- 
tions should  rest  on  solid  rock  or  firm  clay  well 
below  the  basement  floor.  But  earthquakes 
seem  to  be  increasingly  common  these  latter 
days,  and  they  are  likely  to  occur  at  any  time 
and  in  all  parts  of  the  country.     Good  founda- 


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tions  are  absolutely  essential  to  insure  safety 
in  those  parts  of  the  country  where  these  disturb- 
ances are  most  common,  for  while  a  building 
may  stand,  chimneys  are  easily  broken,  and 
when  crashing  through  a  building  are  likely  to 
cause  serious  damage,  not  to  mention  the 
possible  loss  of  life,  if  the  school  should  be 
in  session. 

6.  It  is  therefore  advisable  in  buildings  using 
any  kind  of  material  for  the  superstructure  to 
use  concrete  for  the  basement  walls,  to  set  these 
firmly,  and  render  them  proof  against  the  rise 
of  ground  water  from  the  sides  or  the  ground  be- 
low the  walls. 

Basements.  — All  modern  schoolhouses  prop- 
erly placed  and  hygienically  constructed  should 
have  basements.  The  necessity  of  basement 
room  for  school  buildings  has  developed  to  meet 
the  demands  of  modern  methods  of  heating, 
ventilation,  and  general  sanitation,  though  there 
are  now  many  other  uses  which  this  part  of  the 
school  building  subserves.  The  basement  of  a 
school  building  deserves  a  great  deal  of  careful 
planning  in  order  to  render  it  both  hygienic  and 
serviceable.  In  the  first  place,  the  depth  of  the 
excavation  will  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
topographical  features  of  the  neighborhood, 
the  requirements  for  ample  light,  and  the  size 
and  height  of  the  building.  When  it  becomes 
necessary  to  locate  a  school  buUding  on  ground 
as  low  or  lower  than  that  in  its  immediate  envi- 
ronment, it  is  evident,  unless  an  ample  and  com- 
plete system  of  under-drainage  can  be  readily 
constructed,  that  a  basement  floor  must  be 
very  little,  if  at  all,  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  When  a  more  fortunate  location  can 
be  had  where  the  natural  drainage  is  away  from 
the  building,  it  is  perfectly  safe  to  drop  a  base- 
ment floor  3  or  4  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  if  meanwhile  the  form  of  con- 
struction wiU  permit  of  ample  window  surface, 
complete  drainage,  and  safe  sewer  connections. 
The  basement  room  should  be  at  least  10  feet 
high  in  the  clear  to  properly  accommodate  the 
heating  and  ventilating  plant  and  also  to  insure 
ample  light,  room,  and  ventilation.  It  is  often 
almost  imperative  in  small  buildings  of  two  or 
more  stories  in  height  to  drop  the  basement 
floor  into  the  ground  as  low  as  permissible  in 
order  to  get  good  proportion;  but  in  large 
buildings  this  is  not  necessary,  and  frequently 
inadvisable  for  the  sake  of  proportion.  Hence, 
it  is  evident  that  each  basement  must  be  planned 
not  only  to  suit  the  location  selected,  but  also  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  proportion  in  the 
superstructure.  Under  some  conditions  much 
relief  from  what  would  otherwise  result  in  un- 
satisfactory proportion  can  be  obtained  by 
judicious  use  of  terracing. 

In  the  next  place,  a  basement  whose  floor 
line  is  3  or  4  feet  below  the  level  of  the  ground 
ought  to  have  as  few  solid  inner  cross  walls  as 
safety  of  construction  and  due  privacy  or  isolation 
of  the  various  conveniences  will  permit.  Many 
times  piers  and  beams  or  arches  may  take  the 


place  of  solid  supporting  cross  walls,  thereby  giv- 
ing opportunity  for  better  lighting,  better  venti- 
lation, and  better  general  sanitation.  A  base- 
ment chopped  up  into  dark  and  almost  inaccessi- 
ble rooms  is  likely  to  be  not  only  insanitary,  but 
very  unhandy  and  inconvenient.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  basements  receive  abundance  of  light 
and  from  any  and  every  quarter  possible,  and 
they  need  as  much  direct  sunshine  as  can  be 
admitted.  The  question  of  the  location  and 
size  of  basement  windows  is  a  matter  of  great 
importance  both  for  the  sake  of  strength  and 
sanitation.  The  usual  danger  comes  from 
making  the  windows  too  small,  and  thus  by 
reason  of  the  interference  of  thick  walls  only  a 
limited  amount  of  direct  sunshine  can  enter. 
The  floors  of  basements  should  be  impervious 
to  ground  air,  and  as  free  from  moisture  as  possi- 
ble. It  has  been  found  that  if  a  thick  strong 
base  of  cement  carefully  leveled  and  thoroughly 
set  is  coated  with  a  good  layer  of  hard  asphal- 
tum  evenly  applied,  it  will  furnish  good  pro- 
tection against  the  rise  of  ground  air.  The 
difficulties  with  the  use  of  asphaltum  are  that 
it  absorbs  much  of  the  light,  and  is  influenced 
by  fire  or  heat  about  the  furnaces.  When  a 
basement  is  thoroughly  and  safely  guarded 
from  the  ground  water  by  satisfactory  under- 
drainage,  much  ground  air  that  would  press  for 
entrance  through  a  basement  floor  would  es- 
cape through  such  drains  and  the  porous  soil 
all  about  the  drains,  and  hence  under  these 
conditions  a  solid  well-finished  cement  floor  is 
entirely  satisfactory.  This,  however,  only  on 
condition  that  the  floors  above  are  very  tight, 
and  special  ventilating  stacks  lead  from  the 
basement  to  the  outer  air  above  the  building. 

The  walls  of  a  basement  should  be  lined 
with  white  enameled  brick  or  white  glazed 
earthen  tiles.  These  give  a  clean  surface, 
absorb  no  light,  are  easily  kept  clean,  and  are 
altogether  acceptable.  In  small  to  medium- 
sized  school  buildings  the  basement  offers  on 
the  whole  the  best  location  for  latrines  and 
urinals.  There  are  some  objections  to  locating 
these  necessities  in  a  basement,  but  when  due 
precautions  are  taken  to  secure  good  light,  good 
and  safe  ventilation,  and  satisfactory  plumbing, 
this  location  has  proved  satisfactory,  especially 
for  grammar  schools.  In  large  buildings  for 
both  elementary  and  high  schools,  additional 
provisions  for  latrines  must  be  made  on  the 
main  floors.  In  high  school  buildings  of  more 
than  two  stories  the  prevailing  cu.stom,  and  one 
that  should  commend  itself  to  all  communities, 
is  to  distribute  these  necessities  and  place  them 
on  the  main  floors.  This  method  saves  time, 
prevents  congestion  on  stairways  and  in  halls, 
and  with  good  planning  permits  of  privacy  and 
safe  ventilation. 

Basements  when  well  planned  and  %yell 
lighted  afford  good  space  for  manual  training 
work  in  both  wood  and  iron.  These  rooms 
supi)ly  convenient  and  safe  storage  for  materials, 
and,  on  the  whole,  operate  to  prevent  more 


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disturbances  from  such  work  than  when  done 
in  any  other  part  of  a  building. 

As  suggested  above,  wlicre  a  heating  system 
is  installed  for  a  single  building,  whether  a  hot 
air  furnace,  steam,  or  hot  water  coils  arc  used, 
the  best  place  to  locate  the  furnaces  or  boilers 
is  in  the  basement.  This  method  is  followed 
almost  universally,  e.xeept  where  groups  of 
buildings  are  sufficiently  near  each  other  so 
that  one  central  steam  or  hot  water  plant  can 
be  made  to  supply  all  of  the  various  buildings. 

All  machinery  for  purposes  of  plenum  ventila- 
tion are  best  placed  in  the  basement  of  tlu^ 
building  they  are  designed  to  serve.  Hence, 
all  the  requirements  needed  must  be  wrought 
out  in  the  plans  for  a  basement  before  construc- 
tion Ix'gius.  Tills  point  it  is  necessary  to  men- 
tion because  many  architects  give  far  less 
study  to  the  basement  plans  than  they  deserve, 
and  when  the  time  comes  for  placing  fans,  ven- 
tilating ducts,  and  heating  aiiparatus,  serious 
and  almost  insuperable  difficulties  are  fre- 
quently encountered.  Again  in  small  or  aver- 
age sized  school  buildings  the  basement  affords 
a  good  location  for  shower  baths.  This  loca- 
tion brings  them  near  the  most  convenient 
sources  for  heating  the  water,  and  renders  the 
requisite  plumbing  simpler  and  hence  less 
expensive.  In  large  high  schools,  baths  can 
be  more  conveniently  distributed  to  the  various 
floors.  Taking  into  account  all  of  the  above 
suggestions,  —  and  many  others  will  be  obvious, 
—  it  does  not  seem  in  the  least  an  exaggeration 
to  say  that  the  basements  of  our  modern  school 
buildings  are  essential  and  necessary  elements  in 
school  architecture,  and  deserve  most  thought- 
ful consideration. 

Drainage.  —  All  school  buildings,  as  stated 
elsewhere,  should  be  located  on  ground  higher 
than  that  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  and 
then  under-drained  so  that  there  will  neither 
be  any  pressure  of  water  from  below  the  floor 
of  the  basement,  or  upon  the  foundation  walls. 
Unless  this  is  done,  it  is  almost  an  impossibility 
in  rainy  weather  to  prevent  water  from  break- 
ing through  a  cement  floor,  or  at  least  from 
keeping  the  basement  walls  and  floors  damp  and 
cold,  and  also  to  prevent  the  entrance  of 
ground  air  at  all  times.  Generally  speaking, 
it  is  not  expensive  thoroughly  to  drain  the 
ground  about  a  school  building,  for  the  work 
does  not  often  require  skilled  labor,  and  com- 
mon earthen  tiles,  such  as  farmers  use  in  under- 
draining  their  land,  are  perfectly  satisfactory 
for  this  purpose.  This  drain,  however,  must 
have  a  good  free  outlet,  ought  to  be  laid  on  all 
sides  of  the  building  about  6  feet  outside  the 
foundation  walls,  and  well  below  the  level  of  the 
footing  for  the  w-alls.  If  this  plan  is  followed, 
there  is  no  need  for  drains  under  any  part  of 
the  building.  Those  directly  connected  with 
sewers  should  be  placed  on  the  outside  whenever 
possible.  It  is  of  course  essential  for  tile 
drains  to  remain  uncemented  at  the  joints,  in 
order  that  the  ground  water  may  enter  and 


escape  through  them.  It  is  also  a  needless  ex- 
pense to  fill  the  excavation  for  this  drain  with 
coarse  gravel  or  broken  stone,  for  the  water 
entering  the  tiles  is  all,  or  nearly  all,  forced  up 
from  below  it.  It  is  well,  however,  to  cover 
these  tiles  with  a  few  inches  of  coarse  gravel  or 
broken  stone,  especially  if  the  soil  is  sand}',  to 
])revent  any  sediment  from  filtering  through 
the  joints.  The  rest  of  the  ditch  can  be  filled 
with  the  earth  taken  from  it.  All  eave  spouts 
should  terminate  at  the  ground  line  in  sewer 
tiles  carefully  cemented  together,  so  that  all 
the  water  shed  from  the  roof  would  be  carried 
away  from  the  building.  If  this  is  not  done, 
it  will  \)e  almost  ini]K)Ssible  to  prevent  water- 
soaked  basement  walls  and  the  troubles  inci- 
dent thereto. 

Clasfuvoms.  —  The  classroom  has  been 
rightly  called  the  unit  of  a  school  building.  All 
other  parts  of  the  building  are  subsidiary  to 
this  unit.  The  size,  shape,  and  construction  of 
a  classroom  arc  therefore  matters  of  primary 
importance.  Before  any  definite  plans  can  be 
drawn  for  a  school  building,  the  number,  size, 
and  form  of  these  units  must  be  determined. 

For  elementary  schools,  it  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  a  room  32  feet  long,  24  feet  wide, 
and  12\  feet  high  in  the  clear,  approximates  the 
dimensions  demanded  by  a  modern  elementary 
classroom.  The  following  reasons  are  given 
for  these  dimensions:  — 

(a)  Xo  child  should  be  at  a  greater  distance 
than  30  feet  from  the  blackboard  at  the  teacher's 
end  of  the  room.  This  demand  arises  from 
the  fact  that  if  a  child  is  further  removed  from 
this  board,  it  makes  it  difficult  for  him  readily 
and  easily  to  see  the  written  directions  placed 
thereon  by  the  teacher. 

(6)  Some  children  find  it  difficult  to  hear 
what  the  teacher  says,  even  when  speaking 
clearly  and  with  good  tones,  when  they  arc 
more  than  28  or  30  feet  from  her.  But  the 
difficulty  is  still  more  apparent  when  a  teacher 
has  a  weak  voice,  and  the  ciuality  of  her  voice 
has  no  great  carrying  power.  It  is  very  tir<'- 
some  for  any  one  to  strive  to  listen,  and  since 
children  naturally  hear  less  accurately  than 
adults  and  interpret  what  they  hear  more 
slowly,  the  importance  of  this  requirement  is 
still  more  apparent.  Bad  spelling,  faulty  pro- 
nunciations, and  misunderstandings  are  often 
due  to  the  inability  of  children  to  hear  well. 
Hence  the  size  of  the  classroom  must  be  ad- 
justed to  prevent  these  troubles.  The  fatigue 
arising  from  the  strain  of  trying  to  hear  is  not 
only  annoying  and  wasteful  of  energy,  but  it 
is  the  source  of  careless  attention. 

(c)  The  width  of  a  classroom  should  never 
be  more  than  twice  the  height  of  the  top  of 
the  windows  from  the  floor.  This  requirement 
is  necessary  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the 
further  from  the  windows  a  child  is  seated,  the 
less  favorable  is  the  light.  A  moment's  thought 
will  suffice  to  make  it  clear  to  any  one  that  the 
amount  of  light  that  wiU  fall  on  the  books  or 


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writing  material  on  those  desks  furthest  re- 
moved from  the  windows  is  much  diminished 
because  of  the  fact  that  most  of  the  rays  of  light 
entering  from  the  top  of  tlie  windows  cannot 
reach  across  the  room,  and  also  that  those 
which  do  so,  strike  at  an  unfavorable  angle  for 
reflection  to  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  so  situated. 
The  greater  the  amount  of  sky  visible  bj-  any 
pupil  seated  at  his  desk,  the  stronger  and  more 
satisfactory  wiU  the  light  be,  provided,  of  course, 
that  the  windows  face  in  the  proper  direction 
and  are  not  too  low.  Therefore,  since  unilateral 
lighting  is  much  to  be  preferred,  and  since  it 
is  rarely  advisable  to  make  the  ceilings  higher 
than  121  feet  above  the  floor,  classrooms  should 
not  be  more  than  24  feet  wide.  Indeed,  manj^ 
authorities  set  the  width  limit  at  a  smaller 
figure,  (rl)  The  height  of  the  ceiling  above  the 
floor  should  rarely  be  greater  than  12 \  feet. 
The  reasons  for  this  demand  are  the  following: — 

(1)  Every  foot  uselessly  added  to  the  height 
of  a  school  building  more  than  proportionately 
increases  the  cost  of  the  building,  for  with  an 
increase  in  the  height  of  the  walls,  strength 
must  also  be  increased.  (2)  Every  foot  added 
to  a  lower  story  of  a  school  building  of  two  or 
more  stories  adds  to  the  height  children  must 
climb  to  reach  the  upper  rooms.  This  is  a  hard- 
ship on  adolescent  girls,  wastes  time  in  assem- 
bling and  dismissing  children,  adds  to  the  danger 
in  case  of  fires  or  storms,  and  increases  the  cost 
of  maintenance,  especially  in  heating. 

If  school  buildings  must  be  located  where 
the  horizon  line  is  raised  by  hills,  mountains, 
or  tall  buildings,  it  is  advisable  to  place  the 
ceiling  13  J  feet  from  the  floor,  in  order  that 
the  tops  of  the  windows  may  be  raised  13  feet 
from  the  floor.  But  it  is  altogether  an  erro- 
neous notion  that  there  should  be  a  large  space 
above  the  tops  of  the  windows  to  keep  the  room 
cool  in  hot  weather.  An  enormous  amount  of 
money  has  been  thus  wasted  in  the  construc- 
tion of  schoolhouses,  especially  in  the  southern 
states.  A  ceiling  higher  than  12i  feet  will 
render  a  room  very  little  cooler  unless  the  win- 
dows are  placed  correspondingly  higher.  Class- 
rooms in  the  top  story  of  a  building  may  be 
rendered  more  pleasant  in  hot  climates  by 
making  adequate  provision  for  free  ventilation 
of  the  attic. 

Color  of  Walls.  —  It  has  been  found,  through 
experience  and  by  photometric  tests,  that  the 
color  of  the  ceilings  and  of  the  walls  of  school- 
rooms above  the  wainscoting  should  be  a  light 
gray  or  a  light  buff  color.  When  walls  are 
tinted  thus,  the  absorption  of  light  is  very 
small  and  there  is  no  glare  or  high  lights,  on 
bright  days.  Green  or  red  absorbs  too  nmch  light, 
so  that,  generally  speaking,  these  colors  should 
not  be  used.  A  very  light  shade  of  green  is 
pleasing,  but  it  fades  rapidly  and  often  un- 
evenly, and  absorbs  more  light  than  a  light 
bufl  or  gray;  but  a  very  light  and  delicate  tint 
of  green  for  the  walls  of  a  room  receiving  abun- 
dance of  light  is  permissible.     Were  it  not  for 


the  fact  that  pure  white  walls  dazzle,  and  ofi'er 
too  sharp  a  contrast  with  the  page  of  a  book 
and  especially  with  the  blackboards,  it  would  be 
best  to  leave  them  untinted.  The  chief  pur- 
pose, then,  of  introducing  any  color  in  finishing 
the  walls  and  ceilings  is  to  soften  the  contrast, 
thereby  preventing  fatigue  of  the  ciliary  mus- 
cles and  the  frequent  overstimulation  of  the 
retina  when  the  eyes  are  suddenly  turned  from 
a  darker  to  a  brighter  surface. 

Several  years  ago  a  committee  of  prominent 
oculists  of  New  York  City  reported  to  the 
Board  of  Education  of  that  city  the  following 
recommendations  relative  to  the  color  of  the 
walls  of  the  schoolrooms:  "  The  red  end  of  the 
spectrum  should  never  be  chosen  in  the  paint- 
ing or  decoration  of  schoolrooms.  The  lighter 
and  more  delicate  shades  of  yellow  or  gray 
should  be  chosen."'  Recently  a  corresponding 
body  of  specialists  made  similar  recommenda- 
tions to  the  Board  of  Education  of  Boston. 

A  color  which  will  prove  satisfactory  for 
home  decoration  will  not  necessarily  meet  the 
requirements  of  schoolrooms,  and  failure  to 
recognize  this  has  introduced  much  trouble. 
It  is  impossible  to  get  too  much  diffused  light 
in  a  schoolroom,  when  walls,  furniture,  and  all 
finishings  are  so  harmonious  as  to  prevent 
sharp  contrasts.  Hence  colors  which  will 
iieitlier  absorb  the  light  nor  produce  sharp  con- 
trasts mu.st  have  the  preference,  even  at  the 
expense  of  apparent  a?sthetic  effect,  although 
in  the  long  run,  a  soft  gray,  or  an  inconsjiicu- 
ous  buff  or  yellow  tint,  will  prove  more  har- 
monious than  more  decided  colors  and  afford 
equal  aesthetic  effect. 

Were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  such  a  large 
blackboard  area  is  demanded  in  schoolrooms, 
it  would  be  pos.sible  to  vary  the  color  of  walls 
somewhat  wnthout  harmful  effect.  And  this 
fact  will  suggest  to  thoughtful  teachers  that  in 
rooms  not  properly  lighted  much  relief  can  be 
offered  by  drawing  light  buff  or  unbleached 
linen  shades  over  blackboards  when  they  are 
not  in  use.  Under  certain  conditions  such  a 
precaution  may  serve  to  multiply  the  efficiency 
of  the  light  b}'  a  half. 

Where  wood  is  used  for  wainscoting,  it  is 
essential  to  finish  it  in  what  is  known  as  a  dead 
finish,  that  is,  without  a  high  polish,  and  to 
retain  the  natural  color  of  the  wood.  Where 
bricks  or  tiles  are  used,  they  must  be  selected 
to  meet  the  same  demands,  for  any  surface  in  a 
schoolroom  which  will  reflect  high  light,  or  un- 
necessarily absorb  the  light,  will  prove  harm- 
ful. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  ceiling  of 
a  schoolroom  can  be  finished  in  lighter  tones 
than  the  walls  without  harm,  for  this  surface  is 
usually  outside  the  field  of  vision,  and  the  con- 
trast here,  even  when  visible,  is  between  wall 
and  ceiling,  instead  of  blackboard  and  ceiling. 

Floors  of  School  Buildings.  —  Provision  should 
be   made   for   double   floors    in    all    rooms    of 
the  first  story  of  a  school  building,  and  on  all 
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other  stories  unless  fireproof  construction  is 
used.  Double  floors  are  necessary  for  several 
reasons,  but  chiefly  to  prevent  the  entrance  of 
cold  impure  air  forced  from  the  ground  through 
the  greater  i)re.ssure  of  the  air  outside  the  build- 
ing, and  to  make  it  possible  to  render  one  class- 
room free  from  the  disturbances  caused  by 
noise  in  another.  One  of  the  most  common 
complaints  heard  from  teachers  and  pupils  in 
cold  weather  arises  from  the  uneven  distribu- 
tion of  heat  in  the  classroom.  A  room  in 
which  the  thermometer  will  register  70°  F.  4  feet 
from  the  floor  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  and 
C3°  F.  at  the  floor  line  immediately  below,  can- 
not be  a  healthful  or  pleasant  room  in  which 
to  work  in  cold  weather.  That  this  is  not  an 
imaginary  situation  will  be  v-ouched  for  by  a 
great  multitude  of  teachers  in  our  country. 
Teachers  who  have  to  move  about  much  in  the 
room  find  even  a  greater  discrepancy  than  is 
here  suggested.  At  a  level  5  feet  above  the  floor 
the  difference  may  be  more  marked.  Such 
unevenne.ss  of  temperature  will  cause  distur- 
bances in  circulation,  and  these  are  forerunners 
of  colds.  Besides  headaches,  the  oppressive 
feelings  of  working  in  a  high  temperature  will 
always  be  in  evidence.  Floors  therefore  must 
be  so  carefully  constructed  that  cold  air  from 
below  cannot  find  entrance.  In  all  buildings 
where  this  inflow  is  not  prevented  by  fireproof- 
ing  material,  double  floors  must  be  demanded. 
The  first  or  lower  layer  of  such  a  double  floor 
can  be  made  out  of  any  sort  of  evenly  sawn 
rough  dry  timber.  The  joists  should  be  tight 
and  the  boards  laid  down  diagonally  to  the 
joists.  Between  this  and  the  outer  floor  there 
should  be  a  good  deadener,  which  will  at  the 
same  time  be  impermeable  to  the  inflow  of 
cold  air.  A  good  quality  of  heavy  asbestos 
quilt  will  serve  this  double  purpose,  and  it  has 
the  added  advantage  of  being  noninflammable. 
The  "  Cabot  Deadening  (Juilt  "  made  of  criss- 
cross layers  of  eel  grass  stitched  between  two 
layers  of  paper  is  a  good  deadener,  and  it  is 
claimed  will  prevent  the  entrance  of  ground 
air.  Its  construction  seems  to  be  such  as  to 
warrant  its  use  for  this  purpose.  It  is  cer- 
tainly a  satisfactory  deadener,  not  only  for 
floors,  but  for  partitions. 

The  material  to  be  used  for  the  floor  proper 
is  a  matter  of  prime  importance,  for  no  other 
part  of  a  school  building  is  subjected  to  such 
rough  usage  as  the  floors  of  classrooms,  and 
none  has  more  to  do  with  the  general  sanitary 
condition  or  appearance  of  the  schoolroom. 
Good  oak  floors  made  of  3-inch  boards  tongued 
and  grooved  and  fastened  with  cut  nails  are  the 
best;  but  such  lumber  has  become  expensive, 
and  in  many  cases  the  price  is  prohibitive. 
Hard  maple  makes  good  floors,  takes  a  good 
polish,  but  is  softer  than  oak  and  shows  the 
dents  of  heel  tacks.  Hard  straight-grained 
pine  21  to  3  inches  wide  and  laid  as  suggested 
above  is  less  expensive  and  makes  a  satisfactory 
floor.     But  when  pine  is  used  some  competent 


man  with  unquestioned  authority  ought  to 
inspect  every  board  in  order  to  prevent  tlie  use 
of  a  single  piece  showing  "  slash  "  grain  or 
pitch  gashes.  I  have  seen  floors  almost  ruined 
by  the  use  of  a  few  such  boards,  for  they  will 
si)linter  and  fill  up  with  dirt  in  sjjite  of  all  a 
caretaker  can  do.  It  would  be  an  excellent 
precaution  to  have  a  special  supervisor  em- 
ployed when  any  kind  of  material  is  used  in 
laying  floors,  for  American  workmen  arc  pro- 
verbially careless,  and  battered  floors  will 
inevitably  result  unless  vigorous  oversight  and 
un(|ue.stioned  authority  are  there  to  prevent. 
After  a  floor  has  been  laid  and  all  the  rest  of 
the  work  of  the  room  completed,  it  should  be 
lilaned  or  sandpapered  to  a  smooth,  even  sur- 
face, and  treated  so  as  to  receive  and  hold 
a  wax  finish.  The  "  dustless  oil  "  dressing 
much  in  evidence  these  days  should  be  limited 
to  those  rooms  designed  for  the  lower  grades  of 
the  elementary  schools.  When  put  on  lightly, 
it  is  effective  in  preventing  dust  from  rising 
when  the  floors  are  swept,  and  in  this  it  serves 
a  very  useful  purpose.  But  when  i)Ut  on  too 
heavily,  it  ruins  the  skirts  of  the  teacher,  and 
if  used  in  the  rooms  for  the  upper  grades  or 
high  sc'hools,  it  causes  much  trouble  by  soiling 
the  skirts  of  the  larger  girls.  When  used,  the 
most  competent  and  careful  janitor  ought  to  be 
detailed  to  apply  it.  Teachers  can,  in  a  meas- 
ure, protect  their  clothing  from  harm  by  the 
use  of  rugs,  but  this  is  impracticable  for  the 
larger  girls.  Where  "  dustless  oil  dressing  " 
is  not  used,  a  good  floor  wax  should  be  applied 
and  the  floors  always  swept  with  a  fiber  brush 
after  scattering  a  few  handfuls  of  damp  saw- 
dust or  scrajis  of  dampened  paper  over  the  floor. 
Dry  sweeping  is  an  abomination,  and  feather 
dusters  should  be  banished  from  the  school 
buildings. 

In  the  near  future  afl  schoolrooms  will  be 
cleaned  by  some  form  of  suction,  and  the 
trouble  and  danger  from  dust  will  be  very 
greatly  reduced.  All  new  buildings  ought  to  be 
constructed  with  this  in  view. 

Doors.  — All  doors  in  school  buildings  should 
open  outward  in  order  to  reduce  the  dangers 
from  fires.  Most  states  require  this  by  law. 
All  outside  doors  should  be  double,  and  so 
constructed  as  to  close  together  in  the  middle 
without  the  need  of  a  permanent  upright,  so 
that  when  both  are  opened  there  will  be  no 
obstruction  left.  There  are  several  patent 
fastenings  now  on  the  market  which  render  the 
doors  secure  from  without,  but  easily  opened 
from  within.  These  are  convenient  and  are 
essential  for  safety.  In  cities  it  is  almost  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  main  doors  of  a  school  building 
locked  during  the  school  session,  in  order  to 
prevent  pilfering  by  those  who  are  not  attend- 
ing school,  but  who  may  readily  by  one  excuse 
or  another  explain  their  presence  in  a  building. 
By  the  use  of  the  fastenings  referred  to  there 
is  no  added  danger  in  thus  locking  the  doors,  for 
they  are  not  locked  from  within,  and  a  few 


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pounds'  pressure  will  open  them.  The  doors 
from  the  classrooms  into  halls  should  be  plain, 
without  panels  or  glass.  Paneled  doors  sag, 
shrink,  and  catch  dust.  They  are  not  so  strong 
as  plain  veneered  doors,  which  are  constructed 
by  veneering  on  both  sides  of  a  solid  base  made 
of  any  strong  light  wood  well  seasoned,  tongued 
and  grooved,  glued  and  set  together  with  the 
grain  running  parallel  with  the  floor.  The 
veneering  material  will  be  set  with  the  grain 
vertical  to  the  floor,  and  can  be  selected  to  match 
the  finish  in  the  classrooms  and  halls.  Such 
a  construction  gives  a  strong  light-weight  door, 
which  will  not  sag,  gives  no  ledges  for  dust, 
and,  when  the  hardware  is  in  place,  makesa  more 
beautiful  door  than  the  stock  doors  everywhere 
in  evidence.  Such  doors  are  on  the  market, 
and  are  being  used  in  some  of  the  best  school 
buildings  in  the  country.  There  is  no  need  of 
a  so-called  carpet  strip  under  inside  doors  in 
school  buildings,  and  their  use  ought  to  be 
discontinued.  They  catch  and  hold  the  dirt, 
make  it  difficult  to  sweep  the  floor,  cause  chil- 
dren to  stumble,  and  in  general  are  out  of  place. 
To  the  objection  urged  that  they  are  necessary 
to  prevent  the  door  from  dragging  on  the  floor, 
it  may  be  replied  that  when  the  floors  are  level, 
the  door  jambs  vertical,  and  the  doors  set  on 
strong  solid  hinges,  there  is  no  difficulty.  The 
door  ought  to  be  set  to  clear  the  floor  only  the 
fraction  of  an  inch. 

It  is  better  to  use  in  classrooms  doors 
without  glass  set  in  them,  and  without  tran- 
soms over  them.  Occasionally,  where  halls 
would  be  dark  without  the  light  introduced 
through  transoms  and  glass  in  the  doors,  it  is 
necessary  to  include  these  in  the  construction, 
but  where  halls  are  wide  and  properly  lighted, 
it  is  better  to  eliminate  all  glass  from  doors. 
The  reasons  for  this  recommendation  are  these: 
the  ledges  introduced  by  the  insertion  of  tran- 
soms catch  dust,  and  the  glass  is  rarely  kept 
clean.  Besides,  such  openings  introduce  diffi- 
culties where  mechanical  means  for  ventilation 
are  employed.  In  plenum  ventilation  there 
will  be  a  leakage  of  air  around  a  transom  which 
will  operate  to  reduce  the  pressure  needed  to 
drive  the  foul  air  out  through  the  exit  ducts. 
Classrooms  should  be  private,  and  hence  glass 
in  doors,  if  used  at  all,  should  be  ground  or  non- 
transparent.  When  glass  is  inserted  in  the 
doors  of  schoolrooms,  there  is  alwaj's  danger  of 
breaking  it,  for  children  cannot  be  expected  to 
be  as  careful  as  adults.  Even  in  high  school 
buildings  where  doors  are  fitted  with  a  panel 
of  glass,  the  expense  from  breakage  is  not  a 
small  item,  not  to  mention  the  danger  implied. 

Cloakrooms.  — The  best  arrangement  thus  far 
made  for  cloakrooms  in  buildings  designed  for 
grammar  schools  consists  in  cutting  off  a  space 
about  5  feet  wide  on  the  teacher's  end  of  the 
room,  if  possible,  and  communicating  with  the 
room  by  two  doors,  but  having  no  direct  com- 
munication with  the  hall.  The  illustration  shown 
in  the  following  figure,  will  make  this  plan  clear. 


\ 

1                ,         . 
1 

^ 

Location  of  Desks  and  Oloakroom  for  Grammar  School. 

Such  an  arrangement  gives  the  teacher  com- 
plete control  of  the  cloakroom,  prevents  pilfer- 
ing from  any  one  outside  the  room,  prevents 
confusion  in  halls,  and  makes  it  possible  to 
ventilate  the  cloakroom,  thereby  keeping  the 
air  pure  about  all  articles  of  clothing,  preclud- 
ing the  possibility  of  the  entrance  of  foul  air 
from  such  a  room  into  the  classroom,  and  to 
dry  wet  clothing.  It  will  be  seen  by  reference 
to  the  plan  that  a  large  window  is  arranged 
to  light  the  cloakroom,  and  that  the  doors 
swing  outward  into  the  classroom.  An  open- 
ing in  the  lower  part  of  each  door  should  be 
made  through  which  to  drive  the  air.  An  exit 
duct  should  be  arranged  so  as  to  open  above 
the  wraps,  and  thence  into  the  general  exit 
system  above. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  discuss  the  sort 
of  hooks  to  use  in  such  a  room,  but  it  might  be 
well  to  say  that  there  are  hooks  now  on  the 
market  which  are  much  more  satisfactory 
than  the  old  style  of  short  hooks.  These  are 
so  arranged  that  the  clothing  is  not  piled  to- 
gether in  such  a  heap,  thereby  protecting  hats, 
and  giving  better  opportunity  for  ventilation. 
These  are  advertised  in  many  of  the  current 
school  journals.  One  of  the  difficulties  com- 
mon to  schools  as  to  other  public  buildings  is 
that  of  caring  for  wet  umbrellas  and  overshoes, 
for  there  are  thieves  in  schools,  as  well  as  out- 
side of  them.  Such  difficulties  may  be  mini- 
mized by  the  proper  construction  of  lockers, 
or  by  small  individual  compartments  without 
locks,  for  in  the  lower  grades  children  cannot  be 
expected  to  handle  a  lock  and  key  without 
trouble.  Naturally,  some  drip  basin  or  trough 
must  be  arranged  for  umbrellas,  and  some 
pigeon-hole  for  overshoes.  With  these  num- 
bered or  named  there  ought  to  be  little  trouble. 
Hats,  caps,  and  wraps  are  not  troublesome  by 
reason  of  unwarranted  appropriation,  for  here 
variety  is  the  safeguard,  and  these  are  more 
hygienically  placed  out  of  lockers  where  proper 
ventilation  is  more  easily  secured.  In  build- 
ings for  the  grammar  grades  a  common  cloak- 
room is  permissible  where  order  and  segrega- 
tion in  the  lines  is  maintained;  but  in  high 
191 


ARCHITECTURE 


ARCHITECTURE 


schools  separate  cloakrooms  are  ahsolutely  nec- 
essary, but  this  separation  introduces  some 
difficult  problems.  There  are  many  high  school 
buildings,  new  and  old,  in  which  provision  for 
locker  rooms  has  been  made  in  the  basement ; 
but  this  in  general  is  not  advisable.  In  the 
first  place,  there  is  a  freedom  and  a  carelessness 
connected  with  basements  which  advise  against 
the  use  of  such  a  location  for  locker  rooms, 
especially  when  such  rooms  come  to  be  gather- 
ing or  loafing  ])laces.  In  the  second  jilace,  it 
is  very  dillicult  to  light  and  ventilate  such 
rooms  properly,  and  keep  them  free  from  damp- 
ness or  odors,  especially  in  wet  weather.  In  the 
third  place,  it  is  rarely  possible  to  make  base- 
ment rooms  as  neat  and  attractive  as  they 
should  be  made.  A  neat,  well-lighted,  well- 
appointed  locker  room  will  command  a  respect 
and  a  corresjionding  deportment  which  is 
rarely  associated  with  a  dark,  disagreeable  one. 
This  is  a  reaction  of  human  nature  which  must 
be  calculated  on,  and  no  teacher  has  a  right  to 
neglect  it.  In  the  next  place,  other  things 
being  equal,  more  thefts  and  pilferings  arc 
associated  with  basement  locker  rooms  than 
those  on  the  main  floors.  The  reasons  are 
obvious.  On  the  whole,  then,  it  is  wise  to  plan 
locker  rooms  for  high  school  pupils  on  the 
main  floors.  Such  a  plan  is  more  expensive 
for  small  schools,  but  makes  less  difference  in 
this  regard  for  larger  schools. 

It  is  intlefensible  to  place  lockers  in  hallways 
for  several  reasons,  chief  among  which  are  the 
following:  — 

(1)  The}'  are  unsightly  and  cannot  be  venti- 
lated well  without  much  ex-pense. 

(2)  They  obstruct  the  halls  and  cause  them  to 
be  congested  several  times  during  the  day. 

(3)  They  gather  a  much  greater  amount  of 
dust  than  when  situated  in  closed  rooms. 

(4)  Such  a  location  does  not  offer  sufficient 
privacy,  especially  for  the  girls. 

(5)  HaUs  offer  one  of  the  best  opportunities  for 
the  most  efTcctive  decoration  of  any  part  of  the 
buildings  anil,  if  littered  by  lockers,  nothing  effec- 
tive can  be  done.  Some  day  in  the  near  future 
it  may  be  hoped  that  public  school  buildings  will 
sei-\-e  as  an  incentive  to  artists  to  develop  mural 
painting  in  this  country,  and  to  seize  upon  this 
opportunity  to  make  their  ideals  count  for  most. 
In  this  regard  tliis  country  is  far  behind  what  it 
should  be. 

(6)  In  case  of  fire  the  possible  attempt  of  some 
one  to  save  clotliing  or  books  would  endanger 
many.  Wide  unobstructed  hails  will  soon  be 
demandetl  by  legislative  enactment. 

With  reference  to  the  kind  of  lockers  to  use 
no  final  word  can  be  said;  but  a  few  essentials 
ought  to  be  specified.  They  ought  to  have  safe 
locks,  and,  if  possible,  be  made  of  metal  connected 
up  with  the  ventilating  system  so  that  under 
any  ordinary  use  they  would  remain  dry  and 
pure.  They  ought  to  be  placed  against  a  wall, 
or,  better,  built  into  it,  so  as  to  prevent  any 
obstruction  of  light.     They  ought  to  be  num- 


bered in  such  a  way  that  no  change  would  be 
necessary  or  possible.  Combination  locks  save 
much  annoyance  as  the  result  of  the  loss  of 
keys,  but  they  sometimes  introduce  more 
trouble  by  reason  of  careless  use,  or  forgetful- 
ness  of  combinations. 

In  close  proxinuty  to  locker  rooms  there 
should  be  dressing  rooms  especially  for  the 
girls,  and  such  rooms  deserve  accommodations 
not  necessary  to  specify  here.  Neat  and  taste- 
ful dressing  rooms  are  very  helpful  agencies  in 
the  management  and  control  of  public  schools, 
and  are  worthy  of  more  attention  than  is  usually 
given  to  them. 

Halls.  —  The  halls  of  school  buildings  de- 
serve careful  consideration,  for  perhaps  no 
other  part  of  the  school  building  aside  from  the 
assembly  room  offers  better  opportunity  for 
a\sthetic  treatment  than  do  the  halls,  and  cer- 
tainly no  part  is  more  used  by  the  school  as  a 
whole.  Halls  should  be  well-lighted,  broad, 
and  spacious.  In  this  country  it  is  a  custom 
almost  universal  to  place  classrooms  on  both 
sides  of  a  hall,  and,  unless  such  halls  extend 
through  the  building,  they  are  never  well- 
lighted  save  where  a  skylight  can  be  introduced, 
and  this  opportunity  is  linuted  almost  exclu- 
siveh-  to  the  top  floor.  Dark  halls  form  one  of 
the  most  notable  defects  in  the  construction  of 
modern  buildings.  The  newer  types  of  Ger- 
man school  buildings  rarely  have  classrooms  on 
both  sides  of  a  hall,  and  as  a  result  their  halls 
are  well  lighted  and  often  beautifuUy  decorated. 
The  width  of  a  properly  constructed  hallway 
will  in  part  depend  on  the  number  and  age  of 
the  pupils  attending  the  school.  In  high 
schools  where,  at  the  close  of  each  recitation 
period,  there  is  a  general  change  of  rooms  by  all 
students,  it  is  essential  that  plenty  of  space  is 
afforded,  for  nothing  will  break  down  the  disci- 
pline and  decorum  of  a  school  more  quickly 
than  a  general  scramble  and  crowtling  in  the 
halls.  Under  the  old  curriculum,  where  each 
member  of  a  given  class  took  the  same  courses, 
it  was  possible  for  teachers  to  exchange  rooms, 
but  since  elective  courses  have  been  introduced, 
classes  are  broken  up  each  period,  and  it  has 
become  necessarj'  for  the  students  to  make 
regular  changes.  Furthermore,  each  teacher 
in  larger  schools  is  a  specialist  and  his  room  is 
equipped  with  books  and  apparatus  suited  to 
a  special  line  of  work,  so  that  he  must  remain 
and  the  students  pass.  The  main  hall  of  a  large 
high  school  should  therefore  be  from  14  to  17 
feet  wide,  well  lighted  from  both  ends,  and  must 
contain  no  furniture  of  any  sort.  Moreover, 
it  is  a  wise  policy  to  make  the  wainscoting 
of  the  halls  of  white  tiles  or  light-colored  glazed 
brick.  This  treatment  will  not  only  serve  good 
hj'gienic  and  resthetic  purposes,  but  will 
render  the  light  more  effective  and  give  a 
dignity  to  a  building  well  worth  all  it  costs. 
The  floors  of  halls  are  very  important  elements, 
and  deserve  special  attention.  Some  of  the 
newer   fireproofed    buildings    use    plain    hard 


192 


Assembly  Room  {Avla)  in  Gymnasium  at  Zehlendokf,  Germany  (showin<;  mural  decorations). 


^&i^:^-  .^,:^^^:i.^   A 


TiLToN  School,  Chicago. 


ARCHITECTURE 


ARCHITECTURE 


cement,  others  decorative  tiles  set  in  cement, 
while  still  others  use  broken  bits  of  variously 
colored  marble  set  in  cement  and  rubbed  to  a 
smooth  polished  surface.  There  are  many 
advantages  accruing  from  the  use  of  such 
materials  for  the  floors  of  halls,  which  will 
readily  suggest  themselves.  About  the  only 
objections  that  could  be  offered  are  that  they 
are  cold,  rather  noisy,  and  the  initial  expense 
is  large.  But  in  the  long  run  they  soon  save 
their  cost  by  reducing  the  amount  of  labor 
necessary  in  keeping  them  clean,  and  they  last 
indefinitely.  Where  wooden  floors  are  used,  it 
is  false  economy  to  use  anything  but  the  best 
of  wood,  such  as  oak,  hard  maple,  or  straight- 
grained  pine  free  from  defects  of  any  sort. 
If  wood  is  used,  a  good  quality  of  wax  or  dust- 
less  oil  dressing  properly  applied  will  serve 
to  protect  and  keep  them  neat  and  clean.  Oil 
dressing  can  be  used  in  halls  with  less  danger 
and  to  better  advantage  than  in  classrooms,  for 
in  the  halls  the  skirts  of  the  older  girls  do  not 
come  in  contact  with  the  floor  as  they  do  in  the 
classrooms.  The  walls  of  a  spacious  well- 
lighted  hall  in  a  school  building  offer  a  fine 
opportunity  for  hanging  pictures  or  for  mural 
paintings. 

It  is  somewhat  discouraging,  however,  when 
one  finds  halls  littered  with  hat  pegs,  or  lined 
with  long  rows  of  lockers.  Safety  in  case  of 
fires,  economy  in  time,  and  the  demands  of  good 
taste  all  appeal  for  wide,  well-lighted,  well-kept 
halls.  On  this  point,  a  large  percentage  of 
our  school  architects  need  much  education, 
and  often  require  authoritative  commands. 

Assembly  Rooms.  —  There  is  at  present  a 
well-marked  and  decided  movement  through- 
out the  country  for  assembly  rooms,  both  for 
grammar  schools  and  high  schools.  The  de- 
mand for  such  rooms  has  grown  out  of  the 
desire  to  accommodate  the  whole  school  for 
music  and  especially  for  chorus  work,  for  general 
lectures,  for  concerts,  for  morning  assemblies, 
and  particularly  to  meet  the  demand  for  general 
socialization  of  our  school  work. 

In  no  country  in  the  world  is  there  more 
urgent  need  for  such  accommodations  than  in 
this,  where  the  theories  of  education  and  govern- 
ment are  based  on  the  principle  of  a  democracy 
which  exists  for  the  sake  of  individual  freedom 
and  individual  initiative.  The  problem  is, 
how  can  the  citizen  live  for  himself  and  at  the 
same  time  maintain  a  government  which  will 
permit  other  citizens  to  do  likewise?  The 
schools  must  furnish  opportunities  for  that 
social  contact  wherein  selfish  individualism 
will  be  given  a  chance  to  realize  its  shortcom- 
ings, and  where  team  work  will  appear  as  the 
best  opportunity  for  all.  Student  self-govern- 
ment, still  in  its  infancy,  will,  when  properly 
understood  and  rationally  guided,  form  one  of 
the  most  essential  features  of  high  schools  in 
the  future.  Surely  no  better  opportunity 
could  be  afforded  for  developing  those  elemental 
qualities  of  citizenship  than  in  a  school  where 


all  may  have  favorable  opr-ortunity  for  personal 
growth,  and  where  variety  of  interests  and  of 
talent  must  be  conserved  in  so  far  as  this 
variety  is  favorable  to  the  individual  and  to 
the  group.  An  assembly  room  is  a  necessity 
of  democracy,  and  on  this  basis  alone  is  worth 
more  than  it  costs.  But  youth  needs  that 
quieting,  restful  influence  of  music,  that  poise 
and  insight  gained  through  dramatic  expression, 
and  especially  those  ethical  ideals  which  emerge 
only  when  life  touches  life.  It  is  therefore 
unhesitatingly  and  urgently  recommended  that 
assembly  rooms  be  provided  in  every  school, 
elementary  or  secondary,  where  a  hundred  or 
more  young  people  are  brought  together. 
But  where  should  these  be  placed,  and  how 
constructed? 

1.  Wherever  possible,  they  should  be  situated 
on  the  ground  floor,  furnished  with  a  large  stage, 
good,  comfortable  chairs,  and  so  situated  as 
to  give  all  a  good  view  of  the  stage  and  the 
room  as  a  whole.  The  prevailing  custom  in 
German j^  is  to  make  the  floors  of  their  assembly 
rooms  flat,  while  in  this  country  the  tendency 
is  to  provide  a  sloping  floor.  Balconies  or 
galleries  about  an  a.ssembly  room  in  foreign 
countries  are  the  exception;  here  it  is  the  rule. 
In  these  matters,  and  from  our  point  of  view, 
we  have  the  advantage.  In  the  German  schools 
it  is  almo.st  universal  to  place  the  Aida  or  Fest- 
saal  on  the  top  floor  of  the  building;  here  a 
decided  movement  is  now  dominant  to  place 
them  on  the  first  floor.  Here  again  there  is  an 
advantage,  for  safety,  accessibility,  and  econ- 
omy of  construction  demand  the  location  of  an 
assembly  room  on  the  first  floor.  But  this  lo- 
cation introduces  some  architectural  difficulties 
not  easily  overcome.  For  example,  it  is  more 
difficult  to  secure  good  light  for  an  assembly 
room  situated  on  the  first  floor  than  on  the 
second  or  third,  and  especially  if  it  occupies  the 
central  part  of  the  building. 

The  solution  of  this  problem  has  taken 
several  forms,  but  the  so-called  "H"  or  "E" 
form  of  building  has  made  it  possible  to  place 
the  assembly  room  on  the  main  floor  and  at 
the  same  time  to  get  good  light  and  afford  every 
convenience  necessary.  The  following  de- 
scription of  the  position  and  lighting  of  the 
assembly  room  in  a  medium-sized  building  for 
the  La  Crosse  High  School  will  illustrate  the  so- 
lution suggested  above:  Directly  across  the  cen- 
ter of  the  main  corridor  and  opposite  the  main 
entrance  is  the  auditorium,  which  occupies 
the  space  of  the  first  and  second  floors  at  the 
center  of  the  building.  It  is  51  by  76  feet,  ex- 
clusive of  the  stage.  The  main  floor  is  pro- 
vided with  600  opera  chairs,  and  the  balcony 
will  accommodate  about  250.  The  skylight  and 
the  courts  on  either  side  give  abundance  of  light, 
and  the  arrangement  of  aisles  with  access  from 
each  of  the  three  corridors  facilitates  the  rapid 
assembh'  or  distribution  of  the  school.  This  is 
what  might  be  named  a  tyjiical  modern  assembly 
room  for  school  buildings,  as  to  po.sition,  lighting, 


193 


ARCHITECTURE 


ARCHITECTURE 


and  accessibility.  When  such  rooms  are  on  the 
first  floor  above  the  basement,  it  is  compara- 
tively easy  to  drop  the  stage  end  of  the  room 
lower  than  the  level  of  the  first  floor  for  the 
rest  of  the  building,  tliereby  securing  without 
waste  of  space  or  undue  exj)ense  the  great  ad- 
vantage of  a  sloping  floor.  To  secure  this  form 
of  construction  when  assembly  rooms  occupy 
space  on  the  second  and  third  stories  necessi- 
tates much  extra  expense  and  often  unwarranted 
forms  of  construction.  The  smaller  schools  of 
the  country  have  in  the  main  been  content  with 
"big  rooms,"  for  assembly  halls,  ditYering  from 
classrooms  only  in  size;  but  liaving  learned 
that  the  first  floor  is  more  economical  for  such 
rooms,  and  that  the  most  satisfactory  form  of 
construction  is  best  attained  when  assembly 
rooms  are  situated  on  the  main  floor,  it  seems 
highly  probable  that  there  are  here  the  begin- 
nings of  what  will  become  the  standard  position 
and  construction  of  assemblj'  rooms  for  public 
schools.  The  main  reasons  assigned  for  this 
anticipation  are  these:  — 

4  (1)  A.ssembly  rooms  will  become  more  and 
more  a  center  for  general  educational  endeavor, 
especially  for  pubhc  lectures,  evening  schools, 
and  evening  entertainments  in  competition 
with  the  cheap  and  often  vulgar  "shows"  of  the 
moving  picture  and  vaudeville  type.  Hence, 
in  order  to  save  the  building  and  permit  of  easy 
access,  they  must  be  on  the  first  floor.  (2)  The 
danger  in  case  of  fire  is  greatly  lessened  by 
tliis  position.  (3)  The  heating  and  ventila- 
tion of  a  room  so  situated  is  more  easily  effected 
than  when  removed  farther  from  furnace  and 
fan.  (4)  It  is  much  less  expensive  to  secure 
safe  and  solid  construction  for  the  main  floor  of 
an  assembly  room  when  supports  can  be  set 
directly  beneath  the  floor  than  when  inter- 
ference with  the  space  below  necessitates 
scattered  supports  or  heavy  beam  construction, 
(o)  Such  a  position  brings  the  balcony  on  a 
level  with  the  second  floor,  and  on  the  whole 
brings  the  assembly  room  closer  to  the  main 
classrooms  than  if  placed  higher  in  the  building. 

(6)  This  position  permits  of  the  construction 
of  a  number  of  exits  from  the  main  floor  not 
possible  when  placed  higher.  For  example, 
separate  entrances  and  exits  from  the  stage  will 
often  save  much  time,  inconvenience,  and  trouble. 

(7)  The  general  public  will  more  readily  attend 
lectures  and  evening  classes  when  held  in  rooms 
directly  accessible  from  the  first  floor  than 
when  one  or  more  stairs  must  be  climbed. 

Stairways.  —  In  two-story  buildings  designed 
for  Iiigh  schools  there  should  be  at  least  two 
stairways  from  the  first  floor  to  the  second,  and 
more  in  large  schools.  These  stairways  ought  to 
be  situated  as  near  the  ends  or  outer  walls  of 
the  building  as  the  plan  of  construction  will 
permit.  For  when  so  located  there  is  a  natural 
division  of  the  students  into  groups,  and,  gen- 
craUy  speaking,  this,  in  case  of  panic,  will  pre- 
vent that  congestion  on  stairs  and  landings 
which   is  the  nightmare  of  all  teachers   who 


take  precaution  against  loss  of  life  in  case  of 
fire.  Besides,  this  location  facilitates  passing 
up  and  down.stairs  Ijctwcen  recitations.  One 
hundred  students  in  double  file  can  easily 
descend  a  broad,  well-hghted  stairway  in  35 
seconds,  and  with  proper  fire  drills  can  reduce 
this  time  to  some  extent  and  with  all  safety, 
so  that  they  can  emerge  from  the  buikling  in  a 
minute  to  a  minute  and  a  half.  Kxperience  has 
shown  that  a  thousand  children  in  a  two-story 
grammar  school  building,  furnished  with  four 
stairways,  can  be  trained  to  get  out  safely  in 
a  minute,  if  the  stairways  are  properly  placed 
and  wide  enough.  Another  reason  for  placing 
the  stairways  leading  to  the  second  floor  near 
the  ends  or  opposite  sides  of  the  buildings  is  the 
fact  that  fires  as  a  rule  originate  in  the  central 
part  of  the  buikling,  or,  if  they  do  not  originate 
there,  the  smoke  is  hkely  to  seem  to  gather 
there  and  render  a  central  stairway  dark  and 
forbidding.  There  is,  moreover,  a  better  chance 
for  light  near  the  outside  walls,  and  less  inflam- 
mable materials,  especially  in  brick,  stone,  or 
cement  construction. 

The  stairways  should  be  of  fireproof  construc- 
tion, especially  in  a  wooden  buikling.  The 
prevailing  custom  is  to  make  wooden  stairs  in 
wooden  buildings,  and  more  resistant  stairs  in 
stone,  brick,  or  cement  buildings.  A  moment's 
thought  is  sufficient  to  show  that  in  this  regard 
wooden  buildings  need  greater  care  in  the  con- 
struction of  stairs  than  any  other  sort  of  building. 

It  is  in  no  sense  unreasonable  to  insi-st  on 
fireproof  stairs  in  all  large  two-story  buildings, 
especially  now  that  the  material  is  within 
reach  of  all.  Steel  frames  incased  in  cement 
and  with  treads  made  of  the  same  material  render 
stairways  reasonably  safe  against  fires,  and  also 
insure  much  greater  permanency.  The  width 
of  a  stairway  will  of  course  depend  in  part  on 
the  number  of  students  it  is  designed  to  accom- 
modate; but  in  all  cases  it  should  be  wide 
enough  for  two  adults  to  ascend  or  descend 
abreast  without  crowding.  In  large  schools 
there  should  be  room  for  three  adults  on  the 
same  tread  at  once.  In  general,  5'  to  6  feet 
in  width  will  give  plenty  of  room  save  in  very 
large  schools.  The  height  of  t  he  riser  should  not 
exceed  6  inches,  and  the  width  of  the  tread 
should  be  not  less  than  10  inches  in  the  clear, 
while  12  inches  is  better.  There  should  be 
a  rectangular  landing  halfway  up,  and  this 
should  be  in  width  nearly  if  not  quite  double  the 
length  of  the  tread.  Such  a  width  will  help  to 
prevent  blockades  in  case  of  fire,  and  will  insure 
better  light  on  the  stairs.  It  may  be  said  here 
in  passing  that  the  habit  of  decorating  this 
landing  with  potted  plants,  box  seats,  etc., 
needs  questioning.  If  plants  can  be  placed 
safely  out  of  the  way,  there  can  be  no  objection 
offered.  Some  day  it  may  be  hoped  that  the 
walls  above  these  landings  as  well  as  in  the  hall- 
ways will  be  decorated  with  mural  paintings  of 
a  worthy  sort,  and  then  they  will  not  seem  so 
bare  and  cheerless.     Muclj  has  been  written  on 


194 


ARCHITECTURE 


ARCHITECTURE 


the  question  of  whether  or  not  stairways 
should  be  boxed  in  or  finished  with  openwork 
surmounted  with  a  handrail.  Those  favoring 
the  former  method  have  cited  instances  where 
children  have  fallen  over  and  received  serious 
injuries  where  open  balustrades  have  been  used. 
But  the  danger  from  this  sort  of  construction 
seems  very  slight  indeed  where  due  care  is 
taken  to  make  these  high  enough  and  suffi- 
ciently strong.  The  most  objectionable  fea- 
ture of  the  open  balustrade  along  stairways  is 
the  fact  that  in  mixed  schools  they  do  not 
sufficiently  shield  the  girls,  as  they  ascend,  from 
exposure  to  the  view  of  those  on  the  lower 
half  of  the  stairs.  At  the  high  school  age,  girls 
still  wear  short  skirts,  and  in  mixed  schools, 
stairways  thus  constructed  furnish  opportu- 
nities which  may  be  very  objectionable.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  boxed-in  stairway  is  much 
darker  and  far  less  acceptable  from  the  stand- 
point of  appearance.  It  therefore  seems  wise 
in  building  for  mixed  schools  to  recommend 
a  balustrade  with  the  lower  part  soUd  and  the 
upper  part  more  open. 

The  prevailing  custom  in  the  newer  buildings 
is  to  make  these  balustrades  of  iron  wrought  into 
more  or  less  elaborate  patterns.  The  matter 
of  keeping  stair  railing  free  from  dust  ought 
to  suggest  to  builders  the  need  for  designs 
easily  cleaned  as  well  as  beautiful. 

When  stair  treads  are  made  of  cement,  the 
corners  next  to  the  risers  ought  to  be  left 
rounded  or  less  angular  instead  of  square,  in 
order  to  facilitate  cleaning.  Dirt  caught  in 
rectangular  corners  is  hard  to  remove,  and  by 
reason  of  this  fact  is  often  left  undisturbed. 
Where  wooden  stairs  are  used,  triangular 
pieces  of  tin  made  to  fit  the  corners  closely  save 
much  work  in  sweeping,  and  give  better  results 
in  cleanliness.  It  is  a  wise  procedure,  in  the 
construction  of  fireproof  stairways,  to  use 
the  very  best  cement  so  that  the  treads  may 
resist  wear,  stand  level  or  nearly  so,  and  espe- 
cially to  render  the  exposed  edges  .strong  and  non- 
slippery.  Handrails  are  needed  on  the  wall  side 
as  well  as  along  the  outer  side.  These,  however, 
should  not  extend  more  than  3  or  4  inches  from 
the  wall,  and  should  be  at  least  3  feet  high  above 
the  tread.  They  are  often  too  low  to  offer 
satisfactory  protection  in  going  down  the  stairs. 

The  short  flights  of  steps  through  the  main 
entrances  to  the  first  floor  need  to  be  w'ider  than 
those  in  the  stairways  proper,  and  can  be  con- 
structed of  stone  or  cement.  The  back  stair- 
ways leading  from  the  first  floor  to  the  base- 
ment can  be  more  safely  placed  near  the  center 
of  the  building,  for  they  are  not  likely  to  be 
used  in  case  of  fire. 

Lunchrooms.  —  Since  the  introduction  into 
the  curriculum  of  courses  in  cooking,  especially 
in  high  schools,  the  lunchroom  has  made  its 
appearance  and  now  occupies  a  legitimate  space 
in  most  well-equipped  high  school  buildings. 
In  many  of  the  European  schools,  lunchrooms 
are   constructed   in   buildings   for   elementary 


classes,  in  order  to  serve  without  cost  a  midday 
meal  to  those  children  whose  families  cannot 
afford  the  e.xpense,  or  to  serve  a  light  warm 
meal  to  those  who  can  afford  to  pay  for  such 
service.  Several  cities  in  our  country  make 
like  provision  for  poor  children  as  well  as  for 
those  in  more  fortunate  circumstances.  But 
the  lunchroom  in  this  country  is  more  generally 
found  in  buildings  for  high  schools.  Aside 
from  the  necessary  cooking  equipment,  these 
rooms  deserve  good  light,  good  ventilation,  and 
tasteful  decoration.  It  seems  unfortunate  that 
so  many  of  these  rooms  have  been  placed  in 
basements  where  lighting  is  often  poor,  where  the 
air  is  generally  impure,  and  where  the  environ- 
ment is  not  altogether  wholesome  or  inviting. 

Cooking  and  lunch  rooms  ought  to  be  com- 
bined and  situated  on  one  of  the  main  floors, 
preferably  the  top  floor  in  buildings  of  two 
stories,  and  due  provision  made  for  receiving  the 
supplies  by  means  of  a  lift.  A  meal  hurriedly 
prepared  or  "bolted"  in  a  dark,  unattractive 
room  cannot  recommend  the  sort  of  hygienic 
living  for  which  our  whole  educational  scheme 
should  stand.  The  chief  reasons  given  why 
basement  rooms  have  been  chosen  are  these: 
when  so  situated,  supplies  are  more  easily  de- 
Uvered,  storeroom  is  more  readily  secured,  and 
it  has  been  easier  and  less  expensive  to  install 
the  ranges  and  other  cooking  appliances.  But 
with  the  development  of  gas  stoves  and  heaters 
it  is  now  a  comparativel}'  easy  matter,  where 
gas  can  be  supplied,  to  locate  cooking  rooms  in 
more  attractive  parts  of  the  building,  and  in  the 
future  it  seems  altogether  likely  that  such  rooms 
will  be  given  more  thoughtful  consideration. 

Other  aspects  of  School  Architecture  not 
relating  directly  to  the  construction  of  the 
framework  of  the  buildings  will  be  treated  under 
special  headings.  Thus,  see  articles  on  Desks 
and  Seats;  Drinking  Fountains;  Heating 
and  Ventilation;  Latrintis;  Lighting;  and 
the  various  topics  on  Hygiene  of  the  School. 

F.  B.  D. 

References:  — 

B.tGiNSKY,  Adolph.  Hatidbuch  der  Schulhygiene.  (Stutt- 
gart,  1S9S-1900.) 

Barnard,  Henry.  School  Architecture.  (New  York, 
1848.) 

Billings.  J.  S.  Ventilation  and  Heating.  (New  York, 
1893.) 

Bruce,  Willi.vm  George.  School  Houses.  (Milwau- 
kee, 1903.) 

Burgerstein  and  Netolitsky.  Handbuch  der  Schul- 
hygiene.     (Jena,   1902.) 

Bdrnham,  W.  H.  Outlines  of  School  Hygiene,  Ped.  Sem. 
Vol.  II,  No.  1. 

Carpenter,  Alfred.  The  Principles  and  Practice  of 
School  Hi/giene.     (London,  1887.) 

Carpenter,  "Roll.i  C.  Heating  and  Ventilating  Build- 
ings.    (New  York,  1896.) 

Clay,  Felix.  Modern  School  Buildings.  (London, 
1903.) 

CoHN,  H.     The  Hygiene  of  the  Eye.     (London,  1886.) 

Farquharson,  Robert.  School  Hygiene  and  Diseases 
Incident  to  School  Life.      (London,   1885.) 

Hy.itt,  Edward.  School  Architecture  and  School 
Improvement  in  California,  Office  of  Supt.  of  Pub. 
Inst.,  Sacramento,  Cal. 

KoTELMANN,  Ludwig.   School  Hygiene.    (Bordeen,  1899.) 


195 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


Mardle,  a.  p.     Sanitary  Construction  of  Schoolhouges. 

Bureau    of   Edtiration.       (Washington.  D.C,  1891.) 
Morrison.  CIilreht  I?.      The  Wiililntion  and  Warming 

of  Scliool  Buildings.      (New  York,  18S7.) 
Newsholme,  Arthur.    School  Hygiitie.     (Boston,  1901.) 
Roos.t,    D.    B.   St.   John.      Dcfccliic    Eyesight.      (New 

York,    1899.) 
RowE,  Stewart  H.     The  Lighting  of  School  Buildings. 

(New    Y'ork,    1904.) 
Shaw,     Edward     R.     School    Hygiene.      (New    York, 

1906.) 
The    American   Architect.      Modern   School  Houses: 

City  and  Suburban.     (New  York,  1910.) 
Y'oDNC.  A.  G.     Seventh   Centennial   Report   of   the   State 

Board  of  Health  of  Maine,  1892. 
Report  of  Commission  on  S('hi>oliiouses  for  Washington, 

D.C,  61st  Congress.  Senate    Doeument    No.    338. 
Numerous  Sehool  Reports,  especially  from  Boston,  Cleve- 
land, .St.  Louis,  and  Chicago. 

The  following  magazines  deal  frequently  with  questions 
of  School  .\rchitecture  :  — 
Das    Schulhaus,    Berlin,    Germany,     edited     by    Karl 

Vanselow. 
Peilagogical    Seminary,    Clark     University,    Worcester, 

M.1SS.,  edited  by  G.  Stanley  Hall. 
School  Board  Journal,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  edited  by 

Wm.   Geo.   Bruce. 
Zcitschrifl  fur  Schulgesundheitspflege,  Hamburg,  Germany. 

Special  A  r tides :  — 
Hall.    G.    Stanley.     Hygiene   and   School    Buildings, 

Proc.  N.  E.  A..  Vol.  1892,  pp.  682-689. 
H.\MMOND,  Jason  E.     Sehool  Architecture,  Proc.  N.  E. 

A..  1897.  pp.  306-309. 
Johnson,  C.  C.     Model  School  House,   World's  Work, 

Vol.  12,  pp.  7(564-7668,  June  1900. 
Marble.  A.  P.,     Ideal   Country   Schoolhouse,  Proc.  N. 

E.  A..  Vol.  1897,  p.  570. 
R0BIN.SON,    J.    B.      Sehool    Buildings    of    New    Y'ork, 

Architect.  Record,   Vol.  7,   pp.  359-384. 
Snyder,   C.    B.   J.       School   Buildings   in    New    Y'ork 

City,  Educ.  Review,  Jan.,  1898. 
Soldan,  F.  Louis.     School  Architecture,  Proc.  N.  E.  A., 

1898,  pp.  523-524. 
Grove,     Aaron.      Public    School    Houses,    Education, 

Vol.   17,   pp.  407-411. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC,  EDUCATION 
IN  THE.  — Historical. —  The  ArKeiitine  Re- 
public dates  it.s  independence  from  ISIO, 
although  the  separation  from  Spain  was  not 
formally  declared  until  1816.  Prior  to  tliis 
time  the  territory  was  a  Spanish  po.ssession, 
forming  the  most  important  part  of  the  vice- 
royalty  of  Rio  de  la  Plata.  The  first  Spanish 
settlers  in  this  fertile  region  came  from  Peru, 
and  introduced  the  system  of  clerical  education 
already  established  in  the  northern  colony. 
Its  chief  agencies  were  the  teaching  orders  of  the 
Church,  the  Jesuits,  Franci.scans,  and  Domini- 
cans, whose  numbers  were  subsequently  in- 
creased by  direct  arrivals  from  the  mother 
country.  The  King  of  Spain,  although  the  head 
of  the  religious  instruction  by  virtue  of  his 
right  of  patronship,  respected  the  autonomy 
of  the  institutions  conducted  by  the  clergy, 
and  the  apostolic  approbation  of  the  Pope  was 
always  sought  in  founding  universities. 

The  purpose  of  the  clerical  instruction  was 
twofold:  first,  the  conversion  of  the  Indians, 
or,  at  least,  their  transformation  into  obedient 
vassals;  second,  the  maintenance  among  the 
Spaniards  themselves  of  their  religious  and 
intellectual  inheritance.  As  regards  the  Indians, 
the  efforts  of  these  religious  teachers  were  of 


chief  consequence  by  reason  of  their  effects  upon 
the  "  mixed  bloods,"  descendants  of  Spaniards 
and  Indians,  who  were  thus  early  inilmed  with 
the  ideas  of  the  superior  race  and  assimilated  to 
its  higher  social  order. 

While  there  was  no  organized  system  of  edu- 
cation in  the  Spanish  colonies,  the  course  pur- 
sued was  practically  the  .same  in  all.  At 
Cordova,  a  city  founded  in  La  Plata  in  1573 
l)y  Spaniards  from  Peru,  the  .Jesuits  established 
the  Ciilcgio  Ma.rinio  in  1609,  and  this  became 
the  controlling  center  of  education  in  the  prov- 
ince. In  1614  the  institution  was  rai.sed  by 
pontifical  and  royal  decrees  to  the  dignity  of  a 
university,  and  in  1(>22,  bj- order  of  Philip  III, 
was  authorized  to  grant  the  degrees  of  bachelor, 
licentiate,  master,  and  doctor.  The  faculty 
of  civil  law  was  not  added  till  the  eighteenth 
century,  authority  to  confer  degrees  in  law 
being  granted  in   1796. 

Upon  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  by  decree 
of  Carlos  III  in  1767,  the  institution  with  its 
affiliated  colleges  was  given  over  to  the  secular 
clergy.  Subse(iuently,  it  was  transferred  to 
the  Franciscan  order,  in  whose  charge  it  re- 
mained until  the  nineteenth  century.  Secu- 
larized by  a  royal  decree  of  ISOO,  which  took 
effect  eight  years  later,  the  university  entered 
upon  a  new  era  under  lay  auspices,  and  with  a 
new  scheme  of  instruction.  The  philosophical 
faculty  was  extended  to  include  the  experi- 
mental study  of  physics,  and  the  course  in  this 
faculty  was  made  a  prerecjuisite  to  the  studies 
of  theology  aiul  law. 

The  second  university,  that  of  Buenos  Aires, 
was  formed  by  the  union  of  several  strug- 
gling institutions  in  1821,  soon  after  the  or- 
ganization of  the  provisional  government.  The 
influence  of  the  university  system  established 
by  Napoleon  in  France  was  reflected  in  this 
new  foundation,  which  was  charged  with  the 
administration  of  official  instruction  in  Buenos 
Aires  from  the  elementary  schools  to  the  highest 
faculties. 

These  university  movements  were  signs  of 
the  reaction  against  the  old  regime  due  to  in- 
herent impulses  toward  liberty  stimulated  by 
the  philosophical  and  political  doctrines  then 
rife  in  France;  for  in  spite  of  royal  prohibi- 
tions the  ideas  of  the  French  encyclopedists,  and 
the  speculations  of  Montesquieu,  Rousseau, 
and  Voltaire,  penetrated  the  distant  province. 
When  the  revolution  was  accomplished,  how- 
ever, the  patriotic  leaders  turned  to  the  United 
States  for  sounder  principles  to  guide  in  the 
formation  of  a  repulilican  government.  The 
constitution  adopted  b_v  the  republic  in  1853 
expressly  provided  that  primary  schools  should 
be  established  in  each  of  the  federated  prov- 
inces. This  provision  was  made  obligatory 
upon  the  states  by  the  constitution  of  1S60, 
adopted  after  Buenos  Aires  joined  the  federa- 
tion. The  importance  of  education  as  a  factor 
in  the  national  life  was  recognized  by  the  crea- 
tion of  a  ministry  of  public  instruction  in  the 


190 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


newly  formed  government.  From  the  extent 
of  the  country,  the  sparse  population,  the  want 
of  democratic  traditions,  and  of  immediate  in- 
centives, the  cause  of  primary  education  lan- 
guished, excepting  in  the  capital  city,  where 
this  interest  was  under  the  direct  control  of  the 
federal  government. 

The  vigorous  movement  in  behalf  of  popular 
education  which  gave  Argentina  the  leadership 
in  this  respect  in  South  America  was  excited 
by  the  efforts  of  President  Domingo  Faustino 
Sarmiento.  In  a  period  of  exile  during  his  ro- 
mantic career.  Dr.  Sarmiento  was  commissioned 
by  the  Chilean  government  to  study  the  systems 
of  education  in  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
While  on  this  mission  he  formed  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  Humboldt,  Guizot,  Cobden, 
and  Horace  Mann.  Subsequently,  he'  repre- 
sented his  country  as  minister  jilenipotentiary 
at  Washington,  and  from  this  mission  he  was 
recalled  in  186S  by  his  election  to  the  presi- 
dency of  his  country. 

Among  the  measures  advocated  by  this 
eminent  statesman  for  the  development  of  the 
republic,  popular  education  held  the  chief  place; 
two  essential  conditions  of  an  efficient  system 
of  public  instruction  were  secured  by  his  per- 
sonal efforts.  He  gave  national  direction  to 
the  work  by  means  of  liberal  appropriations 
from  the  public  treasury  in  aid  of  schools  in  the 
several  provinces  of  the  republic,  and  at  Parana, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Entre  Rios,  he  organ- 
ized a  normal  school  of  modern  type  in  charge 
of  a  group  of  teachers  called  from  the  United 
States  to  assist  in  the  enterprise.  The  law  of 
1873  passed  just  at  the  close  of  his  presidential 
term  placed  the  policy  of  national  aid  for  pri- 
mary education  in  the  several  provinces  upon  a 
permanent  basis. 

In  1884,  ten  years  after  the  close  of  President 
Sarmiento's  term  as  chief  executive,  the  law 
was  passed  by  which  the  present  school  system 
is  regulated.  The  measure  was  national  in 
scope,  but  on  account  of  the  constitutional 
independence  of  the  several  provinces  in  re- 
spect to  this  interest  its  direct  application  was 
limited  to  the  capital  city  and  sectional  terri- 
tories under  the  immediate  control  of  the 
national  government,  and  to  schools  in  the 
provinces  sharing  in  the  government  subsidy. 
The  national  law  has  served,  however,  to  bring 
about  a  fair  degree  of  uniformity  in  the  several 
provincial  laws. 

The  difference  in  their  historic  origins  ex- 
plains the  continued  distinction  between  the 
two  departments  of  the  general  system  of  educa- 
tion in  the  republic,  the  one  comprising  the 
primary  and  normal  schools,  the  other,  the 
culture  and  professional  schools  of  the  country, 
corresponding  to  the  old  universities  and  col- 
leges. Intermediate  between  the  two  groups 
are  the  recently  organized  commercial  and 
technical  schools. 

Present  Systems.  —  Primary  Schools.  —  The 
federal  government  administers  primary  educa- 


tion through  the  national  board  of  education 
(Cotisejo  Xacional  de  Edncaciim)  which  was 
formed  in  the  ministry  of  education  in  1881. 
This  board  is  assisted  by  a  body  of  inspectors, 
who  must  be  graduates  from  the  highest  normal 
course,  and  must  have  had  several  years  ex- 
perience in  teaching  in  the  public  schools.  The 
inspectors  visit  and  report  upon  all  schools 
maintained  bj'  the  central  authority.  In  the 
capital  city  the  primary  schools  have  attained  a 
fair  degree  of  efficiency,  and  illustrate  most  fully 
the  provisions  of  the  law  of  1884.  Instruction 
is  obligatory  for  children  6  to  14  years  of  age, 
either  in  public  schools  or  by  private  agencies; 
public  primary  schools  are  gratuitous,  and  are 
organized  in  six  one-year  grades,  or  classes. 
Each  class  must  have  a  minimum  attendance, 
i.e.  25  pupils  in  grades  1  and  2;  15  in  the 
higher  grades.  Coeducation  is  allowed  only 
in  the  three  lower  grades.  The  course  of  study 
must  conform  to  an  official  program  drawn  up 
by  a  select  committee  of  teachers,  inspectors, 
and  school  physicians.  The  schools  are  non- 
sectarian,  but  the  clergy  of  the  different  de- 
nominations may  be  admitted  to  give  religious 
instruction  before  or  after  school  hours,  a 
privilege  which  is  chiefly  exercised  by  the  clergy 
of  the  state  church,  i.e.  the  Roman  Catholic. 

Candidates  for  teachers'  positions  must  be 
provided  with  a  professional  diploma,  a  health 
certificate,  and  a  certificate  of  high  moral  char- 
acter. Salaries  are  arranged  in  three  grades,  pro- 
motion being  determined  by  merit  and  length  of 
service.  Teachers  have  a  right  to  a  pension 
after  20  years  of  continuous  service. 

There  is  a  local  school  board  for  each  of 
the  22  precincts  of  Buenos  Aires,  which  has 
direct  control  of  the  schools  of  the  district. 
Medical  inspection  of  schools  is  intrusted  to  a 
medical  corps  appointed  by  the  national  board. 
The  primary  schools  sub-sidized  by  the  federal 
government  in  the  several  states  form  in  each 
a  group  of  model  schools  conforming  as  closely 
as  possible  to  the  provisions  of  the  school  law 
of  1884. 

The  actual  status  of  primary  education  ac- 
cording to  the  latest  official  report  is  indicated 
by  the  following  table.  The  proportion  of 
children  not  attending  school,  as  shown  by  the 
table  (columns  10  and  11)  and  the  high  degree 
of  illiteracy  (affecting  50.5  per  cent  of  the  popu- 
lation over  6  years  of  age,  in  1905),  are  exciting 
alarm.  At  present  there  is  a  strong  movement 
toward  increase  of  central  control  over  primary 
education;  even  the  complete  nationalization 
of  primary  schools  is  advocated. 

During  the  fiscal  year  1907,  the  national 
board  expended  .?4,2i2,419  for  the  establish- 
ment and  maintenance  of  primary  schools  in 
the  federal  capital,  in  the  territories,  and  for 
primary  schools  in  the  states,  supported  by 
national  funds. 

Normal  schools,  which  form  a  very  important 
feature  of  the  Argentine  system  of  public  in- 
struction,   are    a    link    between    the    primary 


197 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


CQ 

D 
b 

Pi 

g 

H 
Z 
« 

n 
o 


OQ 

o 

O 

ts 


Percentage  of 

Children  of 
School  Age  not 

ATTENDINQ    ScHOOL 

On  basis 
of  stand- 
ard set 
by  law  of 
the  prov- 
inces 

- 

g?5S 

S3 

On  basis 
of  stand- 
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Calculated 
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schools  and  the  higher  institutions.  By  reason 
of  their  academic  studies  and  their  adminis- 
tration, they  may  properly  be  classed  with  the 
secondary  institutions.  The  federal  govern- 
ment maintains  one  normal  school  in  each 
state  and  provides  scholarships  in  the  normal 
schools  maintained  by  local  authorities.  All 
schools  of  the  class  conform  to  the  official  pro- 
gram and  are  subject  to  government  inspection. 
They  number  at  present  35,  of  which  6  are 
at  the  national  capital  and  wholly  under  govern- 
ment direction.  Of  the  total  number,  4  are  for 
men  only,  IS  for  women,  and  13,  including 
one  school  at  the  capital  for  teachers  of  modern 
languages,  are  coeducational.  The  number  of 
students  in  the  normal  schools  in  1905  was  2011. 


These  schools  confer  two  grades  of  diplomas,  one 
at  the  end  of  a  four  years'  course,  and  the  other 
at  the  end  of  six  years,  to  graduates  who  are 
called  "  normal  professors."  From  this  class 
of  graduates  the  government  school  inspectors 
are  selected. 

Secondary  Education.  —  Public  secondary 
education  is  provided  in  colcgios,  25  in  number, 
estaiilished  and  maintained  by  the  federal  gov- 
ernment. The  official  jirogram  of  these  in- 
stitutions, which  is  arranged  for  a  course  of 
five  years,  is  correlated  with  that  of  the  national 
primary  schools  and  prepares  for  admission  to 
the  specialized  university  courses.  The  studies 
comprised  are  mathematics,  the  sciences, 
Argentine  history,  modern  languages  —  French, 
Enghsh,  and  Italian  —  in  addition  to  the 
native  Spanish,  drawing,  manual  arts,  and 
gymnastics.  To  these  subjects  are  added,  in 
tiie  fourth  and  fifth  years,  general  history, 
ancient  and  modern,  geography  of  Asia  and 
Africa,  psychology,  civic  instruction,  and 
philosophy.  The  course  has  an  essentially 
modern  character  corresponding  to  that  of  the 
modern  high  schools  of  our  own  country,  and  to 
the  scientific  and  modern  language  course  of 
the  French  lyc^es.  Pupils  are  expected  to 
enter  at  12  years  of  age  and  to  be  ready  for  the 
university  at  17  or  IS. 

The  deep  interest  of  the  government  in  the 
cause  of  modern  and  scientific  education  is 
shown  by  the  efforts  lavished  upon  these  sec- 
ondary institutions.  They  are  provided  with 
imposing  buildings  and  ample  equipments,  and 
receive  liberal  appropriations  from  the  public 
treasury.  In  190S  this  allowance  reached  a 
total  of  $1,386,000,  of  which  amount  nearly 
$550,000  were  expended  on  the  five  colcgios  in 
the  federal  capital.  The  colegios  of  the  smaller 
towns  illustrate  very  clearly  the  defects  of  the 
present  organization.  These  are  unstable, 
overcrowded,  with  ambitious  programs,  and 
are  influenced  by  the  peculiar  mode  of  appoint- 
ing professors.  The  subjects  of  instruction  are 
divided  into  catcdras,  or  chairs,  each  chair  in- 
cluding a  minimum  of  three  hours  of  instruction 
a  week.  The  chairs  are  usually  divided  among 
the  resident  lawyers  and  physicians.  Under 
such  a  system,  the  professors  have  little  personal 
influence  upon  students  and  little  or  no  profes- 
sional spirit  and  solidarity. 

The  school  census  of  1905  gave  4103  students 
in  16  of  the  public  secondary  schools,  an  aver- 
age of  256  students  to  each  school,  which 
would  only  be  attained  in  the  larger  cities. 
The  students  in  these  national  schools  are 
drawn  from  the  humbler  social  classes,  the 
patronage  of  the  leading  families  going  pre- 
ferably to  the  older  classical  colleges  which  are 
still  managed  by  the  various  religious  orders, 
Jesuits,  who  returned  to  the  countrj-  in  1S36, 
Redemptionists,  etc.  The  courses  of  instruction 
of  these  private  secondary  schools  are  neces- 
sarily determined  by  the  official  entrance  re- 
quirements and  the  degree  examinations  of  the 


198 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


universities,  but  with  provision  for  modern 
studies  tliey  still  retain  the  classical  humanities. 
They  number  450  as  against  190  public  colegios. 

The  interest  of  the  government  in  the  "  higher 
education"  of  young  women  is  indicated  by 
the  estabhshment  of  two  national  secondary 
schools,  liceos,  one  at  Buenos  Aires,  the  other  at 
La  Plata.  They  follow  the  crowded  program 
of  the  colegios  with  the  addition  of  music  and 
domestic  science.  It  needs  hardly  be  said 
that  the  majority  of  young  women  in  Argentina 
are  educated  in  convents  and  church  schools. 

Commercial  and  Industrial  Schools.  — The 
efforts  of  President  Sarmiento  to  modernize 
education  in  Argentina  were  ably  seconded  by 
his  minister  of  public  instruction.  Doctor 
Avellaneda,  who  pointed  out  the  fact  that  in- 
dustries owe  their  perfection  to  scientific  knowl- 
edge and  that  manual  labor  must  go  along 
with  instruction  in  the  sciences;  he  illustrated 
his  position  by  the  then  recent  universal  ex- 
position of  1S67  in  England,  where  could  be 
seen  the  results  of  such  combination.  Doctor 
Avellaneda  insisted  that  it  was  necessary  to 
keep  in  mind  the  peculiar  needs  of  Argentina 
in  introducing  technical  instruction  into  the 
country,  and  accordingly  such  instruction  was 
inaugurated  by  creating  departments  of  agri- 
culture in  the  various  colegios,  together  with 
departments  of  mines,  which  latter  had  an 
ephemeral  existence  but  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  national  school  of  mines. 

In  1889  manual  training  was  introduced  into 
several  colegios  and  was  made  a  part  of  the 
course  of  instruction  in  national  primary  schools 
by  programs  drawn  up  in  1890.  The  move- 
ment was  fostered  by  the  Association  for  Indus- 
trial Education  and  by  the  religious  societies, 
and  finally  two  national  industrial  schools  were 
organized,  one  at  Buenos  Aires,  the  other  at 
Rosario.  The  government  also  maintains 
three  trade  schools  for  girls  at  Buenos  Aires, 
and,  stimulated  by  these  examples,  local  au- 
thorities are  giving  serious  attention  to  this 
branch  of  public  instruction.  The  importance 
of  commercial  training  has  but  recently  been 
recognized  in  Argentina,  but  already  three  com- 
mercial schools  have  been  established  at  the 
capital  (two  for  men  and  one  for  women),  and 
several  similar  schools  in  provincial  cities. 

Agricultural  Education.  —  In  1871  a  depart- 
ment of  agriculture  was  created  with  the  special 
object  of  diffusing  a  knowledge  of  all  things 
relating  to  agriculture  throughout  the  country; 
but  little  was  effected  in  this  way,  principally 
through  want  of  funds,  until  this  department 
was  converted,  in  1899,  into  the  ministry  of 
agriculture,  in  which  was  included  a  division 
of  instruction.  Since  then  a  number  of  schools 
of  agriculture  have  been  established  in  the 
different  provinces,  with  plantations,  vineyards, 
and  the  other  necessary  equipment,  in  which 
instruction  is  given  both  in  theoretical  and 
practical  agriculture. 

The    advantage    which    the   federal    capital 


enjoys  from  the  fostering  care  of  the  govern- 
ment is  illustrated  by  a  group  of  special  sec- 
ondary schools  whose  names  sufficiently  indicate 
their  general  character.  The  most  important 
of  these  are  the  National  Institute  for  Second- 
ary Teachers,  the  National  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts,  and  the  Normal  Institute  for  Physical 
Culture. 

Higher  Education.  —  Higher  education  im- 
parted in  the  universities  and  superior  technical 
schools  is  under  the  immediate  control  of  the 
federal  government.  The  two  universities 
already  mentioned,  Cordova  and  Buenos  Aires, 
were  reorganized  by  the  republican  government 
somewhat  after  the  model  of  the  French  facul- 
ties as  constituted  by  Napoleon.  The  want 
of  vital  union  between  the  faculties  led  to  the 
same  narrow  specialization  that  was  long  the 
bane  of  higher  education  in  France.  To 
correct  this  tendency  a  different  system  was 
adopted  in  the  organization  of  the  National 
University  of  La  Plata,  estabUshed  in  1906. 
Tins  university  forms  an  organic  body  under  a 
president  who  has  supervisory  powers  over  all 
the  faculties. 

Each  of  the  three  universities  comprises  a 
faculty  of  law,  a  faculty  of  philosophy  and 
letters,  a  faculty  of  natural  sciences,  and  a 
faculty  of  physical  and  mathematical  sciences. 
Cordova  and  Buenos  Aires  have  also  a  medical 
faculty.  The  programs,  degree  examinations, 
etc.,  are  regulated  by  official  programs.  The 
University  of  La  Plata,  like  the  national 
colegios,  is  whoUy  modern  in  character,  and  the 
high  standards  maintained  and  the  close  organ- 
ization of  the  several  faculties  will  in  time,  it  is 
believed,  impart  a  more  solid  character  to  the 
modern  scheme  of  secondary  instruction.  The 
three  universities  have  a  registration  of  about 
3500  students.  They  are  maintained  exclu- 
sively by  federal  appropriations.  There  are  no 
tuition  fees,  and  the  matriculation  and  gradua- 
tion fees  are  very  low.  For  the  year  1908  the 
appropriations  were  as  follows:  University  of 
Cordova,  §276,825;  L^niversitv  of  Buenos  Aires, 
$449,350;  University  of  La  Plata,  $430,000. 

The  government  is  exceedingly  liberal  in  the 
matter  of  capital  expenditure  for  the  univer- 
sities, and  has  recently  adopted  plans  for 
magnificent  new  buildings  for  the  faculty  of 
physical  and  mathematical  science  (which 
includes  engineering)  of  tlie  University  of 
Buenos  Aires;  for  the  erection  of  a  new  hos- 
pital costing  .S6, 000, 000  to  be  an  adjunct  to 
the  medical  school;  and  for  a  scries  of  new 
buildings  to  commemorate  the  tercentenary 
of  tlie  Uni\'ersitj'  of  Cordova.  The  higher 
technical  training  is  imparted  in  the  school  of 
mines  reorganized  in  1897,  a  college  of  agricul- 
ture, and  a  naval  and  mihtary  school,  all  under 
government  control. 

The  recent  development  of  technical  educa- 
tion, and  the  general  awakening  to  the  impor- 
tance of  scientific  education  in  its  relation  to 
industrial    progress,    indicate    the    increasing 


199 


ARGUMENTATION 


ARISTOTLE 


influence  of  the  methods  and  ideals  of  education 
in  the  United  States  as  contrasted  with  the 
traditional  literary  spirit  of  the  older  schools. 
This  tendency  has  been  stimulated  by  the 
National  Pedap;oRical  IMuseum,  located  at 
Buenos  Aires,  which  secured  much  illustrative 
material  from  the  St.  Louis  E.xposition  of 
1904.  The  early  scholastic  relations  between 
the  Arfientine  Republic  and  the  United  States 
are  illustrated  l)y  the  fact  that  Dr.  Benjamin 
A.  Gould  was  appointed  the  first  director  of  the 
National  Observatory,  which  was  founded  at 
Cordova  in  1S0.5  and  has  achieved  great  dis- 
tinction in  astronomical  science. 

Art  shares  with  science  the  liberal  patronage 
of  the  Argentine  government,  which  is  prepar- 
ing to  cclel)rate  its  centennial  by  an  inter- 
national art  exhibit  to  be  held  at  Buenos  Aires 
from  Mav  to  September,  1910. 

„  .        "  R-  L.  P. 

References:  — 

Argentine  Republic  Comision  de  la  exposicion  db 
Chica<.;o,  lsy3.  Miuistcrio  do  justicia,  culto  e  iii- 
stnifcioii  jnihlica.  Infurnie  sohrf  la  educacion  sfcuii- 
daria  y  normal  en  la  Rcpublica  Agcntina.  (La  Plata, 
1S93.) 

BuNGE,  Carlos  O.  Historical  sketch  of  education  in 
the  Argentine  Republic.  El  Monitor  de  la  Educa- 
cion comnn,  Oct.  31,  190S.  Translation  (with  sonic 
omissions)  in  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education, 
1909,  chap.  VII,  pp.  350-357. 

Gahekt,  Rei-nhold  Rudolf  Hugo  Adolf  Ludwig. 
Da^  deulschc  Bildungswescn  in  Argentinicn  und 
Heine  Organisation.  Berlin,  D.  Reimer.  (E.  Vohsen.) 
1908. 
Conscjo  Xacional  de  educacion.  La  ensehav^a 
practica  e  industrial  en  la  Repuhlica  Argentina, 
por  el  Dr.  J.  B.  Zubiaur.  vocal  del  Consejo  Nacional 
de  educacion.     (Buenos  Aires,  1900.) 

GoNz.\LEZ,  JoAQriN,  V.  The  Naiicnial  University  of  La 
Plata.  Tr.  by  George  Wilson-Rae.  .  .  .  (Buenos 
Aires,  1906.) 

HiPPEAU,  Celestin  (1803-1883).  L'instructionpuhlique 
dans  I' Ajnerique  du  Sud  {Republique  Argenlim)  ; 
enseignemcnt  primaire  —  enseignement  secondaire  — 
enseignernent  sup^ricur.   .  .   .     (Paris,    introd.  1878.) 

Laws,  Statutes,  etc.  Lcyes,  decretos  y  resoluciones  sobre 
instruccion  superior,  secundaria,  normal  y  especial. . .  . 
Recapiladas  por  Juan  Garcia  Mcron.  .  .  .  (Buenos 
Aires,  1900-1901.) 

MiXISTERlO  DE  JUSTICL\,  CULTO  B  INSTRUCCION  PUB- 
LICO. Alemorias  e  informes,  or  annual  and  special  re- 
ports. 
Ministerio  de  justicia,  culto  e  instruccion  publica. 
Samiicnto,  Domingo  Faustino,  1811-18S8.  Las 
escuelas:  base  de  la  prosperidad  i  de  la  rcpublica 
en  los  Estados  Uni<los.  .  .  .  I?ifonne  al  jttinistro 
de  instruccion  publica  de  la  Repuhlica  Argenliiia. 
Pasado  por  D.  F.  Sarmiento.  .  .  .  (N'ew  York,  1869.) 

RowE,  L.  S.  Educational  Progress  in  the  Argentine 
Republic,  in  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, 1909.  chap.  VII,  pp.  3:23-349. 

Pack.ard.  R.  L.  Modern  aspect  of  higher  education  in 
Spanish-.Vnierican  countries.  In  Report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Education,  1908,  Vol.  I.  chap.  V. 

Zubiaur,  J.  B.  Quclques  mots  sur  rirtstructio?i  publigue 
et  privee  dans  Ui  Republique  Argentine.  (Paris, 
1889.) 

Files  of  El  Monitor  de  la  Educacion  Comun. 


ARGUMENTATION, 
and  Rhetoric. 


See     Composition 


ARISTOPHANES.— Censor,  satirist,  and 
poet,  born  probably  at  Athens  at  an  uncer- 
tain date,  perhaps  448  B.C.     Aristophanes  was 


animated  by  a  more  serious  purpose  than  is  to 
be  expected  of  the  Old  Comedy  in  general.  His 
sympathies  were  conservative  and  aristocratic, 
and  in  the  Clouds  (423  b.c.)  his  full  genius  is 
directed  against  the  spirit  of  intellectual  inves- 
tigation that  is  connected  with  the  names  of 
Socrates  and  the  Sophists.  The  older  school 
of  natural  philosophers  offered  a  legitimate 
subject  for  ridicule,  but  the  full  animosity  of  the 
poet  is  directed,  not  against  Heraclcitus  and 
Anaxagoras  so  much  as  the  doctrines  of  the 
social  pliilosophers  and  teachers  of  rhetoric, 
such  as  Protagoras,  Prodicus,  Gorgias,  and 
Hippias.  Socrates  is  taken  as  the  type  of  the 
new  thought  in  all  its  branches.  Thus  the 
Cloud.s  becomes  a  document  of  great  interest 
in  the  history  of  education.  A  youth,  Phidip- 
pides,  is  sent  by  his  father  to  learn  of  Socrates, 
whose  doctrines  finally  render  him  an  accom- 
plished rogue,  a  role,  however,  for  which  he  is 
clearly  destined  by  nature  from  the  beginning. 
The  education  of  Phidippides  is  to  be  in  the 
two  causes,  "  the  better,  whatever  it  may  be; 
and  the  worse,  which,  by  maintaining  what  is 
unjust,  overturns  the  better.  If  not  both,  at 
any  rate  the  unjust  one  by  all  means." 

Next  to  the  Clouds,  the  most  important 
drama  of  Aristophanes,  regarded  from  the 
educational  viewpoint,  is  the  Frogs.  Here 
jEschylus  and  Euripides  are  revealed  in  the 
course  of  an  argument  in  which  they  criticise 
passages  in  one  another's  work.  Euripides 
objects  to  the  bombast  of  his  predecessor,  and 
claims  to  have  made  tragedy  more  intimate 
and  domestic;  ^Eschylus  retorts  with  charges 
of  skepticism,  sopliistry,  and  morbidness.  The 
Frogs  contains  another  passing  attack  on 
Socrates.  Aristophanes  throws  many  side- 
lights on  Greek  life  and  education. 

P.  R.  C. 
References:  — 
Ari.stoph.vnes.    Clouds,    Frogs,    Knights,    Acharniana, 

Birds,  etc. 
Collins.     Aristophanes.     (New  York,  1885.) 
■ft'HiTE.     The   "stage"    in    Aristophanes,   in   Hanard 

Studies,  1891,  vol.  2. 

ARISTOTLE.  —  Born  at  Stageira,  a  city 
of  Chalcitlicc,  in  384  B.C.  His  father  was 
physician  to  King  Amyntas  of  Macedon,  and 
he  doubtless  received  the  elements  of  a  scien- 
tific education  from  him.  At  the  age  of  18, 
he  was  sent  to  Athens,  which  had  lost  most  of 
its  political  im))ortance,  but  was  now-  recog- 
nized as  the  chief  center  of  higher  education  in 
Hellas.  There  he  joined  the  Academy,  which 
had  been  founded  by  Plato  iq.v.)  some  twenty 
years  earlier,  and  was  now  attracting  students 
from  every  cjuarter  of  the  Greek  world,  and  he 
remained  a  member  of  the  society  till  Plato's 
death  in  347  B.C.  Like  many  other  students 
of  the  Academy,  he  also  attended  the  other 
great  educational  institution  of  Athens,  the 
school  of  Isocrates  (q.v.).  When  Plato  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew  Speusippus,  Aristotle 
left  Athens  with  Xenocrates,  and  betook  him- 


200 


ARISTOTLE 


ARISTOTLE 


self  to  the  court  of  Hcrmeias  of  Atarneus,  one 
of  the  many  princes  who  had  been  trained  in 
the  Academy.  Four  years  later,  when  he  was 
living  at  iMitylene,  he  received  a  call  to  under- 
take the  education  of  Alexander  of  Macedon, 
then  a  lad  of  13,  and  this  engagement  seems 
to  have  lasted  for  3  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  he  returned  to  Stageira.  In  339  b.c. 
Speusippus  died,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  head- 
ship of  the  Academy  by  Xenocrates,  and  4 
years  later  Aristotle  returned  to  Athens  and 
founded  a  rival  school  in  the  Lyceum.  Most 
of  the  writings  which  have  been  preserved 
are  the  lectures  which  he  prepared  for  delivery 
in  the  school,  though  he  also  wrote  other  works, 
for  a  wider  public,  which  are  often  quoted. 
On  the  death  of  Alexander  (323  B.C.),  the  anti- 
Macedonian  party  forced  Aristotle  to  leave 
Athens,  and  he  died  the  next  year  near  Chalcis 
in  Eubcea. 

Aristotle's  practical  experience  as  an  educa- 
tor thus  falls  into  two  well-marked  stages,  his 
tutorship  to  the  young  prince,  and  his  headship 
of  the  Lyceum.  It  is  not  likely  that  he  had 
any  great  influence  over  Alexander,  and  his 
allusions  to  the  unpleasantnesses  of  court  life 
suggest  that  he  did  not  feel  at  ease  in  the  posi- 
tion as  governor  of  a  prince.  In  any  case,  the 
ideals  which  inspired  Alexander  were  by  no 
means  those  of  Aristotle,  as  we  know  them 
from  the  Politics  and  elsewhere,  but  rather 
those  of  Plato  and  Isocrates.  It  was  Isocrates 
who  had  preached,  in  season  and  out  of  season, 
the  gospel  of  a  regenerated  Hellenism  founded 
on  the  conquest  of  the  Persian  Empire;  and 
Plato's  views  were  similar,  though  he  busied 
himself  chiefly  with  the  other  side  of  the  same 
problem,  the  preservation  of  Western  Hellas 
from  the  Carthaginians.  Such  ideas  were 
quite  foreign  to  Aristotle's  mind,  and  he  no- 
where shows  any  interest  in  the  work  which 
his  illustrious  pupil  was  doing  during  the  years 
when  he  was  lecturing  in  the  Lyceum.  Indeed, 
he  barely  mentions  him  at  all;  for  the  Rhetoric 
dedicated  to  Alexander  is  not  his  work,  and  the 
prefatory  epistle  is  a  forgery.  In  two  im- 
portant respects  his  views  were  diametrically 
opposed  to  those  of  his  pupil :  he  regards  the 
distinction  between  Hellenes  and  barbarians 
as  fundamental,  and  he  still  clings  to  the  old 
ideal  of  a  self-sufficing  city  state.  He  nowhere 
shows  the  least  appreciation  of  the  fact,  which 
was  clearly  seen  both  by  Plato  and  Isocrates, 
that  the  ri.sing  power  was  military  monarchy. 

Aristotle's  work  as  head  of  the  Lyceum  was 
of  a  more  fruitful  character.  It  is  true  that 
the  Lyceum  was  far  less  successful  than  the 
Academy  in  training  practical  legislators  and 
statesmen,  but  it  soon  became  a  great  center 
of  research,  especially  in  biology  and  history. 
Speu.sippus  had  no  doubt  led  the  way  in 
biology;  but,  on  the  whole,  it  is  true  to  say 
that  zoology  was  the  creation  of  Aristotle, 
while  the  foundations  of  botany  were  laid  by 
his    associate    and    successor,    Theophrastus. 


The  indifference  of  the  Lyceum  to  the  advance 
made  by  the  Academy  in  mathematics  pre- 
vented it,  indeed,  from  contributing  much  to 
the  exact  sciences,  anfl  Aristotle's  astronomical 
and  cosmological  teaching  was  distinctly  retro- 
grade; but  in  everything  that  depended  upon 
the  accumulation  and  classification  of  facts  and 
observations  the  Lyceum  easily  led. 

Aristotle's  scheme  of  education  is  taken  in 
the  main  from  Plato,  and  in  particular  from 
that  given  in  the  Laws,  for  which  the  reader 
may  l3e  referred  to  the  article  on  Plato.  What 
must  be  noted  especially  liere  are  the  points  of 
difference,  which  present  several  features  of 
interest. 

To  ArLstotle,  as  to  Plato,  education  is  a 
branch  of  the  practical  science  of  politics,  that 
is,  the  art  of  securing  happiness  {€v8aLfjiovla) 
for  a  community  of  citizens.  There  is  an  im- 
portant difference,  however,  in  the  way  in 
which  Aristotle  regards  this  end.  To  Plato  it 
was  a  good  "  state  "  or  "  condition  "  of  the 
soul  (f^is  r^s  i/'Dx^s) ;  to  Aristotle  it  is  rather 
the  "activity"  (ivfpyeia)  proceeding  from  such 
a  state.  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that 
ArLstotle's  ideal  was  more  practical  than 
Plato's.  On  the  contrary,  we  find  that  to  him 
the  highest  form  of  activity  is  "contemplation  " 
{Oimpua),  while  Plato  always  insists  that  the 
results  of  scientific  contemplation  must  be 
made  serviceable  to  the  community  and  to 
mankind.  Both  Plato  and  Aristotle,  however, 
are  agreed  that  two  kinds  of  goodness,  which 
Aristotle  calls  goodness  of  character  and  good- 
ness of  intellect  (in  scholastic  phrase,  moral 
and  intellectual  virtue), are  necessary,  and  that 
the  first  is  to  be  produced  by  habituation 
(iOia-fj.o'i) ,  the  second  by  teaching.  As  this 
implies  that  we  must  do  good  things  before 
we  are  good,  in  order  to  become  good,  the 
necessity  of  education  is  apparent. 

This  subordination  of  education  to  politics 
has  some  very  important  consequences.  Plato 
had  given  a  scheme  of  education  for  the 
"  Guardians "  in  the  Republic,  which  deals 
with  the  ideal  state;  in  the  Laws  he  set  himself 
to  construct  a  second-best  state,  and  the 
scheme  of  education  differs  accordingly.  In 
the  same  way,  Aristotle  teaches  that  each  form 
of  state — aristocratic,  democratic,  and  the 
rest  —  has  a  special  kind  of  education  appro- 
priate to  it.  It  is  only  in  the  best  state,  where 
the  good  man  and  the  good  citizen  are  identical, 
that  the  right  education  will  necessarily  be 
that  which  is  best  for  the  individual  as  such. 
It  will  also  follow  that  education  is  a  matter  of 
public  concern  and  cannot  be  left  to  private 
control,  though  Aristotle  admits  at  the  end  of 
the  Ethics  that,  in  an  imperfect  state,  where 
education  is  neglected,  fathers  of  families  must 
do  their  best  to  perform  the  functions  of  do- 
mestic legislators. 

Aristotle's  scheme,  so  far  as  it  is  preserved, 
is  to  be  found  in  the  Seventh  and  Eighth  Books 
of  the  Politics,  and  follows  very  closely  on  the 


201 


ARISTOTLE 


ARISTOTLE 


lines  of  Plato's  sohemp  as  given  in  the  Seventh 
Book  of  the  Laws.  Both  begin  witli  infancy, 
though  Aristotle  does  not  go  nearly  so  niueh 
into  detail  on  tliis  subjeet  as  Plato.  A  milk 
diet,  plenty  of  movement,  and  exposure  to 
cold  are  his  main  points.  Up  to  the  age  of  .">, 
the  child  is  too  young  for  compulsory  exercises 
of  anj'  sort;  these  would  only  hinder  its 
growth.  Games  are  the  chief  means  of  educa- 
tion at  this  stage,  and  these  must  be  approved 
l)y  the  Inspector  of  Children.  Aristotle  agrees 
with  Plato  that  they  should  for  the  most  jjart 
be  imitations  of  what  the  child  will  have  to  do 
when  it  is  older,  but  he  thinks  it  a  mistake  to 
try  to  prevent  children  from  cr\-ing  and  kick- 
ing freely.  The.se  things  help  their  growth. 
Aristotle  clearly  assumes  that  the  chiklren  are 
to  be  brought  up  at  home,  and  not  in  public 
infant  schools,  as  Plato  proposed;  but  he  has 
a  strong  feeling  of  the  danger  of  letting  them 
associate  much  with  servants,  and  he  insists 
that  they  must  be  safeguarded  from  all  indecent 
words  and  sights.  From  the  age  of  5  till  that 
of  7,  they  should  look  on  at  the  exercises  in 
which  they  will  soon  have  to  take  part. 

Education  proper  begins  at  the  age  of  7. 
We  have  seen  already  that  it  is  to  be  under 
public  supervision;  but  "there  is  a  dispute 
about  subjects  "  ( fjuiOi'maTa) .  Are  we  to  keep 
the  intellect  or  the  character  chiefly  in  view? 
Are  we  to  regard  the  utility  of  the  subjects,  or 
some  higher  ciuality  in  them  ?  Aristotle  seeks 
to  answer  these  questions  by  considering  the 
subjects  actually  taught  in  his  time.  These 
are  (1)  reading  and  writing,  (2)  gymnastics, 
(3)  music,  to  which  some  add  (4)  drawing. 
Reading  is  plainly  to  be  justified  on  utilitarian 
grounds,  and  so  is  drawing.  Gymnastics  is 
supposed  to  make  brave  soldiers,  ^^'hen  we 
come  to  music,  however,  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  anj'  direct  utility,  so  there  is  at  least  one 
of  the  commonly  received  subjects  which  must 
be  justified  on  other  than  utilitarian  grounds. 
Nor  is  the  value  of  the  others  purely  utilitarian. 
Reading  has  a  higher  end,  and  so  has  drawing. 
It  serves  not  merely  to  save  us  from  making 
blunders  in  our  purchases,  or  to  prevent  our 
being  cheated  in  buying  or  selling  furniture, 
but  also  to  train  us  in  the  perception  of  bodily 
beauty. 

The  education  of  the  body  must  precede  that 
of  the  mind,  so  gymnastics  and  drill  are  essen- 
tial at  this  stage.  We  must  be  careful,  however, 
not  to  allow  hard  and  brutal  exercises,  which 
spoil  the  children's  appearance  and  stunt  their 
growth.  Up  to  the  age  of  puberty,  only  the 
lighter  exercises  are  to  be  allowed.  The  list 
of  Olympic  Victors  shows  that  the  same  person 
has  very  rarely  been  successful  both  in  the 
contests  of  boys  and  in  those  of  men,  and  this 
is  a  clear  indication  that  severe  training  is  bad 
for  young  boys.  The  time  for  severe  gymnastic 
training  does  not  begin  till  three  years  after 
puberty,  and  this  three  years'  interval  is  to 
be  devoted  to  the  "other  subjects."     It  is  to 


be  noted  here  that  Aristotle  differs  from  Plato 
in  keeping  gymnastic  training  more  sharply 
separated  from  other  subjects,  which  only  find 
a  place  between  the  two  periods  of  gymna.'^tic 
training.  He  held  that  it  was  impossible  to 
exert  the  mind  and  the  body  at  the  same  time. 
Plato's  rule  was,  on  the  contrary,  "never  to 
move  the  mind  without  the  body  or  the  bodj- 
without  the  mind,"  and  he  begins  the  "other 
subjects"  at  the  age  of  10.  lie  also  assumes 
that  mathematics  will  be  begun  at  the  age  of 
18,  when  Aristotle's  pupil  would  be  .start- 
ing on  his  gymnastic  training  and  unable  to 
attend  to  anything  else.  In  both  Plato  and 
Aristotle  we  note  that  a  far  sharper  line  is  drawn 
between  adolescence  and  early  manhood  than 
with  us,  and  that  although  adolescence  was 
presumably  earlier  with  the  Greeks  than  among 
us.  There  is  little  doubt  that  the  prolongation 
of  boyhood  to  an  age  when  most  of  our  pupils 
have  to  be  earning  their  living  was  the  secret  of 
the  physical  perfection  to  which  the  Greeks 
attained,  and  Aristotle  is  a  great  deal  more 
conservative  in  this  matter  than  Plato. 

We  have  seen  that  music  has  no  obvious 
practical  utility,  but  its  end  is  not  merely 
pleasure,  either.  It  is  pleasant,  of  course,  and 
may  therefore  be  used  for  puri)oses  of  relaxa- 
tion, but  that  is  not  its  function  in  a  scheme 
of  education.  Again,  if  we  consider  what  is  the 
liighest  function  of  music,  we  see  that  it  is  to 
furnish  a  means  of  employing  leisure  nobly 
(a^oXij,  Suxyaiftj).  The  end  of  life  is  not  work 
or  business;  for  we  are  busy,  as  nature  teaches 
us,  only  in  order  that  we  may  attain  to  leisure, 
and  then  our  occupation  should  be  with  some- 
thing that  has  value  in  itself  and  not  merely 
as  a  means  to  something  else.  But  this  is  not 
the  educational  function  of  music,  either:  for 
the  young  are  not  concerned  with  the  noble  use 
of  leisure,  and  it  is  not  even  necessary  for  them 
to  learn  music  as  a  preparation  for  it.  They 
might  learn  to  play  later  in  life;  or,  so  far  as 
the  noble  use  of  leisure  goes,  they  might  content 
themselves  with  listening  to  professional  per- 
formances, which  will  necessarily  be  better  than 
their  own.  There  is  a  third  function  of  music, 
the  "  purgative,"  when  it  is  used  to  effect  a  dis- 
charge of  overwrought  feelings  of  pity  and  fear, 
but  that  cannot  be  its  educational  function, 
either.  Music  can  only  be  justified  here  in  so 
far  as  it  contributes  to  the  training  of  character, 
and  we  do  find  music  presents  in  a  higher 
degree  than  anything  else  direct  likenesses  of 
different  types  of  feeling  and  character.  In 
this  sense,  it  is  more  directly  imitative  than 
painting  or  sculpture,  which  only  express  differ- 
ences of  character  in  an  indistinct  manner.  It 
is  therefore  by  learning  to  take  pleasure  in  the 
right  kinds  of  music  that  the  young  can  most 
easily  be  led  to  take  pleasure  in  right  feelings 
and  good  characters,  and  to  feel  pain  at  the 
opposite. 

To  a  modern,  this  is  the  most  difficult  part 
of  the  Greek  theory  of  education  to  appreciate; 


202 


ARISTOTLE 


ARITHMETIC 


but  it  is  no  peculiar  theory  of  Aristotle's,  but 
common  to  all  Greek  writers.  They  hardl.y 
ever  mention  the  art  of  sculpture  at  all,  though 
we  are  accustomed  to  think  of  that  as  the  art 
in  which  they  excelled.  Painting  is  referred  to 
rather  more  frequently,  but  the  typical  art  is 
always  music.  And  yet  Greek  music  was 
hardly  what  we  should  call  by  that  name  at  all. 
Harmony  was  unknown,  and  the  melodies  were 
most  primitive.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
rhythms  were  much  more  complicated  than 
ours;  and,  above  all,  the  Greeks  had  an  elab- 
orate system  of  "modes"  or  scales  differing  in 
pitch  and  position.  It  was  in  these  that  they 
chiefly  felt  the  power  of  music  to  imitate  feel- 
ings and  character;  and,  if  we  think  of  the 
difference  in  feeling  which  we  still  recognize  in 
major  and  minor  scales,  we  may  partly  under- 
stand what  they  meant. 

Aristotle  holds,  then,  that  the  young  must  be 
accustomed  to  scales  which  express  good  char- 
acter, and  he  criticises  Plato  for  allowing  the  use 
of  the  orgiastic  Phrygian  mode  in  education.  It 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  our  pupils 
should  be  taught  to  play  upon  the  lyre,  and, 
above  all,  to  tune  it  in  the  proper  key.  The 
educational  effect  upon  the  character  is  thus 
much  strengthened;  and  besides,  it  is  really 
impossible  to  distinguish  good  and  bad  music 
without  being  able  to  play  a  little.  We  must 
remember,  however,  that  we  do  not  wish  to 
train  professional  musicians  any  more  than 
professional  athletes.  Professional  excellence 
in  anything  is  alwaj^s  one-sided  and  therefore 
fatal  to  a  harmonious  education  of  mind  and 
body. 

At  this  point  Aristotle's  scheme  of  education 
comes  abruptly  to  an  end.  Even  his  discussion 
of  music  is  incomplete;  for  he  has  not  yet 
discussed  either  rhythm  or  words,  under  which 
last  head  he  must  have  treated  everything  that 
we  call  literature.  The  Poetics  does  not  help 
us;  for  that  is  a  practical  course  of  lectures  in- 
tended to  teach  older  people  how  to  write 
tragedies,  and  has  nothing  to  do  with  education. 
As  Mr.  Xewman  puts  it,  "Our  latest  glimpse 
of  the  youthful  object  of  Aristotle's  care  is  ob- 
tained at  the  moment  when,  at  the  age  of  19 
or  thereabouts,  he  is  committed  for  the  first 
time  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  sterner  form 
of  gymnastics,  and  left  we  do  not  exactly  know 
for  what  period,  but  probably  till  the  age  of  21, 
in  the  hands  of  the  gymnastic  trainer."  Either 
the  Politics  was  never  finished,  or  the  end  of  it 
has  been  lost.  What  is  still  more  serious  is 
that  we  know  nothing  at  all  of  Aristotle's  scheme 
for  the  training  of  the  intellect,  which  could  not 
have  failed  to  be  interesting,  and  would  prob- 
ably have  been  more  independent  of  Plato  than 
his  plan  for  the  training  of  character.  It  is 
probable  that  other  sciences  than  the  mathe- 
matical would  play  some  part,  and  that  Ari.s- 
totle  would  make  more  of  literary  and  historical 
studies  than  Plato  did.  It  is  certain  that  he  would 
have  championed  the  cause  of  science  as  an  end 


in  itself  in  a  far  more  exclusive  spirit.  His  ideal 
seems  to  have  been  that  of  a  well-ordered  state, 
in  which  a  few  choice  spirits  were  set  apart  for 
purely  scientific  work,  and  did  not  have  to 
trouble  themselves  about  practical  matters. 
This  would  never  have  contented  Plato.  His 
ideal  of  science  was  at  least  as  high,  but  he  held 
that  those  who  had  contemplated  the  Good 
must  "descend  into  the  Cave  in  their  turn" 
for  the  service  of  humanity.  Aristotle's  sharp 
separation  between  theoretical  and  practical  wis- 
dom enabled  him  to  dispense  with  this  necessity. 
It  can  hardly  be  said  that  Aristotle's  educa- 
tional views  have  had  any  influence  ujion  peda- 
gogic theory  till  quite  recently.  The  school 
which  he  founded  devoted  itself  more  and  more 
to  historical  research,  and  soon  ceased  to  be 
otherwise  important.  Nor  had  his  theories  any 
importance  in  the  Middle  Ages.  There  was 
indeed  a  Latin  version  of  the  Politics  as  early  as 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  it  had  considerable 
influence  upon  contemporary  political  thought; 
but  we  look  in  vain  for  traces  of  its  educational 
teaching.  The  medieval  scheme  of  education 
was  Greek,  but  not  Aristotelian,  in  its  origin. 
It  goes  back  through  the  Neo-Platonists  to 
Plato  himself,  and  through  him  to  the  Pythag- 
oreans, and  it  was  already  fixed  on  traditional 
lines  before  the  revival  of  Aristotelian  study. 
In  modern  times  the  Politics  has  chiefly  served 
as  the  channel  through  which  the  more  mature 
ideas  of  Plato  on  education  have  become  known; 
for  the  Laws  are  comparatively  little  read. 
The  real  bearing  of  Aristotle's  discussions  can 
only  be  fully  seized,  however,  by  reading  them 
in  the  light  of  his  master's  teaching.  J.  B. 

References:  — 

Br.\dlet,  Aristotle^ s  Conception  of  the  State,  in  Abbott '3 

Hellenica.     (London,  ISSO.) 
Burnet,  J.    Aristotle  on  Education.     (Cambridge,  1903.) 
D.wiDSON,   T.      Aristotle  and    the  Ancient  Educational 

Ideals.     (New  York,  1892.) 
The  Education  of  the  Greek  People.     (New  York, 

1894.) 
Dickinson,  G.  L.     The  Greek  View  of  Life.     (London, 

1896.) 
JowETT,  B.      The  Politics  of  Aristotle,  I.      (Oxford.  1885.) 
Monroe,   P.     Text-Book  in   the  History  of  Education. 

(New  York,  1906.) 
Source  Book  for  the   History  of  Education  for  the 

Greek  and  Roman  Period.      (New  York.   1901.) 
Welldon,  J.    B.    C.     Nicomachcan  Ethics  of  Aristotle. 

(London,  1906.) 

ARITHMETIC.  —  History.  —  Arithmetic  is 
the  oldest  of  all  sciences,  and  for  commercial 
purposes  at  least  it  was  well  developed  in  the 
earliest  historic  period  of  which  we  have  any 
exact  information.  In  the  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions of  Babylon,  for  example,  tables  of  squares 
and  cubes,  written  on  a  decimal-sexagesimal 
system,  are  extant  that  date  back  to  about  2000 
B.C.,  —  the  Senkereh  tablets  in  the  British 
Museum  discovered  in  L854.  More  recently 
Hilprecht  has  deciphered  numerous  tablets 
from  Nippur  that  are  probably  somewhat  older, 
and  that  show  a  very  advanced  system  of  mul- 
tiplication and  division  tables,  certain  multipli- 


203 


ARITHMETIC 


ARITHMETIC 


cands  reaching  nearly  to  200,000.  It  was  perhaps 
about  the  time  that  the  clay  tablets  contain- 
ing these  tables  were  prepared  that  the  orig- 
inal papyrus  was  written  from  wliieh  the 
Egyptian  scribe  Ahmes  iq.v.)  copied  his  work. 
In  this  copy  of  about  1700  u.c.  an  advanced 
state  of  arithmetic  is  set  forth.  AA'e  have,  how- 
ever, earlier  evidence  than  either  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  or  the  papyrus,  since  a  piece  of 
pottery  on  which  some  numerals  are  written  and 
which  dates  from  the  first  dynasty  of  Egypt 
has  recently  been  brought  to  light.  We  may 
therefore  be  assure<l  that  the  science  was 
quite  well  developed  in  the  earliest  historic 
times. 

The  definite  history  of  the  subject  assumes 
satisfactory  form  when  we  reach  the  Greek 
civilization.  Here  it  first  appears  m  the  form 
of  practical  calculation,  or  AoyioriKj;  (logistic) 
as  the  Greeks  called  it,  from  Aoyos  (calculation, 
reason,  speech).  From  this  term  the  auditors 
of  accounts  in  Athens  were  called  Xoyunai 
The  theory  of  numbers  was  clearly  distinguished 
from  logistic  and  was  called  apidfuqTiKi]  (arith- 
metic), from  a.pidi).6<i  (number).  Logistic  was 
tauglit  to  those  going  into  trade,  as  the  use  of 
the  swanpan  (see  Ab.\cus)  is  taught  in  China 
to-day,  but  was  not  considered  part  of  a  hberal 
education.  We  have  no  ancient  treatise  ex- 
tant on  the  Greek  logistic,  although  we  are 
familiar  with  some  of  the  methods  of  computa- 
tion through  certain  works  on  metrics. 

The  apL$ixr)ri>cri  is,  howevcr,  well  known  to 
us.  It  formed,  with  geometry,  all  that  was 
known  of  pure  mathematics  in  the  philosophic 
schools  of  Greece.  It  first  appeared  in  a  large 
way  in  the  school  of  Pythagoras  (q.v.),  in  the 
sixth  century  B.C.,  and  was  very  likely  brought 
by  him  from  Babylon  and  Egypt.  He  based  his 
philosophy  on  the  postulate  that  number  is  the 
cause  of  the  varied  qualities  of  matter,  and  thus 
the  scientific  study  of  number  became  a  neces- 
sary introduction  to  his  subtler  theories,  even 
as  geometry  was  to  Plato's.  Humfrey  Baker 
was  correct  in  spirit,  although  historically  at 
fault,  when  he  wrote  in  The  Wcllspring  of 
Sciences  (1568),  "  The  noble  philosopher  Pithag- 
oras  who  caused  this  inscription  to  be  written 
(vpon  his  schoole  doore  where  hee  taught 
philosophy)  in  greate  letters.  Nemo  Arilh- 
melicae  ignarus  hie  ingrediatur:  Let  none  enter 
heere,  that  is  ignorant  in  Arithmetike,"  a 
paraphrase  of  Plato's  well-known  statement 
concerning  geometry.  Pytliagoras,  or  at  any 
rate  his  followers,  considered  5  the  cause  of 
color,  6  of  cold,  7  of  mind  and  health  and  light, 
8  of  love  and  friendship  and  invention,  and  so 
on.  Earth  was  held  to  be  the  product  of  the 
cube,  fire  of  the  pjTamid,  air  of  the  octahedron, 
water  of  the  icosahedron,  and  the  universe  of 
the  dodecahedron,  and  this  fanciful  theory  was 
connected  with  arithmetic  through  polygonal 
and  solid  numbers.  Thus  there  was  not  only 
the  square  number,  but  also  the  triangular, 
pentagonal,  and  so  on. 


Triangular  Numbers        .'.    .V, 

•  •  • 

Square  Numbers  '.'.    '.'.', 

Pentagonal  Numbers       '.'.    '.'.'. 

•  •  • 
•          •  •  • 

Hexagonal  Numbers         V     V 

In  the  same  way  there  were  not  only  cube 
numbers,  but  also  pyramidal,  parallclopipedal, 
etc.  I\Iuch  interest  attached  to  odd  numbers, 
and  in  particular  to  primes,  these  being  more 
difficult  to  manipulate.  The  primes  below  10 
were  those  that  appealed  most  to  the  popular 
knowledge,  whence,  excluding  2  as  an  even 
number,  3,  5,  and  7  were  held  in  the  highest 
esteem.  Of  these,  5  was  half  of  the  common 
radix,  10,  and  Jience  in  general  was  not  so 
mysterious,  although  the  Pythagoreans  made 
much  of  it.  Three  and  7  were  therefore  the  ob- 
jects of  popular  superstitious  respect  in  ancient 
days,  and  the  tradition  has  maintained  its  place 
as  the  race  has  developed. 

The  greatest  writer  on  aritlunetic  among  the 
Greeks  was  Nicomachus  iq.v.),  who  flourished 
about  100  A.D.  He  endeavoured  to  do  for  tliis 
science  what  Euclid  had  done  for  geometry  and 
he  accordingly  embodied  in  his  treatise  the 
arithmetical  lorethat  had  accumulated  in  Greece 
for  several  centuries.  The  effort  was  not  suc- 
cessful, save  as  it  preserved  much  of  the  early 
theory  of  numbers,  and  with  this  work  the 
Greek  contributions  to  the  science  practically 
close,  the  Arithmetic  of  Diophantus  iq.v.)  being 
more  strictly  speaking  an  algebra. 

The  chief  contribution  of  the  East  to  arith- 
metic was  the  numerals  (q.v.).  The  various 
treatises  of  India  (see  Ary.\bh.^tt.\,  Bh.\sk.\ra) 
show  that  the  principal  applications  in  that 
country,  between  500  a.d.  and  1200  a.d.  were 
interest,  measurements,  inheritance  problems, 
alligation,  and  rule  of  three. 

The  most  important  single  work  of  the  early 
Arab  supremacy  is  the  arithmetic  of  al-Khowa- 
razmi  (q.v.),  written  about  830  a.d.,  and  set- 
ting forth  the  importance  of  the  Hindu  numeral 
system.  Among  the  Arabs,  as  among  the  Hin- 
dus, the  operations  were  performed  in  a  more 
primitive  manner  than  at  present  (see  Addition, 
Subtraction',  Mlltiplication,  Division, 
Abacus),  but  the  general  principles  were  those 
in  use  to-day. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  in  Europe  arithmetic 
maintained  its  ancient  di^-ision  into  practical 
calculation  and  the  theory  of  numbers,  the 
latter  entering  into  the  courses  in  the  univer- 
sities. The  Church  schools  were  interested 
largely  in  computations  relating  to  the  calen- 
dar.    (See  Computus,  Calendar.) 

The  first  printed  arithmetic  appeared  at 
Treviso,  near  Venice,  in  1478.     The  first  similar 


204 


ARITHMETIC 


ARITHMETIC 


publication  appeared  in  Germany  at  Bamberg 
in  1482,  in  England  at  London  in  1522,  and  in 
France  at  Paris  in  1495.  There  were  earlier 
printed  works,  however,  that  contained  a  little 
work  upon  the  subject.  For  example,  Caxton 
published  an  anonymous  work  in  London  in 
1480,  entitled  The  Mirrour  of  the  World  or 
Thymage  of  the  Same,  containing  a  chapter 
beginning  with  the  words,  "And  after  of  Arsme- 
trike  and  whereof  it  proceedith."  The  first 
arithmetic  printed  in  America  appeared  in  the 
City  of  Mexico  in  1556,  —  Sumario  copedioso 
de  las  quetas  de  plata  y  oro  .  .  .  con  algunas 
reglas  tocantes  al  Aritmelica.  Fecho  por  Juan 
Diez  freile.  The  first  arithmetics  in  the 
English  language  are  probably  lost,  but  the 
first  one  of  note  was  Robert  Recorde's  The 
Grovnd  of  Aries,  of  which  no  copy  of  the  first 
edition  is  extant.  It  appeared  between  1540 
and  1542,  and  ran  through  many  editions. 
The  first  arithmetic  published  in  the  English 
language  in  America  was  a  reprint  of  Hodder's 
work  which  appeared  in  Boston  in  1719.  The 
first  one  by  an  American  author  was  Isaac 
Greenwood's  book,  published  at  Boston  in  1729. 

The  chapters  of  elementary  arithmetic  at 
first  showed  a  combination  of  the  Greek  theory 
of  numbers  and  the  art  of  calculating.  Thus 
there  was  more  or  less  treatment  of  prime  num- 
bers and  of  amicable,  deficient,  and  redundant 
numbers,  as  well  as  of  square  and  cube  roots  and 
proportion,  all  these  originally  belonging  to 
the  theory  of  numbers.  Along  with  these  came 
an  extensive  treatment  of  the  greatest  common 
divisor,  needed  in  the  Middle  Ages  when  large 
common  fractions  had  not  been  replaced  by 
decimals  (see  Fr.\ctio.\.s),  together  with  such 
semi-practical  subjects  as  alligation  (a  kind  of 
substitute  for  indeterminate  equations),  rule 
of  three  (a  non-theoretical  proportion),  the 
chain  rule,  and  other  topics  now  superseded 
by  more  modern  ones.  Gradually  the  commer- 
cial features  have  replaced  the  theoretical  ones, 
until  at  present  elementary  arithmetic  pre- 
tends, at  least,  to  be  a  practical  subject. 

General  Nature  as  now  Conceived.  —  As  has 
been  stated  under  the  history  of  arithmetic, 
the  present  tendency  in  America,  and  largely 
in  other  countries,  is  to  consider  arithmetic 
as  a  practical  subject  that  is  necessary  in  the 
life  of  every  citizen,  man  or  woman.  It  is 
not  denied,  save  by  a  few,  that  arithmetic  has 
a  culture  value  that  is  mingled  \\-ith  its  utilita- 
rian value,  although,  like  the  culture  of  letters, 
of  art,  and  of  science  in  general,  its  exact  bounds 
could  not  be  marked  out  even  if  it  were  desirable 
to  do  so.  That  the  form  of  reasoning  of  mathe- 
matics, the  habit  of  accuracy,  and  the  contact 
with  exact  truth  found  in  the  study  of  arith- 
metic affect  the  pupil  favorably  in  his  other 
work  would  hardlj'  he  questioned  by  any  fair- 
minded  person.  It  is  the  present  feeling,  how- 
ever, that  these  features  of  training  can  all  be 
secured  from  the  study  of  genuine,  modern, 
commercial  problems,  better  than  from  obsolete 


business  forms  and  better  than  from  mere 
puzzles.  The  best  textbook-makers  at  the 
present  time,  therefore,  are  attempting  to 
balance  fairly  the  abstract  drill  work  with  such 
concrete  problems  as  shall  show  the  real  appli- 
cations of  arithmetic  to  the  daily  life  surround- 
ing the  pupil. 

The  History  of  Teaching.  —  As  stated  in  the 
section  on  the  liistory  of  arithmetic,  the  subject 
was  taught  in  early  times  under  two  distinct 
aspects.  In  the  preparation  of  the  merchant 
and  those  who  had  to  do  with  land  measure  and 
building,  arithmetic  was  taught  purely  from  the 
side  of  calculation,  the  abacus  iq.v.)  playing  an 
important  part  in  most  countries.  This  phase 
of  the  subject  was  often  left  to  slaves,  to  those 
who  prepared  apprentices,  and  later  to  schools 
of  arithmetic  {Rcchenschidcn).  The  science  of 
numbers  was  taught  in  such  schools  of  philos- 
ophy as  those  of  Pythagoras  and  Plato,  in  such 
early  universities  as  that  at  Alexandria,  and  in 
the  medieval  universities  of  Europe. 

It  was  not  until  printed  books  appeared 
that  an  effort  was  made  to  unite  these  two 
phases.  One  result  of  printing  was  to  spread 
abroad  a  knowledge  of  the  superioritj'  of  the 
Arabic  numerals  over  the  Roman,  and  this  led 
to  the  abandoning  of  the  abacus.  The  effect 
on  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  was  not  fortunate 
in  one  respect,  since  the  giving  up  of  the  counters 
led  from  the  concrete,  visual,  palpable  arith- 
metic to  the  abstract  arithmetic  of  figures. 
Counting  and  reckoning  came  to  be  more 
matters  of  words  and  abstract  rules  than  before, 
and  arithmetic  was  probably  more  poorly 
taught  than  it  was  under  the  abacus  system. 

To  break  away  from  this  method  of  the  mere 
rule,  efforts  began  to  be  made  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and,  in  a  more  pronounced  way, 
early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  notably  in  the 
Francke  {q.v.)  institute  at  Halle.  These  efforts 
were  in  the  chrection  of  making  the  number 
concept  more  real  and  the  applications  of 
number  more  genuine.  Thus  in  the  Braun- 
schweig-Luneburg  school  decree  of  1737  there 
are  directions  for  beginning  number  work  by 
counting  the  fingers,  apples,  and  other  objects, 
and  for  basing  the  multiplication  table  upon 
addition.  Christian  Wolf  (q.v.)  (1728)  in- 
sisted upon  getting  at  the  foundation  principles 
of  number  by  questions  as  to  the  child's  reasons 
for  proceeding;  Christian  von  Clausberg  (1732) 
urged  that  a  clear  understanding  should 
accompany  each  rule;  and  Basedow  (q.v.) 
(1763)  emphasized  the  danger  of  having  the 
child  feel  that  he  proceeded  merely  on  the 
authority  of  his  teacher.  It  was  in  the  Phil- 
anthropin  at  Dessau,  however,  that  serious 
attempts  at  reform  were  first  made  in  any 
noteworthy  fashion.  The  leader  in  this  phase 
of  the  work  of  the  Philanthropinists  was 
Christian  Trapp  (1777).  He  advocated  teach- 
ing the  fundamental  operations  with  nuts  and 
other  objects  before  the  figures  were  learned, 
a   feature   emphasized    by    Pestalozzi   a   little 


205 


ARITHMETIC 


ARITHMETIC 


later.  Trapp  was  succeeded  by  Gottlieb 
Busse  (1779),  who  wrote  extensively  upon  pri- 
mary arithmetic,  and  who  introduced  the  so- 
called  number  pictures  by  which  he  brought 
to  the  child's  senses  a  group  of  dots  along  with 
the  figure,  a  scheme  that  is  still  found  helpful 
in  all  schools.  Much  credit  is  also  due  to 
Freiherr  von  Rochow  of  Rekahn  (q.v.)  near 
Brandenburg,  and  his  associates,  who  about 
this  time  sought  to  free  elementary  arithmetic 
from  the  mere  demands  of  mechanical  business 
and  raise  it  to  the  plane  of  a  culture  subject  in 
the  best  sense.  Mention  should  also  be  made 
of  the  work  of  Peter  ^"illaume  of  Halberstadt 
(1779),  who  insisted  that  arithmetic  "is  a 
practical  logic,"  and  based  all  of  his  work  -with 
numbers  upon  perception,  and  brought  oral 
arithmetic  forward  as  more  worthy  of  attention. 
In  this  movement  there  also  joined  Bernard 
Overberg  (q.v.)  of  Mlinster  (1793),  A.  H. 
Niemeyer  (q.v.)  (1802),  and  G.  F.  Dinter  (q.v.) 
(1806),  and  each  was  influential  in  preparing 
the  way  for  Pestalozzi  (q.v.).  It  is  to  the  latter 
(1803)  that  we  owe  the  greatest  impetus  in 
the  rational  teaching  of  arithmetic  to  young 
children.  The  essential  features  of  his  reform 
are  as  follows:  (1)  He  taught  arithmetic  to 
children  as  soon  as  they  entered  school,  basing 
his  work  on  perception.  (2)  He  insisted  upon 
a  knowledge  of  number  and  the  simplest  oper- 
ations, using  objects,  before  the  figures  were 
taught.  (3)  He  approached  the  subject  of 
fractions  in  the  same  way.  (4)  He  made  arith- 
metic the  most  prominent  subject  in  the  school, 
and  it  is  to  his  influence  that  its  present  promi- 
nence is  due.  (5)  He  emphasized  oral  arith- 
metic, a  movement  that  led  to  the  great  success 
of  Warren  Colburn  (q.v.)  in  the  United  States. 
The  next  noteworthy  name  is  that  of  Tillich 
(q.v.)  (1806),  who  attempted  to  improve  upon 
Pestalozzi  by  a  systematic  use  of  material, 
inventing  for  this  purpose  a  set  of  prismatic 
blocks  of  different  lengths  so  arranged  as  to 
make  prominent  the  decimal  feature  of  our 
number  system.  The  plan  failed,  as  all  such 
narrow  plans  do,  and  from  the  time  of  Tillich 
to  the  present  there  have  been  innumerable 
illustrations  of  this  law.  An  enthusiastic 
teacher  finds  some  device;  he  exalts  it  to  a 
"method";  it  succeeds  because  of  his  enthu- 
siasm; it  proceeds  fairly  well  in  the  hands  of 
his  pupils,  and  then  it  is  forgotten  save  for 
some  little  feature  that  becomes  impressed  upon 
the  permanent  educational  body.  Of  these 
semi-forgotten  methods  a  few  may  be  men- 
tioned. Turk  (1810)  did  not  -nish  arithmetic 
in  what  we  call  the  first  grade,  nor  before  the 
child  reached  the  age  of  10  years,  and  of  this 
idea  there  is  just  at  present  a  temporary  revival 
as  if  it  were  a  new  discovery,  although  it  was 
practically  universal  before  Pestalozzi.  Kawe- 
rau  (1816)  made  formal  culture  the  great  aim 
in  teaching,  and  his  extreme  views  provoked 
a  reaction  that  is  perhaps  reaching  its  climax 
at  the  present  time.     Krancke  (1819)  suggested 


the  concentric  circle  plan,  keeping  the  child 
in  the  number  space  1-10  until  that  was 
mastered,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  a  child's 
interest  in  and  need  for  counting  runs  far  be- 
yond his  work  in  the  operations  at  every  step 
in  his  progress.  Grube  (1842)  carried  Krancke's 
plan  to  an  extreme,  but  had  at  least  the  merit 
of  thoroughness.  He  used  objective  illustra- 
tion more  extensively  than  any  one  would  ad- 
vocate at  present,  and  attemjited  the  impossible 
task  of  having  a  pupil  master  each  number 
before  proceeding  to  the  next.  Knilling  (1897) 
and  Tanck  (1884)  carry  to  an  extreme  the  plan 
of  building  all  number  work  uiion  counting. 

The  arrangement  of  matter  in  the  textbook 
has  occupied  the  attention  of  writers  for  the 
past  half  century.  There  are  two  plans,  more 
or  less  connected.  The  first  and  oldest  is  the 
topical  arrangement,  the  one  that  was  followed 
for  thousands  of  years  in  the  teaching  of 
arithmetic.  This  has  the  advantage  of  a 
thorough  treatment  of  each  topic  as  it  is  met, 
thereafter  not  returning  to  it.  The  other  is 
the  "spiral  method,"  first  brought  into  promi- 
nence by  Ruhsam  in  1866.  It  has  the  advan- 
tage of  returning  to  each  topic,  each  time  with 
a  higher  treatment.  Neither  plan  has  ])roved 
successful  in  its  extreme  form,  as  might  have 
been  expected.  The  spiral  plan  has  had  to 
give  way  to  a  topical  plan  within  a  period  of  one 
year  or  two  years,  thereafter  again  reviewing 
some  or  all  topics.  This  has  given  rise  to  the 
favorite  three-book  series  in  the  American 
schools  of  to-day.  The  extreme  spiral  plan 
resulted  in  scraps  of  information  and  lack  of 
continuity  and  a  falling  off  in  interest  from 
want  of  a  feeling  of  mastery.  At  present,  in 
the  United  States,  the  tendency  is  to  merge  the 
two  plans,  preserving  the  strength  of  the  topical 
arrangement  within  each  half  year,  each  year, 
or  within  some  longer  period,  reviewing  sys- 
tematically and  on  a  higher  plan,  one  or  more 
times  according  to  the  subject,  all  of  the  impor- 
tant topics  of  arithmetic. 

Present  Status  in  the  Curriculum.  —  Placed 
in  a  position  of  preeminence  by  Pestalozzi, 
arithmetic  has  for  a  century  been  looked  upon 
as  the  most  important  sbbject  in  the  curric- 
ulum. In  spite  of  all  the  attacks  made  by 
modern  subjects  that  call  for  their  share  in  the 
course,  it  has  maintained  its  position  even  to 
the  present  time.  One  reason  for  this  is  its 
dcfiniteness;  it  has  an  exact,  well-arranged 
body  of  material,  and  it  has  proved  its  usa- 
bility. Other  subjects,  like  handwork  and 
nature  study,  however,  have  not  yet  developed 
in  such  way  as  to  present  definite  reasons  for 
being,  or  a  definite,  well-arranged  sequence 
of  topics.  For  this  reason  arithmetic  will 
probably  maintain  a  prominent  place  for  a 
long  time  to  come. 

It  is  not,  however,  to  be  expected  that  it 
should  keep  the  position  it  once  held.  There 
is  no  reason  why  it  should  take  the,  time  that 
it  does,  if  other  weU-defined  subjects  appear 


206 


ARITHMETIC 


ARITHMETIC 


that  can  justify  their  inclusion  in  the  curric- 
ulum. The  actual  business  part  of  arithmetic 
can  easily  be  taught  in  less  time  than  is  now 
given  to  the  subject,  and  arithmetic  must 
surrender  a  portion  of  the  time  it  occupies  as 
soon  as  these  other  topics  are  sufficiently 
ordered  and  thought  out  to  justly  claim  a  share. 

At  present  arithmetic  is  commonly  taught 
in  the  schools  of  the  United  States  during  the 
first  eight  school  years.  There  is  some  attempt 
to  return  to  the  pre-Pestalozzian  view,  ad- 
vocated also  by  Tiirk,  of  omitting  it  from  the 
first  school  year,  but  it  is  a  doctrinaire  idea 
that  is  not  taken  very  seriously.  There  is  also 
an  attempt  to  merge  algebra  and  arithmetic 
in  the  eighth,  or  the  seventh  and  eighth,  school 
years,  and  this  seems  likely  to  succeed,  in  spite 
of  the  efforts  of  some  writers  to  make  the 
algebra  rather  useless.  There  is  no  reason 
why  algeljraic  notation  should  not  come  to  the 
help  of  arithmetic  and  mensuration  in  the 
seventh  school  year,  but  there  is  a  good  reason 
why  algebra  should  not  replace  arithmetic 
at  this  time.  The  pupil  in  his  seventh  school 
year  begins  to  appreciate  the  larger  problems 
of  business,  and  they  must  be  taught  here  if 
ever.  Some  arithmetic  must  therefore  be 
retained  in  these  years,  and  particularly  the 
commercial  part  and  mensuration,  and  so  far 
as  algebra  can  throw  light  upon  these  subjects 
it  should  be  employed. 

There  is,  in  American  schools,  a  further  study 
of  arithmetic  in  commercial  classes  in  the  high 
school,  where  questions  of  banking,  invest- 
ments, bookkeeping,  commissions,  and  the 
like  are  better  understood. 

In  European  countries  the  movement  to 
imjjrove  the  curriculum  ls  progressing  most 
satisfactorily,  especially  in  Ciermany.  There 
the  obsolete  part  of  arithmetic  has  been  rather 
completely  eradicated.  Algebra  is  joined  to 
arithmetic  from  the  sixth  school  year,  the  word 
"  arithmetic  "  including  our  elements  of  algebra. 
In  general,  more  of  an  attempt  is  made  to  carry 
arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry  simulta- 
neously in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  school 
years,  than  in  our  common  schools.  This  is 
a  little  more  apparent  than  real,  however,  since 
we  are  now,  in  schools  like  those  of  New  York 
City,  improving  the  mensuration  to  a  point 
where  it  may  rank  with  the  early  geometry  of 
Germany,  and  are  adding  algebra  to  the  curric- 
ulum. In  France  the  arithmetic  seems  more 
theoretical  than  necessary,  but,  as  in  all  Con- 
tinental countries,  a  year  is  gained  over  the 
English  and  American  schools  by  the  use  of 
the  metric  system.  In  England  the  arith- 
metic seems  in  process  of  slow  improvement, 
although  a  great  deal  of  obsolete  matter  is 
found  in  the  textbooks.  The  far-reaching 
examination  system  in  that  country  seems 
responsible  for  the  retention  of  much  useless 
matter.  If  the  jirinciple  were  accepted  that  the 
mental  discipline  of  arithmetic  can  come  from 
a  modern  problem,  representing  real  conditions, 


as  well  as  from  an  obsolete  one,  it  would  seem 
that  the  English  textbooks  might  be  improved 
without  loss  of  that  thoroughness  which  is  such 
a  commendable  and  characteristic  feature. 

D.  E.  S. 
References: — ■ 

On  the  general  history  of  arithmetic  :  — 

B.\LL.  History  of  Mathematics.  (London,  various 
editions.) 

Cajori.  History  of  Elementary  Mathematics.  (New 
York,    1896.) 

C.u-rroR.  Geschichtc  der  Mathematik.  (Leipzig,  various 
editions.) 

Fink.     History  of  Mathematics.      (Chicago,  1900.) 

Sterner.     Geschiehte  der  Rechenkunst.     (Munich,  1891.) 

Unger.  Die  Mcthodik  der  praktischen  Arithmetik  in 
historiseher  Eniwickelung.      (Leipzig,    1888.) 

Various  other  general  and  special  histories  of  mathe- 
matics. 

On  the  important  sixteenth-century  arithmetics :  — 

J.\ckson.  The  Educational  Significance  of  Sixteenth 
Century  Arithmetic.      (New  York,    1906.) 

KucKUCR..  Die  Rechenkunst  im  sechzehnten  Jahrhun- 
dert.      (Berlin,  1874.) 

Smith.     Rara  Arithmeiica.     (Boston,  1909.) 

On  the  history  of  methods  of  teaching  arithmetic  :  — 

Janicke.     Grundsiige  der  Gcschichte   und  Methodik   des 

Rechenunterrichts.      (Gotha,    1879.) 
S.MITH.     Teaching   of  Elementary   Mathematics.      (New 

York,  1900.) 
Unger.     Work  above  cited. 

On  the  present  status :  — 

Branford.  a  Study  of  Mathematical  Education. 
(Oxford,  1908.) 

McLellan  and  Dewey.  Psychology  of  Number.  (New 
York,    1898.) 

McMuRRY.  Special  Method  in  Arithmetic.  (New 
Y'ork,  1905.) 

S.MITH.  The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic.  With  bibliog- 
raphy.    (New   Y'ork,    1909.) 

Stone.     Arithmetical  Abilities.      (New  York,  1908.) 

Y'oung.  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics.  (New  York, 
1907.) 

ARITHMETIC,  HYGIENE  OF.  —  The  hy- 
giene of  instruction  in  its  positive  aim  of  de- 
veloping habits  of  healthful  activity  scruti- 
nizes all  the  processes  of  learning  and  all 
methods  of  instruction  from  the  point  of  view 
of  healthful  development.  Even  in  a  subject 
like  arithmetic,  which  represents  par  excellence 
an  intellectual  branch  of  instruction,  the 
demands  of  hygiene  are  important. 

In  the  first  place  arithmetic  is  of  ancient 
origin,  and  from  its  history  an  undue  impor- 
tance has  often  been  assigned  to  it.  A  feeling 
of  the  transcendent  importance  of  this  subject 
has  prevailed  in  modern  times  even  among 
everyday  people  as  well  as  among  philosophers. 
In  the  minds  of  many  both  instinctive  and 
practical  interests  are  associated  with  it. 
Hence  it  has  come  to  pass  that  in  the  history  of 
the  schools  an  undue  amount  of  time  and 
attention  have  been  devoted  to  the  subject; 
and  a  considerable  ballast  of  unessential  or 
extraneous  material  has  crept  into  the  text- 
books. To-day  in  many  urban  schools  prob- 
ably from  one  sixth  to  one  fifth  of  the  total 
time  in  the  classroom  is  devoted  to  this  subject. 


207 


ARITHMETIC 


ARITHMETIC 


and  in  the  rural  schools  probably  often  con- 
siderably more.  Besides  this,  pupils  are  very  apt 
to  spend  considerable  time  in  home  study 
in  arithmetic.  Recently  voices  have  been 
raised  against  exaggerated  views  of  its  value. 
According  to  Sir  William  Hamilton,  mathe- 
matics is  not  aseful  for  training  the  jiowers  of 
oliservation,  nor  for  cultivating  the  reasoning 
power;  so  that  even  the  traditional  significance 
of  the  subject  is  questioned  liy  competent 
authorities.  As  an  instrument  of  mental 
culture  mathematics  can  pretend  to  but  a  single 
benefit.  This  study  "  if  pursued  in  moderation, 
and  if  efficiently  counteracted,  may  be  bene- 
ficial in  the  correction  of  a  certain  vice  and  in 
the  formation  of  its  corresponding  virtue.  The 
vice  is  the  habit  of  mental  distraction;  the 
virtue,  the  habit  of  continuous  attention." 
This  beneficial  effect  of  mathematics  in  train- 
ing attention  is  recognized  by  hygiene  and 
strongly  commended.  The  exaggerated  ideas 
of  the  efficacy  of  arithmetic  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  mind  and  the  resulting  over-pressure 
and  premature  training  are  strongly  con- 
demned by  hygiene.  With  the  many  subjects 
that  always  crowd  the  curriculum,  the  question 
whether  too  much  time  is  not  spent  on  arith- 
metic and  whether  improper  material  is  not 
often  presented,  although  primarily  pedagogical, 
liecomes  hygienic  also. 

Again,  certain  individuals  seem  to  have  little 
ability  for  work  in  mathematics,  and  others 
seem  to  be  in  special  danger  of  nervous  over- 
strain from  work  in  this  subject.  An  English 
physician,  Dr.  Sturgis,  has  studied-  chorea  in 
children,  and  many  of  these  cases  he  has  found 
due,  as  he  thinks,  to  causes  connected  with  the 
school  work,  and  arithmetic  he  deems  an  espe- 
cial factor  in  producing  the  disorder.  In  case 
of  a  nervous  child  he  mauitains  that  working 
sums  is  liable  to  cause  chorea.  In  the  case  of 
some  children,  as  pointed  out  by  General 
Walker,  work  in  arithmetic  is  a  frequent  cause 
of  worry  and  interference  with  sleep.  When 
children  do  sums  in  their  dreams,  this  is  a 
danger  signal.  All  such  obvious  causes  of 
injury  to  health  are  condemned  by  hygiene, 
but  it  demands  special  attention  to  some  less 
obvious  but  more  general  results  of  certain 
methods  of  instruction. 

Pedagogy  is  concerned  with  the  direct  results 
of  instruction.  But  besides  the  primary  results 
of  instruction  in  any  subject,  there  are,  as  has 
been  pointed  out  l)y  Dr.  Baade,  certain  second- 
ary effects  of  instruction,  certain  by-products, 
to  use  the  language  of  industry,  which  are  often 
of  great  importance.  In  arithmetic  there  is  a 
good  opportunity  to  study  the  latter.  Certain 
habits  of  interference  of  association,  certain 
arrests,  as  they  have  been  called  by  Dr.  Triplett, 
illustrate  very  well  these  secondary  effects  of 
certain  methods  and  processes  of  learning. 

Number  forms  sometimes  illustrate  the  second- 
ary effects  of  instruction.  Such  habits  repre- 
sent  not   only   so   much   mental   ballast,    but 


usually  also  interference  of  association  and  often 
the  germs  of  pathological  neuroses.  They  are 
probably  jiretty  common.  The  counting  habit, 
arithmotnnnia,  so-called,  is  likely  to  have  several 
representatives  in  each  class,  according  to  Trip- 
lett's  investigations.  This  is  a  real  handicap, 
filling  the  mind  with  quantitative  ideas  to  the 
exclusion  of  causal  relations. 

Hygiene  is  especially  concerned  with  the 
problem  of  the  age  when  work  in  arithmetic 
should  be  begun.  In  order  to  answer  this 
question  it  is  necessary  to  consider  briefly 
the  mental  operations  involved  in  arithmetical 
work.  In  the  simpler  study  of  number  and 
number  relations,  in  addition,  subtraction,  and 
the  rest,  the  process  of  learning  is  chiefly  one 
of  acquiring  habitual  a.ssociations.  What  hj-- 
giene  demands  here  is  that  these  should  be 
formed  naturally  and  that  interference  of  as- 
sociation or  mental  confusion  shall  be  avoided. 

Again,  in  teaching  arithmetic  to  very  young 
children  all  sorts  of  objective  methods  and 
devices  have  been  developed,  and  these  are 
deemed  necessary  in  such  instruction.  Still 
further,  it  appears  that  the  number  forms  and 
the  like  which  are  common  in  adults  are  devel- 
oped in  the  early  years  of  instruction.  From 
these  are  likely  to  develop  artificial  and  gro- 
tesque habits  of  thought,  as  illustrated  by  Dr. 
Triplett's  so-called  arrests  and  bj'  some  of  the 
number  forms. 

The  problem  of  the  proper  age  for  begiiming 
arithmetic  is  then  something  like  this.  At 
what  age  can  a  child  be  drilled  in  arithmetical 
processes  without  the  aid  of  artificial  devices 
and  the  like  which  are  likely  to  persist  as  arrests 
or  habits  of  interference  of  association;  and  at 
what  age  should  the  study  of  logic  be  begun; 
at  what  age  does  the  child  have  a  nascent  inter- 
est for  arithmetical  work?  We  have  at  pres- 
ent no  adequate  data  for  answering  these 
questions,  but  until  further  investigations  have 
been  made  the  verdict  of  hygiene  is  that  ordi- 
narily formal  instruction  in  arithmetic  should 
be  postponed  until  at  least  the  age  of  8  or  10. 
The  Italian  physiologist,  Mosso,  President  G. 
Stanley  Hall,  Professor  Patrick,  and  others 
agree  in  condemning  formal  instruction  in  this 
subject  before  this  age.  "  Mathematics  in 
every  form,"  writes  Professor  Patrick,  "  is  a 
subject  conspicuously  ill-fitted  to  the  child 
mind.  It  deals  not  with  real  things,  but 
with  abstractions.  When  referred  to  concrete 
objects,  it  concerns  not  the  objects  themselves, 
but  their  relations  to  each  other.  It  involves 
comparison,  analysis,  abstraction.  .  .  .  The 
grotesque  number  forms  w'hich  so  many  chil- 
dren have,  and  which  originate  in  this  period, 
are  evidence  of  the  necessity  which  the  child 
feels  of  giving  some  kind  of  bodily  shape  to 
these  abstractions  which  he  is  compelled  to 
study." 

The  practical  teachings  of  the  hygiene  of 
instruction  as  regards  arithmetic  may  be 
summed  >ip  in  the  light  of  our  present  knowl- 


208 


ARITHMETIC  IN  VERSE 


ARIZONA 


edge  somewhat  as  follows:  the  formal  instruc- 
tion in  this  subject  should  not  be  begun  before 
the  age  of  S  or  10.  Arithmetical  work  before 
this  should  be  spontaneous  activity  on  the  part 
of  the  child.  By  postponing  arithmetic  until 
this  age,  it  is  possible  to  do  away  for  the  most 
part  with  artificial  devices  and  methods  which 
may  lead  to  arrests  or  interference  of  associa- 
tion later  on.  The  work  in  arithmetic  should 
be  simple,  and  the  complex  examples  in  logic 
and  the  like  should  be  eliminated.  In  the  case 
of  nervous  children  special  care  should  be  taken 
to  avoid  worry  and  the  development  of  neuroses 
like  chorea.  And,  in  general,  special  attention 
should  be  given  in  this  subject  to  the  secondary 
effects  which  are  important  from  the  point  of 
view  of  mental  hygiene.  W.  H.  B. 

References  :  — 

B.v.iDE,  Walter.  Experimentelle  und  kritische  Beitrage 
znr  Frage  nach  den  sekurtddren  Wirkungen  des 
Unterrichta  itmhesondere  auf  die  Empfdnglichkeit 
des  Schiilers.     (Leipzig,  1907.) 

B.ULET,  M.  A.  The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic  in  Elemen- 
tary Schools.  Proc.  of  IV.  E.  A.,  Asbury  Park, 
N.   J.,  July,   1905,  pp.  380-387. 

Browne,  Charles  E.  The  Psychology  of  the  Simple 
Arithmetical  Processes  :  A  study  of  Certain  Habits 
of  Attention  and  Association.  Airier,  Jour,  of 
Psych..  Jan.,  1906,  Vol.  17,  No.  1,  pp.  1-37. 

Safford,  T.  H.  Modern  Teaching  of  .'Vrithmetic. 
Atlantic  Monthly,  May,  1891,  Vol.  LXVII,  pp. 
668-675. 

Triplett,  Norm.^n.  Pedagogical  Arrests  and  Peculiari- 
ties.    Ped.  Sem..  June,  1905,  Vol.  12,  pp.  141-157. 

Walker,  F.  A.  Arithmetic  in  the  Primary  and 
Grammar  Schools.  In  his  Discussio?is  in  Educa- 
tion, pp.  209-232.      (New  York,   1899.) 

ARITHMETIC  IN  VERSE.  —  See  Versifi- 
cation AS  A  iMethgd  of  Teaching. 

ARITHMETIC,  PSYCHOLOGY  OF.  — See 

Number,  Psychology  of. 

ARITHMETIC  SCHOOLS.  —  See  Writing 
and  Arithmetic  Schools. 

ARIZONA,  TERRITORY  OF.  —  Organized 

as  a  territory  by  Congress  in  1863  from  lands 
formerly  a  part  of  New  Mexico,  and  an  enabling 
act  for  its  admission  as  a  state  has  been  before 
Congress  for  the  last  two  years.  It  is  located 
in  the  Western  Division,  and  has  a  land  area  of 
112,920  square  miles.  In  size  it  is  about  as 
large  as  New  England,  New  York,  and  New 
Jerse)'  combined.  For  administrative  pur- 
poses the  state  is  divided  into  13  counties,  and 
these  in  turn  into  school  districts.  In  1900  Ari- 
zona had  a  population  of  122,931,  and  a  density 
of  population  of  only  1.1  persons  per  square 
mile.  Its  estimated  population  in  1910  was 
157,619. 

Educational  History.  —  The  first  record  of 
an  appropriation  for  public  school  purposes 
is  found  in  the  proceedings  of  the  first  Legisla- 
tive Assembly,  which  met  at  Prescott  in  1864, 
and  appropriated  out  of  the  treasury  a  sum 
of  $250  to  each  of  the  towns  of  Prescott,  La 
Paz,  and  Mojave,  for  a  public  school,  conditional 


on  the  towns  raising  the  same  amount;  and 
$500  to  Tucson,  conditional  on  the  town 
maintaining  a  school  taught  in  the  English 
language.  No  further  legislation  was  enacted 
until  1868,  and  any  schools  in  existence  during 
that  interval  must  have  been  maintained  by 
private  means.  In  1868  the  first  school  law 
was  enacted,  and  a  system  of  free  schools  was 
provided  for,  but,  as  no  tax  was  required  to  be 
levied,  no  schools  were  opened.  The  report 
of  the  Governor  in  1870  stated  that  there  was 
not  a  public  school  in  the  territory.  In  1871 
a  new  school  law  was  enacted,  and  the  outlines 
of  the  present  school  system  were  laid  down. 
The  law  of  1871  provided  for  a  system  of  public 
instruction  patterned  after  the  California  law 
of  1866.  The  Governor  was  made  ex  officio 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  the  Pro- 
bate Judges  were  to  act  as  ex  officio  County 
Superintendents,  and  the  Governor  appointed 
County  Examiners  to  assist  the  judges  in  ex- 
aminations. Governor  Safford  was  deeply 
interested  in  education,  and  seems  to  have  done 
much  to  urge  the  people  to  found  schools.  The 
first  school  under  the  new  law  was  opened  in 
Tucson  in  March,  1871,  and  by  1880  about  one 
half  of  the  school  population  was  enrolled  in  the 
schools.  In  1872  the  first  public  school  for 
girls  was  opened  in  Tucson.  In  1875  the  ques- 
tion of  aid  to  private  and  sectarian  schools  was 
definitely  settled.  In  1873,  1875,  1879,  1881, 
and  1883,  revisions  of  the  school  law  were  en- 
acted. In  1879  the  separate  office  of  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  was  established. 
In  1883  a  Territorial  School  Fund  was  created, 
and  the  law  of  1879  was  much  enlarged.  In  1885 
the  present  law  was  substituted  for  what  existed 
before.  This  law  has  been  amended  in  minor 
particulars  and  a  number  of  additions  have  been 
made  to  it,  but  the  main  outlines,  adapted  in 
large  part  from  the  California  law,  have  re- 
mained unchanged  to  the  present  time. 

The  year  1885  may  be  fixed  upon  as  the  date 
of  the  establishment  of  the  present  school 
system.  The  Legislature  of  that  year  also 
rounded  out  the  school  system  by  establishing 
a  normal  school  at  Tempe,  and  the  state  uni- 
versity at  Tucson.  In  1881  a  uniform  series 
of  textbooks  for  the  schools  of  the  state  was 
provided  for,  and  in  1885  the  State  Board  of 
Education  issued  a  uniform  state  course  of 
study.  No  records  exi.st  showing  the  condition 
of  the  schools  prior  to  1885.  In  that  year  there 
were  137  schools  in  the  territory,  maintaining 
an  average  of  120  days,  with  an  average  daily 
attendance  of  3,226  children,  and  at  a  total 
expense  of  $138,164.  Schools  and  attendance 
have  increased  five  times  since  1885,  and  ex- 
penses six  times.  In  1892  a  State  Teachers' 
Association  was  organized;  in  1895  a  Union 
High  School  law  was  passed;  in  1899  the  North- 
ern Arizona  Normal  School  was  established  at 
Flagstaff;  manual  training  was  authorized  in 
1905;  and  the  consohdation  of  schools  was 
authorized  in  1907. 


209 


ARIZONA 


ARIZONA 


Present  School  System.  At  the  head  of  the 
system  is  a  Suporintendont  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, a  Board  of  Education,  and  a  lioard  of 
Examiners.  The  Superintendent  of  Public 
instruction  receives  a  salary  of  S2000  a  year; 
has  general  oversight  of  the  schools  of  the  state; 
apportions  all  school  money  to  the  counties; 
prepares  all  blank  forms  used;  and  makes  a 
biennial  report  to  the  Governor  on  the  condition 
of  the  schools.  The  Board  of  Education,  con- 
sisting of  the  Governor,  Treasurer,  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction,  Principals  of 
the  Normal  Schools,  President  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Arizona,  and  two  school  men  appointed 
by  the  Governor,  adopts  rules  and  regulations 
for  the  schools;  prescribes  and  enforces  the 
use  of  a  uniform  series  of  textbooks,  and  a  uni- 
form course  of  study  for  the  schools;  adopts  a 
list  of  books  for  school  libraries;  issues  educa- 
tional and  life  diplomas;  and  revokes  any 
diploma  or  certificate  for  cause.  The  Board 
of  Examiners,  which  consists  of  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  and  two  persons 
appointed  by  him,  adopts  rules  and  regulations 
concerning  examinations;  prepares  all  questions 
and  grades  all  papers;  issues  and  revokes 
certificates  to  teach;  and  recommends  candi- 
dates for  life  and  educational  diplomas. 

For  each  county  there  is  a  County  School 
Superintendent,  who  apportions  the  school 
money  to  the  districts;  approves  all  bills  for 
all  purposes,  and  draws  his  warrant  for  their 
payment;  conducts  the  teachers'  examina- 
tions for  the  Board  of  Examiners,  and  forwards 
all  papers  to  them  for  grading;  appoints  dis- 
trict trustees  and  fills  all  vacancies;  conducts 
an  annual  county  teachers'  institute;  visits, 
examines,  and  has  general  oversight  over  the 
schools  of  his  county. 

For  each  school  district  there  is  a  board  of 
3  School  Trustees,  one  elected  each  year  by 
the  people,  and  holding  office  for  3-year 
terms.  It  is  their  duty  to  enforce  the  rules, 
regulations,  and  laws;  to  manage  and  care  for 
the  school  property;  to  provide  furniture  and 
supplies;  to  rent,  build,  or  repair  schoolhouses 
as  directed;  to  employ  teachers  and  other 
employees  and  fix  their  compensation;  to 
employ  a  supervising  principal  if  the  district 
contains  1000  or  more  census  children;  to 
admit  and  exclude  pupils;  to  see  that  an 
annual  school  census  is  taken;  to  call  district 
meetings  in  emergencies  or  on  petition;  to 
call  an  election  to  vote  a  special  tax  for  addi- 
tional school  facilities,  or  bonds  for  a  new 
schoolhouse;  and  to  make  reports  to  the 
County  Superintendent  or  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction. 

School  Support. — Arizona  originally  received 
the  16th  and  36th  section  of  land  for  schools, 
which  were  set  aside  bv  Act  of  Congress  in 
1861.  These  amounted  to  4,050,347  acres. 
The  enabling  act  for  the  admission  of  Arizona 
as  a  state  provides  for  the  further  grant  of 
sections  2   and  32  in    each    township,   which 


would  double  the  grant  for  schools.  Three 
million  acres  of  land  are  also  appropriated  to 
paj-  the  debts  of  the  territory  and  of  the 
counties,  with  a  provision  that  any  surplus 
shall  be  added  to  the  common  school  fund. 
The  act  also  provides  for  a  minimum  sale  price 
of  S3,  $5,  and  $25  per  acre,  according  to  loca- 
tion. 

Much  of  this  land  is,  as  yet,  of  little  value. 
A  general  tax  of  3  cents  on  each  SlOO  of  property, 
together  with  the  interest  on  the  permanent 
fund,  is  apportioned  to  the  counties  on  the 
basis  of  the  school  census,  6-21  years  of  age. 
In  each  county,  poll  taxes  and  fines  go  to  the 
county  school  fund,  which  is  further  augmented 
by  a  county  school  tax  of  not  less  than  50  cents 
nor  more  than  90  cents  on  each  .SlOO.  All 
state  and  county  money  is  now  added  together, 
and  is  apportioned  to  the  different  districts 
by  the  County  Superintendent  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  — 

To  districts  having  10  to  20  census  children, 
S500;  to  districts  having  20  or  more  census 
children,  S600;  and  to  all  districts  having  had 
an  average  daily  attendance  of  over  25  during 
the  preceding  year,  S25  per  pupil  for  such  excess. 
The  money  which  remains  is  to  be  apportioned 
among  the  districts  which  have  shown,  for 
5  months,  an  increase  in  the  average  daily 
attendance  over  that  of  the  preceding  year. 
Any  special  district  taxation,  as  well  as  all 
fines  collected  for  the  violation  of  local  ordi- 
nances, go  to  the  district  where  collected. 
Most  of  the  county  districts  levy  no  local  tax. 
The  Arizona  apportionment  plan  is  better  even 
than  that  in  California,  good  as  is  the  latter, 
and,  like  California,  it  insures  a  good  school  and 
a  good  teacher  for  every  district  in  the  state. 
Of  the  total  school  revenue,  16.02  per  cent 
comes  from  permanent  funds  and  rents,  20.09 
per  cent  from  state  taxation,  57.94  per  cent 
from  local  taxation,  and  5.95  per  cent  from 
miscellaneous  sources. 

The  total  expenditure  for  schools,  during  the 
last  year  for  which  reports  are  available,  was 
8767,031.  This  was  equal  to  an  expenditure 
of  $5.09  per  capita  of  the  total  population,  as 
against  $4.27  for  the  L'.  S.  as  a  whole.  The 
average  expenditure  jicr  pupil  per  day  in  aver- 
age daily  attendance  was  33.64  cents,  as  against 
19.8  cents  for  the  U.S.  as  a  whole,  and  27.3 
cents  for  the  Western  Division.  North  Dakota, 
Montana,  and  Nevada  alone  spent  more.  The 
total  yearly  expenditure  per  pupil  in  average 
daily  attendance  was  $45.31,  an  amount 
exceeded  by  only  2  Eastern  and  5  Western 
states.  Each  adult  male  needs  to  contribute 
but  72  cents  to  produce  $1  for  each  child  5  to 
18  years  of  age  in  the  state,  as  against  SI. 02  for 
the  U.  S.  as  a  whole.  These  figures  show  a 
high  per  pupil  expenditure  on  a  low  per  capita 
cost.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  large  per 
capita  wealth  of  Arizona,  and  in  part  to  the 
large  excess  of  adult  males.  Arizona  has  made 
very    rapid    progress    in    expenditures    within 


210 


ARIZONA 


ARIZONA 


recent  years,  and  every  item  of  school  expense 
has  increased  much  more  rapidly  than  has 
the  population.  During  the  past  six  years, 
the  expenditures  have  almost  doubled,  while 
the  school  census  has  increased  scarcely  40 
per  cent. 

Educational  Conditions. — Of  the  population 
of  1900,  17.9  per  cent  were  foreign  born,  and 
of  this  number  59  per  cent  were  Mexicans. 
Classified  by  race,  75.6  per  cent  were  white; 
11.5  per  cent  were  Indians;  1.5  per  cent  were 
Negroes;  and  1.4  per  cent  were  Mongohans. 
By  sex,  58.4  per  cent  were  men;  and  25.9  per 
cent  were  between  the  ages  of  5  and  18  years. 
Of  the  total  population  of  1900,  84.1  per  cent 
lived  in  country  districts,  and  the  state  had 
no  city  at  that  time  with  as  many  as  8000 
inhabitants.  Mining  and  agriculture  are  the 
chief  resources  of  the  state.  Large  areas  are 
practically  uninhabited.  In  illiteracy,  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1900,  14.9  per  cent  of  the 
white  population  10  years  of  age  or  over,  and 
29  per  cent  of  the  total  population,  were  illiter- 
ate. The  large  percentage  of  illiteracy  among 
the  native  whites  is  due  to  the  presence  of  so 
many  Mexicans,  and  in  the  total  population 
to  the  presence  of  so  many  Mexicans  and 
Indians. 

The  average  length  of  term  provided  in 
Arizona  was  135  days,  as  against  163.3  daj'S 
in  the  Western  Division,  and  154.1  days  for  the 
U.  S.  as  a  whole.  Of  the  school  population, 
5-18  years  of  age,  65.59  per  cent  were  enrolled 
in  the  schools,  as  against  69.61  per  cent  for  the 
U.  S.  as  a  whole.  Of  the  number  enrolled,  but 
62.64  per  cent  were  in  daily  attendance,  as 
against  71.24  per  cent  for  the  U.  S.,  and  73.22 
per  cent  for  the  Western  Division.  This 
equaled  an  average  daily  attendance  of  but 
58.8  days  per  year  for  each  child  5-18  years  of 
age,  and  84.6  days  for  each  child  enrolled,  as 
against  76.1  days  on  census,  and  109.8  days  on 
enrollment  for  the  U.  S.,  and  109.3  days  on 
census,  and  119.6  days  on  enrollment  for  the 
Western  Division.  The  large  number  of  Mexi- 
can and  Indian  children  explain  these  low 
percentages. 

The  compulsory  attendance  law  requires 
the  attendance  of  all  children  between  8  and 
14  years  at  the  public  schools  for  a  period  of 
6  months  each  year,  unless  excused  for  certain 
statutory  reasons,  and  lists  of  children  not  in 
attendance  must  be  furnished  to  the  sheriffs, 
constables,  or  city  marshals  of  the  respective 
school  subdivisions,  whose  duty  it  is  to  locate, 
inquire  into,  and,  if  necessary,  prosecute  such 
eases.  Employers  are  forbidden  to  employ 
such  children,  and  attendance  cards  must  be 
kept  on  file  and  open  to  inspection  for  all  chil- 
dren. It  is  difficult  to  enforce  such  a  law, 
because  of  the  sparse  population.  A  sheriff 
with  a  county  as  large  as  Massachusetts  can 
do  little,  and  the  percentages  for  attendance 
would  indicate  that  the  law  is  not  enforced. 

The  average  value  of  the  school  buildings  in 


use  has  increased  rapidlv  in  recent  years,  and 
reached  S3S35  by  1907.  The  schools  are 
nearly  all  small,  there  being  but  15  schools  in 
the  state  in  1906  that  employed  as  many  as 
8  teachers,  and  but  5  schools  that  employed  as 
many  as  15  teachers.  The  schools  are  graded, 
and  are  relatively  well  taught,  the  apportion- 
ment plan  in  use  enabling  every  school  in  Ari- 
zona to  secure  a  good  teacher.  In  addition 
to  the  regular  elementary  school  studies, 
manual  training  and  domestic  science  are 
authorized  for  all  schools  having  a  school  census 
of  200  or  over,  though  the  last  available  report 
shows  that  but  one  city  has  so  far  provided 
such  instruction. 

Teachers  and  Training. — Arizona  employed 
645  teachers  during  the  last  year  for  which 
reports  are  available,  of  whom  109  were  men 
and  536  were  women.  The  average  monthly 
salary  was  $99.50  for  men,  and  $75.06  for 
women,  with  a  school  term  of  6i  months. 
The  certification  standards  are  much  higher 
than  these  to  be  found  in  many  Eastern  or 
Mississippi  Valley  states.  Two  state  cer- 
tificates are  issued  by  a  central  examination 
board,  both  of  which  are  valid  in  any  county. 
In  1908,  51  per  cent  of  the  teachers  held  the 
highest  grade  certificate.  Graduates  of  col- 
leges in  any  state  may  be  certificated  on  cre- 
dentials, and  the  holders  of  life  diplomas 
from  any  state  or  of  diplomas  of  graduation 
from  any  state  normal  school  are  certificated 
without  examination.  In  this  matter  of  inter- 
state recognition  of  credentials,  Arizona  is 
more  libera)  than  any  state  in  the  Union. 
Arizona  maintams  two  normal  schools  for  the 
training  of  elementary  teachers,  one  at  Tempe 
and  one  at  Flag.staff,  though  the  number  of 
graduates  from  the  two  schools  combined  has, 
for  some  j'ears,  been  exceeded  from  two  to 
three  times  by  the  number  of  normal  graduates 
coming  into  the  state  from  other  states. 

Secondary  Education.  The  first  high  school 
in  Arizona  was  organized  in  1895,  under  the 
provLsions  of  an  act  permitting  any  district, 
or  any  union  of  adjoining  districts,  having  a 
school  census  of  1000  or  over,  to  unite  and 
form  a  high  school  district.  Owing  to  the  small 
population,  high  school  development  has  of 
necessity  been  slow.  The  second  school  was 
formed  in  1901;  a  third  in  1903;  in  1905  the 
number  rose  to  5;  and  in  1908  to  8.  There 
are  but  two  private  high  schools  in  Arizona, 
both  of  which  are  small.  Like  California, 
Arizona  has  wisely  reserved  the  state  fund  and 
all  state  and  county  taxes  for  elementary  schools 
only,  so  that  the  high  schools  are  supported 
wholly  by  separate  taxation.  At  present  this 
is  in  the  form  of  a  tax  on  the  districts  main- 
taining them,  there  being  as  yet  no  state  aid. 

Higher  and  Special  Education.  The  L'niver- 
sity  of  Arizona,  opened  in  1891,  is  the  only 
institution  for  higher  education  in  the  state. 
Arizona  maintains  an  industrial  (reform)  school 
at  Benson  for  both  sexes,  and  also  appropriates 


211 


ARIZONA 


ARKANSAS 


money  to  care  for  its  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind 
in  institutions  in  other  states.  There  are  no 
professional  scliools  in  the  state  apart  from  tlie 
University  of  Arizona  and  the  two  state  normal 
schools  at  Tcmpe  and  Flagstaff.  Tiie  enabling 
act  for  the  admission  of  Arizona  as  a  state, 
however,  provides  for  the  grant  to  the  state  of 
120,000  arres  of  land  for  the  state  university; 
for  asylums  for  the  deaf,  blind,  and  dimib, 
100,000  acres;  for  normal  schools,  200,000 
acres;  for  agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges, 
150,000  acres;  for  a  school  of  mines,  150,000 
acres.  E.  P.  C. 

References:  — 

Arizarid  School  Laws,   1909. 

Biennial  lie  ports   Superintendent    of  Public  Instruction, 

Territory  of  Arizona.    1.S72-190S. 
McCre.\,    S.    p.     The  Establiahmcnt  of   the  Arizona 

School    Systems ;     History,    1H64-190I  ;     in  Bier>. 

Rcpt.,  Supt.  P.  I.,  190S,  pp.  72-141. 
Stati.stics  leased  on  the  Report  of  the  Superintenrlcnt  for 

1907-1908,  and  Sept.  U.  S.  Com.  Educ.  for  1909. 

ARIZONA,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  TUCSON, 
ARIZ.  —  A  coeducational  institution  for  higher 
education  maintained  by  the  territory  as  part 
of  the  system  of  public  education.  It  was 
organized  in  18S5  in  accordance  with  the 
requirements  of  the  Morrill  Act  of  1862.  The 
statutes  were  revised  in  1901,  and  the  govern- 
ment of  the  university  was  placed  in  the  hands 
of  a  Board  of  Regents  consisting  of  the  Gover- 
nor and  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
ex  officio,  and  4  members  appointed  by  the 
Governor  for  4-year  terms.  The  university 
consists  of  the  college  of  agriculture  and  me- 
chanical arts,  the  school  of  mines,  the  agricul- 
tural experiment  station,  and  the  preparatory 
department;  a  normal  department  is  author- 
ized by  statute,  but  has  not  yet  been  established. 
The  preparatory  department  is  a  manual  train- 
ing high  school  with  a  4  years'  curriculum, 
and  will  probably  disappear  in  time.  Respon- 
sive to  the  needs  and  opportunities  of  the  terri- 
tory, the  university  essentially  lays  emphasis 
on  mining  engineering.  The  10  buildings 
which  constitute  the  plant  and  dormitories  of 
the  university  are  situated  in  a  campus  55 
acres  in  extent  commanding  a  view  of  the  moun- 
tains on  all  sides.  The  university  is  main- 
tained by  federal  and  territorial  funds.  Fifty- 
seven  sections  of  valuable  pine  land  have  been 
set  apart  by  the  federal  government  for  the 
university,  which  will  receive  the  title  as  soon 
as  the  territory  is  admitted  as  a  state.  By 
the  Morrill  Act  of  1890  the  university  receives 
§25,000  a  year  which  will  ultimately  be  doubled 
by  the  provisions  of  the  Nelson  Fund,  created  by 
act  of  1907;  under  the  Hatch  Act  the  university 
receives  .SI 5,000  a  year;  and  under  the  Adams 
Act  of  1906  the  university  will  ultimately  be 
entitled  to  an  annual  appropriation  of  $15,000. 
The  territorial  appropriation  in  1909  was 
835,500  for  the  year.  Sums  of  money  are  also 
obtained  from  other  sources,  and  in  addition 
the  university  has   two   endowments.     Appli- 


cants for  admission  to  the  freshman  class  must 
be  at  least  16  years  of  age  and  must  satisfy 
recjuirements  amounting  to  api)roximately  15 
units.  Candidates  from  approved  high  schools 
are  admitted  without  examination  except  in 
English  conipo-sition.  Degrees  of  Bachelor  of 
Philosophy  and  Bachelor  of  Science  are  given 
on  the  completion  of  a  4-year  course.  The 
total  number  of  students  in  1909  was  201,  of 
whom  100  were  in  the  prejjaratory  department. 
There  are  14  professors,  3  assistant  professors, 
and  23  instructors  and  assistants.  Kendric 
Charles  Babcock,  Ph.D.,  is  the  president. 

ARKANSAS,  STATE  OF.  —  A  part  of  the 
original  territory  of  Louisiana,  obtained  from 
France  in  1803.  It  was  organized  as  a  part  of 
the  Territory  of  Louisiana  in  1805,  then  as  a 
part  of  the  Territory  of  Missouri  in  1812,  and 
finally  as  the  Territory  of  Arkansas  in  1819. 
In  1836  it  was  admitted  to  the  LTnion  as  the 
25th  state.  It  is  located  in  the  South  Central 
Division,  and  has  a  land  area  of  53,045  square 
miles.  In  size,  it  is  a  little  larger  than  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  Jersey  combined.  For 
administrative  purposes  the  state  is  divided 
into  75  counties,  and  these  in  turn  into  school 
districts  and  towns.  In  1900  Arkansas  had 
a  population  of  1,311,564,  and  a  density  of 
jjopulation  of  24.7.  Its  estimated  population 
in   1909  was  1,494,917. 

Educational  History.  A  number  of  private 
schools  were  opened  in  the  territory  between 
1820  and  1830.  An  academy  was  chartered  in 
1829,  and  in  the  same  year  the  first  law  relating 
to  public  schools  was  enacted.  This  law 
required  each  county  court  to  appoint  some 
citizen  to  look  after  the  16th  section  lands  and 
to  lease  them,  and  provided  that  any  income 
from  the  lands  should  be  used,  under  the 
management  of  the  judges  of  the  court,  for 
the  support  of  schools.  The  constitution  of 
1836  contained  a  short  article,  which  embraced 
a  general  preamble  as  to  the  importance  of 
knowledge  and  learning,  made  it  the  duty  of 
the  Legislature  to  care  for  the  school  lands,  and 
obligated  it  to  pass  laws  looking  to  intellectual, 
agricultural,  and  scientific  improvement. 

From  1840  to  1843  a  number  of  special  acts 
were  passed,  providing  for  schools  in  various 
townships.  In  1843  the  first  general  school  law 
was  enacted.  This  provided  for  the  sale  of  the 
16th  section  lands;  provided  for  trustees  for 
each  township;  and  made  provision  for  the 
examination  of  teachers,  for  a  4  months'  school, 
for  the  visitation  of  schools,  for  the  addition 
of  fines  and  forfeitures  to  the  school  fund,  and 
for  the  distribution  of  funds  to  the  townships. 
In  the  .same  j-ear  an  ex-officio  State  Board  of 
Education  was  created,  consisting  of  the  Gov- 
ernor, the  Supreme  Judges  of  the  State,  the 
Speaker  of  the  House,  the  President  of  the 
Senate,  and  10  members  of  the  Legislature, 
who  were  to  report  to  the  Legislature  and  to 
make  recommendations  as  to  laws  and  means 


212 


ARKANSAS 


ARKANSAS 


of  improvement.  In  1S53  the  Secretary  of 
State  was  made  ex-offwio  Superintendent  of 
Schools,  and  county  commissioners  were  given 
general  supervision  of  all  the  schools  in  each 
county.  By  1854,  when  the  first  school  re- 
port was  made,  it  was  estimated  that  about  25 
per  cent  of  the  pupUs  of  school  age  in  the  state 
were  enrolled  in  public  schools,  and  by  1860, 
tliat  about  750  public  schools  were  in  opera- 
tion in  the  state.  These  schools  were  main- 
tained in  small  part  by  the  income  from  the 
school  land  and  school-land  funds,  and  in  large 
part  by  tuition  fees.  There  was  no  general 
taxation  for  education  until  after  the  Civil  War. 

Beside  these  schools  a  number  of  academies 
were  chartered  between  1836  and  1861,  charters 
for  62  such  institutions  being  granted  between 
1850  and  1861.  Many  of  these  were  female 
academies.  Tuition  fees  were  common  in  all 
of  these  schools.  Three  colleges,  also,  were 
chartered  during  this  latter  period.  The  Civil 
War  put  an  end  to  these  efforts,  and  closed  the 
schools  and  academies.  The  last  report  issued 
under  the  old  conditions  states  that  "there  are 
but  two  public  schools  in  existence  in  the  state." 

In  1867,  the  legislature  of  the  locally  re- 
organized state  passed  "  An  Act  to  establish  a 
common-school  system  in  the  State."  This 
levied  the  first  school  tax  in  the  history  of  the 
state,  a  2-mill  tax,  but  the  tax  was  not  to  be 
levied  "upon  the  property  of  persons  of  color," 
and  the  schools  were  not  to  be  open  to  their 
children.  A  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion for  the  state  and  a  County  School  Com- 
missioner for  each  county  were  provided  for. 
Each  township  was  constituted  a  separate 
school  district,  but  incorporated  towns  might 
be  set  apart  as  special  districts.  Three  trus- 
tees were  provided  for  each  district,  and  a  3- 
months'  school  was  kept.  Taxes  were  collected, 
school  officials  were  elected,  and  a  number  of 
schools  were  opened,  but  the  further  develop- 
ment of  this  school  system  was  checked  by  the 
incoming  of  a  military  government,  at  the  close 
of  the  year,  which  superseded  the  civil,  and  by 
the  adoption  of  a  new  constitution  and  the 
establishment  of  a  reconstruction  government. 

This  new  constitution  of  1868  made  detailed 
provision  for  a  free  state  school  system  for  all 
the  children  of  the  state;  forbade  any  aid  to 
religious  or  sectarian  schools;  provided  for  a 
State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  and 
for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  a 
state  university;  fixed  the  permanent  school 
fund,  arranged  for  its  increase,  and  appropriated 
its  annual  revenue,  together  with  a  poll  tax  of 
SI. 00  and  "  so  much  of  the  ordinary  revenue  of 
the  State  as  may  be  necessary"  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  schools;  further  provided  for  a  state 
school  tax  to  insure  a  3-months'  term  in  every 
district,  and  for  district  taxes  for  building  and 
furnishing  schoolhouses;  and  converted  all 
county  school  funds  and  the  sale  price  for  all 
school  lands  into  the  general  treasury,  and 
obligated  the  state  to   jjay  an  annual  interest 


on  the  same  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent.  The  law 
of  1868  carried  these  provisions  into  effect,  and 
in  addition  provided  for  a  state  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, for  teachers'  institutes,  teachers'  certifi- 
cates, separate  schools  for  the  two  races,  and 
for  the  appointment  by  the  Governor  of  a  cir- 
cuit superintendent  for  each  of  the  10  judicial 
circuits  of  the  state.  These  men,  who  were  to 
be  paid  a  yearly  salary  of  83000  each,  were 
virtually  deputy  state  superintendents.  In 
1871  these  circuit  superintendents  were  super- 
seded by  county  superintendents. 

The  new  pro\'isions  for  education  were  the 
best  Arkansas  had  so  far  had,  but  the  new  con- 
stitution and  the  laws  framed  under  it  had  to 
bear  the  odium  of  the  period  of  reconstruction, 
and  the  new  system  failed  to  secure  the  support 
of  the  people.  Nevertheless,  some  progress  was 
made  during  the  reconstruction  period.  The 
number  of  pupils  enrolled  was  increased  to 
107,908  by  1870,  but  by  1872  this  had  fallen 
off  to  32,863.  A  state  Teachers'  Association 
was  organized  in  1869;  the  Arkansas  Journal  of 
Education  was  established  in  1870;  the  insti- 
tutions for  the  bhnd  and  deaf  were  reorganized 
and  reestablished;  the  University  of  Arkansas 
was  established  in  1871,  and  opened  its  doors  in 
1872,  with  a  teacher's  training  course  included  in 
the  curriculum;  and  a  branch  state  normal 
school  for  negroes  was  established  at  Pine 
Bluff  in  1873,  and  began  its  work  in  1875.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  electors  in  many  districts 
failed  or  refused  to  levy  the  schoolhouse  taxes; 
taxes,  when  paid,  were  usually  paid  in  greatly 
depreciated  state  script;  in  1873  the  revenue 
laws  were  revised  and  the  state  2-mill  appro- 
priation for  schools  was  cut  off,  reducing  the 
state  aid  by  three-fourths;  and  manj^  of  the 
school  districts,  as  well  as  many  of  the  counties, 
and  also  the  state  as  a  whole,  became  deeplj'  and 
often  almost  hopelessly  involved  in  debt.  By 
1874  the  burden  of  debt  and  mismanagement 
had  become  so  great  that  the  reconstruction 
government  was  overthrown,  and  another  new 
constitution  was  adopted. 

The  constitution  of  1874,  which  prevails  to- 
day, also  made  provision  for  a  state  school 
system,  but  simplified  the  system,  reduced 
expenses,  and  strictly  limited  taxation.  The 
Secretary  of  State  was  made  ex  officio  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction,  untU  otherwise 
provided  by  the  legislature,  and  the  legisla- 
ture was  given  power  to  establish  such  other 
school  officers  as  might  at  any  time  seem  neces- 
sary. The  general  school  law  of  1875  carried 
these  provisions  into  effect,  and  the  system 
adopted  then  has  prevailed,  in  its  main  outlines^, 
up  to  the  present  time.  The  office  of  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  was  re- 
established, but  to  the  County  Court,  and  to  a 
county  or  judicial  circuit  Examiner  was  given 
the  work  usually  done  by  county  superin- 
tendents. In  1907  an  optional  law,  by  which 
counties  may  vote  on  the  question  of  establish- 
ing the  office  for  the  county,  was  enacted.     In 


213 


ARKANSAS 


ARKANSAS 


1899  a  similar  optional  law  was  passed,  by 
which  any  county  may  vote  on  the  question  of 
county  uniformity  of  textbooks.  In  1907  the 
first  iiulependent  state  normal  school  was  pro- 
vided  for. 

Present  School  System.  — The  school  system 
of  Arkansas  is  at  jiresent  organized  as  follows: 
—  At  the  head  of  the  system  is  a  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction,  elected  by  the 
people  for  a  2-year  term.  He  receives  a  salary 
of  $2500  per  year;  is  vested  with  the  general 
superintendence  of  the  business  relating  to  the 
common  schools  of  the  state;  examines  the 
appointees  for  county  examiners;  prepares  and 
furnishes  all  questions  for  .state  and  county 
teachers'  examinations;  conducts  the  state 
examinations  for  state  certificates,  and  grants 
these  and  life  diplomas;  prepares  all  blank 
forms  used;  with  the  Auditor  and  the  Secretary 
of  State  constitutes  the  Commissioners  of  the 
Common  School  Fund,  which  looks  after  the 
preservation  and  investment  of  the  funds  and 
the  distribution  of  the  income;  makes  an  annual 
report  to  the  Governor  on  the  school  affairs  of 
the  state,  with  such  recommendations  as  he 
desires  to  make;  apportions  all  school  money 
once  a  year  to  the  counties;  prepares  a  sug- 
gestive list  of  textbooks  and  apparatus  from 
which  adoptions  may  be  made  by  the  counties 
and  school  districts  of  the  state;  and  prepares 
a  graded  common  school  course  of  study  for 
use  in  the  different  school  districts.  There  is  no 
state  board  of  education. 

The  administration  of  educational  affairs  in 
each  county,  except  where  it  has  been  voted 
since  1907  to  establish  the  office  of  county 
superintendent,  is  under  the  charge  of  the 
county  court  and  a  county  examiner.  The 
county  court  apportions  aU  school  money 
received  from  the  state  or  from  county  funds 
to  the  different  school  districts,  and  appoints  the 
examiner  for  a  term  of  2  years.  The  county 
examiner  acts,  in  part,  as  the  representative  of 
the  court.  In  counties  divided  into  two  or 
more  judicial  districts,  an  examiner  may  be 
appointed  for  each  district.  The  examiner  must 
be  a  resident  and  an  elector,  must  hold  or 
must  obtain  a  first-grade  teacher's  license, 
and  receives  as  salary  an  amount  fixed  by  the 
county  judge,  which  amount  is  usally  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  fees  paid  by  applicants  for 
examination  for  licen.ses  to  teach.  The  ex- 
aminer examines  and  licenses  all  teachers  for 
the  county;  may  revoke  licenses  issued,  for 
cause;  must  conduct  a  teachers'  institute  each 
year;  is  enjoined  to  promote  the  interests  of 
the  public  schools  in  his  county;  must  make 
an  annual  report  to  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction;  and  must  report  to  the 
county  court.  In  counties  which  have  voted  to 
have  a  county  superintendent  instead  of  a 
county  examiner,  the  superintendent  performs 
the  duties  indicated  for  the  examiner,  and  re- 
ceives a  salary  of  not  less  than  $600  nor  more 
than  $1200  per  year. 


Each  county  is  divided  into  a  number  of 
school  districts,  which  may  be  added  to,  divided, 
or  dissolved  by  the  county  court,  acting  on  i)eti- 
tion.  For  each  district  3  directors  are  elected. 
Transfers  of  children  from  one  school  district 
to  another  are  made  by  the  county  court, 
which  transfers,  with  the  children,  the  taxes 
])aid  by  their  parents.  The  annual  school 
district  meeting  is  still  retained  in  Arkansas 
as  an  important  feature  of  rural  school  manage- 
ment. The  meetings  are  invested  with  the 
power  to  elect  school  trustees,  who  must  be  able 
to  read  and  write;  to  locate  the  schoolhou.se; 
to  determine  by  vote  the  amount  of  the  district 
tax  up  to  7  mills,  which  ma^'  be  raised  for 
schools;  to  determine  the  Icngtli  of  time  the 
schools  shall  be  kept  open,  and,  in  case  the 
funds  arc  not  sufficient  to  sustain  a  school  for 
3  months,  the  meeting  may  vote  to  have  no 
school  at  all  that  year  and  to  save  the  funds  for 
the  next  year.  In  each  school  district  the 
Board  of  Directors  so  elected  shall  make  i)ro- 
visions  for  separate  schools  for  white  and 
colored  children;  "shall  adopt  such  other 
measures  as  they  may  judge  expedient  for  carry- 
ing the  free  school  system  into  effectual  and 
uniform  operation";  shall  have  charge  of  the 
buildings  and  grounds;  have  power  to  employ 
teachers  and  fix  their  wages,  and  draw  orders 
for  the  payment  of  the  same,  though  all  teachers 
emploj'ed  must  be  at  least  four  degrees  of  re- 
lationship removed  from  any  school  director; 
nmst  adopt  textbooks  where  county  uniform- 
ity does  not  exist  ;  may  permit  a  private  school 
to  be  taught  in  the  schoolhouse,  when  the  public 
school  is  not  in  session;  and  must  make  annual 
reports  to  the  district  meeting  and  to  the  county 
examiner,  or  to  the  county  superintendent 
where  such  an  officer  exists. 

Any  incorporated  town  or  city  may  be  or- 
ganized as  a  special  school  district,  by  petition 
and  special  election.  At  the  election  the  elec- 
tors vote  for  or  against  special  organization, 
for  6  directors,  and  for  or  against  a  special 
tax.  Boards  of  Directors  in  such  special  dis- 
tricts have  the  same  powers  as  similar  boards 
in  regular  districts;  and,  in  addition,  may 
organize  graded  and  high  schools;  may  em- 
ploy principals  and  superintendents;  may 
admit  pupils  from  other  districts  by  their  own 
act;  ma.y  appoint  boards  of  \'isitors  to  inspect 
the  schools,  and  boards  of  examiners  to  ex- 
amine teachers;  and  may  borrow  money  for 
school  buildings  on  notes  or  mortgages  in  the 
name  of  the  district.  All  teachers  employed 
in  any  kind  of  district  must  hold  a  regular 
state  or  county  certificate,  though  the  boar<l  of 
examiners  in  special  districts  is  to  examine 
the  teachers  again  as  to  their  fitness  to  teach 
in  the  schools  of  the  special  district. 

School  Support.  —  Arkansas  originally  re- 
ceived 8<S6,460  acres  from  the  10th  section 
grants  made  to  the  state  by  Congress  for 
schools,  and  also  two  townships  (46,080  acres) 
of   saUne  lands  for   schools.      The   state   also 


214 


ARKANSAS 


ARKANSAS 


received  two  townships  of  land  for  a  seminary 
of  learning,  and  this,  with  the  consent  of  Con- 
gress in  1844,  was  added  to  the  common  school 
land  fund.  The  first  state  constitution,  in 
1836,  made  it  the  duty  of  the  general  assembly  to 
improve  the  lands  and  apply  the  income  "to 
the  accomplishment  of  the  object  for  which  they 
are  or  may  be  intended."  In  1843  the  sale  of 
these  lands  by  survey,  division  into  tracts  of 
not  over  40  acres,  and  sale  by  public  auction 
was  provided  for  by  law,  and  the  same  method 
practically  is  still  used.  Many  sales  were 
made,  but  the  fund  accumulated  was  all  lost 
before  the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  Much  was 
lost  in  Arkansas  bonds  and  by  payments  made 
in  Confederate  money,  and  the  last  .S8000  of 
the  fund  was  appropriated  to  the  general  state 
fund  and  used  to  buy  medicines  for  the  Con- 
federate troo])s,  and  the  medicines  were  lost  on 
a  steamer  which  was  wrecked  on  the  Brazos 
River  in  Texas. 

At  the  close  of  the  war  about  four  fifths  of 
the  lands  were  still  unsold,  and  the  claims  of 
the  school  fund  against  the  state  amounted  to 
three  quarters  of  a  million  of  dollars.  The  debt 
to  the  school  fund  has  never  been  capitalized 
or  paid.  Since  the  war  a  new  school  fund  of 
$1,13.5,279  has  been  built  up.  The  annual  state 
appropriation  for  schools  consists  of  the  hiter- 
est  on  this,  amounting  in  1905-1908  to  .§34,035, 
and  of  the  proceeds  of  a  state  tax  of  3  mills,  as 
required  bv  the  state  constitution,  which  in 
1907-1908  produced  .§1,018,250.  Tliis  fund  is 
api^ortioned  to  the  counties  on  the  sole  basis  of 
the  number  of  children  6-21  years  of  age  listed 
in  the  counties.  After  reaching  the  county 
treasuries,  the  proceeds  of  the  .SI  poll  taxes 
(about  8200,000  each  year)  is  added,  and  the 
fund  is  then  apportioned  by  the  counties  to  the 
school  districts  on  this  same  school  census  basis. 
No  county  school  tax  is  levied.  District  taxa- 
tion up  to  7  mills  mav  be  levied  by  individual 
districts,  and  in  1907-1908  §1,518,250  came 
from  this  source. 

The  total  amount  expended  for  schools  during 
the  last  year  for  which  reports  are  available 
was  .S2, 494,801.  Based  on  the  total  popu- 
lation of  the  state  this  was  equal  to  a  per  capita 
expenditure  of  .SI. 71  a  year,  which  is  an  increase 
of  02  per  cent  in  eight  years.  The  South  Cen- 
tral Division  expended  .§1.80,  the  North  Cen- 
tral Divisou  .§5.03,  and  the  U.S.  as  a  whole 
•14.27.  The  average  daily  expenditure  per 
pupil  was  11.4  cents,  and  the  total  yearly  ex- 
penditure per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance 
was  S10.72.  This  is  lower  than  in  the  majority- 
of  the  Southern  states.  In  amount  raised  for 
each  child  5-18  years,  (.S5.35),  the  state  is  a 
little  below  the  average  for  all  the  Southern 
states,  but  is  much  below  the  average  for  the 
U.S.  as  a  whole  (.§15.52).  The  state  is  very 
poor  relativelj',  as  is  shown  by  the  amount 
($1.41)  which  each  male  must  contribute  to 
provide  81.00  for  each  child  5-18  years  of  age. 
Only  5  states   have   to  pay  more,  all  of  these 


being  in  the  South.  These  figures,  taken  in 
connection  with  those  for  attendance  and  term, 
reveal  the  relative  poverty  and  the  poor  educa- 
tional   facilities    provided. 

Educational  Conditions.  —  Of  the  total  popu- 
lation in  1900,28  per  cent  were  negroes,  and 
98.9  per  cent  were  native  born.  In  13  counties 
the  blacks  exceed  the  whites,  and  in  4  counties 
they  exceed  the  whites  by  or  over  4  to  1.  The 
state  is  rural  and  agricultural,  as  91.5  per  cent 
lived  in  country  districts  in  1900,  and  but  5.4 
per  cent  in  cities  of  8000  inhabitants  or  over. 

The  average  length  of  term  provided  in 
Arkansas  was  93.9  days  as  against  118.2  days 
for  the  South  Central  Division,  and  154.1 
days  for  the  U.S.  as  a  whole.  No  other  state 
except  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina  pro- 
vided less  than  100  days  of  school. 

In  percentage  of  the  school  population,  5-18 
years  of  age,  enrolled  in  the  schools  (74.27  per 
cent) ,  and  in  the  percentage  of  the  number  en- 
roUed,  in  average  daily  attendance  (63.56  per 
cent),  Arkansas  is  a  little  below  the  average  for 
the  South  Central  Division.  This  is  equal  to  an 
average  daily  attendance  of  59.7  days  for  each 
pupil  enrolled,  and  44.3  days  for  each  child  5-18 
years  of  age,  as  against  75.7  and  49.0  days  for 
the  South  Central  Division,  and  109.3  and  76.1 
days  for  the  U.S.  as  a  whole.  Two  states  were 
lower  than  Arkansas  in  either  item.  No  sta- 
tistics are  available  to  enable  one  to  separate 
the  above  percentages  for  wliite  and  colored 
schools. 

The  state  has  a  combined  compulsory  attend- 
ance and  child  labor  law,  but  no  means  of 
enforcing  it  or  of  regulating  truancy  are  pro- 
vided. Twelve  weeks  of  schooling  are  recjuired 
of  all  children  under  14,  and  children  under  12 
shall  not  be  employed  in  any  factory  or  manufac- 
turing establishment  unless  a  widowed  mother 
or  a  totally  disabled  father  is  dependent  upon 
the  labor  of  the  child  for  support,  but  in  no  case 
shall  a  child  under  10  be  allowed  to  work. 

Little  is  taught  in  the  schools  beyond  the 
common  branches,  except  Arkansas  history. 
Manual  training  is  taught  in  but  two  cities  in 
the  state.  The  schools  are  only  partially 
graded,  and  many  offer  only  an  incomplete 
elementary  school  course.  The  schools  leave 
much  to  be  desired,  and,  considered  broadly, 
are  among  the  poorest  in  the  South. 

In  illiteracy,  according  to  the  census  of  1900, 
one  person  in  five  could  not  read  or  write, 
the  percentage  being  20.4  per  cent.  As  between 
the  races,  11.5  per  cent  of  the  whites  and  43 
per  cent  of  the  negroes  were  illiterate.  These 
are  about  average  percentages  for  the  Southern 
states. 

In  material  conditions,  despite  rapid  ad- 
vances made  within  the  past  eight  years, 
the  schools  are  still  poorly  housed  and  poorly 
financed,  and  the  teachers  are  poorly  paid. 
The  estimated  average  value  of  all  the  school- 
houses  in  use  in  the  state,  public  and  private, 
was  only  $706.     In  June,  1906,  the  School  Direc- 


215 


ARKANSAS 


ARKANSAS 


tors  reported  1102  schoolhouses  out  of  a  total 
of  5238  as  l)eiiiK  worth  less  than  SlOO  eacli, 
and  nearly  one  half  of  this  number  as  worth 
less  than  SSO  each.  No  state  aid  has  been 
granted  toward  building  better  schoolhouses, 
as  has  been  done  in  a  number  of  southern 
states,  and  there  is  no  supervision  of  school- 
house  plans. 

Teachcrx  and  Training.  The  state  employed 
8297  teachers.  Of  these  46  per  cent  were  men; 
and  19  per  cent  were  for  colored  schools.  No 
statistics  arc  available  from  which  the  percent- 
ages of  teachers  who  have  had  any  kind  of 
professional  training  can  be  calculated,  but 
something  of  the  professional  status  of  the 
teaching  force  can  be  determined  from  the  kinds 
of  teachers'  licenses  held.  The  third-grade 
license,  based  on  an  examination  in  reading, 
writing,  spelling,  grammar,  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, and  U.S.  history,  and  good  for  only  6 
months,  was  held  by  22  per  cent  of  the  teachers: 
the  second-grade  license,  based  on  the  third- 
grade  subjects  and  the  history  of  Arkansas, 
physiology,  and  the  theory  and  practice  of 
teaching,  in  addition,  and  valid  for  1  year,  was 
held  by  31  per  cent  of  the  teachers;  the  first- 
grade  license,  based  on  the  second-grade  sub- 
jects and  civil  government  and  elementary 
algebra,  in  addition,  and  good  for  2  years,  was 
held  by  4.5  per  cent  of  the  teachers;  state 
licenses,  based  on  the  first-grade  subjects  and 
an  examination  in  algebra,  plane  geometry, 
general  history,  rhetoric,  and  civil  government, 
in  addition,  and  good  for  6  years;  and  life 
diplomas,  issued  on  still  further  examination 
in  physics,  mental  philosophy,  Latin,  natural 
history,  constitutions  of  Arkansas  and  the  U.S., 
and  art  of  teaching,  were  together  held  by  but 
2  per  cent  of  the  teachers.  It  is  impossible 
to  separate  the  percentages  for  white  and 
negro  teachers. 

The  average  monthly  salaries  by  grades  of 
Ucense  were :  — 


License 

MAI4BS 

Females 

Both 

State 

First  Grade 
Second  Grade 
Third  Grade 

$ 

48.12 
38.06 
33.24 

s  — 

40.40 
34.60 
30.40 

S  73.52 

With  an  average  length  of  term  of  93.9  days  for 
the  75  counties,  with  4  counties  averaging 
less  than  60  days,  with  but  IS  counties  averag- 
ing over  100  days,  and  with  46.0  per  cent  of  the 
teachers  men,  the  qualitj'  of  the  service  ren- 
dered may  be  imagined. 

As  a  means  of  improving  the  teachers  in 
service  an  institute  of  one  week  must  be  held  by 
the  county  examiner  or  superintendent  in 
each  county,  in  June  of  each  year,  and  for 
3  daj's'  attendance  teachers  may  have  their 


licenses  to  teach  renewed  for  the  time  for 
which  they  were  originally  granted,  though 
not  exceeding  one  year;  third-grade  licenses 
cannot  be  renewed  more  than  once;  and  sec- 
ond-grade licenses  more  than  twice.  If  a 
teacher's  license  expires  during  the  term  for 
which  he  or  she  was  emploj'cd  to  teach,  no 
further  license  is  necessary  to  complete  the 
term. 

For  the  training  of  teachers  the  state  imi- 
versity  has  maintained  a  normal  department 
since  it  began,  and  the  branch  normal  school 
for  negroes  at  Pine  Bluff  has  been  in  existence 
since  1875,  but,  though  repeatedly  urged  by 
successive  state  superintendents,  nothing  was 
done  toward  establishing  a  normal  school  for 
white  teachers  untU  1907. 

Secondary  Education .  —  The  number  of  special 
school  districts  is  constantly  increasing,  and 
in  these  graded  schools  have  been  organized, 
and,  in  some  cases,  more  or  less  complete  high 
schools  as  well.  There  are  now  about  200 
special  districts  in  the  state,  out  of  a  total  of 
more  than  5000  districts.  The  last  report 
showed  there  were  94  public  high  schools  in  the 
state,  with  an  average  enrollment  of  about  50 
students  and  an  average  of  2.5  teachers  to  the 
school,  and  16  private  high  schools  with  about 
75  pupils  and  3  teachers  to  the  school.  Seven 
of  the  public  high  schools  were  for  the  negro  race. 
No  high  school  law  and  no  special  qualifications 
for  high  school  teachers  exist,  and  where  high 
schools  are  formed  they  are  supported  wholly 
by  local  taxation.  The  high  schools  which 
exist  are  only  partially  complete,  and  a  high 
school  system  for  the  state  is  yet  to  be  evolved. 

Higher  and  Technical  Education.  —  The 
University  of  Arkansas  (q.v.),  at  Fayetteville, 
was  opened  in  1872.  In  addition  to  the  state 
university  there  are  9  denominational  colleges 
in  the  state,  all  established  since  1872,  2  of 
them  being  for  negroes.  They  have  small 
endowments,  and  do  a  relatively  low  grade  of 
work.  The  state  also  maintains  the  Arkansas 
School  for  the  Blind,  and  the  Arkansas  Dcaf- 
Mute  Institute,  both  located  at  Little  Rock. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  colleges  in  the  state:  — 


iNSTITCmOM 

Location 

Opened 

Control 

For 

For  Whites 

Arkansas  CoUeKe 

Batesville 

1872 

Presbv. 

Both  Sexes 

Heildrix  OiUeEe 

Conway 

1884 

M.  E.  So. 

Both  Sexes 

Ouachita  College 

Arkadelphia 

1 886 

Bapt. 

Both  Sexes 

Henderson  College 

Arkadelphia 

1890 

Mcth. 

Both  Sexes 

Ark.  Cumberland 

Climb. 
Presb. 

Colleae     .     .    . 

ClarksviUe 

1891 

Both  Sexes 

Central     Baptist 

College     .    .    . 

Conway 

1892 

Bapt. 

Women 

For  Negroes 

Arkansas  Baptist 

College     .     .     . 

Little  Rock 

— . 

Bapt. 

Both  Sexes 

Philander    Smith 

College     .    .     . 

Little  Rock 

— 

M.E. 

Both  Sexes 

Southland  College 

Southland 

— 

Friends 

Both  Sexes 

E.  P.  C. 


216 


ARI^NSAS   BAPTIST  COLLEGE 


ARMOUR  INSTITUTE 


References :  — 

Biennial  Reports,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
Arkansas,  1868-1908. 

Digest  oj  Laws  relating  to  Free  Schools  in  the  Stale  of 
Arkansas,    1907    ed. 

Mayo,  A.  D.  The  Common  School  in  the  Southern 
States  beyond  the  Mississippi  River,  from  1830- 
1860  ;  in  Report  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education, 
1900-1901,  Vol.  I,  pp.  388-393. 

Shinn,  Josi.\h  H.  History  of  Education  in  Arkansas. 
Circular  of  Information,  No.  1,  1900,  U.S.  Bureau  of 
Education.      (Washington,  1900.) 

Statistics  based  on  1909  Report  U.S.  Com.  Educ.  and 
1907-1908  Report  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion of  Arkansas. 

ARKANSAS  BAPTIST  COLLEGE,  LITTLE 
ROCK,  ARK.  —  A  coeducational  institution 
owned  and  controlled  by  the  negro  Baptists 
of  Arkansas,  and  organized  in  1884.  Liter- 
ary, religious,  and  industrial  training  is  the  aim 
of  the  college.  Grammar  school,  academic, 
college,  and  music  departments  are  maintained, 
and  commercial  and  theological  courses  are 
given.  It  is  intended  to  lay  stronger  empha- 
sis on  industrial  training,  and  the  Griggs  Indus- 
trial Farm  awaits  development  as  soon  as  funds 
can  be  obtained.  The  large  majority  of  the 
pupils  are  in  the  grammar  school  and  academic 
departments.  Degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  and 
Bachelor  of  Theology  are  given.  There  are 
15  instructors  in  the  institution.  Jos.  A. 
Booker,  A.M.,   D.D.,  is  the  president. 

ARKANSAS  COLLEGE,  BATESVILLE, 
ARK.  —  A  coeducational  in.stitution  organized 
in  1872  and  under  the  control  of  the  Synod  of 
Arkansas  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the 
United  States.  Preparatory  and  college  de- 
partments are  maintained.  Admission  to  the 
college  is  by  requirements  equivalent  to  about 
8  points  work  in  high  school.  Degrees  are 
granted  by  the  college.  There  is  a  faculty  of 
7  professors  and  several  assistants.  Eugene 
R.  Long,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  is  the  president. 

ARKANSAS  CUMBERLAND  COLLEGE, 
CLARKSVILLE,  ARK.  —  A  coeducational  in- 
stitution under  the  auspices  of  the  Arkansas 
Synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  Primary, 
academic,  college,  and  fine  arts  departments 
are  maintained.  Free  tuition  is  given  to  pro- 
bationers for  the  ministry.  A  normal  course 
for  teachers  is  offered,  preparing  for  teachers' 
certificates.  Admission  to  the  college  is  by  re- 
quirements equivalent  to  about  6  points  of  high 
school  work.  There  is  a  faculty  of  12  members. 
Rev.  G.  D.  Crawford,  D.D.,  is  the  president. 

ARKANSAS,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  FAYETTE- 
VILLE,  ARK.  —  A  state  institution  for  the 
provision  of  higher  education,  organized  in 
1871  under  the  Morrill  Act  of  1862,  the  bene- 
fits of  which  were  accepted,  as  also  of  the  Act 
of  1890,  the  Hatch  Act  of  1887,  and  the  Adams 
Act,  1906.  Tuition  is  free,  except  in  law,  medi- 
cine, music,  and  art.  The  plant  consists  of 
11    buildings   and    dormitories.     Admission    is 


by  examination  requiring  at  present  IIJ  units, 
to  be  raised  up  to  14  units  by  1912.  Certifi- 
cates of  accredited  schools  are  also  accepted 
for  admission.  The  following  departments 
are  included  in  the  university:  the  college  of 
liberal  arts,  sciences  and  engineering,  the  col- 
lege of  agriculture,  the  agricultural  experiment 
station,  the  conservatory  of  mu.sic  and  art, 
and  the  preparatory  school,  all  located  at 
Fayetteville;  at  Little  Rock  are  the  medical 
and  law  schools;  and  at  Pine  Bluff  the  branch 
normal  school.  The  preparatory  school  offers 
a  course  of  one  year  only.  A  department  of 
secondary  education  is  maintained  by  the 
university  to  inquire  into  high  school  condi- 
tions, to  organize  such  schools,  and  exercise 
supervision  over  them.  Degrees  are  given  in  all 
departments  of  study  except  the  normal  cour.se, 
in  which  a  certificate,  accepted  as  a  license 
to  teach  in  a  state  school  for  6  years,  is  given. 
There  are  25  professors,  7  associate,  and  10 
adjunct  professors,  and  27  instructors  and  assist- 
ants at  the  Fayetteville  departments.  John 
Newton  TiUman,  LL.D.,  is  the  president. 

ARMENIA,  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS  IN.  — 

See  Missions,  Educational  Aspect  of  Mod- 
ern. 

ARMOUR  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY, 
CHICAGO,  ILL.  —  Founded  in  1892  by  Philip 
D.  Armour  of  Chicago  "  for  all  who  are  ear- 
nestly seeking  technical  education  ";  the  aim 
of  the  institute  is,  broadly,  "  to  help  those  who 
wish  to  help  themselves."  The  Institute  is 
intended  to  afford  a  combination  of  "  broad 
scientific  training  with  the  elements  of  liberal 
culture."  There  are  included  in  the  Institute 
the  college  of  engineering.  Armour  Scientific 
Academy,  evening  class  instruction,  and  sum- 
mer courses.  Of  these  the  scientific  academy, 
which  offers  a  preparatory  course  to  the  college 
of  engineering,  is  to  be  discontinued  after  the 
academic  year  1909-1910.  The  college  of  en- 
gineering is  organized  in  14  departments,  giving 
courses  in  mechanical,  electrical,  civil,  chemical, 
and  fire  protection  engineering;  architecture, 
mathematics,  physics,  English,  history,  and 
political  science,  language,  economics,  and  phi- 
losophy, physical  culture  and  graduate  work. 
Admission  is  by  certificate  from  an  academy 
or  high  school  of  good  standing,  or  by  exami- 
nation, the  requirements  for  which  are  equiva- 
lent to  15  units.  The  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Science  is  given  in  the  different  departments 
on  completion  of  a  4  years'  prescribed  course 
and  presentation  of  a  thesis.  The  evening 
classes  are  arranged  to  meet  the  needs  of  those 
who  are  engaged  during  the  day  in  technical 
pursuits.  Shop  work  is  given,  and  a  college 
preparatory  course  is  offered.  Correspondence 
school  students  largely  avail  themselves  of  these 
facilities.  The  plant  includes  5  buildings, 
while  the  architectural  and  fire  protection 
engineering   courses   are   carried   on   in   build- 


217 


ARMSTRONG 


ARNDT 


ings  at  some  distance  from  the  main  institute. 
The  laboratories  contain  the  most  modern 
equiiiment,  and  afford  excellent  facilities  for 
research.  The  lihrar.y  contains  2.5,000  volumes, 
2500  pamphlets  and  1.50  periodicals,  and  is 
primarily  a  reference  library  for  engineering 
students.  Among  the  publications  of  the 
Institute  are  the  Arinotir  Engineer,  a  semi- 
annual technical  publication,  and  the  Integral, 
an  annual  pulilication  edited  by  the  junior 
class.  The  C'hapin  Club,  organized  in  1907, 
has  for  its  object  the  i)romotion  of  the  social 
interests  and  welfare  of  the  students.  In  1908- 
1909  the  students  were  distributed  as  follows: 
in  engineering  —  170  in  electrical,  141  in  civil, 
104  in  mechanical,  4,5  in  chemical,  17  in  fire 
protection;  in  architecture,  100;  special  stu- 
dents, 21;  til5  students  took  evening  classes. 
The  faculty  includes  12  professors,  11  associate 
professors,  12  assistant  professors,  and  25 
instructors.  The  value  of  the  plant  is  esti- 
mated at  .55,000,000;  the  productive  endow- 
ment is  .§1,500,000,  and  the  annual  income  is 
$215,000.  Frank  Wakeley  Gunsaulus,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  is  the  President. 

ARMSTRONG,  SAMUEL  CHAPIN  (1839- 
1893). — The  organizer  of  the  Hampton  Insti- 
tute, for  negroes  and  Indians,  was  born  on 
the  Hawaiian  islands,    of    missionary    parents, 


Gcuoral  S.  A.  Armstrong. 

Jan.  .30,  1839.  He  received  his  preliminary 
education  in  the  Oahu  College,  Hawaii  and 
was  graduated  from  Williams  College.  For 
several  years  he  was  connected  with  the  de- 
partment of  public  instruction  of  Hawaii, 
where   he   obtained  the   expert   knowledge   of 


the  educational  needs  of  backward  peoples 
which  was  subseciucntly  of  so  nmch  value  to 
him  in  his  work  among  the  negroes  and  Indians. 
He  was  at  the  head  of  a  colored  regiment 
during  the  Civil  War,  retiring  at  its  close  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  was  selected 
l)y  General  Howard  as  superintendent  of  edu- 
cation of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  (q.v.)  for 
\'irginia.  Two  years  later  (1808),  reahzing 
the  industrial  needs  of  the  colored  people,  he 
organized  the  IIani|)ton  Normal  and  Agricul- 
tural Institute  (ry.c),  the  parent  of  many  such 
institutions  in  America.  During  the  25  years 
tiiat  he  directed  Hampton  (1808-1893),  "Gen- 
eral Armstrong  practically  fashioned  the  edu- 
cational j)olicy  of  the  native  Indians  and  the 
negroes,  and  the  men  and  women  that  he 
trained  became  the  leaders  among  their  own 
people.  He  was  the  author  of  several  papers 
on  the  education  of  negroes  and  Indians. 

W.  S.  M. 
See  H.\MrTON  Institute. 

References:  — 

Peabody.     Address   in   Alemory   of  General   Samuel   C. 

Annstruna.     (Boston,    1898.) 
Talbot.    Edith    Armstrong.     S.    C.    Armstrong.     A 

Biooraphical  Study.     (New  York,  1904.) 
See  articles  ia  Atlantic  Monlldy,  Vol.73,  \>.'M;  Educational 

Rev.  Vol.  6.,  p.  105. 

ARNAULD,  ANTOINE.  —  After  St.  Cyran 
(q.v.)  tlie  mo.st  important  member  of  the 
Port-Royal  (q.v.).  Born  in  1612,  the  son  of  a 
lawyer,  he  was  early  destined  to  enter  the  same 
profession  as  his  father.  He  changed,  however, 
from  law  to  theology.  He  obtained  the  docto- 
rate in  1041,  and  entered  the  Society  of  the 
Sorbonne  in  1643.  In  the  same  year  he  wrote 
his  Livre  de  la  frequenle  c.ommiiniun,  which 
brought  upon  him  the  enmity  of  the  Jesuits, 
who  persecuted  him  for  the  rest  of  his  life  with 
their  attacks.  Arnauld  was  a  strong  defender 
of  Jansenism.  In  1656  he  was  excluded  from 
the  Sorbonne.  In  1648  he  had  joined  the 
Port-Royalists.  Although  he  did  not  teach, 
he  expresses  a  keen  interest  in  education,  and 
wTote  a  Memoir  on  the  Regulations  of  Studies 
in  the  Humanities  {Memoire  sur  le  Rcglement 
des  Etudes  dans  Ics  Letlres  humaincs).  Many 
of  his  writings  were  on  school  subjects,  and 
many  others  he  inspired.  Among  these  are 
the  General  Grammar  {Grammaire  Generale), 
1060;  Element.t  of  Geometry  (Elements  de  Geo- 
melrie),  1660-1601;  the  treatise  on  Logic  (Lo- 
gique),  1GG2.  In  1679  Arnauld  was  compelled  to 
leave  France,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  in 
Belgium,  like  so  many  of  his  friends,  trying  to 
find  a  new  home.     He  died  in  Brussels  in  1694. 

See  article  on  Pokt-Royal. 

References:  — 
Carre,  I.    Les  Pedagogues  de  Port-Royal.    (Paris,  1887.) 
Cadet,   F.,  and  Jones,   A.  D.     Port-Royal  Education. 
(New  York.  189.S.) 


ARNDT,  ERNST  MORITZ  (1769-18G0).— 
A  German  patriot  and  poet.     Born  at  Schoritz 


218 


Thomas  Arnold.     (See  p.  220.) 


Matthew  Arnold.     (St-r  p.  21'J.J 


U' 

V** 

Kl 

k^_._  ,_ 

Thomas  Carlylc.     (.See  p.  533.)  Lord  Chesterfield.     (.See  p.  596.) 

A  Group  of  English  Men  of  Letters  —  Writers  on  Education. 


ARNOBIUS 


ARNOLD 


on  the  island  of  Riigen,  which  then  belonged 
to  Sweden,  he  received  his  education  at  the 
gymnasium  of  Stralsund  and  the  universities 
of  Greifswald  and  Jena.  In  1800  he  began  to 
lecture  in  Greifswald  on  history  and  philology. 
His  history  of  serfdom  in  Pomerania  (1803) 
brought  about  the  liberation  of  the  Pomeranian 
peasants.  His  real  life  work  commenced  in 
1806  with  his  attacks  on  Napoleon  in  his 
Spirit  of  the  Times  {Voin  Geist  der  Zcit). 
On  account  of  this  he  was  forced  to  flee  for  his 
life;  he  went  first  to  Sweden,  and  finally,  in 
1812,  to  St.  Petersburg.  From  there  he 
issued  a  large  number  of  patriotic  articles  and 
pamphlets  which  were  very  influential  in  rous- 
ing the  German  people  for  their  war  of  libera- 
tion from  the  Napoleonic  despotism.  After 
Napoleon's  defeat  in  Russia,  Arndt  returned  to 
Germany,  where  he  continued  his  literary  ac- 
tivity. Some  of  his  inspiring  war  lyrics,  such 
as  Was  ist  des  Deutschen  Valerland  ?  and  Der 
Gott,  der  Eisen  wachsen  liess,  der  wollte  keine 
Knechte,  are  sung  in  German  schools  to  this  day. 
In  1817  he  was  called  as  professor  of  history  to 
the  newly  established  University  of  Bonn,  but, 
incurring  the  displeasure  of  the  government  on 
account  of  his  liberalism,  he  was  suspended 
from  office  in  1820  and  remained  in  retirement 
until  restored  on  the  accession  of  Frederick 
William  IV  in  1840.  The  following  j^ear  he 
was  elected  Rector  of  the  University,  and  in 
1848  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  first  German 
parliament  in  Frankfort.  His  ninetieth  birth- 
day was  celebrated  with  great  enthusiasm  all 
over  Germany  in  1859;  a  month  later  he  died 
in  Bonn. 

"  Father  Arndt  "  was  a  typical  representa- 
tive of  German  idealism ;  he  had  a  deeply  reli- 
gious nature,  full  of  the  love  of  his  country 
and  of  liberty.  As  a  university  teacher  he  was 
very  popular,  not  on  account  of  great  scholar- 
ship, but  through  his  inspiring  eloquence  and 
personal  magnetism.  His  special  contributions 
to  pedagog}'  are  chiefly  contained  in  his  Frag- 
ments on  Human  Education  (1805).  His  ideas 
on  education  are  based  on  those  of  Rousseau; 
he  insists  on  a  harmonious  development  of  the 
physical,  aesthetic,  moral,  and  intellectual  nature 
of  the  child,  on  teaching  by  induction,  and  a 
careful  study  of  the  individuality  of  children. 

F.  M. 

ARNOBIUS,  THE  ELDER,  (also  knov\7i  as 
AFER).  —  A  Christian  writer  born  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  third  century  in  Sicca  Venerea 
in  Numidia.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  early 
life  and  training,  but  from  the  fact  that  he  was  a 
rhetorician  by  profession  it  must  be  inferred 
that  he  had  received  the  usual  course  of  disci- 
pline in  the  schools.  After  his  conversion  to 
Christianity  he  wrote  a  work  in  seven  books 
called  Advcrsns  Gentes,  the  main  object  of  which 
was  to  refute  the  charge  that  the  calamities 
of  the  world  were  caused  by  the  "  impiety  " 
of  the  Christians.     It  is  not  a  profound  work. 


though  skillful  use  is  made  of  the  current  criti- 
cisms of  the  opponents  of  the  new  faith.  It 
reveals  the  influence  of  his  rhetorical  training. 
In  the  second  book  he  discussed  the  nature  of 
the  soul  with  considerable  acumen,  advancing 
the  somewhat  unusual  doctrine  that  a  belief 
in  the  soul's  immortality  has  a  prejudicial  effect 
on  human  life.  He  combated,  as  Justin  did, 
Plato's  theory  that  knowledge  is  essentially 
reminiscence.  The  argument  of  the  Meno,  he 
declared,  does  not  prove  that  the  answers  given 
by  the  slave  to  the  geometrical  questions  of 
Socrates  were  omng  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
subject  already  existing  in  him;  but  (1)  to  the 
use  of  his  own  intelligence  (intelligentia),  and 
(2)  to  the  methodical  manner  in  which  the 
questions  were  put  to  him.  As  an  apologist 
and  critic  Arnobius  exerted  but  small  influence, 
and  his  chief  significance  for  education  lies  in 
his  discussion  of  the  soul.  H.  D. 

(The  works  of  Arnobius  have  been  edited 
by  Oehler  (1846)  and  others,  and  translated 
into  English  as  Vol.  XIX  of  the  Ante-Nicene 
Library.  Cf.  E.  Klussmann,  Arnob.  und 
Lucretius,  in  Philologus,  Vol.  XXVI,  1867.) 

ARNOLD,  MATTHEW  (1822-1888).  —  Son 
of  Dr.  Thomas  Arnold  of  Rugby;  educated 
at  Rugbv,  Winchester,  and  Balliol  College, 
Oxford;  Fellow  of  Oriel  College  (1845);  for  a 
short  time  master  at  Rugby;  Inspector  of 
Elementary  Schools  under  the  Education  De- 
partment (1851-1886),  during  which  period  he 
published  almost  all  his  poetry  and  prose 
writings.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  Assistant 
Commissioner  to  the  Royal  Commission,  which, 
under  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  inquired  into 
the  state  of  popular  education  in  England.  On 
behalf  of  the  Commission,  he  investigated  the 
state  of  education  in  France,  Switzerland,  and 
Holland,  and  reports  which  he  based  upon 
his  inquiries  were  subsequently  published  as 
part  of  the  Report  of  the  Commission.  In 
1865  he  was  appointed  by  the  Schools'  Inquiry 
Commission  to  investigate  the  system  of  educa- 
tion of  the  middle  and  upper  classes  in  France, 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Italy.  His  report 
was  published  by  the  Commissioners.  As 
Inspector  of  Schools  he  wrote  general  reports 
on  Elementary  Schools  in  1852-1858,  1860, 
1861,  1863,  1807,  1869,  1871,  1872,  1874,  1876, 
1878,  1880,  1882,  and  reports  on  some  of  the 
Training  Colleges  at  intervals  between  the 
years  1853  and  1868.  These  reports  were  sub- 
sequently edited  and  published  by  liis  friend, 
Lord  Sandford. 

Matthew  Arnold  exerted  strong  influence  on 
English  educational  ideas  for  three  reasons: 
(1)  He  was  one  of  the  English  writers  of  high 
distinction  who  have  pressed  upon  the  nation 
the  fundamental  importance  of  public  educa- 
tion as  a  factor  in  the  well-being  of  the  state. 
Thousands  of  men  and  women  holding  high 
positions  in  government  and  in  society  had 
tlicir  thoughts   turned   by   Matthew   Arnold's 


219 


ARNOLD 


ARNOLD 


writings  to  the  suliject  of  education,  from  which 
they  would  otiierwise  have  shrunk  from  lack  of 
interest  in  its  ordinary  presentation.  Much  of 
the  administrative  interest  in  public  education 
which  became  noticeable  in  England  in  the 
last  twenty  years  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria 
may  in  i)art  be  traced  to  the  literary  influence 
of  Matthew  Arnold.  (2)  He  took  delight  in 
making  his  fellow  countrymen  feel  ashamed  by 
contrasting  the  meager  educational  activities 
of  the  Knglish  State  and  those  of  France,  Ger- 
many, and  other  continental  peoples.  Having 
grown  u])  at  a  time  when  the  English  nation 
was  strongly  self-confident  and  little  inclined 
to  admit  the  superiority  of  any  foreign  system 
of  social  organization,  Arnold  indulged  himself 
in  the  opposite  habit,  and  idealized  foreign 
systems  of  education  and  government,  partly 
with  the  intention  of  impressing  his  fellow  citi- 
zens with  the  need  for  reform,  partly  from  a 
natural  tendency  to  see  the  weak  side  of  English 
habits  of  nund  and  to  overestimate  the  merits 
of  Continental  methods  of  education.  (3)  He 
was  one  of  the  literary  leaders  of  the  reaction 
against  individualism  in  English  national  life 
and  against  the  influence  (wrongly  identified 
by  him  with  Puritanism)  which  minimized  the 
functions  of  the  State  in  promoting  collec- 
tive well-being  by  means  of  public  education 
and  state-aided  culture.  Matthew  Arnold's 
influence  was  increased  by  the  fact  that  he 
was  the  son  of  the  man  who  had  been  the  chief 
reformer  of  the  English  public  schools.  Bril- 
liant in  literary  criticism,  a  master  of  political 
irony,  politely  pitiless  in  his  satire  of  English 
social  and  intellectual  prejudice,  he  helped  in 
making  England  self-conscious,  dissatisfied 
with  itself,  vaguely  collectivist  in  its  educational 
ideal,  and  ready  to  accept  immense  develop- 
ment of  public  e.xpenditure  and  of  state  inspec- 
tion in  educational  work.  His  influence  was 
solvent,  unsettling,  provocative,  w'ith  a  certain 
foreign  strain  in  it  which  went  with  a  lack  of 
insight  into  the  historical  significance  of  many 
points  of  view  traditionally  accepted  in  Eng- 
land. Of  foreign  schools  and  political  institu- 
tions he  was  an  impressionable  observer  rather 
than  a  sagacious  critic.  He  rarely  struck  a 
true  balance  between  the  satisfactory  and  the 
mischievous  results  of  any  form  of  governmental 
control  in  education;  he  was  a  brilliant  impres- 
sionist rather  than  a  scientific  investigator. 
He  idealized  the  action  of  the  State  without 
measuring  the  practical  effects  of  organized 
bureaucracy.  In  his  political  ideal,  his  father's 
almost  Hebraic  theocracy  had  faded  into  a 
somewliat  dilettante  admiration  for  govern- 
mental action,  for  many  of  the  practical 
results  of  which  he  would  himself  have  felt 
profound  distaste.  For  the  more  scientific 
study  of  educational  methods  as  applied  to 
the  problems  of  teaching  he  showed  compara- 
tively little  aptitude.  A  responsible  oflficer 
of  the  Education  Department  during  the  years 
in  which  the  system  of  "payment  by  results  " 


deeply  injured  the  work  of  the  best  English 
elementary  schools,  he  did  comparatively  little, 
even  in  his  public  writings,  and  still  less  by 
personal  influence  and  protest,  to  check  ad- 
ministrative tendencies  which  were  hurtful  to 
the  best  interests  of  English  elementary  educa- 
tion. But  no  English  writer  of  his  time,  with 
the  exception  of  Herbert  Sjjencer  ((/.v.)  and 
possibly  of  Huxley  {g.v.),  did  so  much  in  popu- 
larizing the  discussion  of  educational  problems. 
He  approached  them,  however,  from  the  point 
of  view  of  political  philosophy  and  government, 
rather  than  from  the  stand])oint  of  i)sychology 
or  physiology.  He  thought  rather  loosely 
about  forms  of  public  control  in  education, 
and,  while  weakening  resjx'ct  for  indivitlual 
enterprise,  threw  but  little  liglit  upon  the  de- 
fects of  organized  democracy  in  the  sjihore  of 
educational  government.  He  was  strongly  im- 
pressed by  the  achievements  of  Gernumy  in 
the  public  provision  of  secondary  and  higher 
education,  but  did  not  press  to  any  jioint  (if 
thoroughness  his  inquiry  into  the  fundamental 
differences  between  different  forms  of  national 
organization.  As  an  educational  writer,  his 
chief  service  to  England  lay  in  his  reiterated 
and  urgent  advice  in  regard  to  the  provision 
of  a  liberal  secondary  education  for  the  masses 
of  the  people;  but  his  achievements  as  an  edu- 
cational thinker  were  on  a  much  lower  plane 
than  his  work  in  poetry  and  in  literary  criticism. 

M.  E.  S. 

References  :  — 
Matthew  Arnold.     Culture  and  Anarchy,   18G9. 

Reports  on  Elementary  Scliools,  1852-1882.  Ed.  by 
Lord  Sandford.     (London,  1889.) 

Higher  Schools  and  Universities  in  Germany. 
(London,     1874.) 

A  French  Eton,  or  Middle-class  Education  in  the 
State,  to  whicli  is  added  Schools  and  Universities 
in  France.  (Pulilishcd  respectively  in  1864  and 
1868.) 

Ecce.  Convcrtimur  ad  Cirntoa.  (In  Irish  Essays 
and  Others,  1.S82.) 

Porro  unum    cat  ncccaaarium.      (In    Minted    Essays, 
1879.) 
Fitch.    Sir    Joshua.     Thomas  and    Matthew    Arnold. 
(New  York.  1897.) 

ARNOLD,  THOMAS  (1795-1842).  —  Head- 
master of  Kugby  School,  1828-1842;  was  born 
at  Cowes  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  where  his  father 
was  Collector  of  the  Customs.  He  was  edu- 
cated (1803-1807)at  Warminster  (where  he  was 
much  influenced  by  reading  Joseph  Priestley's 
Lectures  on  History)  and  at  Winchester  College 
(1807-1811).  From  his  Winchester  experience 
he  derived  many  of  his  ideas  as  to  school  disci- 
pline and  as  to  the  benefit  of  intrusting  elder 
boys  in  a  school  with  authority  over  the  younger. 
See  his  article  on  the  discipline  of  public 
schools  in  1835.  Winchester  traditions  (among 
the  most  ancient  in  Enghsh  education)  largely 
influenced  Arnold  when  in  later  years  he  re- 
organized the  school  life  at  Rugby. 

In  1811,  in  his  sixteenth  year,  he  was  elected 
Scholar  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford; 
in  1814  he  was  placed  in  the  first  class  in  Litlerae 


220 


ARNOLD 


ARNOLD 


Humaniores.  ka  an  undergraduate  at  Corpus 
he  became  the  intimate  friend  of  J.  T.  Cole- 
ridge and  of  John  Keble.  Through  Coleridge, 
Arnold  became  acquainted  with  the  Lyrical 
Ballads  and  the  first  edition  of  Wordsworth's 
poems.  The  young  men  became  zealous 
disciples  of  Wordsworth's  philosophy.  The 
teaching  of  the  Lake  poets  brought  out  in 
Arnold,  who  had  a  natural  leaning  toward 
practical  and  evidently  useful  studies,  a  feeling 
for  lofty  and  imaginative  thoughts  which  had 
a  great  spiritual  influence  upon  his  life.  Arnold 
took  particular  delight  in  long  country  rambles, 
in  the  beauties  of  nature,  and  in  the  sea  and 
shipping.  Always  impressionable,  and  insen- 
sibly changing  his  point  of  view  under  the 
dominant  opinions  of  his  time  or  of  valued 
friends,  Arnold  owed  much  to  the  influences 
of  his  early  education  at  Winchester  and  Ox- 
ford, the  effects  of  wliich  were  never  effaced 
from  his  mind  and  character.  He  evidently 
obtained  more  valuable  education  from  his 
contemporaries,  especially  at  college,  and 
from  his  private  studies,  than  from  the  actual 
instruction  wihch  he  received  from  his  tutors. 
He  thus  learned  to  appreciate  the  educational 
value  of  corporate  and  collegiate  hfe  and  to 
assign  a  high  value  to  the  influence  of  a  school 
community  upon  each  of  its  individual  members. 
In  1815  he  was  elected  FeUow  of  Oriel  College, 
then  the  center  of  the  most  active  intellectual 
life  in  the  university.  Here  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Richard  Whately  (afterwards 
Archbishop  of  Dubhn)  and  John  Henry  New- 
man, and  found  himself  in  the  vortex  of  theo- 
logical discu.ssion.  Taking  Holy  Orders  in 
1818,  he  settled  in  the  following  year  at  Lale- 
ham  (on  the  banks  of  the  Thames  near  iStaines), 
with  his  mother,  aunt,  and  sister.  Here  (hav- 
ing married  Mary  Penrose  in  1820)  he  re- 
mained for  nine  years,  taking  seven  or  eight 
young  men  as  private  pupils  in  preparation  for 
their  university  life.  In  boyhood  and  early 
youth  he  had  been  somewhat  indolent,  morbidly 
restless,  apt  to  indulge  himself  in  vague  schemes 
without  definite  purpose,  and  beset  by  intel- 
lectual doubts  as  to  the  realities  of  religious 
belief.  During  his  life  at  Laleham  he  under- 
went a  great  change,  vi.siting  much  among  the 
poor,  becoming  intensely  religious,  and  forming 
habits  of  indefatigable  industry  and  persever- 
ance. "The  most  remarkable  thing,"  wrote 
a  former  pupil,  "  which  struck  me  at  once  on 
joining  the  Laleham  circle,  was  the  wonderful 
healthiness  of  tone  and  feeling  which  prevailed 
in  it.  Everything  about  me  I  immediately 
found  to  be  most  real;  it  was  a  place  where  a 
newcomer  at  once  felt  that  a  great  and  earnest 
work  was  going  forward.  Dr.  Arnold's  great 
power  as  a  private  tutor  rested  in  this,  that 
he  gave  such  an  intense  earnestness  to  life." 
Thus  at  Laleham  Arnold  developed  his  great 
powers  as  a  teacher  of  young  men  (he  was 
always  more  successful  with  older  boys  than 
with  young  ones)   and  his  intense  reality  of 


221 


religious  and  political  conviction.  At  Lale- 
ham also  he  began  his  first  edition  of  Thucy- 
dides  and  his  studies  in  the  history  of  Greece 
and  Rome.  In  1825,  in  order  to  read  Nie- 
buhr's  History  of  Rome,  he  learned  German. 
Theocratic  in  his  instincts,  he  desired  to  apply 
the  principles  of  the  Gospel  to  the  legislation 
and  administration  of  the  modern  State. 
He  opposed  the  quietism  and  intellectual 
inertia  of  the  Evangelicals,  and  the  tendency 
of  the  Tractarians  to  separate  Church  from 
State.  His  ideal  was  a  political  community 
interpenetrated  by  Christian  principles,  and 
applying  tho.se  principles  in  its  laws  and  ad- 
ministration —  the  latter  including  a  system 
of  national  education. 

In  December,  1827,  he  was  elected  head- 
master of  Rugby.  One  of  his  friends.  Dr. 
Hawkins,  afterwards  Provost  of  Oriel,  predicted 
that  if  Arnold  were  elected  to  the  headmaster- 
ship  of  Rugby  he  would  change  the  face  of 
education  all  through  the  pubUc  schools  of 
England.  In  August,  1828,  he  entered  upon 
his  new  office.  When  he  became  headmaster 
of  Rugby,  he  found  a  general  feehng  of  dis- 
satisfaction with  the  condition  of  the  public 
schools.  The  older  cla.ssical  curriculum  was 
vehementlj'  attacked  on  the  ground  of  its  nar- 
rowness and  inutility.  The  absence  of  sys- 
tematic attempts  at  Christian  education  in  the 
pubhc  schools  had  become  a  scandal  in  the 
eyes  of  religious  men.  Many  thought  that 
the  whole  system  would  soon  be  destroyed. 
It  was  clear  that  a  great  reformation  was 
necessary  and  that  this  would  be  extremely 
difficult,  owing  to  the  conservatism  of  the  in- 
stitutions concerned.  Arnold  determined  that 
he  would  devote  his  life  to  the  internal  re- 
form of  the  great  public  school,  to  the  raising 
of  its  ideals  of  corporate  life,  to  checking  the 
thoughtless  waste  and  selfishness  of  school- 
boys, and  to  inculcating  into  their  minds  the 
principles  of  reverence  for  the  law  and  regard 
for  the  claims  of  the  poorer  classes.  He  there- 
fore viewed  his  administration  at  Rugby  as  a 
political  experiment  of  far-reaching  importance. 
His  energy  was  boundless;  he  threw  himself 
vehemently  into  a  contest  again.st  evil.  Con- 
scious of  his  own  integrity,  and  contemning 
worLUy  advantage,  he  was  bold  in  pohcy, 
regardless  of  attacks.  More  than  once  he 
resisted  the  attempts  of  his  governing  body  to 
interfere  with  his  independence  of  action;  he 
insisted  upon  ha\-ing  complete  control  over  the 
administration  of  the  school,  and  over  his  own 
private  occupations.  He  claimed  and  exer- 
cised complete  liberty  of  opinion  and  action  in 
regard  to  current  politics,  and  was  at  one  time 
nearly  dismissed  from  the  headmastership  for 
alleged  political  partisanship.  The  freedom 
which  Arnold  claimed  would  have  been  impos- 
sible under  any  system  of  higher  education 
directly  controlled  by  the  State.  His  open- 
ness of  speech  on  current  questions  of  political 
controversy  and  his  vigorous  participation  in 


ARNOLD 


ARNOLD 


discussions  on  social  and  political  questions 
would  iiave  been  regarded  as  inconii)atible 
with  the  neutrality  of  a  civil  servant. 

Arnold's  relations  with  his  assistant  masters 
were  exemplary.  He  regarded  their  coopera- 
tion in  the  government  of  the  school  as  essential; 
he  was  entirely  free  from  jealousj'  of  his  subor- 
dinates, and  rejoiced  when  they  gained  inde- 
pendent reputations.  lie  was  deeply  impressed 
by  the  evil  influence  often  prevailing  in  a 
community  of  boys  living  in  an  atmosphere  of 
tradition  and  in  almost  monastic  seclusion 
from  the  society  of  women,  but  he  thought  that 
these  conditions  of  education,  thougii  perilous, 
served  also  to  promote  manly  growth  of  char- 
acter, and  therefore  should  be  reformed,  not 
overtlirown.  "  Another  system,"  he  said, 
"  may  be  better  in  itself;  but  I  am  placed  in 
this  system  and  am  liound  to  try  what  I  can 
make  of  it."  He  regarded  religious  influences 
and  religious  teaciiing  as  essential  to  the  welfare 
of  the  school.  Ho  endeavored  to  hasten  the 
change  from  childhood  to  manhood  without 
prematurely  exhausting  the  faculties  of  body 
or  mind.  Many  of  his  pupils  and  contempo- 
raries thought  that  he  overpressed  boys  by  his 
appeals  to  their  moral  thoughtfulness,  and  that 
he  prematurely  burdened  them  with  moral 
resjjonsibilities  beyond  their  age.  He  wished, 
so  far  as  possible,  that  things  should  be  done 
by  the  boys  and  very  little  for  them,  and  there- 
fore appealed  to  their  common-sense  and 
trusted  to  their  conscience.  Lying  to  the 
masters  he  made  a  great  moral  offense;  he 
placed  implicit  confidence  in  a  boy's  assertion, 
but  if  a  falsehood  were  discovered,  he  punished 
it  severely.  "  There  grew  up  in  conseciuence," 
says  Dean  Stanley,  "a  general  feeling  that  it 
was  a  shame  to  tell  Arnold  a  lie  —  he  always 
believes  one."  He  laid  great  stress  upon  the 
mutual  responsibilities  of  a  school  unity. 
"  Is  this  a  Christian  school  ?  "  he  once  indig- 
nantly asked  the  boys  at  a  time  when  he  had 
discovered  traces  of  an  evil  influence.  "  I 
cannot  remain  here  if  all  is  to  be  carried  on  by 
con.straint  and  force;  if  I  am  to  be  here  as  a 
gaoler  I  will  resign  my  office  at  once."  He 
insisted  on  the  right  to  expel  boys  whose  influ- 
ence he  believed  to  be  hurtful.  He  once 
said  to  the  assembled  school,  "  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  this  should  be  a  school  of  300  or  100 
or  of  50  boys;  but  it  is  necessary  that  it  should 
be  a  school  of  Christian  gentlemen." 

Arnold  modificil  the  severity  of  punishment, 
especially  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  school.  He 
retained  flogging,  but  confined  it  to  moral 
offenses.  He  determined  to  improve  to  the 
utmost  the  existing  machinery  of  the  sixth  form 
and  of  fagging,  by  i)lacing  in  the  hands  of  the 
30  boys  who  composed  the  highest  class 
special  responsibilities  and  powers.  In  this 
he  largely  followed  the  tradition  of  Winchester. 
He  placed  the  aims  of  school  life  in  the  follow- 
ing order:  (1)  religious  and  moral  principles, 
(2)  gentlemanly  conduct,  (3)  inteUectual  ability. 


He  treated  the  sixth  form  like  ofl^cers  in  the 
army  and  navy,  relying  on  their  moral  courage 
to  assist  him  in  his  government  of  the  school. 
He  discouraged  the  practice  of  sending  boys  of 
tender  years  to  a  jniblic  school,  and  encouraged 
the  development  of  preparatory  schools  under 
private  teachers.  He  endeavored  to  give 
reality  to  the  religious  life  of  the  school.  In 
his  own  class,  he  said  a  special  prayer  before  his 
lesson,  over  and  above  the  general  prayers 
read  before  the  whole  school.  He  had  a  strong 
belief  in  the  general  union  of  moral  and  intel- 
lectual excellence;  for  mere  intellectual  acute- 
ness  he  had  little  respect.  He  liberally  con- 
tributed toward  prizes  and  scholarshijis  as 
incentives  to  study.  He  devoted  nuich  of  his 
leisure  to  the  preparation  of  new  examinations 
for  various  classes  and  to  a  yearly  examination 
for  the  whole  school.  He  kept  up  his  [jcrsonal 
intimacy  with  pupils  who  had  left  the  school. 
He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  classical  education, 
but  in  his  hands  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin 
authors  was  permeated  with  interest  in  modern 
questions.  He  discarded  in  his  teaching  mere 
verbal  criticism  and  many  of  the  elegant 
refinements  of  scholarship.  He  made  the 
study  of  modern  history  and  modern  languages 
and  of  mathematics  more  important  in  the 
course  of  education  at  Rugby.  In  teaching 
he  questioned  largely,  making  his  exiilanations 
as  short  as  possible  and  steadily  checking  him- 
self from  imparting  too  much  information. 
He  encouraged  boys  to  read  and  think  for  them- 
selves. He  was  always  ready  to  acknowledge 
mistakes  in  his  own  scholarship,  and  never  con- 
cealed his  own  ignorance.  He  w\as  a  master 
of  extemporary  translation  from  Latin  and 
Greek  into  good  English,  a  power  which  he  had 
begun  to  acquire  at  Winchester  and  steadily 
developed  through  later  life.  His  teaching  of 
history  was  stimulating  and  vigorous.  It 
was  always  his  wish  that  his  pupils  should  form 
their  opinions  for  themselves  and  not  take  them 
on  trust  from  him.  "  It  would  be  a  great 
mistake,"  he  said,  "  if  I  were  to  try  to  make 
myself  here  into  a  Pope."  The  result  of  his 
teaching  was  to  make  his  more  sensitive  pnjiils 
"  appreciate  moral  agreement  amidst  much 
intellectual  difference." 

His  most  powerful  influence  over  the  school 
was  exerted  from  the  pulpit.  He  preached 
every  Sunday  afternoon,  and  his  sermons  deejily 
moved  those  who  heard  them.  Dean  Stanley 
well  describes  the  interest  and  attention  which 
the  boys  gave  to  the  sermons  and  the  lasting 
impressions  which  they  carried  away. 

Arnold  broke  down  the  old  tradition  of  aloof- 
ness practiced  by  the  masters  of  the  English 
public  schools.  "Many  of  the  boys,  especially 
the  younger,  feared  him,  but  out  of  this  feel- 
ing of  fear,"  wrote  Dean  Stanley,  "grew  up  a 
deep  admiration  partaking  largely  of  the  nature 
of  awe,  and  this  softened  into  a  sort  of  loyalty, 
which  remained  even  in  the  closer  and  more 
affectionate  sympathy  of  lateryears."     Arnold's 


222 


ARRESTED   DEVELOPMENT 


ART  IN   EDUCATION 


influence  was  not  confined  to  Rugby.  The 
headmasters  of  other  schools,  especially  Win- 
chester and  Harrow,  were  inspired  by  his 
example,  and  to  Arnold  may  be  traced  a  great 
moral  revival  in  the  English  public  schools,  and 
their  strong  hold  upon  the  affections  of  English- 
men. He  practically  saved  the  English  public 
school  system  from  destructive  attack.  Had  it 
not  been  for  Arnold,  it  is  probable  that  English 
higher  secondary  education  would  have  passed 
more  or  less  completely  under  the  control  of  the 
State.  Arnold's  personality  captivated  the 
imagination  of  England;  his  heroic  figure  stood 
for  an  educational  ideal.  English  people  real- 
ized that  state  control  would  be  incompatible 
with  the  retention  of  any  such  vigorous  person- 
ality in  the  service  of  the  great  pubUc  schools. 
His  constant  appeal  to  the  value  of  historical 
tradition  found  a  sympathetic  echo  in  the  Eng- 
lish mind.  Under  Arnold's  influence  ancient 
foundations  for  the  higher  education  of  boys 
in  England  renewed  their  youth.  A  large 
number  of  other  schools  were  established  on 
similar  principles,  and  the  semi-independent 
corporate  foundations  formed  the  type  upon 
which  the  new  schools  were  modeled.  Arnold's 
great  originality  lay  in  his  moral  personality. 
He  reinvigorated  an  old  system  and  transformed 
its  inner  life.  The  romantic  halo  which  sur- 
rounds his  name  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  of  his 
sudden  and  early  death,  which  took  place  at 
Rugby  at  the  end  of  the  summer  term  of  1842. 
The  impression  produced  by  the  news  upon  the 
minds  of  boys  who  had  been  educated  by  him 
is  described  by  Thomas  Hughes  in  Tom  Browivs 
School  Days.  Arnold's  influence  was  also 
greatly  extended  by  the  publication  of  his 
Life  and  Correspondence  edited  by  his  favorite 
pupil,  Arthur  Stanley,  afterwards  Dean  of 
Westminster.  M.  E.  S. 

References:  — - 

Arnold,  Thomas.     The  MisceUaneous  Works  of  Thomas 
Arnold,    D.D.     (Important    as    cont.aimiig    several 
educational    essays    and    much    of    his    writing    on 
political  questions.) 
Sermons  Preached  at  Hughy  School. 

F1NDL.1Y,  J.  J.  Arnold  of  Rugby,  Hu  School  Life  and 
Contributions  to  Education.  (Cambridge  University 
Press,   1897.) 

Stanley,  Arthuh  Penrhtn.  The  Life  and  Correspond- 
ence of  Thomas  Arnold,  D.D.     (Various  editions.) 

ARRESTED   DEVELOPMENT.  —  See  Re- 

TARD.\TIO.\. 

ART,  APPLIED. —See  Design. 

ART  IN  EDUCATION.  —  A  study  of  educa- 
tion in  its  earlier  forms,  not  only  in  savage  com- 
munities, but  in  a  civilization  as  advanced  as  the 
Athenian,  reveals  the  great  role  played  bj'  the 
arts.  Anthropological  investigations  have  con- 
firmed the  obvious  educational  influence  by 
showing  the  great  part  played  by  the  arts  in  the 
Ufe  of  the  community  and  in  determining  prog- 
ress.   Psychology  adds  to  these  convictions  the 


fact  of  the  fundamental  character  of  the  impul- 
sive tendencies  which  are  the  physiological  origin 
of  the  activities  that  lead  to  the  arts.  All  of 
these  facts  are  opposed  to  the  common  assump- 
tion that  the  arts  represent  a  kind  of  educational 
luxury  and  superfluity. 

\'arious  classifications  have  been  made  of  the 
arts,  —  they  have  been  subdivided  into  the 
spatial  and  "the  temporal,  arts  of  rest  and  motion, 
of  the  eye  and  the  ear,  etc.  However  correct 
for  their  own  purposes,  these  divisions  are  edu- 
cationally defective  in  that  they  start  from  art 
products  rather  than  from  the  psychophysical 
acts  from  which  these  products  originate. 
More  significant  from  the  educational  point  of 
view  is  the  classification  of  Santayana  according 
to  which  arts  are  distinguished  into  those  that 
spring  from  automatisms,  i.e.  organic  or  "  spon- 
taneous "  movements  which,  when  rhythmi- 
cally ordered  and  accompanied  by  intensified 
emotion,  themselves  constitute  acts,  and  those 
in  which  the  movements,  even  if  similarly  in- 
duced originally,  terminate  in  effective  en- 
during modifications  in  natural  objects.  The 
dance,  pantomime,  song,  music,  etc.,  belong  in 
the  first  class;  the  second  class  Santayana 
terms  "plastic,"  including  in  it  architecture, 
sculpture,  painting,  and  design. 

Anthropological  and  historical  inquiry  have 
fairly  estabhshed  the  following  principles:  first, 
that  art  is  born  of  primary  impulses  of  human 
nature  when  the  activity,  whether  automatic 
or  plastic,  has  social  value;  second,  that  this 
social  value  is  conferred  by  the  tendency  of  the 
activity  or  its  product  to  spread  an  emotional 
mood  "favorable  to  joint  or  concerted  action. 
Otherwise  put,  the  arts,  in  their  origin,  tended 
to  contagion  or  communication  of  an  emotion, 
that  produced  unity  of  attitude  and  of  outlook 
and  imagination.  From  this  point  of  view,  no 
sharp  line  divided  the  fine  and  useful  arts  from 
each  other.  Any  useful  object  —  a  piece  of  pot- 
tery, of  weaving,  an  implement  of  hunting  — 
that  provokes  social  reminiscences  and  antici- 
pations attaches  contagious  emotions  to  itself, 
and  acquires  cesthetic  quality.  The  marked 
distinction  between  useful  and  fine  arts  is  chiefly 
a  product  of  slave  labor  or  of  commercial  pro- 
duction, making  things  for  a  market,  under 
circumstances  where  the  factor  of  shared  emo- 
tional life  is  ehminated. 

Another  significant  trait  of  the  arts  in  their 
simple  and  more  natural  form  is  the  promi- 
nence of  the  festal  element.  Tribal  dances  are 
the  background,  out  of  which  music,  poetry, 
and  the  drama  all  gradually  differentiated. 
These  pantomime  dances  were  either  occasional 
or  ceremonial,  i.e.  they  were  either  community 
celebrations  of  more  or  less  choice  episodes 
happening  to  attract  general  attention,  or  else 
were  stated  and  recurrent  celebrations  of  im- 
portant tribal  traditions  and  customs,  attaching 
to  changes  in  the  season,  return  of  food  animals, 
gathering  crops,  war  expeditions,  etc. 

Some  of  the  educational  bearings  of  these 


223 


ART  IN   EDUCATION 


ART   IN   EDUCATION 


considerations,  psychological  and  ethnological, 
conic  out  conspicuously  in  the  older  Athenian 
education.  Music  (in  the  Greek  sense)  and  gym- 
nastic were,  in  general,  ami  in  many  of  the 
details  of  their  educational  use,  very  direct  out- 
growtiis  of  the  role  of  the  dramatic  and  com- 
munal arts  of  more  primitive  societies.  It  is 
not  dilhcult  to  detect  in  Plato's  treatment  of 
gymnastics  in  the  Republic  and  the  Laws  the 
fact  that  dances,  etc.,  originally  associated  with 
industrial  and  military  crises  in  the  life  of  a 
peo|)le,  had  become  so  saturated  with  elements 
of  rhythm,  measure,  and  order,  and  ^nth  social 
memories  and  hopes,  as  to  present  great  value 
in  the  training  of  the  young;  while  music  was 
frankly  a  vehicle  for  carrying  what  was  of  tvpical 
or  idealized  value  in  the  traditions  of  the  (ireek 
people,  by  enhancing  their  emotional  value  so 
that  they  would  deeply,  though  uncon.sciously, 
modify  the  character  of  children's  tastes  and  likes 
and  dislikes  in  the  direction  that  reason  would 
later  consciou.sly  approve. 

If  we  attempt  to  summarize  the  meaning  of 
the  facts  mentioned  in  this  brief  summary 
for  present  educational  practice,  the  following 
points  stand  out  clearly:  — 

1 .  There  has  been  great  loss  in  relegating  the 
arts  to  the  relatively  trivial  role  which  they 
finally  assumed  in  schooling,  and  there  is  corre- 
sponding promise  of  gain  in  the  efforts  making 
in  the  last  generation  to  restore  these  to  a  more 
important  position.  Viewed  both  psycholog- 
ically and  socially,  the  arts  represent  not  luxuries 
and  superfluities,  but  fundamental  forces  of  de- 
velopment. 

2.  Instead  of  testhetic  appreciation,  the 
sense  of  beauty,  etc.,  coming  first  and  leading 
to  artistic  expression  in  order  to  satisfy  itself, 
the  order  is  the  reverse.  Man  instinctively 
attempts  to  enhance  and  perpetuate  his  images 
that  are  charged  with  emotional  value  by  some 
kind  of  objectification  through  action.  The 
outcome  inevitably  is  marked  by  certain  factors 
of  balance,  rhythm,  and  constructive  order,  and 
by  the  function  of  representation,  i.e.  of 
recording  in  some  adequate  way  the  values  to 
which  emotions  cling.  The  sense  of  beauty, 
or  aesthetic  appreciation,  is  a  reflex  product 
of  this  attempt  at  production.  A  product, 
which  is  objectively  crude,  but  which  represents 
a  genuine  attempt  at  embodiment  of  an  ex- 
perienced value  of  unusual  emotional  quality, 
is  more  likely  to  be  an  effective  means  of  cul- 
tivating taste  and  aesthetic  sensitiveness  than 
the  presentation  for  passive  appreciation  of 
much  more  perfect  works  produced  by  others. 
Tlie  latter  are  indispensable,  but  their  function 
is  to  serve  as  mo<lels  which  will  stimulate  to 
appreciation  of  crudities  and  imperfections  that 
may  be  refined  away,and  to  enlarge  theemotional 
images  out  of  which  personal  expression  springs. 
In  the  end,  the  great  majority  of  pupils  are 
of  course  to  become  appreciators  of  art  rather 
than  its  producers  in  any  technical  sense. 
But  only  by  taking  some  part  in  creative  pro- 


duction (and  that  not  for  the  sake  consciously 
of  producing  beauty  but  sinqily  of  embodying 
vital  and  significant  feelings)  can  a  wholesome 
and  natural  attitude  of  appreciation  finally  be 
secured. 

3.  The  social,  or  communicable,  character  of 
the  emotions  from  which  a>.sthetic  expression 
naturally  springs,  emphasizes  the  values  of 
joint  exiicriences  and  actions  of  a  more  or  less 
domestic  nature.  (Jroup  activity  of  a  joyous 
character  celebrating  some  event  or  fact  of 
common  value  is  the  natural  soil  of  artistic 
creation  in  the  school  as  well  as  out. 

4.  Expressive  activity  is  also  especially 
adapted  for  educational  use  in  that  the  separa- 
tion, so  usual  with  adults,  between  the  utilita- 
rian and  the  artistic  does  not  naturally  exi.st 
for  them.  In  the  absence  of  economic  jiressure, 
the  measure  of  use  is  simply  value  contributed 
to  the  enhancement  of  individual  and  group 
fife.  Cooking,  even  such  seemingly  utilitarian 
things  as  setting  a  table  and  .serving  a  meal, 
easily  take  on  for  children  an  artistic  value  so 
far  as  they  represent  a  consciousness  and  com- 
memoration of  things  to  which  children  attach 
a  vague  social  significance,  all  the  more  potent 
because  in  its  vagueness  it  represents  the 
mysterious  and  attractive  world  of  adult  life. 
The  separation  of  the  externally  and  technically 
useful  from  emotional  and  imaginative  enrich- 
ment is  unnatural  psychological  divorce,  and 
one  of  the  chief  functions  of  the  arts  in  educa- 
tion is  to  maintain  the  natural  union  of  the 
socially  important  with  that  which  makes 
strong  emotional  appeal. 

5.  Literature  is  probably  the  art  mcst  g(>n- 
erally  available  for  school  purposes.  In  order 
that  it  may  be  a  genuine  art  it  is  necessary  that 
it  be  presented  as  a  consummation  and  perfecting 
of  factors  which  the  child  already  appreciates 
as  having  value.  This  means  that  it  is  not 
so  much  a  point  of  departure  for  instruction 
as  it  is  a  focus  in  which  other  factors  gather 
together  in  a  vivid  and  ordered  way.  Litera- 
ture is  not  to  be  used  as  a  means  for  any  other 
end  than  this  gathering  together,  in  a  vital 
and  readily  appreciated  way,  of  scattered 
and  inchoate  elements  of  experience.  It  is 
not,  for  example,  to  be  made  a  means  of 
moral  instruction  or  consciously  impressing  a 
specific  moral  lesson.  It  is  ethically  impor- 
tant simjily  because  it  presents  in  a  form  easilj- 
grasped  and  likely  to  be  enduring  values  which 
are  themselves  felt  to  be  intrinsically  important. 
Any  attempt  at  definite  formulation  and  im- 
pressing of  these  values  and  the  kind  of  conduct 
they  require  is  certainly  detrimental  to  the 
literature  as  art,  and  is  very  likely  to  be  harm- 
ful to  the  moral  influence  which  the  values 
might  exercise,  if  left  undisturbed  in  their 
proper  medium  of  feeling  and  imagination.  The 
same  principle  holds,  of  course,  of  methods  that 
utilize  literature  simply  as  a  means  of  teaching 
grammar,  information  about  the  history  of 
literary  men,  antiquities,  or  any  of  the  diverse 


224 


ART  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


ART   IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


topics  which  have  been  hung  upon  literature  as 
upon  a  peg.  J.  D. 

See  Activity;  Art  in  the  Schools;  Art, 
Methods  of  Teaching;  Course  of  Study, 
Theory  of;  Design;  Drawing;  Dancing; 
Occupations;  Primitive  Society,  Education 

IN. 

References  :  — ■ 

Gayon.     Art  from  the  Sodohgical  Point  of  View. 
Groos.      The  Beginnings  of  Art. 

The  Play  of  Men.      (Now  York,  1901.) 
HiRN.      The  Origins  of  .Art.      (London,  1900.) 
Sant.wana.     Sense  of  Beauty.      (New  York,  1896.) 

The  Life  of  Reason.    V9I.  IV.     (New  York,  1906.) 
TuPTS.     On     the     Genesis    of  the     J£sthetic     Categories. 

(Chicago,  1903.) 
Wallaschek.     Primitive  Music.     (London,    1893.) 

ART  IN  THE  SCHOOLS.  — Historical  De- 
velopment. —  Free-hand  drawing  as  an  element 
in  education  has  been  advocated  since  the  time 
of  Aristotle,  who  included  it  among  his  subjects 
of  instruction.  It  appeared,  however,  neither 
in  the  Triviiun  nor  the  Quadrivium  of  later 
schoolmen,  and  is  not  recognized  as  an  important 
element  of  study  until  we  reach  the  educational 
reformers  of  modern  times.  Comenius  recom- 
mends it  strongly,  as  does  Locke,  who  would 
have  the  child  taught  to  draw  after  he  has 
learned  to  write.  Rousseau  and  Pestalozzi 
both  advocate  it,  the  former  for  the  skill  it 
gives,  and  the  latter,  with  keener  insight,  for  its 
eifect  upon  the  taste  of  the  worker.  Beside 
drawing  in  the  flat,  Pestalozzi  would  have  the 
child  study  representation  in  three  dimensions 
through  modeling  in  clay.  His  suggestions 
were  amplified  and  developed  by  Froebel,  who 
in  his  Kindergarten  made  drawing  and  aU  forms 
of  representative  handwork  play  an  important 
part. 

In  recent  times  the  subject  has  come  to  occupy 
a  prominent  place  in  the  curriculum  of  the  ele- 
mentary school.  Reasons  physiologic  as  well 
as  pedagogic  and  economic  are  urged  for  its 
teaching.  It  is  presented  as  an  instinctive 
expression  of  the  child,  one  which  permits  his 
motor  activities  to  be  exercised  and  trained. 
It  is  the  most  generally  advocated  form  of 
manual  work,  and  in  recent  years  has  come  to 
be  considered  as  the  most  fundamental  of 
vocational  subjects.  Its  value  as  an  {esthetic 
agent  in  education  is  especially  emphasized  in 
the  United  States. 

The  industrial  argument  for  drawing  is  based 
on  economic  reasons.  Up  to  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  usual  education  of  the 
artisan  included  an  apprenticeship  in  which  the 
drawing  of  his  trade  formed  an  essential  part. 
The  development  of  modern  factory  processes, 
with  the  enormous  increase  in  the  use  of  machin- 
ery, has  caused  the  older  trades  to  be  divided 
and  subdivided  and  the  apprenticeship  system 
practically  to  disappear.  With  this  disappear- 
ance there  has  risen,  of  necessity,  a  demand  that 
the  elements  of  industrial  drawing  be  taught 
in  the  public  schools.     This  demand  first  made 


itself  felt  in  the  great  manufacturing  centers  on 
the  Continent  and  in  England,  later  in  America, 
and  in  1870  it  formed  the  chief  argument 
which  led  to  the  introduction  of  drawing  into 
Massachusetts,  first  of  the  states  to  require  this 
teaching. 

In  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century 
Prussia  developed  a  scheme  of  elementary 
teaching  which  soon  came  to  be  widely  quoted. 
A  little  later  this  was  followed  by  action  of  the 
English  Parliament  looking  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  national  school  of  design.  This 
school  was  opened  in  1837,  and  in  1841  was  ex- 
tended through  branch  schools,  with  annual 
state  grants,  into  various  of  the  manufacturing 
districts  of  the  kingdom.  A  sinniltaneous 
development  of  industrial  art  education  took 
jilace  in  Denmark,  France,  and  Austria,  but 
it  was  not  until  1851  that  the  subject  came, 
through  the  International  Exhibition  in  London, 
to  attract  profound  attention  from  economists 
and  educators.  This  exhibition  placed  before 
the  world  at  large  the  comparative  excellence 
of  the  art  manufactures  of  the  different  Con- 
tinental states  and  showed  the  great  impor- 
tance of  art  training  for  the  artisan. 

England  immediately  set  about  reorganizing 
her  national  school,  and,  as  the  South  Kensing- 
ton system,  made  one  of  the  first  moves  of  the 
new  institution  a  department  for  the  training 
of  art  teachers  for  the  elementary  schools.  A 
coincident  development  took  place  in  the  indus- 
trial art  movement  everywhere  upon  the  Con- 
tinent. This  led  to  the  multiplication  of 
schools  of  industrial  art  for  a  great  variety 
of  trades,  and  to  a  considerable  increase  in  the 
attention  to  drawing  in  the  elementary  curric- 
ulum. 

In  the  United  States,  as  has  been  noted, 
drawing  first  made  its  public  school  appearance 
at  the  industrial  centers.  In  1812  William 
Bently  Fowle,  headmaister  of  a  Boston  public 
school,  introduced  it  as  a  required  study,  and 
shortly  thereafter  translated  for  the  use  of 
teachers  an  elementary  work  published  in 
France,  on  the  drawing  of  geometric  figures. 
In  1827  the  subject  was  introduced  into  the 
English  High  School  in  Boston,  where  until 
1836  it  remained  an  optional  study.  Not, 
however,  until  1853  was  a  special  teacher 
assigned  to  the  subject.  Philadelphia,  in  1842, 
appointed  one  of  its  leading  artists,  Rembrant 
Peale,  to  supervise  drawing  in  its  public  schools; 
and  various  other  cities,  after  this  date,  intro- 
duced it  in  some  form  or  other.  In  most  cases 
it  was  in  the  high  school  that  it  appeared  and 
was  generally  offered  as  training  in  the  making 
of  geometric  figures  and  highly  conventional 
patterns. 

The  great  manufacturing  state  of  Massachu- 
setts, feeling  the  industrial  importance  of  the 
subject,  in  1860  included  it  as  a  permissive 
topic  in  the  curriculum,  and  ten  years  later 
made  the  subject  mandatory. 

The  rapid  development  of  the  subject  under 


VOL.  1 Q 


225 


ART  IN  THE   SCHOOLS 


ART  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


the  new  statute  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that, 
while  there  is  no  reference  to  drawing  in  tlie 
report  of  the  state  iioard  for  1868,  the  year  fol- 
lowing the  adoption  of  the  statute,  1871,  saw 
extracts  referring  to  it  from  the  reports  of 
superintendents  of  45  towns.  With  the  adop- 
tion of  the  statute  referred  to,  Massachusetts 
employed  a  director  of  industrial  art  in  the 
person  of  Walter  Smith.  The  latter  was  a 
teacher  from  England  who  had  been  trained 
at  South  Kensington;  and  one  of  his  first  efforts 
was  to  develop  a  scheme  of  training  of  grade 
teachers  in  tiie  city  of  Boston  and  tiiroughout 
the  state.  In  1S73  the  state  organized  a  normal 
school  for  the  training  of  art  teachers.  This 
has  since  graduated  several  hundred  students, 
and  has  influenced  the  development  of  normal 
art  departments  in  many  other  institutions.  It 
still  remains  tlie  one  state  school  in  the  country 
devoted  entirely  to  normal  art  teaching. 

The  effect  of  the  International  Exhibition 
in  London  in  18.51  was  to  rouse  in  many  ways 
an  interest  in  art  throughout  the  kingdom. 
Each  of  the  great  international  fairs  held  since 
has  operated  to  develop  critical  comparisons 
between  the  work  of  national  systems  of  art 
instruction.  In  the  United  States  the  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition  of  1876  served  to  quicken 
general  interest,  no  less  than  twelve  large  art 
schools  being  organized  in  the  first  half  of  the 
decade  succeeding  the  Philadelphia  Exposition. 
These  comparative  exhibitions  of  work  have 
served  as  clearing  houses  for  the  exchange  of 
ideas,  and  to  a  large  extent  have  led  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  unification  in  the  general 
approach  to  drawing. 

As  taught  in  the  elementary  school,  the  early 
drawing  both  on  the  Continent  and  in  America 
was  marked  by  formality  of  approach.  The 
subject  was  primarily  regarded  as  a  motor  drill, 
and  practically  no  opportunity  was  given  for 
self-expression.  Schoolmasters  influenced  by 
the  three  R's  were  slow  to  admit  that  it  had 
any  value  other  than  a  disciplinary  one,  though 
some  agreed  that  it  might  be  an  aid  to  penman- 
ship. The  exercises  chiefly  consisted  of  geo- 
metric figures  on  cards,  set  for  reproduction, 
like  the  written  copies  of  the  writing  master. 
An  advance  was  later  made  in  offering  pictures 
in  outline  and  in  light  and  shade.  These  also 
were  offered  as  copies.  Little,  if  any,  work  was 
done  from  actual  models,  and  the  only  really 
practical  part  played  by  the  subject  was  in 
the  making  of  maps. 

Influences  of  Child  Study.  —  Drawing  ap- 
peared as  one  of  the  most  essential  forms  of 
motor  work  in  the  Froebelian  practice,  but 
even  in  the  freer  air  of  the  kindergarten  it  re- 
tained much  of  the  formality  referred  to.  It 
remained  for  a  new  generation  to  undertake  a 
careful  study  of  children's  interests  and  of 
their  developments,  with  a  view  to  determin- 
ing, as  regards  drawing,  both  the  nature  of  the 
subject  matter  and  the  method  of  its  teacliing 
in  the  different  school  years. 


This  study  of  children  incident  to  the  general 
development  of  genetic  psychology  has  served, 
jiarticularly  in  America,  to  introduce  a  large 
degree  of  personal  freedom  and  of  personal 
experience  into  the  work  of  the  drawing  course. 
A  number  of  trained  investigators  have  re- 
corded their  observations  in  monographs. 
These  include,  among  others,  the  studies  of 
Passy  and  Compayr^,  Binet  and  Perez  in 
France,  (Joetze,  Pappenheim,  Levenstein,  and 
Kerschensteiner  in  Ciermany,  Ricci  in  Italy, 
Cook,  Hooper,  and  Partridge  in  England, 
Barnes,  Lukens,  JMaitland,  O'Shea,  and  Shinn 
in  America. 

The  general  trend  of  these  investigations 
has  served  to  emphasize  the  child's  desire  to 
work  in  color  and  to  use  drawing  as  a  direct 
means  of  expression  intimately  akin  to  speech. 
Practically  no  esthetic  interest  has  been 
found  in  the  early  years,  though  it  appears  as 
a  marked  characteristic  of  atlolescence.  The 
spontaneous  drawings  of  children  are  pictorial. 
Decoration  as  such  for  the  younger  children  has 
only  a  secondary  interest,  chiefly  in  the  jileas- 
ure  of  rhythmic  repetitions.  Living  things 
and  those  connected  with  the  child's  life  are 
the  most  attractive.  The  young  child  elects 
to  draw  from  memory  rather  than  from  the 
object,  and  to  use  liis  drawing  as  a  means  of 
telling  a  story. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  elementary  school 
period,  from  9  to  14,  profound  changes  take 
place,  both  in  the  body  and  mind  of  the  child. 
In  this  pre-pubertal  age  childhood  makes  its 
first  advance  toward  youth,  and  the  learner 
becomes  willing  to  undertake  systematic  prac- 
tice to  cultivate  his  manual  skill.  If  the  finer 
muscular  coordinations  are  not  acquired  at 
this  time,  they  become  difficult  of  development 
in  later  life.  As  adolescence  progresses,  general 
ideas  become  attractive  and  the  children  are 
more  interested  in  the  abstract  in  both  form 
and  decoration.  Their  critical  sense  becomes 
far  keener,  and  their  interest  in  nature  and  art 
experiences  a  marked  increase. 

Present  Position.  —  The  result  of  the  studies 
referred  to  has  been  to  alter  the  presentation 
of  drawing  in  both  the  elementary  and  inter- 
mediate schools.  The  systems  of  the  Continent 
have  reflected  the  change  somewhat  more 
slowly  than  the  English  and  American  courses, 
but  for  the  most  part  there  has  been  a  consider- 
able advance  through  all  schools  toward  the 
more  natural  use  of  drawing  as  a  means  of 
expression  by  the  young  child.  The  u.se  of 
the  formal  geometric  copy  has  very  largely 
disappeared.  Color  has  been  widely  intro- 
duced, and  much  work  in  the  making  of  pictorial 
illustrations  is  encouraged  on  the  part  of  the 
small  children  in  all  the  more  advanced  Aus- 
trian, German,  and  American  schools.  The 
use  of  natural  objects  has  taken  the  place  of  the 
outline  drawing  card,  and  drawing  from  forms 
of  three  dimensions  are  now  called  for  in  the 
early  lessons.     With  increasing  industrial  devel- 


226 


ART  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


ART  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


opment  there  has  been  a  coincident  demand 
that  the  drawing  of  the  higher  grades  relate 
itself  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  vocational 
needs  of  the  pupils.  The  teaching  of  plan  and 
instrumental  drawing  has  been  widelj'  intro- 
duced, especially  in  the  German  schools,  while 
instruction  in  applied  design  in  color  is  coming 
to  occupy  very  considerable  attention  in  both 
American  and  Continental  systems.  At  the 
present  time  changes  in  the  teaching  of  the 
latter  subject  are  still  much  in  the  making,  and 
any  exhibition  of  work  from  a  number  of 
cities  will  show  steps  in  the  transition  all  the 
way  from  mechanically  devised  ornaments  as 
developed  in  the  drawing  books  of  the  early 
seventies  to  original  and  individual  examples 
of  applied  pattern  in  various  forms  of  craft 
work. 

In  1900  a  group  of  art  teachers  representing 
a  number  of  countries  met  at  Paris  at  the 
International  Exhibition,  and  organized  an 
International  Society  for  the  development  of 
art  teaching.  A  smaU  international  exhibition 
was  held  at  Berne  by  the  association  in  1904, 
and  an  extended  exhibition  representing  37 
countries  in  London  in  1908.  Nearly  2000 
members  were  registered  at  the  latter  meeting. 
The  work  shown  illustrated  the  art  teaching 
from  the  infant  classes  through  the  normal, 
industrial,  and  fine  art  schools  of  each  nation. 

A  comparative  study  of  the  work  of  the 
elementary  schools  showed  greater  precision 
and  formality  in  the  teaching  of  the  Continental 
instructors,  and  greater  freedom  and  individ- 
uality in  the  work  of  the  American  cities. 
The  American  scheme  of  study  was  as  a  whole 
the  more  elaborate,  carrying  forward  various 
forms  of  work,  illu.stration,  nature  drawing, 
landscape,  still  life,  applied  design,  from  the 
lower  to  the  higher  grades.  Few  of  the  Con- 
tinental cities  showed  work  from  elementary 
schools  in  applied  decoration,  but  the  work 
from  simple  objects  in  the  flat,  leaves,  feathers, 
shells,  insects,  etc.,  reached  high  standards  of 
technical  exceUence.  Particular  attention  was 
seen  to  be  given  in  the  German  schools  to  the 
use  of  free-hand  sketching,  in  connection  with 
a  variety  of  other  subjects,  as  nature  study, 
physics,  physiology,  and  local  maps  and  plan 
drawing. 

Germany.  — The  later  drawing  of  the  German 
schools  bears  traces  of  the  earlier  "  systems  " 
which  developed  in  different  cities  under  strong 
directors.  The  so-called  Prussian  system  or- 
ganized lay  Stuhlmann  at  Hamburg  carried  the 
pupil  through  a  series  of  geometric  ornamental 
forms  beginning  with  drawing  on  net  lines. 
It  ended  with  the  perspective  drawing  of  solids. 
Instruments  were  constantly  employed,  and 
the  models,  as  originally  presented,  were  very 
formal  in  character  —  blocks,  moldings,  etc. 
In  contrast  with  the  Prussian  sj-stem  was  the 
so-called  Leipzig  plan  developed  under  Flinzer. 
This  discarded  all  net  lines,  and  began  with 
free-hand  work.     Thus   it   continued   through 


the  entire  course,  drawing  from  solids  being 
undertaken  in  the  third  grade.  The  plan  in  the 
Westphalia  schools  included  drawing  from 
three-dimension  forms  in  the  lower  grades. 
Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  Munich 
plan  recently  developed  by  Kerschensteiner. 
This  places  much  emphasis  on  decorative  brush 
work  in  primitive  geometric  style,  and  on  im- 
aginative drawing  on  the  part  of  the  smaller 
children.  It  develops  a  different  syllabus  for 
boys  and  girls  in  the  primary  schools,  and 
places  stress  on  the  early  teaching  of  memory 
drawing  following  class  discussion.  Drawing 
from  nature  is  introduced  about  the  age  of 
10.  The  scheme  as  a  whole  is  based  on  an 
elaborate  study  made  in  the  Bavarian  schools 
by  the  superintendent  of  Munich.  While 
drawing  in  the  German  elementary  schools 
receives  careful  attention,  one  must  look  to  the 
industrial  schools  to  find  it  in  its  most  signifi- 
cant form.  A  very  large  number  of  these 
institutions  have  within  the  last  50  years  been 
created  throughout  Germany.  In  all  of  them 
industrial  drawing  forms  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant elements  of  the  curriculum.  For  the  most 
part  this  drawing  is  highly  specialized  and  deals 
with  the  particular  type  of  work  most  essential 
to  success  in  the  industry  for  which  the  school 
prepares,  that  is,  with  drawing  for  machinists, 
for  carvers,  jewelers,  sign-painters,  etc.  In- 
strumental or  plan  drawing  in  these  schools  is 
universal,  and  the  eciuipments  are  noteworthy 
for  their  elaborate  models. 

SunUerland.  —  Other  of  the  Continental  gov- 
ernments have  created  schools  on  similar  lines. 
Switzerland,  for  example,  makes  drawing  com- 
pulsory in  the  elementary  schools,  where  the 
work  is  taught  by  the  class  teacher.  The 
higher  grades  give  2  hours  a  week  to  free- 
hand drawing  and  2  hours  a  week  to  instru- 
mental drawdng.  For  older  pupils  there  are 
very  completely  organized  technical  and  art 
and  craft  schools  in  Berne,  Lucerne,  Geneva, 
and  other  industrial  centers.  The  work  of  the 
industrial  art  school  of  Zurich  has  become 
widely  known  through  its  technical  excellence. 

England.  —  The  development  of  these  in- 
dustrial art  schools  upon  the  Continent  has 
been  paralleled  by  a  number  of  the  larger 
cities  of  England  and  Scotland.  Each  of  these 
municipalities  has  a  more  or  less  complete 
elementary  school  course  from  the  first  to  the 
seventh  standard,  covering  the  years  between 
7  and  14.  A  kindergarten  or  infant  school 
course  precedes  this.  The  work  in  the  lower 
classes  is  largely  free,  and  in  the  more  highly 
developed  systems,  as  at  Leicester,  about  half 
the  school  time  is  reported  to  be  given  to  draw- 
ing and  manual  training.  In  the  elementary 
grades  or  standards  some  3  hours  a  week  are 
given  to  drawing,  with  from  1  to  2\  hours 
additional  for  handwork.  The  class  teachers 
give  the  instruction,  and  normal  art  methods 
form  a  required  study  in  the  training  schools. 
The  work  in  the  elementary  schools  is  designed 


227 


ART  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


ART  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


to  lead  forward  talented  pupils  to  the  munic- 
ipal art  school.  Sometimes,  as  in  Leicester, 
Bradford,  liiriiiiiiKhain,  or  Leeds,  this  is  one 
large  central  institution  with  a  great  variety 
of  classes  in  all  forms  of  industrial  art;  some- 
times, as  in  London,  many  separate  art  centers 
are  developed.  Some  of  these  are  special,  as 
tlie  jihoto-engraving  school  of  Fleet  Street,  but 
many  have  varied  courses,  as  the  Camden 
School  of  Art,  the  Central  School  of  Arts  and 
Crafts,  the  Hammersmith  School  of  Arts  and 
Crafts,  and  the  Cambervvell  School  of  Arts 
and  Crafts,  etc.  In  these  industrial  art 
schools,  teachers  of  high  technical  training  are 
employed,  and  drawings,  designs,  and  craft 
work  of  marked  merit  are  produced.  Eng- 
land's national  scheme  of  art  training  has  its 
center  at  South  Kensington.  Here  appears 
the  Royal  College  of  Art,  established  for  the 
training  of  art  teachers  and  for  the  instruction 
of  students  in  fine  arts,  architecture,  manufac- 
tures, and  decoration.  It  is  primarily  intended 
for  the  unusually  talented  workers  who  have 
been  trained  in  local  schools  and  who  are 
selected  by  a  competitive  examination  for  ad- 
mission to  the  college.  The  latter  has  4 
schools,  one  of  architecture,  one  of  ornament, 
a  school  of  decorative  painting,  and  one  of 
sculpture.  A  number  of  craft  classes  supjile- 
ment  the  school  of  ornament,  and  valuable 
scholarships  make  po.ssible  the  thorough  educa- 
tion of  the  more  gifted  pupils.  At  South  Ken- 
sington the  Board  of  Education  annually  holds 
a  national  competition.  This  is  for  the  awards 
of  numerous  prizes  for  a  large  number  of  proj- 
ects which  are  offered  for  graphic  solution. 
The  report  of  the  competition  for  1908  noted 
nearly  14,000  works  submitted  from  230  schools 
of  art  throughout  the  kingdom.  In  addition 
833  were  submitted  from  58  science  schools, 
970  from  1 14  art  evening  schools  and  day 
classes,  and  93  from  3  technical  institutions. 
Elaborately  illustrated  reports  of  these  compe- 
titions indicate  the  high  order  of  excellence  of 
tiie  work  of  the  prize  winners. 

America.  —  Art  education  in  the  United 
States  has  of  necessity  no  central  organization 
similar  to  that  of  South  Kensington.  Many 
individual  states,  following  the  example  of 
Mas.sachusetts,  have  directed  that  drawing  be 
taught  in  the  schools  throughout  the  state,  but 
only  two  states,  Massachusetts  and  New  York, 
have  state  directors  of  the  subject.  For  the 
most  part,  the  development  of  the  topic  has 
been  left  to  the  initiative  of  the  school  officers 
of  the  cities  and  local  communities.  Consider- 
able variations  in  the  time  given  and  the  subject 
studied  are  therefore  to  be  found. 

The  usual  organization  includes  a  super- 
vising teacher  who  lays  out  and  directs  the 
work  of  the  grade  teachers.  Many  rural 
schools,  however,  have  not  the  advantage  of 
such  expert  direction,  and  are  either  ol)liged  to 
have  recourse  to  drawing  books  or  to  omit  the 
subject.     In  the  smaller  towns  the  supervisor, 


generally  a  woman,  teaches  in  the  high  schooL 
The  larger  systems  have  a  separate  teacher  in 
this  school,  and  in  some  of  the  greater  cities 
4  or  5  art  instructors  in  one  building.  In  these 
cities  numerous  as.sistant  sujicrvisors  are  em- 
ployed. New  York  City  leading,  with  over  50 
of  these  district  directors. 

The  time  given  varies  much  in  different 
cities.  San  Francisco,  Albany,  Detroit,  and  a 
few  others  give  1  hour  a  week  in  all  grades. 
Many  other  towns  report  IJ  hours  to  drawing, 
while  others  relate  the  drawing  and  manual 
work  so  closely  that  the  time  for  each  is  not 
indicated.  Thus  Philadelphia  requires  100 
miinites  per  week  for  drawing  and  construc- 
tive work  in  the  first  4  years,  and  120  minutes 
in  the  last  4.  New  York  has  2  hours  a  week 
for  the  manual  arts  in  the  first  3  years,  increas- 
ing through  the  higher  years  until  25  hours 
arc  given  in  the  seventh  and  eiglith  grades. 
Boston  records  the  largest  proportion  of  time 
of  any  city.  It  devotes  21  hours  to  the  manual 
arts  in  the  first  year,  3  hours  from  the  second 
through  the  fifth,  and  5  hours  a  week  in  the  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  years.  Many  of  these 
cities  issue  elaborate  outlines  of  study,  illus- 
trated in  some  cases  with  scores  of  drawings. 
The.se  courses,  as  a  rule,  present  4  different 
topics  —  illu.strative  or  pictorial  drawing,  repre- 
sentative or  object  drawing,  applied  design,  and 
instrumental  or  working  drawing.  An  addi- 
tional subject  in  the  form  of  picture  study 
frequently  appears.  This  is  offered  with  the 
view  of  devcloi)ing  the  pupil's  sense  of  appreci- 
ation of  pictorial  art  and  of  acquainting  him 
with  the  work  of  the  more  famous  painters. 

As  has  been  noted,  there  appears  throughout 
the  American  system  a  progressive  tendency 
to  unite  the  drawing  and  the  manual  training 
or  constructive  work  into  a  coordinate  whole. 
Certain  cities  therefore  offer  their  work  in  the 
"manual  arts  "rather  than  in  drawing  and  in 
handwork.  The  plan  generally  followed  leaves 
to  the  first  4  years,  or  the  so-called  primary 
grades,  the  greater  part  of  the  illustrative  draw- 
ing. With  this  is  associated  the  first  steps 
in  object  drawing  and  simple  constructive  work 
in  paper,  clay,  raffia,  cord,  etc.  There  is  a 
marked  trend  toward  developing  the.se  different 
subjects  around  "centers  of  interest"  related 
to  the  language,  nature  work,  and  other  studies 
of  the  grade.  Much  of  the  work  is  done  in 
color,  chalk,  crayon,  or  water-color  paints  being 
employed.  The  illustrative  drawing  develops 
pictures  of  scenes  dealing  with  the  various 
topics  studied,  while  the  representative  work 
is  done  largely  from  the  model.  Flowers, 
vegetables,  toys,  and  simple  objects  are  em- 
ployed. The  chief  aim  of  the  earlier  work 
may  be  defined  as  an  effort  to  induce  the  pupils 
to  use  their  drawing  freely  and  in  spirited  and 
individual  fashion,  to  lead  to  an  increasing 
refinement  of  muscular  coordination,  and  to 
waken  a  definite  interest  in  form  and  color. 

The   work   of   the   grades   from   the   fourth 


22s 


ART  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


ART  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


through  the  eighth  year  sees  the  introduction 
of  applied  design.  With  the  increase  of  the 
critical  faculty  the  illustrative  drawing  be- 
comes less  valuable  and  the  study  of  decoration 
of  more  service.  The  designs  are  commonly 
developed  in  color,  and  for  the  most  part  are 
applied  to  constructed  forms  made  in  card- 
board, leather,  wood,  etc.  In  many  systems 
a  considerable  amount  of  elementary  craft 
work  is  done  in  the  form  of  stenciling,  block 
printing,  leather  tooling,  etc.  This  offers 
additional  opportunities  for  the  application  of 
pattern.  Representative  drawing  in  the  upper 
grades  is  done  from  a  large  variety  of  simple 
models,  sometimes  in  light  and  shade,  but  more 
often  in  drawings  in  colored  crayon  or  chalk, 
or  in  pencil  outline.  The  working  drawing 
taught  in  these  grades  includes  simple  plans, 
and  requires  the  use  of  drawing  board,  com- 
passes, and  triangles.  Where,  as  in  many  cases, 
elementary  shopwork  is  taught  to  these  boys, 
the  latter  drawing  is  used  to  develop  the  re- 
quired plans  for  the  shop.  The  girls  of  related 
classes  study  either  sewing  or  cooking,  and  are 
often  required  to  learn  garment  drafting  in 
place  of  the  instrumental  drawing  taught  to 
boys.  Throughout  the  upper  years  many  draw- 
ing outlines  offer  specific  suggestions  relative 
to  training  in  art  appreciation.  Well-known 
pictures  are  presented  for  study,  a  number  of 
business  firms  supplying  for  this  purpose  small 
and  inexpensive  reproductions  of  masterpieces. 
Where  this  work  is  done  it  is  generally  asso- 
ciated with  the  language  teaching.  In  the  high 
schools  there  is  a  marked  tendency  to  make 
this  training  in  art  appreciation  of  first  impor- 
tance. The  earlier  teaching  was  characterized 
by  an  effort  to  reproduce  the  atmosphere  of  the 
art  school.  Much  work  was  done  in  drawing 
from  the  cast  and  in  more  or  less  elaborate 
studies  of  the  antique.  The  earlier  high  schools 
that  required  drawing  were  few  and  far  be- 
tween. Even  at  the  present  time  the  subject 
is  only  to  be  found  in  the  larger  cities  and  in 
well-organized  rural  systems.  In  Massachusetts 
as  late  as  1903,  105  of  the  244  high  schools  gave 
no  attention  to  drav/ing.  Since  then  many  of 
these  schools  have  introduced  it,  and  it  has 
been  made  a  required  element  in  the  high 
school  curriculum  of  the  state  of  New  York. 

The  change  in  approach  to  drawing  in  the 
high  school  has  been  of  a  nature  similar  to  that 
in  the  grades.  It  has  been  realized  that  few  of 
the  pupils  in  these  schools  can  become  artists, 
and  that  the  aim  of  such  training  should  rather 
be  to  help  the  many  to  see  their  study  in  art  as 
something  of  much  value  to  them  in  their  every- 
day life.  This  effort  to  make  the  work  more 
alive  and  appealing  has  turned  the  course  from 
the  older  studio  "  cast  drawing  "  toward  work 
in  applied  design.  The  movement  is  one  which 
aims  to  lead  the  pupil  to  see  that  art  must  exist 
in  good  form  or  bad,  in  his  dress,  his  home,  and 
in  the  town  in  which  he  lives.  It  assumes  that 
taste  is  a  subject  which  can  be  taught,  and  strives 


to  teach  it,  not  by  talking  about  it,  but  through 
the  effort  to  create  fine  patterns  for  hangings, 
simple  forms  for  jewels,  simpler  decorations  for 
dress,  and  a  great  variety  of  objects  which  may 
be  developed  through  the  minor  crafts. 

Differentiation  of  high  school  courses  has 
already  in  the  larger  cities  led  to  highly  special- 
ized work  in  drawing  of  a  vocational  nature. 
Thus  commercial  high  schools  offer  courses 
which  lay  emphasis  on  commercial  design, 
printing,  and  composition,  while  manual  train- 
ing high  schools  place  major  weight  on  instru- 
mental drawing  and  constructive  design.  A 
few  other  schools  of  a  technical  nature  offer 
opportunity  to  their  pupils  to  specialize  in  art 
and  to  devote  as  much  as  half  of  the  school 
time  in  the  higher  years  to  forms  of  industrial 
drawing  and  design.  In  these  institutions  tech- 
nical standards  are  being  raised  to  approach 
the  higlily  developed  work  of  the  Continent. 
The  general  high  school  system  in  America  is 
not  organized  on  lines  similar  to  those  of  second- 
ary schools  in  Europe.  The  difference  appears 
clearlj'  in  the  aim  of  the  art  teaching,  the  em- 
phasis being  rather  upon  the  technical  side  in 
Continental  institutions  and  upon  the  esthetic 
side  in  schools  in  the  United  States.  Tech- 
nique in  the  latter  schools  is  by  no  means 
ignored,  but  it  is  generally  assumed  that  few 
of  the  pupils  will  ever  become  technicians,  and 
that  the  comparatively  little  time  given  to  the 
subject  of  drawing  should  be  directed  so  far  as 
possible  to  raising  the  pupil's  appreciation  and 
sharpening  his  critical  sense  for  fine  form,  har- 
monious color,  and  appropriate  decoration. 
One  of  the  elements  prejudicing  the  early  devel- 
opment of  drawing  in  high  schools  was  the  re- 
fusal of  college  authorities  to  accept  it  as  a 
subject  for  credit  on  examination  for  admi.ssion. 
Within  recent  years  a  number  of  the  leading 
universities  have  permitted  drawing  to  be  offered 
on  entrance,  and  a  few  have  made  it  a  required 
subject  for  technical,  engineering,  fine  arts, 
and  architectural  courses. 

Municipal  industrial  art  schools  of  the  type 
common  in  all  the  larger  European  cities  are 
as  yet  rare  in  the  United  States.  Nearly  every 
city  of  any  size  can  boast  some  school  giving 
industrial  art  training,  but  for  the  most  part 
these  schools  are  under  private  foundations. 
The  great  majority  of  them  see  the  industrial 
art  work  as  but  one,  and  often  a  minor  phase 
of  work,  while  the  school  devotes  its  chief  at- 
tention to  its  fine  and  normal  art  courses. 

The  growth  of  institutions  for  the  training  of 
art  teachers  has  been  considerable.  Massa- 
chusetts, as  was  noted,  organized,  in  1870,  the 
first  and  only  state  school  whose  sole  purpose  is 
to  educate  teachers  of  art.  More  than  50 
schools  now  offer  normal  art  courses  of  from 
1  to  4  years,  while  the  state  normal  schools  (for 
the  general  training  of  teachers)  commonly 
present  some  work  in  methods  of  art  teaching 
to  their  students.  Supplementing  the  work 
of  the  normal  art  schools  there  has  developed, 


•229 


ART  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


ART  TEACHING 


largely  within  the  last  decade,  a  system  of 
summer  art  schools,  where  brief  courses  are 
given  in  methods  and  in  the  arts  and  crafts. 
These  are  ilesigned  for  the  instruction  of  art  su- 
pervisors and  teachers  from  the  grades.  The 
larger  number  of  these  schools  are  connected 
with  colleges  and  art  institutions  which  offer 
extended  courses  in  the  winter  sessions. 

There  are  numerous  professional  organiza- 
tions of  drawing  teachers  both  in  Europe  and 
America.  England  has  an  Art  Teachers'  (Juild 
and  London  an  Association  of  Art  Masters.  In 
Scotland  there  is  also  an  Art  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion at  Dundee  and  Hamilton.  All  of  these 
associations,  together  with  those  in  the  United 
States,  are  represented  in  the  International 
Association  of  Art  Teachers.  The  earliest  as- 
sociation of  art  teachers  in  the  United  States  was 
organized  in  1874  by  students  of  the  Massa- 
chu.sctts  Normal  Art  School.  At  the  present 
time  three  interstate  associations  hold  annual 
meetings,  the  papers  of  which  are  published  in 
volumes  of  transactions.  All  of  these  societies, 
through  the  intimacy  of  relation  which  has 
grown  up  between  art  and  handwork,  exist 
as  Associations  of  Art  and  Manual  Training 
Teachers.  The  Eastern  draws  its  membership 
from  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  the  Western  from 
the  Middle  states,  and  the  Pacific  from  west 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  National  Education  Association  also  has 
its  Department  of  Art  and  Manual  Training, 
which  meets  annually  in  connection  with  the 
general  association.  For  the  past  nine  years 
the  Council  of  Supervisors  of  the  Manual  Arts 
has  issued  a  Year  I3ook  containing  the  studies  of 
its  members.  In  a  large  number  of  states  there 
are  to  be  found  local  art  societies  meeting  as  a 
rule  with  the  State  Teachers'  Association.  The 
literature  issued  by  these  various  organizations 
is  now  considerable.  It  offers  the  best  source 
in  which  to  study  the  aim  and  ideals  of  the 
American   art   teachers.  J.  P.  H. 

See  ^Esthetics;  Art  in  Education;  Art, 
Methods  of  Te.\ching;  Course  of  Study, 
Theory  of;  Design;  Dr.\wing. 

References:  — 

American  Art  Annual.  7  vols.,  1898,  1899,  1900,  190.3, 
1905,  1907,  1909-1910.  F.  N.  Levy,  Editor.  Biog- 
raphies of  American  Painters  and  Illustrators  and 
Crafts  Workers.  Art  Schools  and  Organizations, 
Art  Sales,  etc.  American  Art  Annual,  New 
York. 

AH  and  Industry.  I.  Edwards  Clark,  Editor.  4  vols. 
Part  I.  INS.';.  Drawing  in  Puhlic  Schools:  Part  II. 
1892,  Inihislrial  luid  Maiiniil  Training;  Parts  III 
and  IV,  1S'.(7  IS'.ts,  Industrial  and  Technical  Train- 
ing.    Bureau    of    Education,     Washington,     D.C 

Art  Education  in  the  Public  Schools  of  the  United  States. 
J.  P.  Haney,  Editor.  8vo.,  432  pp.,  105  pis.  Ameri- 
can Art  Annual.      (New  York,  1908.) 

Babnes,  E.\rl.  ,Stiidiis  in  Education.  2  vols.  Illus. 
(Stanford  University  and  Philadelphia,  1897.) 

Colin,  Paul.  Enseigncment  dcs  Arts  du  dessin.  (In 
Paris  Exposition  universcUe,  1889.)  Rapports  du 
jury  inlernafl.  1890-1S92,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  121-248. 

ConRAJOD,  Louis  C.  L.  Histoire  de  I'eijseignement  des 
arts  du  dessin  en  XVIII  sUcle;  I'Ecolc  royale  des 
Aleves  protegis.     8vo.     (Paris,  1874.) 


GoTZE.  W.     Das  Kind  als  Kiinsllrr.      (Hamburg,  1898.) 

Great   Britain — -Education,  Committee  of  Council  on 

—  Science  and  Art   Department.     Directory  with 

regulations  for  establishing  and  coiulueting  science 

and   art   schools.      (London.) 

Instruction  in  Fine  and  Manual  Arts  in  the  United  Stales. 

.'statistical    monograph ;      H.    T.     Bailey,     Editor. 

Forming  Bull.  VI,  1909,  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education, 

Washington,    D.C. 

Jahrlmch  filr  den  Zeichen-und  Kunslunterrichl.    Edited 

by  G.  Freise,  Hanover. 
Kerchensteiner,  G.      Die  Enttmekelung  der  Zeichner- 

ischcn  Bcgabung.      (Munich,  1905.) 
Lerez.     L'Art  et  la  Poisie  chcz  V Enfant.     (Paris,  1888.) 
Proceedings    Eastern    Art    Teachfrs'    Association    (now 
Eastern     Art     and     Manual     Training     Teachers' 
Association).    6  vols.,  8vo.    Pub.  bv  the  Association, 
E.  E.  Struble,  See.      (Newark,  N..I.) 
Proceedings   National   Education  A.^socialio7i    (Annual)  ; 
see  Department  of  Art  Education.      (Pub.  by  the 
Association,  Winona,  Miim.) 
Proceedings  Western  Drawing  Teachers^  Association  (now 
Western  Drawing  and  Manual  Training  Teachers' 
Association).    16  vols.     (Pub.   bv  the  Association, 
W.  T.  Bawden,   Editor,   Normal,   111.) 
Report  of  Examiners,   National  Competitors,   Board  of 
Education,  South  Kensington.     Annual.      (Wynian 
and  Sons,   London.) 
School  Art  Book.      Monthly  magazine.      9  vols.     Illus. 

(Pub.  by  the  Davis  Press,  \Vorcester,  Mass.) 
Sparks,  John  C.  L.     Schools  of  Art,  their  origin,  history, 
work     and      influence.     In     Report     International 
Health  Eihib.,  Vol.  8.  pp.  721-880.    (London,  18S4.) 
Transactions  International  Art  Congress,  Vols.  1900.  1904, 
1908.     Vol.  Ill,    1908.      (Pub.    by    the   Congress, 
151  Cannon  St.,  London,  S.C.) 
Yearbooks  of  the  Council  of  Supervisors  of  the  Manual 
Arts.    7  vols.,  8vo.    1901-1907.      Illustrated  Stud- 
ies in  Art  Education  by  various  writers.      (Pub.  by 
Society  :  address  E.  D.  Griswold,  Hastings-on-Hud- 
son,  New  Y^rk.) 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  practically  all  the  large  cities  in  the 
United  States  and  England  publish  their  art  courses 
of  study  for  the  public  schools  ;  various  cities  and 
localities  on  the  (Jontinent  do  the  same. 

ART,  METHODS  OF  TEACHING.- Meth- 
ods of  teaching  art  depend  ujion  the  conception 
of  art  held  and  upon  the  purposes  for  which 
the  subject  is  introduced  into  the  curriculum. 
If  the  purpose  is  to  interest  the  pujiil  in  nature 
or  to  develop  the  power  of  observation,  or  the 
power  of  coordinating  ideas  and  hand  manipu- 
lation, as  is  often  stated,  no  strictly  a-sthetic 
purpose  is  involved,  and  a  type  of  method 
wholly  different  from  those  adopted  for  the 
development  of  artistic  appreciation  is  ajipro- 
priate.  Again  the  conception  of  art,  w'hcther 
it  is  imitation  of  nature  or  the  expression  of 
harmonies  of  form,  tone,  and  color,  has  a  decid- 
ing influence  on  the  type  of  method  adopted. 

Individuals  varj'  and  modify  the  details  of 
their  methods  of  teaching,  but  all  art  instruc- 
tion can  be  classified  under  two  heads  according 
to  the  point  of  view  and  the  principles  involved. 
"These  systems  are  radically  different  in  charac- 
ter, affecting  the  entire  makeup  and  conduct  of 
courses  of  study.  They  are,  respectively,  the 
academic  (analytic),  the  structural  (synthetic). 
The  academic  method  is  a  reflection  of  the 
professional  art  school.  Its  origin  may  be  traced 
to  the  later  Renaissance.  The  method  is  tra- 
ditional and  scientific,  making  the  acquirement 
of  knowledge  of  nature's  facts  the  first  step 
and  the  foundation  of  all  progress.     The  pupil 


230 


ART  TEACHING 


ART  TEACHING 


learns  to  draw,  but  defers  expression  until 
he  has  attained  proficiency  in  representation. 
The  process  is  imitative,  and  the  standard 
external.  The  structural  is  a  return  to  the  natu- 
ral method  of  pre-academic  days.  It  was  tlie 
method  practiced  in  Europe  from  ancient  times 
down  to  the  Renaissance,  and  is  still  used  by 
the  Orientals  and  by  all  who  are  independent  of 
scientific  domination.  The  approach  is  through 
structure  —  the  building  up  of  harmonies  of 
shape,  tone,  and  color  —  and  the  purpose  is 
the  development  of  power  in  the  individual. 
Self-expression  begins  at  once,  involving  all 
forms  of  drawing,  and  leading  to  appreciation. 
The  process  is  creative,  and  the  standard  is 
individual  judgment  as  to  fine  relations. 

The  academic  method  is  trulj'  analytic,  teach- 
ing the  pupils  "  to  see,"  to  gather  fact  upon  fact, 
to  store  up  knowledge,  to  acquire  skill.  Its 
analogue  is  the  old  way  of  teaching  language 
through  grammar,  rather  than  through  use  of 
the  language.  Self-expression  in  terms  of  line, 
tone,  and  color  is  deferred,  and  appreciation  is 
only  a  by-product.  It  brings  about  a  some- 
what sentimental  view  of  external  nature  as  the 
source  of  all  art.  Whistler's  remark  that 
"  nature  is  seldom  right "  was  a  blow  at  this 
false  standard.  Critics  of  the  academic  school 
must  refer  aU  excellence  to  nature.  For  ex- 
ample, they  interpret  Greek  art  in  terms  of  fact 

—  making  the  study  of  the  bodies  of  athletes 
the  source  of  artistic  power.  They  measure 
Japanese  art,  not  by  quality,  but  by  truth  and 
perspective.  This  imitative  and  scientific  sys- 
tem is  derived  from  the  eighteenth-century 
academies  and  is  being  followed  in  our  modern 
academies  of  art.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  late 
Renaissance,  when  creative  power  was  feeble 
and  interest  in  the  sciences  dominant.  Because 
one  of  the  greatest  of  all  artists,  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  was  possessed  of  boundless  curiosity 
and  sought  the  secret  of  nature  with  toilsome 
persistency,  his  followers  concluded  that  the 
pursuit  of  truth  was  the  laasis  of  art  study. 
Leonardo  himself,  like  all  the  masters  of  the 
Renaissance,  was    trained    by    apprenticeship 

—  in  fact,  by  a  structural  method  —  to  strive 
for  quality  and  mystery  and  power  in  expres- 
sion. His  genius  controlled  his  scientific  in- 
struction, and  he  built  aU  his  knowledge  into 
his  art  fabric. 

Continuing  the  traditional  scientific  scheme, 
the  academic  method  in  these  days  requires 
that  schools  and  courses  of  instruction  be 
highly  specialized.  The  relation  of  object  draw- 
ing, cast  drawing,  light  and  shade  work,  and 
stiU-life  painting  to  mural  decoration,  house 
furnishing,  costume,  handicraft,  and  the  indus- 
tries is  not  very  clear.  It  is  often  forced  — 
for  example,  the  naturalistic  flowers  in  full 
modeling  repeated  over  wall  paper,  carpets,  and 
china  with  no  reference  whatever  to  any  prin- 
ciple of  design.  The  processes  .  and  subjects 
of  academic  teaching  are  good  in  themselves, 
but  the  emphasis  is  iu  the  wrong  place.     The 


tendency  is  to  make  art  in  schools  cither  a 
pretty  accomplishment  or  an  adjunct  to  some 
business  pursuit. 

The  structural  method  disregards  the  theories 
of  the  eighteenth-century  academicians,  and 
ignores  their  division  of  the  subject  into  repre- 
sentative and  decorative  art.  Instead  of 
setting  up  external  nature  as  the  standard,  the 
action  of  the  human  mind  in  harmony-building 
becomes  the  foundation  for  studJ^  The  ele- 
ments of  space  art  are  shape,  tone,  and  color, 
the  whole  visible  world  being  revealed  in  these 
terms.  Education  in  space  art  follows  the 
analogy  of  music  and  literature  —  beginning 
with  structures  of  a  simple  order  —  a  few  lines, 
a  few  sounds,  a  few  words  —  and  proceetfing 
onward  by  steady  growth.  Rhythm,  subor- 
dination, symmetry,  proportion,  tone  values, 
color  schemes  are  fundamental  to  all  the  arts, 
at  least  by  analogy.  From  this  point  of  view 
design,  instead  of  being  classed  as  "  decoration," 
is  seen  to  be  the  very  primer  of  art.  Nature's 
beauties  are  cases  of  accidental  harmonic 
structure,  to  be  copied  not  as  a  mere  exercise, 
but  because  they  are  beautiful  and  the  study 
of  them  increases  capacity  for  appreciation, 
or  because  they  suggest  motives  for  design. 

Synthesis  (self-expression)  is  the  center  of 
effort,  with  the  sciences  as  aids.  The  fine 
arts  of  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture 
have  been  developed  from  industries,  not  from 
nature  or  the  bodies  of  athletes.  The  begin- 
ning and  the  end  is  the  relation  of  forms  to 
spaces,  not  the  copying  of  anything.  Greek 
art,  from  its  earliest  to  the  best  period,  is  an 
effort  in  compo.sition  —  the  purpose  being  to 
attain  finer  and  finer  relations  of  line  and  space. 
When  the  artists  turned  their  attention  to 
copjdng  facts  (human  bodies),  Greek  art  dis- 
appeared. The  same  may  be  said  of  Italian 
art,  of  textile  design,  and  of  Gothic  art. 

What  we  call  art  springs  from  a  desire  to 
make  things  "  look  well."  The  raw  materials 
may  be  put  together  in  a  rude  way,  for  mere  use, 
or  may  serve  a  higher  use  by  being  put  together 
in  a  fine  way,  satisfying  a  strong  desire  of  human 
nature.  This  finer  way  means  ability  to  make 
the  best  choice  —  and  this  comes  from  the 
trained  judgment.  The  history  of  art  develop- 
ment shows  that  whenever  the  workers  con- 
stantly improved  upon  ])roportion,  tone,  and 
color  there  was  growth  into  fine  art.  The 
simple  process  of  adapting  forms  to  spaces 
began  with  painting  on  clay  bowls  and  carving 
the  handles  of  utensils  or  weapons  —  and 
ended  in  the  Greek  sculptures,  the  Gothic 
cathedral,  the  mural  painting.  There  was 
no  distinction  between  art  and  industry, 
between  representative  and  decorative. 

A  course  of  structural  art  teaching  begins 
with  simple  forms  of  creative  work,  the  pupil 
drawing  upon  all  nature  and  all  the  art  of  the 
world  for  examples.  Representation  and  the 
sciences  become  aids  to  self-expression,  rather 
than  preliminary  exercises,  as  under  the  aca- 


231 


ART  TEACHING 


ART  SCHOOLS 


demic  system.  There  is  opportunity  for  im- 
mediate ai)plication  in  industry,  liandicraft, 
home  decoration  and  costume. 

The  structural  method  of  art  teaching, 
though  comparatively  new  in  the  United  States, 
is  not  new  as  a  principle.  The  old  system  of 
apprenticeship  taught  art  in  practically  this 
form.  Art  is  studied  in  this  way  in  Japan. 
The  Japanese,  however,  have  introduced  the 
academic  system  in  some  of  their  schools,  and 
the  two  are  conducted  side  by  side.  It  is 
significant  that  designers  for  the  great  Japanese 
industries  of  lacquer,  metal,  and  textile,  are 
trained  by  the  pure  Japanese  (synthetic) 
method.  The  art  of  Persia,  India,  Turkey, 
China,  in  fact  of  the  whole  Orient,  is  a  higher 
form  of  industry,  developed  without  copying 
nature  or  historic  styles.  In  the  United  States 
the  art  teaching  in  professional  schools  has 
followed  largely  tlie  academic  method.  Nor- 
mal art  courses  for  the  training  of  teachers 
have  been  until  recently  thoroughly  academic, 
the  subjects  being  object  drawing,  life  drawing, 
water  color  painting  (still  life,  figure, landscape), 
pen  and  ink,  perspective,  anatomy,  etc.  The 
inadequacy  of  this  and  the  feeling  that  art 
training  must  be  something  more  than  pastime, 
together  with  the  increased  interest  in  industrial 
education,  have  forced  synthetic  methods 
into  manj'  of  the  normal  schools,  adding  to  the 
academic  courses  composition  in  line,  dark-and- 
light,  and  color,  and  studies  in  art  appreciation. 

An  influential  illustration  of  this  type  is  to 
be  seen  in  the  art  work  of  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University.  Here  the  structural 
method  is  adopted,  with  a  2  years'  course 
(capable  of  being  extended  to  4  years)  for  the 
training  of  art  teachers,  supervisors,  designers, 
craftsmen,  painters,  and  sculptors.  The  first 
or  junior  year  is  given  to  general  work  in  prin- 
ciples of  design,  drawing,  painting,  modeling, 
art  appreciation,  history  of  art,  and  psychology ; 
the  second  or  senior  year,  to  special  studies  of 
advanced  composition,  with  figures  and  land- 
scape, painting  of  figures,  still  life  and  land- 
scape, advanced  design,  house  decoration,  his- 
tory of  education,  theory  and  practice  of 
teacliing  art,  practice  teaching.  With  these 
courses  arc  closely  associated  handwork  in  the 
industrial  and  household  arts  —  wood,  metal, 
pottery,  costume  design,  and  house  furnishing. 

The  structural  method  is  now  found  side  by 
side  with  the  academic  in  many  schools,  passing 
under  the  name  of  design  (q.v.)  or  composition 
(q.v.). 

These  two  influences  are  reflected  in  the  art 
teaching  in  the  public  schools,  with  the  aca- 
demic in  the  ascendant,  though  evidently  losing 
ground  from  year  to  year.  The  old  rigid 
copy  books  and  the  type  forms  have  given 
way  to  nature  drawing,  mass  painting,  and 
illustration.  These,  however,  tending  to  put 
art  among  the  pastimes,  cannot  hold  the 
monopoly.  Design  with  its  stimulating  appli- 
cation in  industry,  and  the  new  thought  of  art 


teaching  as  a  development  of  i)ower,  have  intro- 
duced new  problems  and  caused  the  study  of 
sijacing,  dark-and-light,  and  the  a])i)lication 
in  manual  training  to  have  more  prominence. 
In  the  yearly  exhibitions  of  school  art  the 
academic  influence  is  seen  in  mass  painting, 
blotty  landscapes  in  color,  dictation  exercises 
in  landscape,  pose  drawling  (figures  not  in 
action),  illustration  in  crayon,  water  color,  and 
cut  paper.  The  structural  influence  appears 
in  designs  (for  panels,  book  covers,  pages, 
posters),  massing  in  two  and  more  values,  land- 
scape in  a  few  flat  tones,  illustrations  for  books, 
color  schemes,  pottery,  baskets,  bookbinding, 
wood  and  metal  construction,  brush  drawing, 
pencil  drawing,  painting  in  flat  tones,  with  or 
without  outline.  Wood  block  jirinting  ujion 
textiles  and  paper  was  iiitrotlueed  into  the 
Teachers  College  practice  school  in  1905,  and 
has  since  been  extensively  adopted  in  elemen- 
tary and  secondary  schools,  and  in  art  schools, 
as  a  method  of  studying  composition  of  pattern 
and  of  making  experiments  in  color  harmony. 

A.  W.  D. 
See:   Art  in    the    Schools;  Composition; 
Design;  Drawing. 

References:  — 
Dow.  A.  \y.     Composition.    (New  York.) 

Theory   and   Practice   of   Teactnng  Art.     (Publication 
of  Teachers  College,  New  York.) 

ART  SCHOOLS  AND  ART  INSTRUC- 
TION.—  In  Europe.  —  France. — In  a  concise 
review  of  the  art  schools  of  Europe  the  first 
place  must  justly  be  accorded  to  France.  That 
country  has  been  the  art  center  of  the  world 
since  the  displacement  of  Italy  from  tiiat 
position,  when  the  Renaissance  movement  had 
lost  its  vitality  in  the  peninsula.  Throughout 
all  vicissitudes,  political  and  religious,  wliich 
at  times  have  amounted  to  cataclysms  and 
have  occasioned  temporary  chaos,  France  has 
preserved  her  art  impulse,  and  immediately 
upon  the  institution  of  a  new  order  of  things, 
she  has  proceeded  to  a  new  artistic  expression, 
indicative  of  changed  conditions,  yet  always 
distinctly  national. 

To  begin  with  France  is  also  the  natural 
manner  of  procedure,  since  the  interest  of  a 
large,body  of  enlightened  Americans  centers  in 
the  Ecole  dcs  Beaux-Arts,  or  in  the  ateliers  of 
Paris. 

The  first-named  institution,  whose  title 
appears  to  lose  something  of  its  meaning  when 
translated  into  English  as  "  School  of  Fine 
Arts,"  is  the  oldest  foundation  of  its  kind  exists 
ing  north  of  the  Alps.  It  owes  its  inception  to 
Cardinal  Mazarin,  who,  in  1648,  organized  it 
as  a  school  of  painting  and  sculpture,  modeled, 
as  to  general  features,  upon  the  academies  of 
Rome,  Bologna,  and  Florence;  while  that 
other  great  minister,  Colbert,  who  was  a  wise 
patron  of  the  fine  arts  and  a  most  farseeing 
economist,  created,  in  1671,  a  school  of  archi- 
tecture,   thus    completing    one    of    the    most 


232 


ART  SCHOOLS 


ART  SCHOOLS 


durable  administrative  triumphs  of  the  long, 
brilhant  reign  of  Louis  the  Fourteenth.  The 
initiative  of  France  was  followed  by  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Academy  of  Berlin  in  1694,  and 
by  that  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  London  in 
1766,  these  dates  showing  that  the  Academies 
des  Beaux-Arts  of  France  were  already  some- 
what advanced  upon  their  civilizing  mission 
at  the  time  when  the  first  art  schools  of  the 
eastern  and  the  northern  neighbors  of  that 
country  were  entering  upon  their  existence. 
It  is,  also,  interesting  to  note  in  passing  that 
the  academies  of  France  early  extended  their 
influence  to  America;  since  scarcely  had  the 
independence  of  the  colonies  been  assured,  when 
the  municipal  council  of  Boston  proposed  to 
send  a  commission  to  examine  them  with  a 
view  to  founding  a  similar  institution. 

The  Revolution  of  1789-1793  suppressed  all 
existing  academies  of  art,  science,  and  literature 
in  France,  to  replace  them,  after  a  short  interval, 
by  a  composite  body  known  as  the  Institut 
National,  two  sections  of  which,  the  Academy 
of  Painting  and  Sculpture  founded  by  Wazarin, 
and  the  Academy  of  Architecture  founded  by 
Colbert,  were  finally  united  in  1816,  the  year 
following  the  fall  of  Napoleon  and  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbon  dynasty. 

From  this  moment  the  real  Ecole  des  Beaux- 
Arts  dates  its  existence,  although  in  1863  it 
submitted  to  a  radical  change  in  administra- 
tion effected  by  M.  de  Nieuwerkerke,  a  min- 
ister of  Napoleon  Third,  who,  after  an  exciting 
struggle  maintained  by  parliamentarians  and 
publicists,  succeeded  in  depriving  the  school 
of  the  authority  to  rule  itself,  and  in  placing  it 
under  tlie  direction  of  the  French  government. 
Since  this  cri.sis  the  changes  in  the  school  have 
been  solely  those  of  evolution,  such  as  the  estab- 
lishment of  new  professorships  and  of  courses  of 
"simultaneous,"  that  is,  of  "theoretic  studies; 
also,  the  admission  of  women,  the  first  exami- 
nation leading  to  this  contested  departure 
from  old  restrictions  having  occurred  in  the 
Section  of  Drawing  and  Painting,  in  June,  1897, 
when  out  of  42  candidates  who  presented 
themselves,  10  were  received  as  students.  For 
foreigners  the  main  interest  of  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux-Arts  has  long  centered  in  the  Section  or 
School  of  Architecture,  which,  in  spite  of  steady 
criticism  directed  against  it  from  more  or  less 
powerful  sources,  yet  ranks,  beyond  all  doubt, 
as  the  first  in  the  world.  (See  Architectural 
Education.) 

Regarding  the  value  of  the  training  offered 
by  this  most  important  section  of  the  school, 
there  have  been  and  -ndll  continue  to  be 
the  most  varying  opinions  expressed  in  the 
United  States.  But  the  discussion,  when 
reduced  to  its  lowest  terms,  would  appear 
to  be  based  on  the  natural  opposition  exist- 
ing between  Latin  and  Teutonic  methods; 
between  highly  developed  organization  on  the 
one  side,  and  strong  individualism  on  the  other. 
And    one    who    disinterestedly    examines    the 


question  at  issue  cannot  do  otherwise  than 
acknowledge  advantages:  in  the  federated 
system  of  ateliers  which  make  up  the  school; 
in  the  teaching  of  design  by  practicing  architects 
of  the  highest  distinction,  who  are  paid  for 
their  services  almost  whoUy  by  the  honor  attach- 
ing to  their  professorships;  in  the  division  of 
the  students  into  anciens  and  nouveaux,  the 
former  of  whom  criticize  the  work  and  aid  in 
the  studies  of  the  latter,  thereby  effecting  the 
perfect  unity  of  the  student  body,  which  is  a 
first  essential  of  success  in  an  educational  insti- 
tution. Furthermore,  the  long  hfe  of  the 
school  is  in  itself  a  proof  of  its  very  positive 
value.  It  has  had  an  existence  of  more  than 
two  and  a  half  centuries;  for  the  Revolution  of 
1789  did  not  interrupt  the  continuity  of  its 
traditions.  It  stands,  therefore,  as  an  example 
of  the  law  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  as  do 
consequently  the  methods  which  it  professes, 
since  these  are  the  outcome  of  generation  after 
generation  of  the  best  thought  and  experience 
of  able  architects.  The  princijiles  of  natural 
selection  are  as  incontrovertible  in  art  as  in 
nature,  and  nowhere  in  the  domain  of  the 
former  are  they  better  set  forth  than  in  the 
present  strong  vitality  of  the  School  of  Architec- 
ture of  the  Beaux-Arts.  Nor  are  the  main 
results  of  the  training  given  in  this  school,  as 
some  critics  would  have  them  to  be,  a  series  of 
formula",  a  command  of  certain  architectural 
forms,  a  narrow,  bigoted  belief  in  certain  styles. 
On  the  contrary,  these  results,  even  if  judged  in 
a  restricted  sense,  that  is,  by  the  life  work  of 
the  serious  American  students  of  the  school, 
appear  to  be:  rational  methods  of  attacking 
and  of  .studying  all  problems  presented;  clear 
expression  of  the  plan  in  the  elevation;  high 
development  of  the  quahties  of  dignity,  beauty, 
and  refinement.  In  support  of  these  state- 
ments we  have  but  to  turn  to  the  Pubhc  Libra- 
ries of  Boston  and  New  York,  to  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  and  the  Tribune  Building 
in  the  latter  city,  to  superb  domestic  types 
Hke  the  residence  of  George  Vanderbilt,  at 
Asheville,  N.  C,  and  having  impartially  studied 
them,  we  must  conclude  that  the  School 
of  Architecture  of  the  Beaux-Arts  is  a  foun- 
tainhead  of  good  doctrine;  furthermore,  that 
schools  of  this  nature  serve  to  unify  one 
generation  with  another,  and  that  it  is  only 
the  few  creative  geniuses  sweeping,  like  meteors, 
the  heavens  of  art,  who  can  afford  to  neglect 
severe  academic  training. 

As  to ,  the  Section  of  Drawing  and  Painting 
of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  they  have  less 
interest  for  American  readers,  since  the  majority 
of  the  students  of  these  arts  from  our  country 
elect  to  work  in  some  one  of  the  private  acad- 
emies, or  ateliers,  there  paying  moderate  rates 
of  tuition,  rather  than  to  seek  entrance  into 
the  government  schools,  where  in  all  branches 
the  instruction  is  free  to  all  comers.  One  of 
these  academies,  now  known  as  t\\c  Colarossi, 
under  its  former  name  of  Academic  Suisse,  dates 


233 


ART  SCHOOLS 


ART  SCHOOLS 


its  existence  from  ISlC;  while  the  noted 
Academie  Julian,  nunicd  from  its  founder, 
wlio  was  a  man  of  artistic  and  administrative 
ability,  and  withal  a  finished  French  gentleman, 
was  opened  a  half  century  later,  with  a  regis- 
tration of  only  20  persons,  but  expanded  rapidly, 
until  shortly  before  the  death  of  M.  Julian, 
which  occurred  in  1905,  it  numbered  1000 
students,  300  or  400  of  whom  were  women; 
the  latter  occupying  exclusively  3  out  of  the 
5  working  studios  of  which  the  academy 
was  then  comi)osed.  To-day,  governed  by  a 
nephew  of  its  hrst  director,  who  also  bears  the 
same  surname,  the  organization  continues  its 
activities,  apparently  without  loss  of  numbers. 
Another  important  institution  of  a  similar 
character,  taking  its  name  from  that  of  the  old 
street  of  the  Latin  cpiarter,  La  Grande  Chaumiere 
in  which  it  is  situated,  also  attracts  large  num- 
bers of  foreign  students.  These  academies 
usually  hold  tliroc  se.ssions  per  day,  and  offer 
roncoiirf:  or  competitions,  at  stated  intervals, 
during  the  winter  months;  while,  during  the 
remainder  of  the  year,  the  students  may  work 
without  such  impetus,  under  the  criticism  of 
celebrated  artists  who  regularly  visit  the 
ateliers. 

The  unsurpassed  instruction  thus  provided  at 
the  maximum  annual  cost  of  400  francs  for 
men,  and  of  700  for  women,  constitutes  the 
chief  value  of  such  academies  for  the  earnest 
student;  but  the  excellence,  variety,  and  con- 
stant attendance  of  the  models  there  em- 
ployed, attract  experienced  artists  who,  by 
taking  advantage  of  these  courses,  are  able  to 
reduce  one  of  their  largest  and  most  necessary 
expenses. 

Passing  from  the  schools  of  Paris  offering 
instruction  in  the  fine  arts,  strictly  speaking, 
to  those  devoted  to  the  decorative  and  applied 
arts,  the  origin  of  the  movement  responsible  for 
the  creation  of  the  institutions  of  the  latter 
class  must  be  briefly  indicated.  While  certain 
critics  attribute  the  revival  of  the  minor  arts, 
which  occurred  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  exclusively  to  English  influence, 
it  must  be  admitted  that  the  French  impetus 
was  national  and  due  to  VioUet-le-Duc,  the  great 
French  architect  and  writer.  His  champion- 
ship, of  the  Gothic  led  to  his  retirement  from 
the  Ecole  dcfi  Bcaux-ArU,  and  to  the  foundation 
by  him  of  a  special  school  which,  as  an  exponent 
of  the  medieval  system,  directed  attention  to 
the  so-called  arts  and  crafts  and  to  all  design  in 
which  ])lant  forms  ])lay  an  important  part.  As 
a  result  having  its  first  and  partially  hidden  cause 
in  the  influence  just  described,  there  is  the 
School  of  Decorative  Arts  subventioned  by  the 
French  government,  and  now  under  the  direc- 
tion of  ]\I.  Louvrier  dc  Lajollaj-e. 

Another  institution  worthy  of  remark  is  the 
school  founded  by  M.  Guerin,  sometime  official 
architect  of  the  City  of  Paris,  in  consequence  of 
a  decree  issued  by  the  French  government  to 
the  effect  that  a  certificate  of  proficiency  be 


demanded  from  all  drawing  masters  teaching 
in  the  national  colleges.  Courses  in  draughts- 
manship, perspective,  and  decorative  art  are 
here  offered  under  such  noted  masters  as  M. 
Guerin  himself,  Luc  Olivier  Merson,  and  Ku- 
gene  Gra.sset,  the  last  of  whom  is  very  widely 
known  abroad  from  his  eiicydojiedic  work 
entitled  The  Plaid.  The  curriculum  of  this 
school  reaches  through  a  jterioil  of  3  years, 
during  the  first  of  which  the  ])U])il  comiioscs  de- 
signs from  rectilinear  and  curvilinear  elements, 
thence  jiassing  to  the  study  of  jjlant  forms, 
and,  in  his  third  year,  using  lanilscaiie,  animals, 
and  the  human  figure  as  portions  of  decorative 
design.  The  criticism  which  may  he  offered 
regarding  this  school  is  that  its  fine  theoretical 
instruction  lacks  the  complement  of  the  jiracti- 
cal  element;  that  it  needs  technical  workshops 
wherein  the  designer  might  learn  the  i)ossil.iili- 
ties  and  the  limitations  of  various  mediums, 
and  so  acquire  that  integral  education,  as  a 
result  of  which  the  brain  and  the  hand  work  to- 
gether in  harmony. 

Another  and  nmch  newer  form  of  art  instruc- 
tion in  France,  the  purpose  of  which  is  not  the 
development  of  experts,  but  the  elevation  of 
the  people,  is  due  to  a  body  calling  it.self  the 
Societe  Naturnale  de  I'Art  a  l' Ecolc,  founded 
in  1907,  whose  constitution  is  given  at  length 
in  one  of  the  monthly  issues  of  the  Encyclopedie 
Laroiisse.  This  society,  recognizing  the  educa- 
tive, moral,  and  economic  value  of  art,  as  a 
factor  tending  to  facilitate  and  to  beautify  life 
among  the  masses,  aims  not  only  to  afford 
instruction  adapted  to  further  the  end  just 
stated,  but  also  to  provide  primary  school 
buildings,  the  situation,  construction,  and  deco- 
ration of  which  shall  improve  the  health,  as 
well  as  develop  the  minds  and  the  taste  of  the 
children  thereupon  attendant.  This  .society, 
as  described  in  the  report  given  in  Laroii,s.ie, 
consists  of  thirty  sections  having  seats  in  the 
principal  cities  of  the  country,  and  it  offers  an 
example  of  the  strong  centralization  so  charac- 
teristic of  all  schemes  devised  by  the  French 
mind.  It  testifies  also  to  the  anxiety  which 
has  lieen  awakened  in  the  hearts  of  the  wisest 
among  the  nations  as  to  the  necessity  of  action 
and  foresight,  if  France  is  to  maintain  her  im- 
portance, rather  than  fall  a  victim  to  that 
somewhat  vague  malady  indicated  by  certain 
sociologists  under  the  name  of  Latin  decadence. 

15ut  however  present  tendencies  may  lie  re- 
garded, it  mu!3t  be  granted  that  the  descend- 
ants of  those  races  who  peopled  the  southern 
peninsulas  of  Europe  possess  the  highest  gifts  in 
the  arts  of  form;  while  the  Germanic  and 
Celtic  bodies  have  shown  in  these  arts  assimi- 
lative,  rather  than  creative  qualities. 

England.  —  The  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  in 
London  was  founded  in  1766,  more  than  a 
century  after  Cardinal  Mazarin  had  organized 
the  nucleus  which  was  to  result  in  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux-Aria.  Unlike  those  of  its  I'rench  fore- 
runner,  the  schools   of    the   English   academy 


234 


ART  SCHOOLS 


ART  SCHOOLS 


have  trained  almost  exclusively  native  students, 
and  from  them  as  a  center  propaganda  have  not 
gone  out  to  cause  discussion  abroad.  They 
have  been  largely  insular  in  their  influence; 
they  possess  no  great  department  of  architec- 
ture, and  no  Prix  de  Rome  is  fixed  as  their 
great  award,  although  travehng  scholarships 
are  granted  l:)iennaUy  by  the  administration  for 
excellence  in  the  several  fine  arts.  These  schools 
are  most  liberally  organized  as  to  entrance 
standards  of  general  attainments,  and  as  to  age 
Umitations.  To  them  applicants,  after  a  pre- 
liminary technical  test,  ciuite  elementary  in 
character,  are  admitted  as  probationers  for 
three  months,  and,  the  required  work  of  this 
period  being  successfully  accomplished,  the  pro- 
bationers become  regular  students  to  whom 
the  privileges  of  the  school  are  open  for  seven 
years  without  fees  for  instruction  from  the  first 
artists  of  the  kingdom. 

While  the  Royal  Academy  thus  stands  for  all 
that  is  formal  in  English  art,  the  school  at  South 
Kensington,  since  it  owes  its  creation  to  a  very 
modern  imjjulse,  follows  in  its  administration 
the  trend  of  the  times.  As  early  as  18.57,  the 
seat  of  a  governmental  Commission  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  was  fixed  at  South  Kensington,  and 
this  body,  recognizing  that  instruction  in  deco- 
rative art  is  of  the  highest  economic  value, 
proceeded  to  emphasize  this  study  in  the 
curriculum  of  the  new  school,  with  the  result 
that,  ten  or  twelve  years  later,  textile  designs 
were  purchased  by  a  French  manufacturer  from 
students  at  South  Kensington.  This  occur- 
rence was  but  the  beginning  of  the  gradual 
change  of  old  conditions  under  which  English 
industries  purchased  their  designs  from  French 
artists;  while,  at  the  present  time,  side  by  side 
with  the  beautiful  fabrics  of  domestic  design, 
Parisian  shops  display  the  distinctive  work  of 
rivals  from  beyond  the  Channel. 

The  school  at  South  Kensington,  known  offi- 
cially as  the  Royal  College  of  Art,  offers  courses 
in  drawing,  painting,  modeling,  and  designing 
for  architecture,  manufactures,  and  decoration. 
Having  as  its  primary  purpose  the  instruction 
of  art  masters  and  mistresses,  and  of  students 
selected  by  competition  in  the  art  exhibitions 
of  the  Board  of  Education,  the  school  admits 
other  applicants  upon  the  payment  of  a  fee  of 
12  pounds  10  shillings  per  term,  and  to  the 
number  permitted  by  the  space  at  disposal. 
Such  students  numbered  150  at  the  last  obtain- 
able report.  The  existence  of  this  institu- 
tion marks  a  period  in  the  art  history  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  since  at  the  time  of  its  founda- 
tion but  55,000  persons  were  receiving  art  in- 
struction within  the  limits  named;  while  now 
they  have  risen  to  nearly  3,000,000.  Further- 
more, the  value  of  South  Kensington  as  a 
producer  of  national  wealth  is  recognized  by 
the  enlightened  portion  of  the  English  people, 
and  the  director.  Sir  Caspar  Purdon  Clarke, 
who  framed  the  policy  to  which  much  of  the 
success    attending   the   enterprise   is   due,  was 


knighted  by  Queen  Victoria  for  his  services  to 
the  Crown,  and  until  recently  was  the  Director 
of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  New  York 
City. 

A  fruitful  effort  to  use  art  as  a  factor  in  the 
general  development  of  the  child  is  now  exerted 
by  the  Royal  Drawing  Society,  under  the  presi- 
dencj'  of  the  Princess  Louise,  Duchess  of  Argyll. 
This  society  was  incorporated  in  1902,  having 
as  its  avowed  object:  "  the  encouragement  of 
drawing,  painting,  and  modeling  in  all  their 
branches  as  a  means  of  education  and  for  devel- 
oping spontaneous  pictorial  drawing,  painting, 
and  modehng  from  memory  by  children."  The 
results  obtained  by  this  society  were  studied 
and  approved  by  the  French  Minister  of  Fine 
Arts  in  1904,  and  later  by  the  International 
Congress  of  Education  held  at  Berne,  Switzer- 
land. In  1905  the  latter  body  expressed  its  senti- 
ments in  a  resolution  adopted  to  the  effect  that 
"  it  is  in  the  interest  of  general  education  to  find 
means  to  develop  the  art  instinct  existing  in 
children,  and  to  determine  in  what  way  they  con- 
ceive a  picture  according  to  nature,  or  imagina- 
tion, and  what  method  they  use  in  line  and  color 
to  render  from  memory  their  received  imprest 
sions." 

Societies  such  as  the  one  just  described  and 
its  French  counterpart,  L'Art  a  I'Ecole,  show 
an  encouraging  trend  of  thought  which,  to 
borrow  words  from  the  constitution  of  the 
French  body,  argues  "  the  desire  to  prepare  a 
better  future  for  the  generations  who  are  to 
succeed  the  men  of  the  present."  Nor  is  it 
too  much  to  assert  that  deeply  below  superfi- 
cial observation  the  same  impul.se  animates  the 
strong  movement  which,  within  the  last  forty, 
and  notably  the  last  twenty  years  has  caused 
the  foundation  of  schools  throughout  Europe, 
from  Russia  to  Italy,  whose  complex  purpose  is 
to  render  life  more  agreeable  by  means  of  beau- 
tiful surroundings,  to  raise  the  workshop  to 
the  dignified  place  occupied  by  it  in  the  days  of 
the  artisan  guilds,  and  to  educate  in  the  same 
person  the  brain  and  the  hand,  that  there  may 
be  no  waste  of  energy,  time,  or  money  expendi- 
ture. 

Austria.  —  One  of  the  most  important  of 
such  schools,  and,  at  the  same  time,  one  whose 
methods  are  instructive  to  study,  is  located  in 
Vienna,  which,  hke  all  other  European  capitals, 
has  its  Academy,  founded  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  which  stands  as  the  exponent  of  the 
fine  arts,  strictly  speaking.  But  the  School  of 
the  Decorative  Arts  is  also  a  governmental 
institution,  whose  object  is  to  acquire  absolute 
control  of  the  industrial  art  of  the  Empire. 
The  means  of  instruction  which  it  offers  are 
divided  into  two  distinct  categories,  theoretical 
and  practical;  the  first  represented  by  the  Mu- 
seum of  Art  and  Industry,  and  in  part  by  the 
School  of  Arts  and  Crafts;  the  second,  by 
the  School  of  Textiles,  Lace,  and  Embroidery. 
The  Museum  is  itself  divided  into  two  sections: 
the  permanent,  devoted  to  the  preservation  of 


235 


ART  SCHOOLS 


ART  SCHOOLS 


historic  and  niodcrn  masterpieces,  and  the 
temporary,  inchulinp;  the  circuhiting  section, 
which  aims  at  the  instrvictioii  of  both  the  pubUc 
in  general  and  the  producers,  the  latter  being 
invited  twice  yearly  to  an  exhibition  of  designs 
and  objects  of  art.  Nor  does  the  Museum  con- 
fine its  work  to  the  capital  city,  since  with 
Vienna  as  a  center,  it  has  organized  00  jjro- 
vincial  and  periodic  ex{)ositions,  wliich  last 
several  weeks  and  are  explained  to  visitors 
by  means  of  systematic  lectures.  It  purposes, 
furtliermore,  to  advance  industrial  art  through- 
out the  Empire  by  the  development  of  teclmitiue 
and  the  creation  of  new  models.  To  accomplish 
the  first  purpose  pro\-incial  schools  have  been 
founded  for  the  proper  direction  of  the  ocal 
art  industries,  from  which  the  best  pupils  are 
sent  to  stuily  in  Vienna,  after  acquiring  profi- 
ciency in  their  special  branch.  The  attain- 
ment of  the  second  object  devolves  upon  a  com- 
mission of  2  architects  and  4  or  5  designers, 
who  are  appointed  to  produce  new  models;  a 
method  of  procedure  which  would  appear  to 
be  faulty,  since,  the  artist  being  paid  by  the 
government,  and  the  manufacturer  being  in- 
vited to  acquire  his  designs,  there  results  no 
free  and  extended  competition,  which  alone  gives 
vitality  to  art.  Furthermore,  the  Museum,  in 
adopting  this  plan,  first  creates  designers  who 
must  live  by  their  talents,  and  then  prevents 
these  same  individuals  from  finding  necessary 
work.  Against  this  system  protests  have  arisen 
among  the  designers  who  contend  that  the 
executants,  that  is,  the  manufacturers,  are 
thereby  favored  to  the  detriment  of  the  com- 
plainants, who  are  the  creators. 

Of  later  establishment  than  the  Museum  is 
the  allied  School  of  Arts  and  Crafts,  founded  in 
1867  by  Baron  de  Myrbach,  the  object  of  which 
is  to  join  theory  with  practice,  teaching  with 
actual  production,  in  order  that  the  pupil,  on 
finishing  his  course,  may  go  out  an  irreproach- 
able workman,  as  well  as  a  thoroughly  educated 
designer.  Courses  are  there  offered  to  both 
sexes  in  drawing,  modeling,  and  arcliitecture, 
and  the  candidate  for  admission  presents  hun- 
self  at  the  preparatory  school  with  a  draw- 
ing of  a  vase;  a  study  of  a  plant  after  nature; 
another  of  a  mask;  a  third  which  involves  the 
rudiments  of  figure  drawing.  Being  admitted, 
the  student  selects  at  will  a  course  either  in 
academic  drawing  and  modeling,  in  the  draw- 
ing of  plant  and  animal  forms,  or  in  ornamental 
sculpture,  to  which  he  mu.st  add  the  minor 
subjects  of  the  history  of  art  and  of  ornament, 
perspective,  lettering,  and  applied  chemistry. 
Then,  having  completed  these  courses,  he 
passes  to  one  of  the  professors  of  the  school 
proper;  working  with  the  latter  six  mornings 
of  the  week  in  his  major  branch,  and  dividing 
the  afternoons  equally  between  professors  of 
the  two  remaining  arts.  Finally,  having  ac- 
quired a  certain  proficiency,  he  specializes 
under  the  guidance  of  his  major  professor.  In  the 
school  proper  there  are  three  studios  for  each 


of  the  three  principal  arts,  and  to  them  are  joined 
the  workshops  which  complete  the  efficiency  of 
the  system.  The  professors  arc  brought  into 
close  and  constant  contact  with  the  students, 
and  thus,  owing  to  the  large  amount  of  iiersonal 
instruction  given,  the  former  become  responsible 
for  the  progress  and  the  attainments  of  the 
latter.  Another  advantage  exists  in  the  low 
annual  fee  for  instruction,  which  is  the  e(iuiva- 
lent  of  S  12;  while,  in  some  instances,  even  this 
is  remitted  and  a  monthly  scholarship  of  the 
value  of  SSis  awarded  upon  the  recommenda- 
tion of  a  professor;  further  provision  is  also 
made  for  poor  students  by  means  of  a  restaurant 
fitted  to  their  needs,  which  was  established  by 
the  founder  of  the  school,  Baron  de  Myrbach. 
Altogether  this  institution  is  one  that  should  be 
studied  by  the  foreign  observer,  and  it  con- 
stitutes a  single  expression  of  that  general  move- 
ment which  in  late  years  has  so  advanced 
Austria  and  made  Vienna  in  all  that  relates 
to  municipal  art  the  close  rival  of  Paris. 

Scotland.  —  Another  city  remarkable  for  its 
modern  a'sthetic  spirit  is  that  of  (ilasgow, 
Scotland,  whose  art  school,  established  in  1840, 
and  subventioned  by  both  government  and 
municipahty,  contains  a  department  of  decora- 
tive and  applied  arts,  which  receives  special 
attention  as  a  factor  whose  value  in  an  indus- 
trial country  cannot  be  overestimated.  But  the 
directors,  in  the  fear  lest  the  constant  produc- 
tion of  designers  might  disturb  the  proper 
relations  between  supply  and  demand,  wisely 
added  workshops  to  the  theoretical  instruction, 
although  the  former,  according  to  the  record  of 
an  expert  visitor  in  1907,  were  not  -so  efficient  as 
those  belonging  to  the  Vienna  School.  At 
Glasgow-  the  chief  professor  of  the  decorative 
arts,  M.  Giraldon,  teaches  but  three  months 
of  the  year,  November,  February,  and  May; 
the  students  working  alone  during  the  intervals, 
under  the  suggestions  of  an  associate  instructor. 
This  sj-stem  is  said  to  produce  most  gratifying 
results.  Success  is  also  attained  through  the 
nature  of  the  assigned  problems  which  aim  at 
the  correlation  of  the  decorative  arts,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  hypothetical  scheme  to  provide 
for  a  rich  amateur  the  embellishments  of  a  hall 
devoted  to  Shakespearean  study.  The  specifi- 
cations for  this  scheme  demanded  wall  tajies- 
trics,  a  frieze  and  wainscoting  in  carved  wood, 
eight  circular  windows  in  stained  glass,  sliowiiig 
ten  color  values,  a  painted  decoration  in  six 
colors  for  the  wall  spaces  between  each  two  of 
the  windows,  a  casket  for  a  manuscriiit  copy  of 
Juliux  Cirndr,  and  a  tablet  to  be  {)laced  above 
the  entrance  door.  From  these  specifications 
may  be  determined  the  breadth  of  the  instruction 
offered  at  the  Glasgow  school,  which,  perhaps, 
enforces  theory  and  design  to  the  detriment  of 
technique,  since  it  lacks  artisans  in  the  work- 
shops to  teach  the  students  the  exact  handling 
of  their  various  mediums.  There,  as  at  Vienna, 
the  result  is  necessarily  the  creation  of  artists. 

But,    in   other   parts  of  Europe,  notably  in 


236 


ART  SCHOOLS 


ART  SCHOOLS 


several  newer  institutions,  the  point  of  view  is 
directly  opposite. 

Switzerland.  —  An  instance  of  the  latter  is  the 
School  of  Industrial  Art,  at  Zurich,  established  in 
1905,  on  the  foundations  of  an  earlier  one  dating 
from  1875.  This  school  follows  a  system  which 
is  more  easily  maintained  in  a  country  without 
artistic  originality  than  in  one  which  is  bound 
by  strong  traditions.  It  gives  primarily  techni- 
cal instruction,  with  jesthetic  culture  as  an 
accessory.  Having  this  practical  aim,  it  divides 
its  pupils  into  three  classes:  the  first  comprising 
apprentices  who,  under  the  Swiss  law  of  1907, 
must  be  sent  to  a  trade  school  at  least  4 
hours  per  week,  for  a  period  of  4  years; 
those  of  the  second  class  are  artisans  who, 
already  thorough  workmen,  wish  to  perfect 
themselves  as  art  craftsmen,  that  they  may 
design,  as  well  as  execute;  while  the  third 
class  is  composed  of  somewhat  skilled  workmen 
and  foremen  of  industrial  establishments,  the 
latter  of  whom  often  exert  in  their  positions 
greater  influence  than  the  owners  themselves, 
who,  as  commercial  men  only,  are  badly  adapted 
to  follow  the  technical  processes  of  manufacture. 
As  a  farther  step  toward  practicality  and  the 
prevention  of  useless  effort,  the  followers  of 
each  trade  are  taught  to  draw  in  a  special  man- 
ner; the  designer  of  textiles  accentuating  color, 
while  the  joiner  and  the  metal  worker  empha- 
size the  qualities  of  form.  It  must  also  be 
noted  that  at  Zurich  there  are  no  professors  of 
design,  and  that  the  director,  M.  de  Praetere, 
is  a  thoroughly  trained  Belgian  technician, 
who  possesses,  at  the  same  time,  a  fine  theoreti- 
cal and  artistic  education.  Under  his  direction 
the  Zurich  school  will  presumably  contribute  in 
large  measure  and  rapidly  to  the  formation  of  a 
national  Swi.ss  style. 

Russifi. — Another  country  presenting  recent 
and  unique  interest  in  the  same  field  of  effort 
is  Russia,  where  in  all  branches  of  art  two 
opposite  parties  are  active:  one  of  which  wor- 
ships before  the  newest  French  altars,  while 
the  other  exalts  the  old  Russia  which  existed 
before  Peter  the  Great.  The  national  spirit 
is,  however,  growing  .strong  hourly,  and  is  des- 
tined to  conquer;  as  may  be  concluded  from  a 
review  of  the  nineteenth  century,  during  which 
period,  through  the  influence  of  the  composer 
Glinka,  Russian  music  came  to  prevail  over 
that  of  the  Italian  school,  and  later,  the  old  art 
industries  of  the  people  were  revived  under  the 
leadership  of  women  of  high  position  favored  by 
the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction.  As  yet  the 
artistic  products  obtained  by  these  pioneers  of 
reform  are  like  new  thoughts  expressed  in  stam- 
mering speech.  But  they  are  also  like  the  works 
of  the  Italian  pre-Raphaclite  painters,  strong, 
vital,  and  appealing. 

Germ(in)/.  —  The  German  Empire  commands 
attention  as  containing  many  focal  points  of 
art  interest,  certain  of  them  being  of  compelling 
brilliancy.  The  very  existence  of  these  mul- 
tiple centers  testifies  to  the  course,  character. 


and  vicissitudes  of  German  culture.  In  Ger- 
many the  Reformation  acted  as  a  great  solvent 
upon  the  continuity  of  art  traditions.  The 
essentially  burgher  culture  there  prevailing  in 
the  period  just  preceding  that  religious  move- 
ment, declined  with  the  spread  of  the  simpler 
form  of  worship  which  required  neither  the 
great  cathedral  planned  for  imposing  proces- 
sions; nor  the  carved  shrine,  like  Adam  Krafft's 
sacrament  house  reaching  to  the  crown  of 
lofty  Gothic  vaults;  nor  yet  the  altar  picture 
making  its  strong  sensuous  appeal  of  color. 
This  profound  change  in  the  life  of  the  people, 
together  with  the  confu.sion  wrought  in  the  first 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century  by  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  so  deadened  the  art  instincts  of  the 
Germans  that  a  strong  fostering  care  was 
necessary,  after  a  long  lapse  of  production, 
again  to  force  them  into  life  and  action.  They 
awakened  under  the  formative  influence  of  the 
German  princes  who,  independent  and  supreme 
within  their  own  small  domains,  modeled 
themselves  upon  the  old  conception  of  a  sover- 
eign; e-xercising  the  sole  governing  power  and 
becoming  patrons  of  the  fine  arts,  largely  to 
satisfy  their  desire  to  surround  themselves 
with  pomp  and  majesty. 

As  an  effect  of  this  spirit,  numerous  art  schools 
arose  in  Germany  during  the  late  seventeenth 
and  throughout  the  eighteenth  century,  or- 
ganized after  the  plan  of  foreign  institutions, 
by  whose  instruction  influences  from  Italy,  the 
Netherlands,  and  France  were  grafted  upon 
German  art  impulses,  with  the  result  of  pro- 
ducing an  interesting  and  independent  develop- 
ment of  foreign  thought  upon  Teutonic  soil. 
Of  necessity  these  art  schools  were  founded  in 
the  capitals  or  "residences"  of  their  princely 
patrons;  while  the  old  free  cities  of  the  Empire, 
long  previously  the  centers  of  the  burgher  art 
of  Germany,  had  fallen  into  decline.  Cities  like 
Berlin,  Munich,  and  Dresden,  which  were 
comparatively  unimportant  at  the  period  of 
the  Reformation,  now  received  a  powerful 
art  impetus.  But  again,  after  the  wars  of  the 
Napoleonic  era  had  ceased,  the  burgher,  or 
middle  class,  renewed  its  importance;  so  that  in 
the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
financial  and  municipal  power  of  Nuremberg, 
Augsburg,  Frankfort,  and  Cologne  again  sur- 
passed that  of  the  artificially  formed  capitals  and 
"residences,"  with  the  sole  exception  of  Berlin. 
These  brief  explanations  will  account  for  the 
existence  of  the  many  centers  of  art  in  Germany, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  explain  the  location  of 
the  academies,  which,  with  few  exceptions,  are 
not  found  in  the  old  imperial  cities  made  famous 
by  pre-Reformation  art. 

Of  all  the  art  academies  now  active  in  Ger- 
many, the  one  offering  the  greatest  interest  to 
foreigners  is  that  of  Munich:  the  city  which 
has  been  the  art  capital  of  the  country  since 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when  King  Louis  I  of  Bavaria  gathered  about 
him  a  company  of  noted  artists,  the  greatest  of 


237 


ART  SCHOOLS 


ART  SCHOOLS 


wliom  was  the  Danish  sculptor,  Thorwaklspii, 
aud  proceeded  to  the  foundation  of  such  treas- 
ure houses  of  historic  art  as  the  Glyptothek 
and  the  two  Pinacotlieks.  The  Munich  Acad- 
emy dates  from  1809,  and  tlie  community  of 
artists  resident  in  that  city  forms  practically 
a  state  within  a  state.  In  the  opinion  of  Ger- 
man authorities,  the  long-maintained  position 
of  Alunich  as  the  art  capital  of  the  Empire  has 
heen  due  to  the  close  sympathy  of  its  ])roduc- 
tions  with  the  life  of  the  people,  in  contrast 
with  the  formal,  aristocratic  ciuality  of  the  art 
of  the  other  centers,  which,  throughout  the 
nineteenth  century,  made  no  appeal  to  those 
most  important  social  factors,  the  middle  and 
lower  classes.  And  this  judgment  would  seem 
to  be  justified,  since  repeatedly  impulses  have 
gone  out  from  the  Bavarian  capital  which 
have  carried  all  Germany  with  them.  In  the 
Munich  Academy,  which  offers  instruction  in 
all  branches  of  the  fine  arts,  at  a  nominal  fee, 
there  are  found  students  from  nearly  every 
European  country,  with  Russians,  Hungarians, 
and  Scandinavians  conspicuous  among  the  for- 
eigners. Formerly,  too,  there  was  a  large, 
enthusiastic  American  element  in  attendance, 
but  this,  in  recent  years,  shows  a  great  decrease 
from  the  numbers  reached  in  the  days  when 
the  older  generation  of  our  living  painters 
followed  the  instructions  of  the  Academy  pro- 
fessors; certain  of  them  choosing  ]\Iumch 
rather  than  Paris  as  the  sole  place  of  their 
foreign  studies. 

To-day,  the  departments  forming  the  Acad- 
emy are  criticized  in  general  for  a  too  great  free- 
dom of  organization  and  system,  while  the 
school  of  architecture  in  particular  is  censured 
for  its  advocacy  of  a  devitalized  style;  the  "cold 
Parthenons  "  which  it  creates  being  evidently 
survivals  of  the  impetus  given  when  Louis  I 
erected  his  great  classic  structures  and  the 
iEgina  marbles  were  carried  to  make  their 
permanent  home  in  Munich. 

It  is  therefore  through  the  art  of  the  painter 
that  the  city  retains  its  position;  perhaps  largely 
through  the  highly  specialized  branch  of  carica- 
ture, nowhere  else  so  early,  so  broadly,  and  so 
perfectly  developed.  Kaulbach,  the  most 
widely  known  of  all  German  painters  to  the 
Americans  of  a  generation  ago,  by  reason  of  his 
formal  mural  art,  Swind,  and  Spitzweg  delivered 
the  traditions  of  caricature  to  the  greatest  living 
German  representative  of  this  branch,  Adolf 
Oberlander;  while  the  Munich  Flitgende 
Blatter,  Jugcml,  and  SiinpUci.ssimus,  the  most 
important  satiric  publications  in  Germany, 
developed  under  the  influence  of  the  Munich 
Academy. 

Another  evidence  of  the  clo.se  bonds  which 
unite  the  art  of  Munich  with  the  eommon  people 
is  the  emphasis  laid  by  the  Academy  upon 
genre  painting,  the  greatest  representative  of 
his  class  being  Defregger,  the  master  of  idealized 
Bavarian  peasant  types.  Lastly,  these  same 
sympathetic  relations   may   be   deduced  from 


the  fact  that  thousands  of  tillers  of  the  soil 
followed  in  the  funeral  procession  of  the  painter 
Lcnbach,  in  whose  portraits  of  von  Moltke 
and  Bismarck  the  simi)le  folk  saw  the  symbols 
of  the  rejuvenation  of  the  Fatherland. 

In  truth  the  new  art  movement  in  Germany 
dates  from  the  unification  of  the  Empire,  after 
the  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1S70,  and  it  is  a 
phenomenon  quite  similar  to  the  a'sthetic 
awakening  which  pervaded  Greece  after  the 
battle  of  Salamis,  and  to  that  bloom  of  liter- 
ature which,  in  England,  followed  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Spanish  Armada.  Before  the  great 
war,  the  typical  German  artist  lield  himself 
aloof  from  the arti.s;ui,  but  since  that  momentous 
event  all  Germans  have  recognized  the  value 
of  their  heritage  from  the  mcdii'\al  craft 
guilds  and  the  racial  art  of  pre-Heformation 
times.  It  is  plain  that  this  fidelity  to  Teutonic 
sources  of  inspiration  now  throbs  through  the 
hearts  of  the  painters  of  the  Empire,  without 
regard  to  regional  differences,  if  we  may  judge 
from  the  selection  of  their  works  recently  ex- 
hibited in  America,  wherein  even  the  novice  in 
criticism  could  recognize  under  their  modern 
disguises  the  spirits  of  the  "Little  Masters  of 
Cologne,"  of  Holbein,  of  Hals,  of  Rembrandt, 
and  of  Ruysdael. 

In  all  that  relates  to  primary  art  instruction 
throughout  Germany,  the  prophet  of  the  move- 
ment was  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  who  in  1809 
gave  voice  to  the  spirit  which  became  active 
a  century  later.  Following  von  Humboldt, 
scientists  like  Virchow  regretted  "the  insuf- 
ficient talent  for  observation  and  delineation 
evident  in  the  people,"  and  so  led  on  to  the 
adoption  in  1901  of  a  new  plan  of  teaching, 
practically  uniform,  and  according  to  which 
the  child  in  his  first  years  of  training  draws 
entirely  from  memory,  that  he  may  acquire,  not 
mechanical  skill,  but  the  ability  to  express 
himself,  after  which  he  is  gradually  i)rogressed 
to  the  actual,  or  living,  model. 

In  Prussia,  art  instruction  is  regarded  as  an 
integral  part  of  general  education,  and  the  draw- 
ing masters  are  especially  trained  in  normal 
classes;  while  southern  Germany  shows  great 
activity  in  the  establishment  of  schools  whose 
object  is  manual  training;  Munich  again  dis- 
playing her  individuality  in  providing  for  the 
needs,  practical  and  asthetic,  of  the  German 
home  by  fostering  the  art  industries.  In  Berlin, 
the  decorative  arts  are,  also,  highly  favored,  and 
schools  teaching  these  branches  receive  nmnic- 
ipal  subsidies;  while  private  institutions  ac- 
knowledge the  trend  of  the  times  by  offering 
courses,  not  only  in  design,  but  also  in  model- 
ing and  in  the  handling  of  various   mediums. 

As  an  art  capital,  Berlin  ranks  second  only 
to  Munich;  her  academy  dating,  as  we  have 
seen,  from  1694;  while  that  of  her  rival  was 
founded  more  than  a  century  later,  although  the 
Prussian  institution  has  never  attracted  foreign 
students  in  any  considerable  number,  nor  ex- 
tended its  influence  beyond  the  limits  of  Ger- 


238 


ART   SCHOOLS 


ART   SCHOOLS 


many.  But  the  artistic  importance  of  Berlin 
is  rapidly  growing.  In  architecture,  through 
the  works  of  Wallot  and  of  Messel,  this  city 
has  created  a  distinctive,  individual  style;  in 
dramatic  literature  and  stage  production  it 
holds  the  first  place,  and  in  the  remaining  arts, 
according  to  the  judgment  of  certain  critics,  it 
will  quickly  advance  to  occupy  the  same  high 
position. 

Ranking  after  Berlin  and  Munich,  but  in  an 
order  difficult  to  determine,  stand  Dresden, 
Carlsruhe,  Stuttgart,  Weimar,  and  Dlisseldorf, 
each  city  possessing  its  academy  of  formal  art, 
and  each  also  stirred  by  a  revival  of  racial  in- 
spiration, as  a  result  of  the  care  of  the  present 
imperial  government  to  secure  the  artistic 
education  of  the  masses,  as  well  as  to  provide 
for  the  specialized  training  of  artists;  the 
whole  constituting  a  system  which  may  be 
defined  as  "  paternal,"  in  the  highest  sense  of 
that  much-abused  term. 

Italy.  —  Another  example  of  the  effect  of 
political  unification  upon  the  art  teaching  and, 
consequently,  upon  the  art  production  of  a 
people  must  be  noted  at  the  end  of  this  brief 
review.  At  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867, 
Italy,  then  "a  geographical  expression,"  pre- 
sented a  collection  of  works  which  gained  a 
greater  number  of  prizes  than  was  awarded  to 
the  artists  of  any  other  nationality.  But 
in  these  works  regional  differences,  both  of  con- 
ception and  of  technique,  were  so  sharply  ac- 
cented that  the  historian,  Pasquale  Villari, 
raised  an  eloquent  plea  for  the  formation  of  a 
true  modern  Italian  art,  as  the  successor  of  the 
Lombard,  the  Tuscan,  and  the  Neapolitan;  in- 
dicating as  a  means  to  this  end  the  transfor- 
mation of  the  provincial  academies  with  their 
antiquated  formuLne  into  schools  which  should 
teach  the  universal,  basic  principles  of  design 
and  composition.  To-day,  at  a  distance  of 
forty  years,  although  the  fusion  is  not  so  com- 
plete as  the  enthusiastic  patriot  could  have 
desired,  still  the  processes  of  absorption  and 
assimilation  have  so  far  progressed  that  the 
Italian  architect,  sculptor,  or  painter  may  be 
recognized  by  his  creations,  as  the  unit  of  an 
organic  nation.  The  modern  spirit  walks  abroad 
in  Rome,  the  recognized  stronghold  of  classic 
traditions,  and  it  is  difficult  to  realize,  in  Victor 
Emanuel's  capital,  that  little  more  than  a  cen- 
tury ago,  through  the  influence  of  the  sculptor 
Canova,  the  Roman  Academy,  named  from 
the  accredited  apostolic  painter,  St.  Luke,  ob- 
tained the  monopoly  of  artistic  teaching.  The 
opening  of  the  "  Gallery  of  Modern  Art "  in 
Rome  parallels  the  breach  made  by  the  army 
of  the  King  in  the  walls  of  the  Papal  City.  The 
engineering  of  the  subway,  the  architectural 
treatment  of  the  new  Palace  of  Justice,  and  of 
the  villas  in  the  recently  constructed  Trasteve- 
rine  quarter  show  that  foreign  influence  has  been 
permitted  to  mingle  with  native  talent  to  the 
making  of  a  new  epoch.  The  artificial  academic 
spirit,   from  its  former  seat  in  the  Academy 


of  St.  Luke,  dominated  all  the  arts  in  Rome,  but 
now  liberty  is  so  omnipresent  in  the  schools  that 
even  foreigners  respond  to  its  call ;  the  students 
in  architecture  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  resi- 
dent at  the  French  Academy  having  been 
known  to  send  back  to  Paris,  together  with 
their  obligatory  stylistic  designs  and  restora- 
tions, treatments  of  the  most  modern  problems, 
such  as  the  scheme  for  a  model  workingmen's 
tenement. 

Of  long-standing  reputation  and  acknowl- 
edged merit  are  the  art  schools,  or  academies,  of 
Naples,  Florence,  Milan,  and  Turin ;  the  proof  of 
their  excellence  existing  in  the  men  whom  they 
sent  out  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century;  Naples  alone  producing  three  noted 
masters  in  painting,  Palizzi,  Morelli,  and 
Michetti.  These  institutions  primarily  offer 
instruction  in  painting  and  sculpture,  while 
courses  in  architecture  are,  in  some  cases,  as  at 
Turin,  relegated  to  the  engineering  schools. 

A  last  point  of  resemblance  between  Ger- 
many and  Italy,  as  an  effect  of  unification,  may 
be  seen  in  the  development  of  the  industrial  arts, 
which  began  about  the  year  1880,  and  is  still 
in  active  progress.  Although  the  last  country 
to  join  in  the  arts  and  crafts  movement,  fol- 
lowing in  this  France,  Germany,  England,  and 
Austria,  Italy,  in  so  doing,  simply  renewed  con- 
nection with  her  artists  of  the  Middle  Ages  and 
of  the  Renaissance,  who  did  not  disdain  to 
produce  the  humblest  objects  of  domestic  serv- 
ice, since  they  glorified  them  with  a  touch 
of  genius.  Most  interesting  results  of  this 
movement  were  seen  at  the  Turin  Exposition  of 
1902;  that  city  and  Milan  being  the  centers 
of  instruction  in  the  decorative  arts.  In  some 
instances,  also,  the  workshops  of  art  artisans, 
or  those  even  of  commercial  firms  producing 
objects  of  art,  take  the  place  of  schools;  a  system 
of  instruction  founded  on  historical  precedent, 
and  which,  although  privately  conducted,  is 
the  same  in  principle  as  the  method  pursued 
at  Zurich  under  governmental  control,  and 
aiming  to  unite  in  one  person  the  artist  and  the 
artisan. 

Thus,  the  conclusion  to  be  gained  from  a 
cursory  review  of  the  art  schools  and  the  existing 
art  tendencies  in  Europe  is  that  everywhere  in 
the  Old  World,  even  in  the  most  conservative 
cities  and  institutions,  there  is  a  movement 
which,  in  Russia,  would  be  termed  "going  to- 
ward the  people."  I.  S. 

See  the  various  articles  on  the  educational 
system  of  each  country  for  full  statement  of  the 
various  art  schools;  also  Architectural 
Education;  Art  in  the  Schools;  Design; 
Drawing:   etc. 

United  States.  —  In  .studying  the  art  schools 
it  is  necessary  to  distinguisli  between  the  dif- 
ferent tjTJes  of  schools  in  which  the  visual  arts 
are  taught.  Although  some  of  the  schools 
include  several  departments,  the  majority 
can  be  classed  under  one  of  the  following  heads: 
(1)  fine  arts  schools,  where  drawing,  painting, 


239 


ART  SCHOOLS 


ART  SCHOOLS 


and  spulpturo  alone  arc  taught;  (2)  schools 
of  design,  where,  in  addition  to  the  acaileniic 
branches,  design  in  its  application  to  manufac- 
tures is  given;  (3)  schools  of  architecture; 
(4)  industrial  art  schools  with  workshops  that 
closely  a])proach  conditions  in  the  manufactur- 
ing world;  (5)  manual  training  and  technical 
schools;  ((J)  normal  art  schools;  (7)  general 
instruction  in  drawing  and  tlie  history  of  art, 
given  entirely  for  their  cultural  value.  This 
article  treats  in  detail  the  first  and  second  of 
these  groujis.  The  schools  of  architecture, 
industrial  art  schools,  manual  training  and 
technical  schools,  will  he  found  under  the  ajjpro- 
priate  heads.  The  sixth  and  seventh  topics  are 
discussed  under  the  preceding  topic,  Aht  in 
THE  Schools. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  any  citizen 
of  the  American  colonics  who  wanted  to  learn 
how  to  paint  was  obliged  to  go  to  Europe,  and 
the  success  of  Benjamin  West,  born  in  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1738,  led  many  young  Americans  to 
follow  him  to  London.  With  the  death  of 
West  in  1S20,  London  ceased  to  be  the  Mecca 
of  American  portrait  and  historical  painters. 
The  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  saw  a  so- 
called  "  revival  of  art  "  in  Oermanj',  led  by 
Overbeck  (17S9-1S69)  and  Cornelius  (1783- 
1867),  the  latter  becoming  the  head  of  the 
Munich  school,  and  painting  heroes  of  the 
classic  and  the  Christian  world  on  a  large 
scale.  After  1826  Diisseldorf  came  into  promi- 
nence under  the  guidance  of  Schadow  (1789- 
1862),  and  this  school  was  inclined  toward  the 
easel  picture  with  sentimental,  dramatic,  or 
romantic  subjects.  Emanuel  Leutze  (1816- 
1868),  German  by  birth,  but  an  American  by 
adoption,  was  a  pupil  of  Lessing  at  Diisseldorf, 
and  had  a  good  deal  to  do  with  introducing 
Diisseldorf  methods  into  America.  Another 
and  a  stronger  influence  was  that  of  the  French 
romantic  movement,  which  can  be  dated  from 
the  year  1822,  when  Delacroix  exliibited  his 
"  Dante  and  Virgil  "  at  the  Salon.  A  Boston 
painter,  William  Morris  Hunt  (1824-1879), 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of 
Couture,  and,  after  spending  several  years  at 
Barbizon  with  Millet,  returned  to  Boston,  in 
1855,  where  his  personal  force  attracted  many 
pupils.  He  was  a  painter  of  ability,  but  per- 
haps his  greatest  influence  was  as  a  teacher,  and 
many  prominent  American  painters,  notably 
John  La  Farge,  trace  their  beginnings  to  his 
studio.  About  1870  Munich  again  drew  many 
American  students.  Walter  Shirlaw  went 
there  when  the  siege  of  Paris  closed  that  city 
to  art  students.  Frank  Duveneck  and  William 
M.  Chase  studied  in  Munich  in  the  early 
seventies. 

But  while  many  ambitious  painters  and 
sculptors  found  their  way  to  the  European 
schools,  art  was  beginning  to  take  root  in  the 
United  States.  As  far  back  as  1791  Charles 
Willson  Peale  tried  to  found  an  art  school  in 
Philadelpliia.     He  was  not  successful,  but  his 


attempt  led,  in  1805,  to  the  establishment  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts, 
the  oldest  art  institution  in  the  country.  The 
Schools  of  the  Natiomd  Academy  of  Design 
date  from  1826,  while  1844  saw  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Philad('li)hia  School  of  Design  for 
Women;  Cooper  Union  {(i-v.),  which  included 
a  free  school  of  art  for  women  as  well  as  even- 
ing classes  in  drawing  for  men,  was  opened  in 
New  York  in  1S57;  the  school  of  tin;  Art  Insti- 
tute of  Chicago  is  a  direct  continuation  of  the 
old  Academy  of  Design  organized  in  that  city 
in  1867  and  never  susjjcnded  cx<'ept  at  the  time 
of  the  great  fire  in  1871 ;  1873  saw  the  establish- 
ment in  Boston  of  the  Massachusetts  Normal  Art 
School;  and  the  Art  Students'  League  of  New 
York  was  organized  in  1875.  The  Philadelphia 
Centennial  Exposition  of  1876  gave  a  strong 
impetus  to  art  education,  and  was  followed  by 
a  rapid  growth  of  art  schools.  The  School  of 
Drawing  and  Painting  of  the  Boston  Museum 
was  started  at  once;  the  School  of  Industrial 
Art  of  the  Pennsylvania  Museum  followed  in 
1877,  with  the  Rhode  Island  School  of  Design 
at  Providence  the  same  year  and  the  St.  Louis 
School  of  Fine  Arts  in  1879.  The  present 
status  of  the  principal  schools  of  fine  arts  and 
of  design  in  the  United  States  is  shown  in  the 
following  jiaragraphs:  — ■ 

Schools  of  Fine  Arts. —  New  Haven,  Conn. — 
The  Yale  School  of  Fine  Arts  was  founded  by 
Augustus  Russell  Street  in  1864,  and  occupies  a 
building  on  the  university  grounds  with  well-ap- 
pointed classrooms  and  galleries  that  contain  the 
Jarves  Collection  of  Italian  paintings,  the  most 
important  public  collection  of  this  period  in 
the  United  States;  the  Trumbull  collection  of 
historical  portraits  and  other  paintings  illus- 
trative of  the  American  Revolution;  as  well 
as  a  general  collection.  The  registration  for 
1909-1910  was  82,  and  there  are  8  instructors. 
The  courses  in  painting,  sculpture,  and  archi- 
tecture lead  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  in  Fine 
Arts.  The  Winchester  Fellowship  provides 
151000  a  year  for  European  study;  this  and 
several  smaller  scholarships  and  prizes  are 
endowed.  The  total  equipment,  including  pro- 
fessional foundations,  is  valued  at  $400,000. 
Fees  are  $30  for  a  term  of  3  months. 

Ae«!  York.  —  The  Art  Students'  League 
of  New  Y'ork  was  founded  in  1875  and  incor- 
porated in  1878  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
and  maintaining  an  academic  school  of  art, 
which  should  give  a  thorough  course  of  study 
in  drawing,  painting,  and  sculpture.  The 
founders  were  .students  in  the  life  classes  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Design,  who  established 
this  school  to  secure  increased  facilities.  It 
is  a  cooperative  institution  managed  by  a 
Board  of  Control  consisting  of  12  members, 
elected  annually,  who  receive  no  remuneration. 
A  majority  of  the  members  of  the  board  are 
students  actually  at  work  in  the  classes.  The 
school  is  self-supporting,  and,  having  no  eii- 
dowment  fund,  it  is  run  entirely  upon  the  tui- 


240 


ART  SCHOOLS 


ART   SCHOOLS 


tion  fees  of  its  pupils.  Artists  and  students 
intending  to  make  art  a  profession,  who  have 
worked  in  the  hfe  classes  3  months,  may  be 
elected  members  of  the  League.  The  League 
is  a  stockholder  in  the  American  Fine  Arts 
Building,  and  occupies  the  upper  floors  of  the 
building,  whUe  the  galleries  on  the  main  floor 
are  devoted  to  the  annual  exhibition  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Design,  the  American 
Water  Color  Society,  the  New  York  Water 
Color  Club,  and  the  Architectural  League. 
This  school  is  the  model  on  which  many  others 
throughout  the  countr}'  have  been  organized. 
The  fees  are  from  .S30  to  S70  for  the  winter 
term  of  8  months,  .$35  in  the  evening  classes 
or  the  Saturday  classes,  and  S20  for  the  summer 
school  in  New  York.  A  summer  school  is  also 
maintained  at  Woodstock,  N.Y.  Prizes  and 
scholarships  to  the  number  of  17  are  given  in 
the  school.  There  is  also  an  annual  competi- 
tion for  scholarships,  open  to  all  art  students  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  New  York  City,  whereby  10  scholarships 
are  awarded  for  the  best  work  shown.  The 
enrollment  averages  1000  during  the  winter, 
with  14  instructors;  in  the  summer  there  are 
about   100  students. 

The  National  Academy  of  Design  traces  its 
origin  back  to  1802,  when  it  was  proposed  to 
found  the  New  York  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts. 
Officers  were  elected  on  Dec.  3  of  that  year, 
and  on  Feb.  12,  1808,  a  charter  was  ob- 
tained under  the  name  of  the  American  Acad- 
emy of  Arts.  Shortly  before  .securing  its 
charter,  Robert  R.  Livingston,  then  Ambassa- 
dor to  France,  purchased  by  order  of  the 
trustees  and  sent  to  New  York  a  number  of 
casts  from  the  antique,  probably  the  first 
casts  ever  brought  to  this  country.  The  in- 
stitution lay  dormant  for  many  years,  but 
was  revived  by  an  exhibition  in  1816,  and 
in  January,  1818,  John  Trumbull  was  elected 
president.  During  the  following  summer  the 
collection  of  casts  was  opened  to  students  in 
the  mornings  from  6  to  8  o'clock,  with  William 
Dunlap  as  keeper.  The  hours  were  incon- 
venient, few  attended,  and  the  first  attempt 
at  founding  an  art  school  in  New  York  failed. 
Another  unsuccessful  attempt  to  open  the 
collection  of  casts  to  students  led  to  a  meet- 
ing of  artists  on  Nov.  8,  1825,  in  the  rooms 
of  the  New  York  Historical  Society,  and  the 
New  York  Drawing  Association  was  formed, 
with  S.  F.  B.  Morse  as  president.  At  a  meet- 
ing of  the  Drawing  Association  on  Jan.  18, 
1826,  they  organized  the  National  Academy  of 
Design,  to  be  composed  and  governed  entirely 
by  artists.  It  was  at  first  only  an  evening 
drawing  class,  but  in  time  exhibitions  were 
successfully  managed  and  the  school  enlarged, 
and  for  many  years  the  academy  occupied  its 
own  building  at  Fourth  Avenue  and  23d  Street. 
Since  October,  1899,  the  schools  have  been 
located  at  Amsterdam  Avenue  and  109th 
Street,  not  far  from  Columbia  University,  with 


which  they  are  now  affiliated.  The  exhibitions, 
however,  are  held  in  the  American  Fine  Arts 
Building  at  215  West  57th  Street.  The  instruc- 
tion is  purely  academic,  if  one  excepts  the 
class  in  etching.  There  are  about  250  students, 
under  10  instructors.  All  instruction  is  free, 
but  examinations  must  be  passed  to  secure 
admission,  and  no  applicant  over  30  years  of 
age  is  accepted.  There  are  numerous  prizes 
and  scholarships,  including  the  Mooney  Me- 
morial Traveling  Scholarship  of  $750  a  year  for 
2  years  and  the  Lazarus  Traveling  Scholarship. 
This  last  consists  of  $1000  a  year  for  3  years 
and  is  open  to  any  male  citizen  of  the  United 
States  who  can  successfully  pa.ss  the  examina- 
tions which  are  held  every  third  year  at  the 
Academy. 

Philadelphia,  Pa. —  The  Penjisyhania  Acad- 
emy of  the  Fine  Arts  was  organized  in  1805 
at  a  meeting  held  in  Lidependence  Hall,  and 
shortly  after  a  building  was  erected  which 
was  occupied  for  half  a  century.  In  1876  the 
present  building  was  dedicated.  It  contains 
a  permanent  collection  of  painting  and  sculpture, 
including  the  Gallery  of  National  Portraiture, 
the  Temple  Collection  of  Modern  American 
Paintings,  and  the  Gibson  Collection  of  paint- 
ings by  European  artists  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Annual  exhibitions  of  oil  paintings 
and  sculpture,  of  miniatures,  of  water  colors, 
and  of  architecture  are  held  in  the  galleries. 
The  school  at  present  has  a  registration  of 
about  400,  with  10  instructors.  The  course  is 
strictly  academic,  and  includes  the  antique, 
life  and  head  painting,  illustration  and  model- 
ing. There  are  2  terms  in  the  school  year; 
fees  $50  a  term.  The  Cresson  Fund  enables 
the  academy  to  award  $500  traveling  scholar- 
ships to  20  or  more  students  each  year  in  the 
departments  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  illus- 
tration. There  are  several  other  prizes  of 
lesser  amounts. 

Washington,  D.  C.  —  The  Corcoran  School 
of  Art  is  maintained  in  the  Corcoran  Art 
Gallery,  and  has  been  part  of  the  regular  work 
of  that  institution  since  it  was  incorporated  in 
1870.  The  academic  subjects  alone  are  taught, 
and  the  registration  is  about  225,  with  6  in- 
structors. There  are  day  and  evening  classes, 
all  of  which  are  free. 

The  American  Academy  in  Rome  was  incor- 
porated by  Act  of  Congress  on  March  3,  1905, 
"  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  an  institution 
to  promote  the  study  and  practice  of  the  fine 
arts  and  to  aid  and  stimulate  the  education 
and  training  of  architects,  painters,  sculptors, 
and  other  artists,  by  enabling  such  citizens  of 
the  United  States  as  shall  be  selected  by  compe- 
tition from  among  those  who  have  passed  with 
honor  through  leading  technical  schools  or 
have  been  equally  well  qualified  by  private 
instruction  or  study,  to  develop  their  powers 
and  complete  their  training  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  of  direction  and  surround- 
ings."    The  Academy  occupies  the  Villa  Mira- 


241 


ART  SCHOOLS 


ART  SCHOOLS 


fiori  in  Romp,  Italy,  and  has  an  endowment 
fund  of  nearly  S1,()0(),0()().  It  is  the  home  of  the 
various  holders  of  scholarships  who  carry  on 
their  work  under  the  guidance  of  the  Director 
of  the  Academy.  The  principal  scholarsiiips 
available  are  those  of  the  Academy  itself,  which 
now  sends  to  Europe  each  year  for  3  years 
one  architect,  one  sculptor,  and  one  painter; 
the  Lazarus  scholarship  for  mural  painting; 
the  Paige  scholarship  in  painting;  the  Rinehart 
scholarship  for  sculpture;  the  ^IcKim,  the 
Society  of  Ueaux-Arts,  the  Cornell,  the  Rotch, 
and  several  otliers  in  arcliitecture. 

Schools  of  Design. — Among  the  schools  of 
design  many  will  be  found  conducting  aca- 
demic courses  side  by  side  with  their  depart- 
ment of  design,  and  also  classes  in  the  various 
crafts,  such  as  bookbinding,  pottery,  and  metal 
work.  The  numerous  small  arts  and  crafts 
societies  scattered  over  the  country  form  centers 
for  teaching  the  crafts,  and  many  have  sales- 
rooms for  the  disposal  of  members'  work.  A 
number  of  these  societies  are  federated,  and  the 
Boston  Society  of  Arts  and  Crafts  serves  as  the 
headquarters  of  the  National  League  of  Handi- 
craft Societies. 

Baltimore,  Md.  —  The  Maryland  Inftiliite 
of  Art  and  Design  occupies  its  own  building, 
which  was  erected  in  1907.  Over  700  students 
receive  instruction  from  43  teachers  in  noth 
day  and  evening  classes.  The  courses  include 
the  usual  academic  training  in  drawing,  paint- 
ing, and  sculpture;  the  architectural  department 
has  over  300  students;  there  is  a  normal  de- 
partment; and  special  classes  for  illustration 
and  for  design  and  applied  arts.  The  fees  are 
nominal.  There  are  several  prizes  and  schol- 
arships, including  the  Rinehart  scholarship  in 
sculpture,  open  to  any  American  man  not  over 
37  years  of  age,  and  entitltng  to  -t  years  of  Euro- 
pean study. 

Boston,  Mass.  — ■  The  Museum  of  Fine  Arts 
was  incorporated  in  1870,  and  included  as  one 
of  its  "  objects  "  to  provide  opporttmitics  and 
means  for  giving  instruction  in  drawing,  paint- 
ing, modeling,  and  design,  with  their  industrial 
application  through  lectures,  practical  schools, 
and  a  special  library.  The  museum  building 
in  Copley  Sciuare  was  opened  July  4,  1876,  and 
soon  after  arrangements  were  made  whereby 
three  rooms  in  the  basement  w-ere  assigned,  free 
of  rent,  to  the  School  of  Drawing  and  Painting 
then  being  conducted  by  Otto  Grundmann  and 
Dr.  William  Rimmer.  This  arrangement  was 
continued  with  the  use  of  additional  room  until 
the  removal  of  the  museum  to  its  new  building, 
which  was  opened  in  the  autumn  of  1909.  The 
school  is  now  installed  in  a  building  designed 
and  erected  for  it  on  Huntington  Avenue,  adjoin- 
ing the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts.  Instruction  is 
offered  in  drawing,  painting,  modeling,  and  de- 
sign, \\-ith  supplementary  courses  in  anatomy 
and  perspective.  The  school  is  open  to  both 
sexes;  the  number  of  pupils  in  1909-10  was  263, 
of  whom  74  were  in  the  department  of  design; 


there  arc  13  instructors.  A  unique  feature, 
known  as  the  Master's  Class,  is  the  post- 
graduate course,  whose  object  is  to  instruct 
advanced  pupils  in  the  art  of  constructing  and 
painting  pictures.  These  special  pupils  ordi- 
narily have  studios  to  themselves,  models  are 
furnished  when  required,  and  criticisms  are 
given  by  members  of  the  regular  corps  of  in- 
structors. There  are  3  terms  in  the  school 
year;  fee  for  the  year  SIOO.  The  school  awards 
16  scholarships  entitling  to  free  tuition;  the 
Paige  traveling  scholarship,  open  to  both  sexes, 
is  awarded  for  general  excellence  and  consists 
of  .SSOO  a  year  for  2  years'  travel;  there  are 
several  other  money  prizes,  and  dijilomas  are 
given,  upon  application,  to  those  who  have 
fulfilled  the  requirements  of  the  Council. 
The  course  in  design  is  conducted  by  means  of 
problems,  by  the  study  of  the  development  of 
design  and  ils  relation  to  sculpture,  painting, 
and  architecture.  There  are  also  lectures  by 
specialists  given  at  the  school  or  at  the  museum. 
There  is  a  course  in  metal  work  and  one  in 
interior  decoration,  and  there  is  a  postgraduate 
course  for  those  who  desire  technical  training 
in  professional  work.  Pupils  must  be  over 
16  years  of  age.  The  tuition  fee  is  SI  10  a 
year;  evening  classes  S20.  There  is  a  traveling 
scholarship  of  S200  a  year,  limited  to  men  stu- 
dents, a  scholarship  providing  a  visit  to  an 
American  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  and  cash 
prizes  for  the  best  work  done  in  design. 

Buffalo,  N.Y.—  The  Art  Students'  League, 
founded  in  1888,  now  occupies  room  in  the 
Albright  Art  Gallery,  and  is  therefore  in  close 
touch  with  the  permanent  and  current  exhibi- 
tions. There  were,  in  1909-10,  266  students 
under  6  instructors.  The  courses  include  the 
academic  branches,  and  also  design,  metal  work, 
and  a  normal  course. 

Chicago,  III.  —  The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago  has 
the  largest  number  of  students  and  offers  special 
advantages  for  study,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
here  are  found  the  combination  of  the  art 
museum,  a  well-equipped  library,  a  large  audi- 
torium with  regular  course  of  lectures,  current 
exhibitions  of  work  by  foreign  and  American 
artists,  and  a  staff  of  about  50  instructors.  The 
attendance  for  the  year  ending  May  31,  1909, 
was  3222,  which  included  students  in  the  day, 
evening,  Saturday,  and  summer  classes.  There 
are  seven  di.^tinct  schools  with  different  princi- 
pals: academic,  decorative  design,  normal,  archi- 
tecture (which  is  affiliated  with  the  Armour 
Institute  of  Technology),  evening,  Saturday,  and 
summer.  The  school  is  organized  upon  the 
French  "  ateher  and  concours  "  system.  There 
are  two  foreign  travel  scholarships  of  .?245 
each,  and  two  American  scholarships  of  S2.50 
and  .S125  respectively.  The  fees  average  S30 
a  term  for  the  three  winter  terms,  and  S2.5  for  the 
summer  term.  Large  schemes  are  frequently 
carried  out  by  the  school,  such  as  the  mural 
decoration  of  a  Pubhc  School  and  the  Pageant 
given  in  1909. 


242 


ART  SCHOOLS 


ART   SCHOOLS 


The  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  is  a  private  school 
in  Chicago,  which,  with  a  staff  of  15  teachers, 
gives  instruction  to  about  400  students  in  the 
academic  branches,  illustration,  commercial  de- 
sign, mechanical  drawing,  interior  decoration, 
metal  work,  and  leatlier  work. 

Cincinnati,  Ohio.  —  The  Art  Academy  dates 
from  1869,  when  the  McMicken  School  of  Design 
was  established  in  accordance  with  a  bequest  to 
the  city  of  Cincinnati;  in  1884  it  was  transferred 
to  the  Museum  Association,  and  the  present 
building  in  Eden  Park,  close  to  the  museum, 
was  dedicated  in  1887.  The  attendance  for 
1909-10  was  383,  and  there  are  10  in.structors. 
There  are  daj%  evening,  Saturday,  and  summer 
classes.  In  addition  to  the  academic  branches 
there  are  classes  in  modeling,  wood  carving, 
design,  and  china  painting.  The  location  of  the 
Rockvvood  Pottery  in  this  city  gives  a  special 
reason  for  the  last-mentioned  course.  The 
average  fee  is  S25  for  each  of  the  winter  terms 
and  $20  for  the  summer  term. 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  School  of  Art  was  incorporated 
in  1882  as  the  Western  Reserve  School  of 
Design  for  Women,  but  has  been  known  under 
its  present  name  since  1891.  A  well-equipped 
building,  erected  on  a  site  donated  by  J.  H. 
Wade,  was  opened  in  1905;  a  separate  build- 
ing for  the  department  of  sculpture  was 
erected  and  equipped  by  Thomas  H.  White 
at  a  cost  of  $15,000.  The  students  number 
about  350,  and  there  are  14  instructors.  The 
regular  4  years'  course  includes  pictorial  art, 
decorative  design,  architectural  sculpture,  and 
normal  art  training;  special  classes  in  illustra- 
tion, cartooning,  and  ceramics;  also  evening 
classes  for  both  men  and  women,  and  Saturday 
classes.     The  fees  average  $50  a  year. 

Columbus,  Ohio,  Art  School  Tvas  founded  by 
the  Columbus  Art  Association  in  1879.  There 
are  about  150  students  and  4  instructors.  Deco- 
rative design  is  taught  in  addition  to  the  usual 
academic  subjects.  The  fee  is  $15  for  36  lessons 
in  painting,  and  other  subjects  in  proportion. 

Indianapolis,  Ind.  —  The  John  Herron  Art 
Institute  School  is  conducted  by  the  Art  Associa- 
tion of  Indianapolis  and  it  occupies  a  well- 
equipped  building  dedicated  in  October,  1907, 
and  situated  near  the  museum.  There  were,  in 
1909-10,  350  students,  with  15  instructors.  The 
courses  include  the  academic  branches,  design, 
metal  work,  wood  carving,  and  ceramic  decora- 
tion.    The  fees  average  $10  a  month. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  College  of  Fine  Arts,  of  the 
University  of  Southern  California,  was  established 
in  1901.  The  registration  for  1909-10  was  253, 
under  7  instructors.  There  are  three-year  courses 
in  the  fine  and  in  the  applied  arts,  open  free  to 
both  men  and  women. 

Minneapolis,  Minn.,  School  of  Fine  Arts  is 
located  in  the  Public  Library  Building.  The 
school  was  founded  in  1SS6  by  the  Minneapolis 
Society  of  Fine  Arts,  and  has  an  excellent 
collection  of  casts.  There  were  during  1909-10 
275  students  and  7  instructors.    There  are  4  dis- 


tinct departments:  academic,  decorative  design, 
handicraft,  and  architecture.  There  are  also 
evening,  children's,  and  summer  classes.  The 
fees  average  $40  for  the  j'oar  of  3  terms. 

New  Orleans,  La.  —  The  Art  Department  of  the 
Sophie  Newcomb  Memorial  College  for  Women 
was  founded  in  1888,  and  now  occupies  its 
own  building.  The  courses  include  the  aca- 
demic, pottery,  textile,  and  normal.  The  pottery 
(marked  N.  C.)  is  a  unique  feature,  and  has  led 
to  the  establishment  of  a  salesroom  and  to  its 
general  sale  in  other  cities.  There  are  about 
100  students,  with  1 1  instructors.  The  fee  is 
$15  for  each  term  of  12  weeks  and  $10  a  month 
in  the  summer  school. 

Neiv  York,  N.  Y.  —  Cooper  Union  maintains 
a  Free  Woman's  Art  School  and  a  Free  Night 
School  of  Art  for  Men.  In  the  former  the 
average  attendance  during  1909-10  was  325,  with 
a  waiting  list  of  64 ;  in  addition  to  the  academic 
studies  there  are  clas.ses  in  illustration,  design, 
and  miniature  painting.  The  evening  School 
for  Men  is  attended  by  over  1100  students, 
and  there  is  always  a  waiting  list.  The  courses 
include  architectural  and  free-hand  drawing, 
decorative  design,  and  modeling.  The  Cooper 
Union  Museum  for  the  Arts  of  Decoration  offers 
special  facilities  for  study,  and  there  is  also  a 
large  general  library  in  the  building,  which  was 
dedicated  by  Peter  Cooper  in  1857  "  to  be  de- 
voted for  ever  to  the  union  of  Art  and  Science 
in  their  application  to  the  useful  purposes  of 
life."  All  instruction  is  free,  and  there  are 
several  cash  prizes  and  scholarships,  including 
one  at  the  Byrdcliffe  Summer  School  of  Art. 

New  York  School  of  Applied  Design  for 
Women  was  founded  in  1892  by  Mrs.  Dunlap 
Hopkins  for  the  purpose  of  affording  women 
practical  instruction  which  will  enable  them 
to  earn  a  livelihood  by  the  application  of  orna- 
mental design  to  manufacture  and  the  numerous 
arts  and  crafts.  In  the  autumn  of  1909  the 
school  moved  into  its  own  building  specially 
erected  and  adapted  to  its  needs.  The  ele- 
mentary department  includes  instruction  in 
object  drawing,  perspective,  flower  drawing  and 
painting,  drawing  from  the  antique,  conven- 
tionalization, and  historic  ornament;  the  ad- 
vanced department  teaches  the  application  of 
design  to  the  manufacture  of  wall  paper  and  of 
silk,  illustration,  and  the  work  of  an  architectural 
draughtsman.  There  were,  during  1909-10,  534 
students  under  15  instructors.  There  are  3 
terms  in  the  year,  and  the  tuition  fees  are  $25 
each  term.  About  $600  is  awarded  annually  in 
prizes,  and  in  each  of  the  advanced  departments 
a  scholarship  for  the  following  year  is  given. 
The  library  contains  about  8000  plates. 

New  York  School  of  Fine  and  Applied  Art  is 
the  successor  to  the  Chase  School,  which  was 
established  in  1895.  The  present  courses  in- 
clude the  academic,  commercial  illustration, 
normal,  decorative  design,  interior  decoration, 
costume  design,  clay  modeling,  metal  work, 
basketry,  china    painting,  and    Saturday   and 


243 


ART  SCHOOLS 


ART  SCHOOLS 


children's  classes.  The  fees  vary  from  $2  a 
month  in  the  sketch  class  to  SlOO  a  season  for 
all-day  work  in  the  portrait  class.  No  exami- 
nations are  necessary. 

Pralt  Institute,  founded  in  1887,  gave  instruc- 
tion in  its  vSchool  of  Fine  and  Applied  Arts 
during  1908-1909  to  a  total  of  953  students, 
divided  as  follows:  152  male  and  294  female  in 
tiie  day  courses,  270  male  and  55  female  in  the 
evening,  and  67  boys  and  115  girls  for  special 
work.  There  are  34  instructors;  the  depart- 
ment contains  40  classrooms,  .studios,  and 
offices;  a  museum  is  connected  with  the  depart- 
ment; and  there  is  an  art  gallery  in  the  adjacent 
lilirary  building  in  which  e.vliihitions  are  main- 
tained from  October  to  June.  The  various 
courses  of  study  include:  life,  portrait,  and 
pictorial  illustration;  costume  illustration;  com- 
position and  design;  modeling;  oil  and  water 
color  painting;  general  applied  design,  stained 
glass,  interior  decoration,  textile  and  furniture 
design,  art  metal,  jewelry,  chasing,  enameling 
and  medal  work;  architectural  construction 
and  architectural  design;  and  normal  art  and 
manual  training.  The  general  art  course  covers 
4  years,  and  is  fundamental  to  all  others. 
The  fees  for  the  day  courses  are  S25  for  each  of 
the  3  terms  in  the  season;  evening  classes 
$15  for  the  .season  of  6  months.  Examinations 
are  required  for  admission. 

The  Young  Wonie7i's  Christian  Association  of 
Neu'  York  maintains  morning,  afternoon,  and 
evening  classes  for  the  purpose  of  training 
designers  to  apply  art  to  the  industries.  The 
courses  include  design,  costume  designing,  color 
work,  wood  carving,  modeling,  and  embroidery. 
The  attendance  during  1909-10  was  88,  and  there 
are  3  instructors.  The  fees  are  from  SIO  to  $20 
a  year. 

Philadelphia,  Pa.  —  The  School  of  Design  for 
TFomen  was  founded  in  1844  in  the  home  of  Mrs. 
Sarah  Peter;  when  it  had  outgrown  the  limits 
of  a  private  enterprise,  the  Franklin  Institute 
assumed  the  management  of  the  school  until 
1853,  when  it  was  incorporated.  Its  present 
home  is  the  Forrest  Mansion,  and  there  are 
about  150  students,  with  10  instructors.  In 
addition  to  the  academic  branches  there  is  a 
normal  course  of  4  years  and  courses  in  technical 
design,  illustration,  and  general  applied  design. 
The  fees  are  .?35  a  term,  and  there  are  2  Eu- 
ropean and  5  school  fellowships. 

Providence,  R.I.  —  The  Rhode  Island  School 
of  Design  was  incorporated  in  1877,  and  gives 
as  its  purpose:  (1)  The  instruction  of  arti.sans 
in  drawing,  painting,  modeling,  and  design- 
ing, that  they  may  successfully  apply  the 
principles  of  art  to  the  requirements  of  trade 
and  manufactures.  (2)  The  systematic  train- 
ing of  students  in  the  practice  of  art,  that  they 
may  understand  its  principles,  give  instruction 
to  others,  or  become  artists.  (3)  The  general 
advancement  of  art  education  by  the  exhibition 
of  works  of  art  and  art  studies  and  by  lectures 
on  art. 


The  museum  consists  of  eight  galleries  con- 
taining oil  paintings,  casts  from  the  antique, 
Japanese  art  objects,  and  ])easant  pottery.  The 
Colonial  House  built  by  Stephen  O.  Metcalf  is  a 
continuation  of  tlie  galleries,  and  contains  the 
Pendleton  collection  of  antique  furniture, 
pottery,  textiles,  and  paintings.  During  the 
course  of  the  j-ear  a  number  of  special  exhibi- 
tions are  held.  The  school  registration  for  1909 
-1910  was  900,  and  there  are  44  instructors. 
Full  courses  of  instruction  leading  to  a  diploma 
are  offered  in  the  8  departments  of  the  school: 
freehand  drawing  and  painting;  decorative  de- 
sign; modeling  and  sculpture;  architecture; 
mechanical  design:  textile  design;  jewelry  de- 
sign; and  normal  art.  Students  are  required 
to  attend  a  series  of  lectures  on  the  principles 
of  design  and  to  do  a  prescribed  amount  of 
reading.  Fees  are  $35  for  each  of  the  2  terms 
for  the  day  classes  of  30  hours  a  week;  $9  a 
term  for  0  hours  a  week  in  the  evening  classes. 
In  addition  to  the  studios  in  the  main  building 
on  Waterman  Street,  the  department  of  design 
is  located  in  Memorial  Hall  on  Benefit  Street, 
where  there  is  also  a  large  hall  seating  800 
people;  a  generous  gift  of  the  building  at 
35  North  Main  Street  enabled  the  opening  of 
this  building  in  the  fall  of  1909  for  the  machine 
shops,  the  departments  of  jewelry  design,  model- 
ing, and  painting,  the  laboratories  of  tiie  textile 
chemistry  classes,  and  a  large  lecture  room. 

Rochester,  N.Y.  —  The  Department  of  Fine 
and  Applied  Arts  of  the  Mechanics'  htstitute 
occupies  the  Bevier  Memorial  building,  erected 
in  1908.  There  are  about  300  students,  under 
8  teachers.  The  courses  include  the  aca- 
demic branches,  architecture,  decorative  and 
costume  design,  and  normal  classes.  The  fees 
are  $26  a  term,  with  3  terms  of  3  months 
each.  There  are  4  scholarships,  and  several 
small  prizes.  Lectures  are  given  and  exhibi- 
tions are  held  from  time  to  time. 

Saint  Paul,  Minn.,  In.ttitute  School  of  Art  is 
the  outgrowth  of  a  class  in  china  painting  organized 
in  1890  by  a  group  of  women.  In  1894  it  was 
incorporated  under  the  name  of  the  St.  Paul 
School  of  Fine  Arts,  and  when  the  St.  Paul  In- 
stitute of  Arts  and  Sciences  was  incorporated  in 
1908,  it  took  over  the  school.  Rooms  in  the 
auditorium  building  were  leased  from  the  city, 
and  the  school  now  occupies  the  whole  top 
floor  and  a  large  part  of  the  middle  floor.  The 
registration  for  the  year  ending  June,  1909, 
was  375,  with  C  instructors.  There  is  a  general 
■fine  arts  course  and  one  in  design  and  handi- 
craft; the  latter  includes  stenciling,  block 
jjrinting,  pottery,  leather  work,  bookbinding, 
jewelry,  and  metal  work.  The  tuition  fees  are 
from  $30  to  .$50  for  the  year  of  8  months.  There 
are  several  scholarships  and  prizes. 

Saint  Louis,  Mo.,  School  of  Fine  Arts  originated 
in  a  free  evening  draw'ing  class  organized  by 
Hal.sey  C.  Ives  in  1874,  and  was  formally  es- 
tablished as  a  department  of  Washington  Uni- 
versity in  1879  under  the  directorship  of  Pro- 


244 


ART  SCHOOLS 


ARTICULAR  SENSATION 


fessor  Ives.  A  home  for  the  work  was  provided 
through  the  generosity  of  Wayman  Crow,  a 
large  collection  of  casts  was  obtained  from 
Europe,  and  a  loan  collection  of  paintings  was 
shown  when  the  building  was  dedicated  in  1881. 
Following  the  World's  Fair  in  1904  changes  in 
the  organization  have  led  to  the  Citj'  Art 
Museum  being  located  in  Forest  Park,  and  the 
School,  in  the  autumn  of  1909,  moved  to  what 
was  formerly  known  as  the  British  Pavilion, 
now  a  part  of  Washington  University  Grounds. 
The  rooms  which  formed  part  of  the  exhibit 
of  the  British  government  will  be  preserved  m- 
tact,  as  well  as  the  beautiful  formal  garden  on 
which  the  building  faces.  It  is  within  8  minutes' 
walk  of  the  Museum.  The  course  of  instruction 
includes  the  academic  branches;  architectural 
and  mechanical  drawing;  historic  ornament; 
decorative  design  for  textiles,  wall  paper,  etc. ; 
ceramic  decoration ;  molding  and  turning  of  pot- 
tery; bookbinding;  metal  work;  wood  carving. 
There  is  an  extended  lecture  course,  and  work  in 
the  library  is  recjuired.  For  both  the  day  and 
evening  classes  there  are  2  terms  in  the  year. 
Fee  for  fuU  tuition  in  aU  day  classes  $50  for 
each  term  of  IS  weeks. 

San  Francisco.  —  The  California  School  of 
Design  is  managed  by  the  San  Francisco  Insti- 
tute of  Art,  and  is  affiliated  with  the  University 
of  California.  There  are  day  and  evening 
classes  in  the  academic  branches,  and  courses  in 
design  and  normal  art  training  with  a  teaching 
staff  of  9.  The  fees  are  from  812  a  year  for  the 
Saturday  class  to  $75  a  year  for  the  full  course. 

Syracuse,  N.  Y.  —  The  College  of  Fine  Arts 
of  the  Syracuse  University  gives  a  4  years' 
course  in  painting,  2  years'  in  design,  and  a 
special  course  in  illustration.  The  registration 
is  about  150,  and  there  are  6  instructors. 

Worcester,  Mass.  —  The  School  of  the  Worces- 
ter Art  Museum  was  founded  in  1898,  and 
occupies  the  residence  of  the  late  Stephen  Salis- 
bury, the  founder  of  the  Worcester  Art  Museum, 
which  has  been  remodeled  for  school  purposes. 
In  addition  to  the  usual  studies  and  lecture 
rooms,  there  are  shops  for  metal  work,  weaving, 
and  bookbinding.  The  main  building  of  the 
museum  is  near  at  hand,  and  the  pupils  have 
free  access  to  it  for  study,  library  work,  and  ex- 
hibitions. The  course  includes  drawing  and 
painting,  design,  metal  work,  bookbinding, 
weaving,  and  the  history  of  art.  There  is  a 
Wednesday  evening  class  in  design  and  one  on 
Saturday  morning  for  children.  There  are  three 
terms  of  10  weeks  each  and  the  fees  are  $12 
a  term,  or  $30  for  the  full  year.  The  attendance 
for  1909-10  was  114,  and  there  are  4  instructors. 

Art  Museums.  —  Important  factors  in  art 
education  are  the  museums  and  societies  that 
are  constantly  holding  exhibitions.  In  many 
cases  the  art  school  is  directly  associated  with 
the  local  art  museum,  as  at  the  Art  Institute 
of  Chicago,  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  and  others.  At  the  Boston  Museum, 
the  Metropolitan  Museum  in    New  York,  and 


others,  expert  guidance  and  courses  of  lectures 
form  part  of  the  regular  work,  and  information 
about  this  will  be  found  under  the  article  on 
Museums.  In  the  smaller  cities  the  library  is 
the  art  center,  and  many  art  schools  are  located 
in  library  buildings.     (See  Museums.) 

The  object  of  the  older  art  schools  was  the 
academic  training  of  professionals  and  ama- 
teurs in  the  arts  of  drawing,  painting,  and 
sculpture.  Modern  educational  ideas  tend  to 
train  the  craftsman,  the  industrial  art  worker. 
The  older  method  aimed  to  make  painters  of 
easel  pictures  and  carvers  of  ideal  sculpture, 
while  only  if  the  pupil  failed  to  reach  the  desired 
standard  was  his  attention  directed  toward 
the  wide  field  of  the  industrial  arts.  To-day 
the  aim  is  to  develop  among  the  vast  majority 
of  the  people  the  industrial  value  of  good 
craftsmanship  which  comes  from  the  ability  to 
use  hand  and  eye  with  that  knowledge  and  skill 
which  are  derived  from  the  study  of  drawing, 
painting,  and  modeling.  When  here  and  there 
an  unusually  talented  pupil  is  discovered, 
every  possible  opportunity  should  be  given  for 
the  development  of  the  talent.  There  is  also, 
underlying  all  the  instruction,  the  cultivation 
of  an  appreciative  public.  F.  L. 

See  Art  in  the  Schools;  Art,  Methods 
OF  Teaching. 

References:  — 

B.iiLEY,  Henry  Turneb.  Instruction  in  the  Fine  and 
Manual  Arts  in  the  United  Stales.  (Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, Washington,  D.C.,  1909.) 

Clabee,  Isaac  Edwards.  The  Relation  of  Art  to 
Education,  1874,  p.  56  ;  Art  and  Industry,  Part  I, 
Drawing  in  Public  Schools,  1885,  p.  842  ;  Part  11, 
Industrial  and  Manual  Training  in  Public  Schools, 
1892,  p.  13.38;  Part  III,  Industrial  and  Technical 
Training  in  Voluntary  Associations  and  Endowed 
Institutions,  1897,  p.  1145;  Part  IV,  Industrial 
and  Technical  Training  in  Schools  of  Technology 
and  in  United  States  Land  Grant  Colleges,  1898, 
p.  1020.     (Bureau  of  Education,  Washington.  D.C.) 

Haney,  James  Pabton.  Art  Education  in  the  Public 
Schools  of  the  United  States.  (American  Art  An- 
nual, Inc.,  New  York,  1908.) 

Also  the  following  Periodicals  :  — 
American  Art  Annual.     (New  York.) 
Architectural  Record. 
Art  et  Decoration.      (Paris.) 
Burlington  Magazine.      (London.) 
International  Studio.      (London  and  New  York.) 
La  Rassegna  d'Arts.      (Rome.) 
Magazine  of  Art.      (London.) 

Reports  of  the  Proceedings  of  numerous  educational 
bodies. 

ART  MUSEUMS. —  See  Art  Schools; 
Museums. 

ARTICLE.  —  See  Numbers. 

ARTICULAR  SENSATION.  —  When  a  mem- 
ber is  moved  one  is  conscious  of  the  movement. 
This  consciousness  of  the  movement  was  re- 
ferred by  Goldscheider  in  large  part  to  the  joint. 
He  found  that  anaesthesia  of  the  joint  induced  by 
passing  an  electric  current  through  it  decreased 
the  sensitiveness  to  movement.  He  also  con- 
vinced himself  by  direct  experiment  that  the 


245 


ARTICULATION 


ASCHAM 


surfaces  of  the  joints  were  sensitive  to  strong 
stimuli.  It  has  been  (luestioiieii  whether  the 
current  really  ana-sthetizes  the  joint  or  affects 
the  muscles  and  tendons  about  it.  Then,  too, 
no  sense  ends  have  been  discovered  on  the  joint 
surfaces.  Those  skeptical  of  the  existence  of 
an  articular  sensitivity  would  explain  the  ap- 
preciation of  movement  in  terms  of  sense  organs 
in  muscle,  tendon  fasciip,  and  even  in  the  exter- 
nal skin.  W.  B.  P. 

ARTICULATION.  —  This  term  is  employed 
in  edut'ational  discussion  to  designate  the  pro- 
cess of  adjusting  the  work  of  one  tyi)e  of  school 
to  that  of  another,  in  order  to  make  more  effec- 
tive the  transition  of  the  pupil.  Owing  to  their 
independent  origins,  the  transition  from  the 
elementary  school  to  the  secondary  school  is 
especially  difficult.  Subjects  and  methods  of 
instruction  present  new  problems  to  the  student. 
The  result  is  that  a  considerable  number  of  pu- 
pils fail  early  in  their  high  school  career,  owing 
to  what  mav  be  removable  difficulties. 

In  order  to  make  the  transition  less  difficult, 
the  plan  has  been  proposed,  and  occasionally 
carried  out  in  practice,  of  making  the  beginnings 
of  Latin  or  a  modern  language  in  the  upper 
grades  of  the  elementary  school;  developing 
some  work  in  algebra  and  geometry  along  with 
the  arithmetic  of  the  same  grades;  the  applica- 
tion to  the  teaching  of  eighth-grade  literature 
of  some  of  the  methods  employed  in  the  high 
school;  and,  finally,  the  de\-clopment  in  the 
upper  grades  of  departmental  teaching  (q.v.) 
so  as  to  accustom  pupils  to  the  methods  of 
special  teachers.  In  spite  of  various  attempts  in 
tills  direction,  it  still  remains  true  that  the  tran- 
sition involves  considerable  hardship,  and  in 
recent  years  attempts  have  beqn  made,  by 
means  of  elective  subjects  in  the  high  school 
and  by  having  high  school  teachers  study  the 
qualifications  of  elementary  pupils,  to  relieve 
the  situation  from  this  side. 

Similar  difficulties  are  often  found  in  the 
transition  from  secondary  school  to  college, 
less,  however,  owing  to  lack  of  articulation  in 
studies  and  curricula  than  to  change  of  social 
surroundings.  D.  S. 

See  Accredited  Schools;  College;  Col- 
lege Entrance  Requirements;  Flexibility 
IN   the  Gr.\des;  High  Schools. 

References  :  — 
DuTTON     .VND     Snedden.     Aciminislralion     of    Public 
Education  in  the   United   States.     (New  York,   1908.) 
See  chapters  xviii   and  xx,  and  the  references  there 
given. 

ARTS,  SEVEN  LIBERAL.  —  Sec  Liberal 
Arts,  Seven. 

ARYABHATTA.  —  The  first  great  Hindu 
teacher  of  mathematics  whose  works  have  come 
down  to  us.  He  was  born  at  the  ancient  Kusu- 
mapura,  the  City  of  Flowers,  a  little  town  on 
the  Jumma  just  above  its  confluence  with  the 


Ganges,  and  not  far  from  the  present  Patna, 
called  by  the  Mohammedans  Azimabad,  by 
the  ancient  Buddhists  Pataliputra,  and  by  Meg- 
asthenes,  the  ancient  Syrian  ambassador, 
Palibothra,  so  that  Aryabhatta's  birthplace  is 
given  under  these  various  names.  The  date  of 
his  birth  is  476  A.D.,  so  that  his  work  was 
done  early  in  the  sixth  century.  He  wrote  three 
treatises,  the  Arynhhalt'tij,  Daxa-g'itikCi,  and 
AryCiMamla.  The  first  treats  of  arithmetic 
and  algebra,  and  was  probably  the  standard 
text  for  centuries.  It  is  noteworthy  that 
Aryabhatta  gives  the  value  of  t  as  in  our  nota- 
tion 3.1416,  a  remarkable  approximation  for  the 
period.  D.  E.  S. 

ASBURY    COLLEGE,  WILMORE,   KY.  — 

A  coeducational  institution  founded  in  1890  and 
held  in  trust  by  a  boarfl  of  trustees  mostly 
Methodist.  A  model  school,  giving  instruction 
in  common  school  branches,  academic,  college, 
and  theological  departments  are  maintained,  as 
well  as  courses  in  commercial  and  fine  arts  sub- 
jects. The  entrance  requirements,  when  a 
certificate  from  the  academy  or  accredited 
high  schools  is  not  presented,  are  equivalent 
to  about  2  years  of  high  school  work.  In  the 
college  degrees  are  given  on  work  in  the  classi- 
cal, scientific,  and  literary  courses.  The  faculty 
consists  of  5  professors,  3  associate  and  2  assistant 
professors,  and  6  instructors  and  a.ssistants. 
Aaron  S.  Watkins,  LL.D.,  is  the  president. 

ASCHAM,  ROGER  (1515-1568).  —  Son  of 
the  steward  to  Lord  Scrope  of  Bolton,  born 
at  Kirby  Wiske,  near  Northallerton  in  York- 
shire. In  1530,  he  entered  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge.  After  gi'aduating  M.A.  in  1537,  in 
1538  he  was  appointed  Greek  reader  at  St.  John's 
College.  He  was  a  renowned  calligrapher. 
In  1546  he  succeeded  Sir  John  Cheke  as  pul)lic 
orator  in  the  University  of  Candiridge.  He  was 
the  tutor  of  Princess  (afterwards  Queen) 
Elizabeth.  In  1550  he  became  secretary  to  Sir 
Richard  Moryson,  English  amba.ssador  to  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  He  then  traveled  for  two 
years  in  Italy  and  Germany.  In  1553  he  be- 
came Latin  Secretary  to  Queen  Mary.  He 
married  Margaret  Howe  in  1554.  In  1545  ho 
published  his  Toxoplithis,  and  in  1570  his  Srlwle- 
maMer  appeared,  posthumously.  His  other 
works  were  (1)  A  Report  of  the  AJfnirs  and  State 
of  Germany,  1553.  (2)  Some  Latin  poems.  (3) 
Some  theological  tractates.  (4)  His  letters, 
295  in  number,  edited  by  Dr.  Giles  in  the 
Whole  Works  of  Roger  Ascham  (1865). 

The  Toxophilus  (1545)  is  a  noteworthy  work 
for  two  reasons.  Ascham's  advocacy  of  archery 
as  a  pleasant  and  patriotic  form  of  exercise 
places  him  as  a  pioneer  on  educational  physical 
exercise,  as  against  the  ordinary  bookworm 
Renaissance  scholar.  And,  secondly,  Ascham 
uses  his  opportunity  to  educate  with  genuine 
enthusiasm.  He  employs  the  English  language 
in  WTiting  his  book,  rather  than  Latin  or  Greek, 


246 


ASCHAM 


ASHLAND   COLLEGE 


as  he  declares  he  could  readily  have  done.  The 
following  educational  ideas  are  advanced  in  the 
Toxophilus:  shooting  should  be  with  the  bow 
"fit"  for  scholars  and  students,  as  well  as  for 
princes  and  great  men;  youth  ought  to  learn  to 
sing,  but  not  to  get  wrapt  up  in  music ;  no  man 
can  "use"  too  much  shooting;  a  protest  against 
cards  and  dice;  the  importance  of  shootmg  as 
a  recreation  in  training  for  possible  use  in  war. 
He  states  as  a  fundamental  principle  that  in 
learning  anything  (e.g.  in  shooting)  a  man 
"must  covet  to  be  best,  or  else  he  shall  never 
attain  to  be  mean." 

The  Schole master  (1570)  is  Roger  Ascham's 
great  educational  work.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
representative  of  Renaissance  writings  in  Eng- 
land, one  of  the  most  typical  works  of  the  time  in 


f^)  THE  ^ 

g^J  scHOL^^r^fASTsn  ^i^ 

^'^  '■■  '--■■■ 

^^^  Orplainc.vid pcrfitCiWtyoJtc-i-  ;.r/;!;?>5 
Sy*t^  '/"■■*•■''•"  '""•■"  '"'•;?•  I'll  ff!<ui'\  fm-^cfcd'^^A 


dH  (adifdlltiacfcrfot  til!  Littn 

.iii.i  with  ftH^H  l.uj:;t    1.. 
fiffui.rfl  IdUjiitc ,  a:.  :,  ■ 
jtitm  f  nrtte   ,  .i»,./ 
f,-t(v  f-itin. 


cucrAUcri]:.!:'.. 


English  literature  and  one  still  of  real  impor- 
tance in  its  view  of  the  early  teaching  of  the 
classics.  Its  style  is  attractively  quaint  and  spon- 
taneous, and  at  the  same  time  it  is  full  of  com- 
mon sense  as  well  as  of  learning.  It  gives  a 
historical  insight  into  the  social  conditions  of  the 
age,  and  combines  both  descriptive  accounts 
of  actual  teaching  and  of  suggested  reforms. 
The  running  away  from  Eton  College  of  several 
scholars  for  fear  of  a  beating  induces  Ascham 
to  write  his  book  to  plead  for  such  gentleness  in 
tlie  schoolmaster  as  will  inspire  his  pupils'  love. 
Other  points  are  the  nature  of  quick  and  hard 
wits;  of  the  limitations  that  should  be  placed 
on  the  choice  of  those  selected  for  the  higlier 


learning.  Ascham  then  proceeds  to  deal  with 
the  young  gentlemen;  the  too  great  liberty  to 
"live  as  they  lust";  of  their  letting  loose  too 
soon  to  overmuch  experience  of  ill;  of  the 
gathering  of  wit  and  fortune  by  the  method  of 
experience  compared  with  the  method  of  learn- 
ing, showing  that  the  school  of  experience  is 
very  costly;  and  lastly  of  the  journcyings  of 
young  Englishmen  into  Catholic  countries  as 
very  hazardous,  and  ordinarily  attended  with 
more  harm  than  good. 

Ascham  is  particularly  well  known  by  his 
double  translation  method  of  learning  Latin. 
The  steps  are:  (1)  the  master  construes  a  pas- 
sage to  the  pupil  as  often  as  the  pupil  needs; 
he  also  parses  it  over  "perfectly" ;  the  pupil  then 
construes  it  orally,  and  is  tested  to  see  that  he 
"doubteth  in  nothing";  (2)  the  pupil  next  trans- 
lates the  same  passage,  writing  it  out  in  a  paper 
book.  This  the  master  examines,  corrects,  and 
returns.  (3)  After  an  interval  of  "an  hour  at 
the  least,"  the  pupil  translates  back  his  own 
corrected  English  rendering  into  Latin  in  a 
second  paper  book.  Then  the  master  is  to 
compare  the  pupil's  Latin  with  the  original, 
and  when  the  right  words  and  true  construction 
and  learning  of  words  are  given,  to  say  "Here 
ye  do  well."  If  the  pupil  has  "missed"  in, 
say,  a  passage  of  Cicero,  let  the  master  point  out 
what  Cicero  would  have  done  differently  from 
the  pupil's  performance. 

Thus  exercised  in  the  double  translation  from 
Latin  to  English,  and  from  English  to  Latin, 
the  pupil's  observation  is  to  be  exercised  to  note, 
in  a  third  paper  book,  synonymous  terms,  meta- 
phors, phrases,  and  so  on.  Grammar  is  thus 
entirely  subordinated  to  classical  literature. 
Ascham  interestingly  discusses  the  contempo- 
rary methods  of  teaching  by  paraphrases,  meta- 
phrases, epitome,  imitation,  and  declamation, 
and  offers  suggestions  as  to  reading  of  authors. 
In  the  course  of  the  Scholcmaster  passages  of 
historical  interest  and  literary  style  occur  when 
he  speaks  of  educational  topics  connected  with 
Lady  Jane  Grey  and  Queen  Elizabeth.  Queen 
Elizabeth  —  in  return  —  is  reported  to  have 
said  on  hearing  of  Ascham's  death  that  she 
"would  rather  have  thrown  ten  thousand  pounds 
into  the  sea  than  have  lost  her  Ascham." 

F.  W. 
References:  — • 
Arber,  E.     Reprint  of  the  Toxophilvs.     (Westminster, 

1903.) 
Benndorf,    Cornelie.      Die    englische   Padagogik    im 
16  Jahrhunderl  (Elyot,  Ascham,  Mulcaster).   (Wien 
and  Leipzig.  1905.) 
Coleridge,  Habtlet.     Life  of  Ascham  in  Worthies  oj 

Yorkshire. 
Holzamer,  J.     Der  Schulmeister.     (Wien,  1881.) 
K.iTTERFELD,  Alfred.     Roger  Ascham;  Sein  Leben  und 

seine  Werke.     (.Strassburg,  1879.) 
L.\urie,   S.   S.     Educatiotinl  Opinion  from   the  Renais- 
sance, pp.  58-85.      (Cambridge,   1904.) 
M.iYOR,  J.  E.  B.      The  Schoolmaster.      (London,  1863.) 

ASHLAND  COLLEGE.  ASHLAND,  OHIO. 

—  A  coeducational  institution  founded  in  1S78 
and  incorporated  in  1S8S  as  the  Asliland  Uni- 


247 


ASS'S  BRIDGE 


ASSOCIATION 


versity,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Conference 
of  the  Bretliren  Church.  There  arc  no  defi- 
nite entrance  reciuirements.  Preparatory,  nor- 
mal, coUege,  theological,  commercial,  and  line 
arts  departments  are  maintained.  Degrees  are 
given  on  completion  of  the  necessarj-  courses. 
There  are  11  professors  and  4  instructors  on 
the  faculty.  John  Lewis  Gillin,  B.D.,  Ph.D.,  is 
the  president. 

ASS'S  BRIDGE.  —  Or  pons  affinorum,  a 
term  applied  l)y  I'.nglish  and  American  mathe- 
maticians to  the  fifth  proposition  in  the  first 
book  of  Euclid.  When  the  term  arose  is  not 
known,  but  probably  at  a  late  period.  The 
origin  of  the  term  is  also  open  to  doubt.  By 
some  it  is  thought  to  have  arisen  from  the 
difficulties  which  the  fifth  proposition  presented 
to  beginners.  Probably,  however,  the  figure 
used  by  Euclid  to  illustrate  the  proposition, 
from  its  resemblance  to  a  bridge,  gave  rise  to 
the  term.  The  French  mathematicians  refer  the 
term  to  the  Pythagorean  proposition.  (Eu- 
chd  I,  47.) 

ASSEMBLY  ROOMS.  — See  Architecture, 
School. 

ASSER.  —  See  Alfred  the  Great,  and  An- 
GLo-S.\xox  Education. 

ASSIGNMENT.  —  A  special  portion  of  the 
lesson  period,  usually  at  the  close,  in  which  the 
assignment  work  is  made  for  the  ne.xt  day.  As 
a  typeof  teaching  activityit  issometimesspoken 
of  as  an  "assignment  lesson,"  inasmuch  as  con- 
siderable care  and  time  is  given  to  presenting 
the  problem  to  be  solved  by  the  child,  preparing 
his  mind  for  the  work  to  be  done,  and  suggesting 
the  materials,  observations,  books,  maps,  etc., 
which  he  is  to  utilize.  In  a  sense,  the  "assign- 
ment" represents  the  stage  of  "preparation"  in 
a  lesson  which  the  pupil  is  to  continue  at  home, 
without  the  supervision  of  the  teacher.     H.  S. 

See  Teaching,  Types  of;  Lesson  Types. 

ASSIMILATION.  —  Used  in  technical  psy- 
chology to  describe  a  phase  of  perception  where- 
by present  experiences  are  related  to  earlier 
experiences  and  so  modified  as  to  conform  in 
character  to  the  earlier  experiences.  Thus 
if  one  hears  a  sound  and  by  a  process  of  associ- 
ation relates  it  to  a  word  which  is  famihar  in 
his  experience,  the  present  sound  will  take  on  a 
form  similar  to  the  earlier  sound,  even  though  its 
present  form  may  be  somewhat  different.  This 
appears  most  clearly  when  we  misunderstand  a 
word  by  virtue  of  the  modification  of  the  present 
sound  through  earlier  experiences.        C.  H.  J. 

References :  — 
WuxDT.     Outlines  of  Psychology,   tr.  by   C.   H.  Judd. 
(Leipzig,  1S97.) 


ASSISTANT    TEACHER. —  See    Teacher, 
Assistant. 


ASSOCLATION.  —  The  term  and  fact  of 
association  has  i)layed  an  important  part  in  the 
explanation  of  the  mental  operations  from  the 
time  when  mental  processes  first  attracted 
notice.  Briefly  stated,  association  is  an  attempt 
to  explain  the  order  of  ideas  in  terms  of  tlie 
connections  established  by  earlier  exi)eriencing 
of  the  same  ideas  or  of  the  objects  to  which  the 
ideas  are  referred.  Four  laws  of  recall  have 
been  generally  accepted.  There  is  some 
warrant  for  the  statement  that  Aristotle  origi- 
nally formulated  them,  but  they  were  given 
their  wide  acceptance  by  the  English  Associa- 
tionist  school  from  Hume  to  Alill  and  Bain. 
The  laws  assert  that  ideas  succeed  each 
other  in  consciousness  if  the  objects  that  they 
represent  have  been  (a)  perceived  together 
(association  by  contiguity),  or  (6)  in  imme- 
diate succession  (association  by  succession), 
or  (c)  are  similar  (association  by  similarity),  or 
((/)  contrast  with  each  other  (association  liy 
contrast).  These  laws  correspond  to  the 
actual  observation  of  the  course  of  thought, 
but  recently  there  has  been  very  general 
skepticism  as  to  whether  they  afford  any  ex- 
planation of  the  succession  of  ideas.  Very  evi- 
dently the  laws  of  contiguity  and  succession  are 
on  a  different  level  from  the  laws  of  similarity 
and  contrast.  Contiguity  and  succession  are 
easily  established  and  definite;  similarity  and 
contrast  are  of  varying  degrees  and  uncertain. 
It  is  much  easier,  too,  to  see  how  the  first  two 
factors  should  exert  an  actual  influence  than 
the  latter  two.  The  difference  between  the  two 
groups  was  recognized  by  the  associationists  in 
that  they  made  the  one  explain  the  more 
mechanical  connections  while  the  more  rational 
mental  processes  were  explained  by  similarity. 

The  recent  discussions  of  association  have 
shifted  the  emphasis  from  description  to  expla- 
nation. Not  the  order  of  ideas  superficially 
regarded,  but  the  underlying  causes  of  the  suc- 
cession, have  been  prominent.  Consequently 
the  nervous  basis  of  association  has  had  large 
place,  for  at  present  ideas  are  not  regarded  as 
persistent  entities  in  themselves.  What  per- 
sists is  the  potentiality  or  tendency  to  act  of 
the  nerve  cells  at  the  basis  of  the  idea.  Sher- 
rington and  his  school  refer  the  association  to 
some  change  in  the  contact  of  end-brush  and 
dendrite  of  the  neurone  that  they  call  the 
synapse.  Association  would  be  defined  as  a 
change  in  the  synapse  T\Tought  by  the  simul- 
taneous or  successive  action  of  thetwo neurones. 
Since  every  idea  is  really  very  complex,  many 
cells  and  many  synapses  would  be  involved 
in  each.  On  the  accepted  theory  the  forma- 
tion of  associations  would  consist  in  some 
change  in  the  synapses  of  two  neurones  or 
groups  of  neurones,  and  the  process  of  recalling 
one  idea  would  be  to  have  one  of  the  two 
groups  excited,  which  would  lead  to  the  transfer 
of  the  excitation  across  the  synapse  to  the 
other  neurone.  When  the  word  "  apple " 
suggests    "  tree/'  it  would  be  explained  that 


248 


ASSOCIATION 


ASSOCIATION 


the  neurones  that  were  concerned  in  hearing 
the  two  words  had  become  connected  at  tlieir 
synapses  through  frequent  use  in  succession,  and 
that  nowwhen  the  cell  corresponding  to"  apple  " 
was  excited,  the  excitation  spread  to  the  other 
cell  that  corresponded  to  "  tree." 

These  more  fundamental  explanations  of 
association  have  made  it  necessary  to  distin- 
guish even  more  sharply  than  the  earlier  theorists 
between  association  by  contiguity  and  succes- 
sion and  association  tiy  similarity  or  contrast. 
Simultaneous  or  successive  action  of  two  neu- 
rones can  easily  be  understood  to  produce  a 
change  in  the  synapse  that  would  make  one 
recall  the  other,  but  no  direct  change  of  the 
kind  can  be  ascribed  to  similarity  or  to  con- 
trast as  such.  Two  general  ways  have  been 
followed  to  dispose  of  associations  by  similarity 
and  contrast.  One,  advocated  by  Ebbinghaus 
among  others,  would  argue  that  similar  and 
more  particularly  contrasting  ideas  are  asso- 
ciated, not  because  they  contrast  or  are  similar, 
but  because  the  objects  that  were  similar  or 
contrasted  have  also  been  at  some  time  contigu- 
ous or  have  succeeded  each  other.  Light 
and  dark,  for  example,  contrast,  but  they  recall 
each  other  on  this  theory  because  they  are 
frequently  associated  in  perception,  not  because 
of  the  contrast.  Wundt  and  James,  among 
others,  explain  association  by  similarity  as  due 
to  the  presence  of  identical  elements  that 
account  at  once  for  the  recall  through  contiguity 
and  for  the  fact  that  the  ideas  that  recall  one 
another  are  similar.  Both  men  rest  their  inter- 
pretation upon  the  fact  that  while  the  object 
is  regarded  as  a  unit,  the  idea  that  represents  it 
must  be  thought  of  as  composed  of  a  number 
of  different  units,  or  at  least  that  many  neurones 
must  be  active  when  the  idea  is  in  mind. 
Association  between  ideas  that  are  seen  to  be 
similar  when  examined  after  they  have  been  in 
consciousness  are  recalled  not  because  they  are 
similar,  but  because  they  have  in  common  some 
group  of  elements  that  constitute  a  center 
about  which  the  ideas  may  be  said  to  disappear 
and  reappear.  Many  of  the  elements  of  the 
first  idea  disappear,  leaving  only  this  center, 
and  the  center  itself  recalls  other  elements 
with  which  it  has  been  earlier  a.ssociated  and 
these  with  it  constitute  the  recalled  idea. 
On  the  nervous  side  this  means  that  many  of 
the  mass  of  neurones  originally  excited  cease 
to  act,  that  certain  ones  persist,  and  that  the 
excitation  spreads  from  them  over  the  synapses 
prepared  by  earlier  connections  to  other 
neurones  that  have  also  been  excited  simul- 
taneously with  them  at  some  earlier  time. 
Since  certain  of  the  elements  in  the  two  masses 
are  common,  the  two  ideas  will  be  similar. 
Wundt  calls  association  of  this  kind  "association 
by  "identity ";  James  gives  the  process  the  name 
of  "  focalized  recall."  Bradley  uses  the  term 
"associative  redintegration."  Whatever  the 
name  assigned,  and  whether  we  agree  that  the 
process  is  or  is  not  identical  with  the  associa- 


tion by  similarity  of  the  older  school,  there  can 
certainly  be  no  doubt  that  the  greater  number 
of  associations  actually  observed  are  of  this 
sort. 

One  important  difficulty  with  the  doctrine 
of  association  of  the  older  theorists  that  has 
been  recognized  more  and  more  recently  is  that 
the  mental  operations  are  more  variafjle  than 
the  theories  would  admit.  Strictly  applied, 
there  could  be  but  one  association  that  is  most 
strongly  connected  with  any  other,  and  this 
should  follow  the  other  invariablj\  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  weaker  associations  are  contin- 
ually gaining  the  mastery  over  the  stronger; 
ideas  frequently  associated  are  often  subor- 
dinated to  those  that  have  been  seldom  con- 
nected with  the  inciting  idea.  The  older 
writers  made  a  place  for  this  by  making  asso- 
ciations by  similarity  more  flexible  than  asso- 
ciation by  contiguity  or  succession.  Rational 
connections  were  grouped  under  similarity, 
the  mechanical  connections  under  the  two  first 
heads.  In  the  modern  discussions  the  selec- 
tion of  one  from  the  many  possible  a.ssociates  is 
made  to  depend  either  upon  an  arbitrary  force 
that  is  called  the  "self,"  "will,"  or,  by  Wundt, 
"  apperception,"  or  is  referred  to  the  wider  rela- 
tions of  the  idea  to  other  ideas  and  considera- 
tions that  may  be  present  at  the  moment. 
Watt  and  the  Kiilpe  school,  for  example, 
find  the  controlling  influence  in  the  task  of  the 
moment,  in  the  general  purpose;  others  call 
the  control  from  the  wider  setting  the  "  attitude  " 
or  the  cortical  set.  Whatever  we  call  it,  or  how- 
ever it  may  be  explained  in  the  last  analysis, 
it  is  now  a  matter  of  general  agreement  that 
most  associations  are  to  be  explained  in  large 
part  by  mental  states  that  are  wider  than  the 
immediately  preceding  idea,  and  that  this 
wider  control  accounts  for  the  flexibility  of 
association  and  for  the  adaptability  to  particu- 
lar conditions.  Not  the  state  of  the  single 
synapse,  but  the  activity  of  wide  areas  of  the 
cortex;  not  the  condition  of  the  neurones  at 
the  immediate  moment,  but  the  activity  of 
the  nervous  system  over  considerable  periods, 
determines  the  final  outcome  of  the  associations. 

As  one  would  expect  from  the  many  changes 
in  point  of  view,  there  have  been  many  different 
classifications  of  associations.  Some  of  the 
more  important  may  be  mentioned  and  re- 
ferred to  the  general  outline  given  above. 
Wundt,  for  example,  distinguishes  associations 
between  elements  from  the  same  sense  depart- 
ment from  elements  derived  from  different 
senses.  The  former  he  calls  assimilatioijs, 
the  latter,  after  Herbart,  complications.  Assimi- 
lations are  found  most  frequently  in  illusions 
or  in  normal  perceptions.  The  contributions 
of  the  senses  are  supplemented  by  memories 
from  the  same  sense  to  constitute  the  object 
seen.  Complications  are  found  in  the  supple- 
menting of  tactual  impressions  by  visual  impres- 
sions, as  when  one  feels  an  object  in  the 
dark.     Other  classifications  emphasize  the  dif- 


249 


ASSOCIATION 


ASSOCIATION   INSTITUTE 


ference  between  the  mechanically  determined 
and  the  more  rationally  determined  associations 
that  we  have  seen  to  grow  out  of  tiie  entire 
appreciation  of  the  situation.  Two  of  the 
more  common  classifications  are  into  external 
and  internal  associations,  or  into  divergent  and 
convergent  associations.  The  former  is  used 
more  widely  by  psychiatrists.  The  flight  of 
ideas  of  a  maniac,  or  the  substitution  of  a  word 
with  strong  associations  but  without  meaning  in 
the  context  for  another  that  should  logically 
follow  it  are  instances  of  external  association; 
the  associations  of  orderly  thinking  arc  due  to 
internal  associations.  "Divergent"  and  "con- 
vergent "  are  used  by  Sully  and  others  in  place  of 
"external "  and  'internal."  Divergent  associa- 
tions spread  from  the  initial  word  and  depend 
upon  that  word  alone;  convergent  associates 
come  from  the  word  plus  other  elements  of  ex- 
perience which  converge  upon  the  resulting 
idea  to  assist  in  arousing  it.  W.  B.  P. 

References:  — 
Ferri,    Louis.     La   psychologic  de  I'associalion  depuia 

Hnhhcsjusgii'd  nos  jours;  histoire  el  critique.    (Paris, 

1883.) 
J.\ME8.  W.     Psychology.     (New  York,  1904.) 
W'u-VDT,  W.    Outlines  of  Psychology,  tr.  by  C.  H.  Judd. 

(Leipzig,   1897.) 

ASSOCIATION. —  The  second  of  the  four 
steps  of  the  recitation  or  inductive  develop- 
ment lesson  as  originally  suggested  by  Hcrbart. 
By  the  step  of  association,  Herbart  meant  to 
intlicate  the  stage  in  which  the  various  particu- 
lars or  details  are  associated  through  the  dis- 
covery of  common  qualities.  In  present  ter- 
minology it  is  the  step  of  "comparison  and 
abstraction." 

See  Recit.\tion',  Method  of. 

ASSOCIATION    AND    REPRODUCTION 

OF  IDEAS.  —  See  Associ.^tion. 

ASSOCIATION  OF  CATHOLIC  COLLEGES 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  —  Organized 
in  Chicago  in  1899  under  the  guidance  of  Right 
Reverend  Monsignor  Thomas  J.  Conety,  D.D., 
rector  of  the  Catholic  University.  The  pur- 
poses of  the  association  are  to  study  the  ques- 
tions connected  with  college  education,  to 
advance  the  unification  of  system  of  Catholic 
education,  and  to  strive  toward  a  larger  devel- 
opment of  college  work.  Representatives  from 
53  colleges  joined  in  the  first  organization  of 
the  association.  The  association  now  includes 
about  90  colleges,  conducted  chiefly  by  religious 
teaching  orders  of  men  as  follows:  Augustinians, 
Benedictines,  Capuchins,  Carmelites,  Order 
of  Charity,  Christian  Brothers,  Franciscans, 
Franciscan  Brothers,  Holy  Cross,  Holy  Ghost, 
Jesuits,  IMarists,  Society  of  Mary,  Precious 
Blood,  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Saint 
Viateur,  Vincentians,  and  the  Zaverian 
Brothers.  The  colleges  of  this  group  range 
from  classical  to  commercial  institutions  created 
to  meet  the  demands  of  those  destined  for  the 


priesthood,  the  learned  professions,  and  busi- 
ness careers.  No  uniformity  of  entrance 
standards  exists. 

See  CoN\-ENT  Schools;  Religious  Teach- 
ing Orders;    Monastic  Schools;  etc. 

ASSOCIATION  OF  COLLEGES  AND 
PREPARATORY  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  MID- 
DLE    STATES     AND     MARYLAND. —This 

organization  has  developed  by  successive  stages 
from  an  organization  of  college  teachers, 
founded  in  LSSS,  into  an  important  body 
representing  college  and  secondary  school 
interests;  only  approved  schools  are  admitted 
to  membership.  At  its  annual  meetings  (in 
the  Thanksgiving  holidays)  are  discussed 
topics  bearing  on  the  relations  of  bodies 
of  colleges  and  the  secondary  schools;  the 
speakers  selected  represent  the  college  and 
the  school  point  of  view.  The  presiding  officer 
is  in  alternate  years  a  college  professor  or  a 
school  princijial.  The  proceedings  published 
annually  contain  notable  utterances  on  vital 
educational  i-ssucs;  in  them  may  be  traced  the 
inception  and  progress  of  important  educa- 
tional measures.  Thus  the  College  Entrance 
Examination  Board,  which  in  19()9  examined 
by  a  uniform  system  over  3400  candidates  for 
admission  to  college,  originated  in  the  counsels 
of  the  Association,  to  which  it  owes  its  present 
influence.  Similarly  the  Association  has  co- 
operated through  committees  with  other  or- 
ganizations in  unifying  and  strengthening  the 
college  entrance  requirements  in  English; 
from  the  Association  have  sprung  several 
adjunct  societies,  that  meet  as  sections  of  the 
parent  society,  e.g.  A  History  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation, and  a  Classical  Teachers'  Association. 

J.  S. 
See      College      Entrance      Examination 
Boards. 

Reference:  — 

Sachs,  .Itlius.  Historic  Sketch  of  the  Association 
of  Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools  of  the  Middle 
Stales  and  Maryland,  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  same 
for  1908. 

ASSOCIATION  OF  COLLEGES  AND 
PREPARATORY  SCHOOLS  OF  THE 
SOUTHERN  STATES. —Sec  College  Ex- 
amination AND  Certification  Boards. 

ASSOCIATION  OF  COLLEGIATE  ALUM- 
NAE.—  See   Women,  Higher    Education   of. 


ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS. 

TION. 


-  See  Associa- 


ASSOCIATION  INSTITUTE,  CHICAGO, 
ILL.  —  A  day  and  evening  school  for  men 
and  boys  conducted  by  the  Central  Department 
of  the  Y.M.C.A.  (q.v.)  and  organized  in  1893. 
The  range  of  work  offered  is  from  elementary 
to  collegiate  grade.  Its  evening  school  is  one  of 
the  largest  in  the  country,  and  in   1908-1909 


2.50 


ASSOCIATIONS 


ASSYRO-BABYLONIANS 


80  or  more  classes  were  conducted,  while  the 
enrollment  was  1149  students.  In  the  same 
year,  the  day  classes,  which  were  begun  in 
1896,  enrolled  414  students.  The  Institute 
frankly  aims  at  being  supplementarj'  to  other 
schools  and  to  give  the  student  what  he  needs. 
Business,  college  preparatory,  and  technical 
courses  are  the  most  important  of  those  offered. 
The  certificates  of  this  institute  are  recognized 
by  many  colleges,  universities,  and  professional 
institutions.  No  students  are  admitted  under 
15  years  of  age.  A  summer  school  for  grammar 
school  boys  and  an  English  school  for  those 
who  have  not  completed  the  grammar  schools 
are  also  provided.  J.  Goodwin  Perkins  is  the 
educational  director. 

ASSOCIATIONS.  —  See  Educational  As- 
sociations;   Teachers'  Associations. 

ASSOCIATIONS,  SCIENTIFIC  — See  Sci- 
entific Associations. 

ASSOCIATIONS,      TEACHERS'.    —    See 

Teachers'  Associations. 

ASSOCIATIONS,  TEACHERS'  VOLUN- 
TARY. —  See  Teachers'  Associations. 

ASSUMPTION  COLLEGE,  SANDWICH, 
ONT.  —  A  Catholic  school  established  in 
1857  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  but  which  has 
successively  passed  into  the  control  of  the 
Benedictines  and  Basilians,  who  now  have 
charge.  Preparatory,  classical,  and  commercial 
departments  are  maintained.  The  classical 
course  is  one  of  7  years.  Rev.  F.  Forster, 
C.S.B.,    is    the    president. 

ASSYRO-BABYLONIANS,  THE  EDUCA- 
TION OF  THE.  — Inasmuch  as  the  civiliza- 
tion of  the  Assyro-Babylonians  was  based,  even 
more  than  that  of  other  peoples  of  antiquity, 
upon  the  quality  and  extent  of  their  learning,  an 
exhaustive  paper  on  this  subject  should  neces- 
sarily cover  in  detail  the  entire  field  of  their 
national  culture,  besides  embracing  such  ma- 
terial as  might  be  at  hand  regarding  their  ped- 
agogic methods.  As  such  a  presentation  in 
extenso  is  obviously  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
present  treatise,  it  must  suffice  here  merely  to 
touch  very  briefly,  first,  upon  the  scope  and 
quality  of  the  Assyro-Babylonian  learning,  and 
secondly,  upon  its  extent  among  and  influence 
upon  the  various  classes  of  the  people  of  Assyro- 
Babj'lonia,  who,  for  our  purposes  at  least,  may 
be  looked  upon  as  a  single  nation,  because,  dur- 
ing the  whole  period  of  their  history,  either  one 
or  the  other  of  these  two  kindred  powers  held 
the  Semitic  hegemony  of  Western  Asia. 

It  may  now  be  regarded  as  an  established 
thesis  that  the  primitive  civilization  of  Baby- 
lonia (the  mother  of  the  subsequent  Assyro- 
Babylonian  culture)  was  not  Semitic,  but  that 


it  was  the  product  of  that  non-Aryan,  non- 
Semitic,  linguistically  agglutinative  race  of 
people,  whom  we  now  agree  to  designate  as 
"  Sumerians,"  ■  who  were  undoubtedly  the 
founders  of  the  cuneiform  or  wedge  writing, 
in  which  in  later  daj's  arose  the  vast  treasury 
of  the  Assyro-Babylonian  Semitic  literature. 
All  primitive  education,  or  civilization,  for  the 
terms  are  really  synonymous  in  relation  to  an- 
cient times,  was  mainly  dependent  upon  the 
character  of  the  system  of  writing  upon  which 
it  was  based.  It  is  clear  that  the  cuneiform 
system  of  writing  originated  as  a  lineal  picture 
writing,  scratched  at  first  upon  stone  and  later 
upon  clay,  each  sign  having  primitively  been 
the  picture  of  an  object,  which  sign  was  later 
conventionalized  as  the  writing  became  more 
cursive.  To  each  such  sign  picture  was  attrib- 
uted as  a  syllabic  value  the  Sumerian  word, 
practically  always  monosyllabic,  denoting  the 
object  represented  by  the  picture.  Thus,  to 
the  sign  for  "  water,"  which  was  originally  the 
picture  of  a  falling  stream,  was  assigned  the 
value  a,  which  was  the  Sumerian  word  for 
"  water,"  and  when,  in  later  times,  the  invad- 
ing Semites  adopted  the  Sumerian  characters, 
they  used  the  sign  with  the  sound  a,  quite  irre- 
spective of  its  meaning  in  Sumerian  as  "  water," 
in  order  to  denote  the  same  sound  a,  wherever 
it  occurred  in  the  Semitic  Assyro-Babylonian 
language.  In  other  words,  the  original  mono- 
syllabic Sumerian  words  came  to  serve  as  simple 
syllable  values,  to  spell  out  Semitic  vocables  syl- 
labically.  This  system  naturally  soon  de- 
veloped into  a  regular  syllabary,  consisting  of 
such  values  as  ba,  ab,  da,  ad,  etc.,  but  never 
into  a  consonantal  and  vocalic  alphabet,  such 
as  we  use  to-day.  Then,  as  the  necessity  for 
abbre\iated  writing  became  apparent  to  the 
cuneiform  scribes,  they  complicated  still  further 
their  method  of  recording  by  frequently  adopt- 
ing the  original  Sumerian  idea  sign,  or  ideo- 
graph, as  it  is  now  called,  and  pronouncing  it 
with  the  corresponding  Semitic  word.  Thus, 
in  the  case  of  the  water  sign,  pronounced  in 
Sumerian  a,  if  the  Semitic  scribe  wished  to 
write  "  water "  more  expeditiously,  he  used 
the  Sumerian  a  sign  =  "  water,"  but  pro- 
nounced it  in  Semitic  im'i  "  water,"  rather 
than  spell  it  out  syllabicall3^  mu-u.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  scribe  was  at  perfect  liberty 
to  use  the  Sumerian  water  sign,  with  the 
value  a,  in  spelling  out  phonetically  any 
Semitic  word  which  contained  that  value.  An 
AssjTo-Babylonian  reader,  consequently,  had 
always  to  ask  himself  whether  the  signs  were 
being  used  ideographically,  or  merely  phoneti- 
cally; a  circumstance  which  materially  com- 
plicated the  difficulties  of  cuneiform  reading. 
With  a  system  of  writing  which  embodied,  be- 
sides   the    ninety    simple    syllabic  signs,    some 


'  On  the  Sumerian  Lmguage,  cf .  J.  Dyncley  Prince , 
Materials  for  a  Sumerian  Lexicon,  .T.  C.  Hinrichs'scfie 
Buchhandiung,  Leipzig,  190S,  pp.  VII-XXXIV. 


251 


ASSYRO-BABYLONIANS 


ASSYRO-BABYLONIANS 


12,200  possible  ideographic  combinations,'  it  is 
most  .surprisiiiK  tliat  such  an  elaborate  litera- 
ture, both  religious  and  secular,  should  have 
been  developed  by  this  remarkable  people. 

Their  religious  hterature  embraced  a  large 
amount  of  devotional  ritual,  such  as  psalms, 
hymns,  anil  i)rayers  to  the  various  gods,  usually 
written  in  both  Sumerian  (first  line)  and  Semitic 
(second  line),  which  were  employed  in  the 
worship  of  the  different  temples.-  Besides 
the.se,  they  recorded  a  number  of  historically 
important  religious  and  semi-religious  legends, 
the  most  noteworthy  of  which  are  the  Creation 
Story  ^  and  the  so-called  Nimrod  Epic,'  em- 
bodying their  Deluge  account,  which  is  strik- 
ingly similar  to  that  of  the  Hebrew  Old  Testa- 
ment. Important  also  were  the  Adapa  and 
the  Zu  stories;  both  of  them  complicated 
nature-myths.*  All  these  legends  are  highly 
valuable  to-day  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
study  of  the  development  of  religious  thought, 
as  showing  that  the  Assyro-Babylonians 
evolved,  during  the  three  thousand  years  of 
their  national  growth,  a  very  well-ordered 
religious  system. 

A  further  branch  of  this  their  religious  ac- 
tivity was  also,  undoubtedly,  their  evolution  of 
an  elaborate  system  of  astronomical  observa- 
tions, which  they,  of  course,  used  chiefly  for 
astrological  purposes,  many  of  which  records 
we  find  carefully  inscribed  in  the  cuneiform 
literature."  Indeed,  the  early  Babylonian  and 
Assyrian  astronomical  facts,  particularly  regard- 
ing the  grouping  of  the  constellations,  which 
they  believed  augured  good  or  ill  for  mankind, 
form  the  basis  of  all  later  astronomical  work. 
For  example,  in  connection  with  their  astro- 
nomical and  astrological  activity,  they  estab- 
lished the  seven-day  week,  and  also  worked 
out  the  basis  of  ordinary  mathematical  reckon- 
ing, founded  at  first  upon  the  sexagesimal,  and 

'  For  an  inductive  textbook  for  beginners  in  Assyrian, 
cf.  J.  Dynclcy  Prince,  Assyrian  Primer,  Columtua 
University  Press,  1909. 

2  A  large  number  of  these  hymns  and  psalms  has 
already  been  published  in  various  European  languages 
by  Messrs.  Thureau-Dangin,  Zimmcrn,  Bczold,  Lang- 
don,  Vanderburgh,  Prince,  and  other  Assyriologists. 
The  student  should  consult  the  recent  files  of  the 
Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  the  American 
Journal  of  Semitic  Languages,  the  Journal  Asiatique,  the 
Zeitsehrift  fiir  Assyriohgie,  and  the  Wiener  Zeitsehrift  fur 
Kunde  (les  M orgcnlandcs :  also  F.  A.  Vanderburgh, 
Sumeriun  Hi/mns,  Columbia  University  Press,  1908. 

»Cf.  L.  W.  King,  The  Seven  Tablets  of  Creation, 
Luzac,  London,  1902. 

*  Cf.  Paul  Haupt's  text,  das  Bahylonische  Nimrodepos, 
1891,  and  partial  translation,  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity Circulars,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  G9,  pp.  17-18;  also  in 
Beitrdge  zur  scniiti^chen  Sprachwissenschaft,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
122  ff.  See  also  P.  Jensen,  Die  Kosmologie  der  Babylonicr, 
pp.  36S  ff.  On  the  recently  discovered  Deluge  fragment, 
edited  by  H.  V.  Hilprecht  with  translation  in  the 
Babylonian  Expedition  of  the  L^niversity  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Vol.  V,  No.  1,  .see  the  re\new  by  J.  Dynelcy 
Prince  and  F.  .\.  Vanderburgh  in  the  .July  number  of 
the  American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages,  1910. 

*  See  Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria  (English  edition).  Index,  s.v.  ".A.dapa  "  and  "Zu." 

"  Cf.  Virolleaud,  L'Astrologie  Chaldeenne,  Paris,  1908- 
1909  ;  C.  Fossey,  La  Magie  Assyrienne,  Paris,  1902. 


later  upon  the  decimal,  system,  of  which  they 
were  the  inventors,  so  that  in  a  sense  we  may 
look  upon  them  as  having  been  the  fathers  both 
of  astronomy  and  of  mathematics  in  general. 

Then,  too,  as  the  Assyro-Babylonian  political 
influence  extended  practically  all  over  the 
nearer  East,  they  became  great  traders,  both 
at  home  and  abroad,  and  accordingly  evolved 
a  system  of  keeping  accounts,  which,  consider- 
ing the  difficulty  of  their  writing  and  the  perish- 
able nature  of  their  writing  material  (usually 
baked  clay),  is  little  short  of  marvelous. 
Their  alluvial  land,  especially  in  Babylonia, 
supplied  them  with  little  or  no  stone.  Both 
the  temple  and  the  private  accounts  and  con- 
tracts, thousands  of  specimens  of  which,  pre- 
served on  cylinders  and  tablets,  some  of  th("m 
encased  in  clay  envelopes,  have  come  down  to 
us,  bear  witness  of  their  immense  commerce 
and  business  activity.'  They  also  very  natu- 
rally evolved  a  system  of  law,  based  both 
upon  their  religion  and  their  commerce,  which 
was  certainly  not  equaled  in  later  days  even 
by  the  Hebrews.  The  now  famous  laws  of  the 
Babylonian  King  Hammurabi  (2342-22S8  B.C.) 
form  a  master  monument  of  the  legal  acumen 
and  sense  of  justice  of  these  highly  civilized 
ancient  peoples. 

Finally,  in  this  connection,  their  royal  and 
governmental  epistolary  literature,'-  such  as 
correspondence  between  kings  and  governors, 
and  their  carefully  kept  reign  records,  the 
events  of  each  year  being  tabulated  according 
to  their  proper  sequence,  gave  them  an  im- 
mense purely  historical  collection  of  literature. 

The  student  of  education  is  bound  to  con- 
sider what  a  vast  quantity  of  in.structional 
subjects  the  Assyro-Babylonians  had  to  handle, 
the  nucleus  of  it  certainly  dating  from  2342- 
2288  B.C.,  the  era  of  Hamnmrabi,  and,  of 
course,  constantly  increasing  in  material  down 
to  the  culmination  of  the  later  Babylonian 
power  under  Nebuchadnezzar  ((304-562  b.c). 
They  had,  without  doubt,  hundreds  of  students 
in  every  temple;  for  the  temples  were  their 
centers  of  educational  activity  until  the  end  of 
their  dominion  in  537  B.C.,  when  Cyrus  the 
Persian  took  the  city  of  Babylon  and  thus 
ended  the  Semitic  sway  in  western  Asia. 
These  students,  in  the  later  days,  when  the 
educational  material  had  reached  vast  jiropor- 
tions,  nuLst  have  specialized  in  the  various  lines 
of  mental  activity.  That  is,  there  must  have 
been  students  of  the  purely  religious  literature 
(belief  and  ritual);  of  the  astronomical  and 
astrological  documents,  a  difficult  specialty  in 
itself  to-day;  of  their  very  large  epistolary 
literature;  of  the  historical  records;  and 
finally,  of  their  widespread  business  documents, 
and    of   what    practically   amounted    to    their 

^  a.  J.  "H.  Stcvonaon,  Assyrian  ami  Batiylonian  Con- 
tracts, American  Book  Company,  1902  ;  Robert  Lau, 
Contract  Tablets,  Columbia  University  Press,  190.'). 

'  See  L.  W.  King,  Letters  and  Inscriptions  of  Ham- 
murabi, Luzac,  London,  1898 :  R.  C  Thompson,  Lale 
Babylonian  Letters,  Luzac,  London,  1906. 


252 


ASSYRO-BABYLONIANS 


ASSYRO-BABYLONIANS 


system  of  banking.^  Certainly  no  other  people 
of  the  ancient  East  had  a  broader  field  for  edu- 
cational activity  than  had  the  Assyro-Baby- 
lonians.  Indeed,  it  was  owing  to  the  excessive 
intellectual  activity  of  the  last  King  of  Babylon, 
Nabonidus  (556-537  B.C.),  who  was  more  of  a 
scholar  than  a  ruler,  and  who,  owing  to  his 
purely  scholarly  trend  of  mind,  permitted  the 
Babylonian  name  in  western  Asia  to  become 
more  of  a  shadow  than  a  reality,  that  Babylon, 
then  the  center  of  Semitic  power,  finally  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  alien  Cyrus  in  527  b.c. 

We  know  very  little  regarding  the  Assyro- 
Babylonian  system  of  instruction,  as  they 
have  left  us  comparatively  few  records  of  a 
purely  educational  character,  but  we  may  cer- 
tainly be  permitted  to  take  for  granted  the 
following  facts.  As  stated  above,  the  temples, 
each  of  which  was  usually  the  religious  and 
often  the  political  center  of  its  district,  were 
also  the  educational  centers  for  the  instruction 
of  the  scribal  and  priestly  caste.  It  cannot, 
of  course,  be  supposed  that  education  was  ever 
spread  broadcast  among  the  population,  as  is 
the  case  to-day  in  the  West,  the  chief  hindrance 
to  such  a  condition,  no  doubt,  being,  not  only 
their  system  of  social  classes,  but  also  the 
extreme  difficulty  of  learning  the  dual  system 
of  cuneiform  writing  descriljed  above.  Indeed, 
this  cause  holds  good  to-day  to  a  great  extent 
in  the  entire  Orient,  where  the  literary  lan- 
guages, as  is  the  case  with  Arabic,  Persian,  and 
Turkish,  have  been  developed  along  quite 
different  lines  from  the  vernaculars.  Judging 
from  the  conservative  East  of  to-day,  it  may 
be  supposed  that  this  was  particularly  the 
case  in  Assyro-Babylonia,  where  every  scribe 
had  to  learn  how  to  read  and  \\Tite  not  only 
the  Semitic  vernacular,  but  also  the  ancient 
Sumerian  language,  which  remained  the  reli- 
gious idiom  of  the  temple  service  down  to  the 
latest  date,  the  tongue  in  which  probably  all 
devotional  rites  were  carried  on.  In  short, 
Sumerian  must  have  occupied  much  the  same 
position  among  the  Assyro-Babylonians  as  was 
held  by  Latin  in  our  own  medieval  period. 
This  seems  clear  from  the  fact  that  we  have 
a  large  number  of  what  were  evidently  purely 
educational  documents  intended  to  enable  the 
students  to  master  the  intricacies  of  Sumerian; 
such  as  lists  of  grammatical  forms  wth  Semitic 
explanations  and  hsts  of  words  explanatory  in 
both  languages  of  the  proper  values  of  the 
ideographic  signs.  We  know  also  that  much 
the  same  methods  which  are  followed  by  our 
own  Assyriological  students  of  modern  times 
were  used  by  students  in  Eg.v]3t  at  the  time 
of  the  so-called  Tell  el-Amarna  correspondence 
in  the  Babylonian  language  between  early 
Babylonian  kings  and  Egyptian  monarch's 
and  governors  (c.  2200  b.c);  viz.,  the  learner 
divided   his   words   by   means   of  lines   drawn 

•  Clay,  The  Business  DocumenU  of  Murashi'i  Sons. 
Babylonian  Expedition  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvaoia,  X. 


upon  the  tablets,  in  order  to  get  the  proper 
grammatical  divisions.  Furthermore,  the  very 
large  bilingual  hymn  literature  may  be  classified 
as  educational  in  its  nature,  where  the  Sumerian 
line  has  the  corresponding  Assyro-Babylonian 
translation  directly  under  it.  It  must  be  sup- 
posed that  such  documents  as  these  were 
written  especially  for  the  purpose  of  familiariz- 
ing the  young  priesthood  with  the  character  of 
the  hymns  in  question.  It  is  probable  also 
that  they  had  educational,  astronomical,  and 
astrological  tablets,  as  well  as  purely  arith- 
metical tablets,  intended  to  teach  the  students 
the  principles  of  the  multiplication  table,  as 
instanced  by  the  recent  Nippur  discoveries  of 
what  are  apparently  very  simple  examples  of 
multiplication.'  This  implies  that  they  began 
to  instruct  students  at  quite  an  early  age. 
Then,  too,  the  hitherto  unmentioned  incanta- 
tion literature,^  giving  in  both  Sumerian  and 
Assyro-Babjdonian  all  sorts  of  medicinal 
charms  against  every  kind  of  disease,  may  be 
classified  as  instructional  documents  to  the 
youthful  medical  fraternity,  which  was  always 
a  caste  of  the  priesthood.  The  extremely 
numerous  scribal  copies  of  every  kind  of  his- 
torical record,  made  by  the  orders  of  the  last 
great  King  of  Assyria,  Assurbanipal  (668-626 
B.C.),  must,  no  doubt,  be  placed  in  the  same 
educational  category. 

In  short,  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  these 
people  paid  especial  attention  to  the  education 
of  their  scribal  or  learned  class,  but  it  is  equally 
probable  that  education  was  looked  upon,  not 
as  a  universal  necessity,  —  this  has  never  been 
the  case  in  the  East,  —  but  as  belonging  to  a 
particular  set  of  specialists,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  maintain  it  for  the  w-elfare  of  the  nation  as 
a  whole.  There  is  nothing  to  indicate  that 
this  scribal  caste  ^  was  drawn  in  later  days 
from  any  particular  racial  or  aristocratic  class. 
No  doubt  any  intelligent  free-born  lad  was 
permitted  to  dedicate  his  talents  to  this  neces- 
sary branch  of  the  nation's  activity  and  to 
become  either  a  conservator  or  enricher  of 
their  literature,  religious  or  legal,  or  else  a 
public  accountant  for  the  maintenance  of  their 
commerce.  Only,  every  such  scribe  was,  with- 
out doubt,  a  member  of  the  priestly  orders, 
who  were,  as  in  our  own  Middle  Ages,  the 
conservers  of  all  learning.  In  very  ancient 
days,  however,  it  seems  that  this  priestly 
scribal  class  was  largely  recruited  from  the 
Chaldeans,  a  Semitic  race  kindred  to  the 
Babylonians,  who  came  first  from  the  South 
along  the  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf  at  a  very 

'  H.  V.  Hilprecht.  Explorations  in  Bible  Lands, 
Philadrlphia,  1903,  p.  5.31. 

=  R.  r.  Thompson,  Reports  of  the  Magicians  and 
Astrologers  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  Vols.  I.  II,  Luzac, 
London,  1900;  The  Devils  and  Eril  Spirits  of  Babylonia, 
Vols.  I,  II,  Luzac  London,  1907. 

'  On  soribal  ca.ste  in  general,  and  particvilarly  among 
the  Hebrews,  ef.  J.  Dyneley  Prince  in  Cheyne's  En- 
cyclopwdia  Biblica,  s.v.  "Scribes  and  Pharisees,"  cols. 
4321-4332. 


253 


ASTASIA-ABASIA 


ASTEREOGNOSIS 


early  date.  Herodotus  used  the  term  "  Chal- 
deans" to  denote  essentially  the  priestly  class 
of  Babylonia,  a  usage  which  became  current 
in  later  times  among  all  peoples  foreign  to  the 
Ass_yro- Babylonians,  and  which  is  probably  to 
be  explained  in  the  following  manner.' 

The  sudden  rise  of  the  later  Babylonian 
empire  under  tiic  Chaldean  rule  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, the  son  of  Nabopolassar,  the  first  of  the 
later  purely  Chaldean  dynasty,  tended  to 
produce  so  thorough  an  amalgamation  of  the 
Chaldeans  and  Bal)ylonians  proper,  who  had 
theretofore  probably  been  racially  distinct, 
that,  in  the  course  of  time,  no  perceptible 
differences  existed  between  these  two  Semitic 
peoples.  The  name  "  Chaldean,"  however, 
lived  on  in  the  restricted  sense  of  the  prie.stly 
educated  caste,  and  for  this  reason.  The 
Kaldi  had  seized  and  held  from  most  ancient 
times  the  region  of  old  Sumer  in  southern 
Babylonia,  the  early  center  of  the  non-Semitic 
Sumerian  culture.  This  superior  civilization 
these  Chaldeans  adopted  eventually  as  their 
own,  and,  as  they  were  the  dominant  race,  the 
priestly  caste  of  that  region  became  a  Chaldean 
institution.  It  is  reasonable  to  conjecture, 
then,  that  southern  Babylonia,  the  home  of 
the  old  culture,  supplied  Babylon  and  other 
important  cities  with  priests  and  scribes,  who 
were  correctly  termed  "  Chaldeans  "  from  their 
original  descent,  a  name,  however,  which  in 
later  days,  owing  to  the  amalgamation  of  the 
Chaldeans  and  Babylonians,  lost  its  national 
force  and  became  a  distinctive  appellation  of 
the  priestly  caste. 

It  is  really  marvelous  that  we  are  able 
to-day  to  formulate  as  many  facts  as  we  do 
regarding  the  ancient  Assyro-Babylonian  civili- 
zation. After  lying  buried  for  over  two  thou- 
sand years  beneath  the  ruin-hills  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria,  the  records  of  this  great  culture 
of  the  ancient  East  have  come  to  light  prac- 
tically within  our  own  times,  and  have  given 
us  an  insight  into  some  of  the  most  minute 
details  of  their  public  polity  and  even  of  their 
daily  life.  Like  the  vallev  of  dry  bones  men- 
tioned by  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  (37,  7),  before 
the  creative  breath  of  modern  Assyriological 
science,  there  have  arisen  "  a  noise  .  .  .  and 
a  shaking,  and  the  bones  have  come  together, 
bone  to  his  bone."  J.  D.  P. 

ASTASIA-ABASIA.  —  The  loss  of  the  ability 
to  stand  and  to  walk,  without  corresponding 
losses  of  the  sensations  wliich  help  to  coordi- 
nate the  movements  in  walking  and  standing, 
and  without  paralysis  of  the  walking  and 
standing  muscles.  The  condition  is  usually 
found  only  in  hysterical  patients.  Bloch,  who 
first  described  the  symptom,  explained  it  as 
being  due  to  a  faulty  initial  impulse  from  the 

'  J.  Dyncley  Prince,  Commrntnry  on  the  Book  of 
Daniel,  J.  C.  Hinrichs'sche  Buchhandlung,  Leipzig,  1S99, 
pp.  59-61. 


cerebral   cortex.     It   is   one   form   of   amnesia 
(q.v.).  S.  I.  F. 

References:  — 
Bloch.     S\ir  une  affection  caracti^ris^e  par  I'astasie  et 

dc  I'abasic.     Archivcti  de  Neurol.,  Vol.  XV,  1888. 
De   Buck,   D.     Reflexions  sur  un  s.\MHlr6ino  d'astasie- 

alia-sic.     Bull.    Soc.    de    Med.    Mcnt.    de    Belgique, 

1!)0.J,    pp.    195-200. 
Stroii.viayeh,    W.     Ucber   das   Symptom   der   Abasie- 

astasie.     Monnischr.  f.   Psychial.   u.   Neurol.,    Vol. 

XII,  1902,  pp.  315-328. 

ASTELL,  MARY  (1668-1731).  —  Writer  on 
miscellaneous  topics.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
a  Newcastle  merchant  who  gave  her  a  careful 
education.  When  about  20  she  settled  in 
London,  where  and  at  Chelsea  she  passed  the 
rest  of  her  life.  When  she  was  20,  she  pub- 
lished anonymously  a  Scriuu.<f  I'ropo.tal  to 
Ladies,  in  which  she  advised  the  erection  of  a 
sort  of  Church  of  England  nunnery,  without 
vows,  in  which  religion  and  education  should  go 
hand  in  hand.  In  1697,  the  year  in  which 
Defoe  complained  that  Mrs.  Astell  had  antici- 
pated some  of  his  ideas,  she  published  a  second 
part,  giving  a  method  for  the  improvement  of 
the  minds  of  the  recluses.  Bisho])  Burnet  is 
said  to  have  persuaded  some  great  lady,  who 
had  been  taken  by  the  scheme,  not  to  endow  the 
institution  because  it  savored  too  much  of 
popery.  Years  later  the  Tatlcr  in  an  unworthy 
fashion  satirized  the  proposal  and  its  estimable 
author.  Her  other  writings,  political  and 
ecclesiastical,  are  of  consequence  mainly  be- 
cause they  prove  her  to  have  been  a  woman  of 
considerable  acuteness,  who  did  not  hesitate 
to  engage  on  equal  terms  with  men  like  Atter- 
bury  and  John  Norris  of  Bemcrton.  An 
exception  should  be  made  in  favor  of  her 
Essay  in  Defence  of  the  Female  Sex  (1096) 
and  Some  Reflections  itpon  Marriage  (1700), 
the  former  of  which  contains  not  a  little 
vigorous  satire  upon  the  sex  to  which  this 
good  and  able,  but  somewhat  eccentric,  lady  did 
not  belong.  Mrs.  Astell  is  not  much  remem- 
bered, but  a  careful  monograph  dealing  with 
her  and  other  women  writers  of  her  day,  e.g. 
Mrs.  Elizabeth  Elstob,  the  Anglo-Saxon  scliolar, 
is  much  to  be  desired.  I  have  relied  on  Canon 
Overton's  article  in  the  Dictionary  of  National 
Biography,  Ballard's  Memoirs  of  British  Ladies, 
and  my  own  notes.  W.  P.  T. 

ASTEREOGNOSIS.  —  Loss  of  stereognostic 
sense  (?)  is  tlie  inability  to  decide  from  touch 
and  motor  sensations  the  nature  and  use  of 
objects.  If  when  the  eyes  are  closed  a  pencil  or 
a  coin  be  placed  in  the  hand  of  a  normal  person, 
there  are  obtained  sensations  of  hardness,  of 
temperature,  and  complex  perceptions  of  round- 
ness, of  length,  etc.,  which  are  interpreted  by 
the  individual  to  mean  rcspectivelj'  a  pencil  or 
a  coin.  In  the  condition  of  a.stereognosis  the 
interpretation  of  the  different  sensations  is  not 
possible,  although  many  of  the  sensory  organs 
may  be  as  acute  as  in  a  normal  individual.     The 


254 


ASTHENIC   EMOTIONS 


ASTIGMATISM 


disorder  is  produced  by  lesions  in  the  parietal 
cerebral  cortex,  and  may  be  unilateral. 

Although  the  term  is  used  in  many  articles  as 
if  it  referred  to  a  sensation  loss,  it  is  well  known 
that  the  so-called  stereognostic  sense  is  a  com- 
plex of  sensational  elements,  of  the  nature  of  an 
association,  and  astereognosis  is,  therefore,  a 
loss  of  certain  associations,  and  may  be  directly 
compared  with  the  various  kinds  of  aphasia. 

Astereognosis  is  normal  in  young  children,  in- 
asmuch as  they  cannot  recognize  by  means  of 
touch  and  movement  sensations  the  nature  of 
objects  which  may  be  given  to  them.  The 
sense  may  be  much  improved  by  systematic 
training.  S.  I.  F. 

References :  — 

BuLLARD,  W.  N.  Value  of  astereognosis  as  a  localizing 
symptom  in  cerei:)ral  affections.  Jour.  Nerv.  and 
Ment.  Dis.,  Vol.  XXXI,  1904,  pp.  241-249. 

Walton  and  P.\ul.  Clinical  value  of  astereognosis  and 
its  bearing  upon  cerebral  localization.  Jour.  Nerv. 
and  Ment.  Dis.,  Vol.  XXVIII,  1901,  pp.  191-213. 

ASTHENIC  EMOTIONS.—  See  E.motio.ns. 

ASTIGMATISM  (d-  privative  and  o-Tty/Aa, 
a  point). — That  condition  of  refraction  in 
which  parallel  rays  of  light  entering  the  eye 
do  not  come  to  a  focus  at  the  same  point  on  the 
retina.  The  defect  is  due  to  an  error  in  the 
refracting  surface  either  of  the  cornea,  or  of  the 
lens,  or  of  both,  or  in  their  setting.  Astigmatism 
was  first  discovered  more  than  a  hundred  years 
ago  by  Thomas  Young,  who  was  astigmatic 
himself.  He  noted  this  defect  in  his  own  case 
but  thought  it  due  to  the  lens  of  his  eye.  It 
was  not  until  many  years  later  that  Bonders 
showed  that  astigmatism  usually  results  from 
an  error  of  refraction  in  the  cornea. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  astigmatism,  regular 
and  irregular.  The  irregular  form  occurs  when 
the  same  meridian  of  the  cornea  or  the  lens 
varies  in  curvature,  that  is,  has  an  unequal 
refraction  in  its  different  parts.  This  may  be 
congenital,  or  due  to  ulcers,  nebulae,  or  the  like. 
Regular  astigmatism  is  caused  by  a  curvature  of 
the  cornea  that  varies  so  that  one  meridian  has 
a  greater  refraction  than  another  at  right 
angles  to  it.  These  are  called  the  chief  merid- 
ians. Regiilar  astigmatism  may  be  corrected 
by  cylindrical  lenses;  irregular  astigmatism  can- 
not be  corrected,  but  may  sometimes  be  amelio- 
rated by  stenopaic  spectacles.  One  form  of 
this  trouble  due  to  disease  could  be  prevented 
by  proper  cleansing  of  the  newborn  infant's  eyes. 

Regular  astigmatism,  caused  when  one 
meridian  has  greater  refraction  than  another, 
Bonders  has  shown,  is  in  most  cases  due  to  differ- 
ences in  refraction  of  the  cornea,  and  that  in 
the  majority  of  cases  the  vertical  meridian, 
or  one  lying  near  to  the  vertical,  has  greater 
refraction  than  the  horizontal.  This  has  been 
well  illustrated  by  comparing  the  ordinary  astig- 
matic eye  to  an  egg,  or,  more  accurately,  the 
cornea  to  the  segment  of  an  egg.     If  we  call 


the  meridians  running  lengthwise  of  the  egg 
horizontal  meridians,  and  those  running  the 
other  way  vertical,  then  the  egg  usually  has  a 
greater  curvature  on  its  vertical  than  on  its 
horizontal  meridians.  The  astigmatic  cornea 
has  a  similar  curvature.  In  some  cases,  how- 
ever, the  horizontal  meridians  have  a  greater 
degree  of  refraction  than  the  vertical.  Thus 
the  regular  astigmatism  is  of  two  kinds:  first, 
the  common  form  where  the  refraction  is 
greater  in  the  vertical  meridian  than  in  the 
horizontal,  called  normal  astigmatism;  and, 
second,  the  condition  where  the  refraction  is 
greater  in  the  horizontal  than  in  the  vertical 
meridian,  or  the  so-called  perverse  or  inverse 
astigmatism.  The  so-caUed  normal  astigma- 
tism (astigmatism  "  according  to  the  rule  " 
of  French  and  Enghsh  WTiters)  is  the  most 
common  form.  The  inverse  or  perverse  astig- 
matism (astigmatism"  contrary  to  the  rule" 
of  French  and  English  WTiters)  is  relatively  rare. 
The  accompanying  cuts  illu.strate  the  refrac- 
tive condition  of  the  ordinary  astigmatic  eye. 


Vert,  M 
I 

er 

d. 

1 

I    it 

1 

i              ^^.^ 

i^ 

L   in   CO 

T^^ 

\^-^ 

i"""^ 

|\6 

:; 

II 


L  in   00 


:,; 


Horiz.  Merid. 


Astigmatism  :  Vertical  (I)  ;  Horizontal  (II). 

I  represents  the  condition  of  the  vertical  me- 
ridians, II  that  of  the  horizontal  meridians. 
Parallel  rays  of  light  coming  from  the  point 
L  strike  the  cornea,  are  reflected  by  the  more 
sharply  curved  meridian  ah  and  come  to  a 
focus  at/,  and  then  diverge  again.  In  II  the 
rays  of  light  from  L  are  reflected  by  the  slightly 
curved  meridian  cd,  and  do  not  come  to  a  focus 
until  they  reach  the  point  /.  At  xx,  the  line  on 
which  lies  the  focus  /  of  the  vertical  meridians, 
the  rays  of  light  from  L  make  merely  a  blurred 
image.  It  is  the  same  at  zz,  the  line  on  which 
lies  the  focus  /  of  the  horizontal  meridians. 

In  recent  years  especially  important  investi- 
gations of  this  condition  in  the  eyes  of  school 
children  have  been  made  by  use  of  the  ophthal- 
mometer. Among  these,  especially  interesting 
are  the  investigations  by  Br.  Stocker  and  Dr. 
Steiger  in  Switzerland.  In  189.5-1S9G  Dr. 
Stocker  tested  the  vision  of  2307  school  children 
in  Lucerne —  1132  boys,  1175  girls.  Bifferencea 
of  refraction  of  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  diopter 
were  not  reckoned  (a  diopter  being  a  degree  of 
refraction  equal  to  that  of  a  lens  whose  focus  is 
at  a  distance  of  one  meter.     See  article  on  the 


255 


ASTIGMATISM 


ASTIGMATISM 


Eye,  Hvgiexe  of).  Only  77,  that  is,  3.3  per  cent 
of  all  the  children  tested  had  a  perfectly  sym- 
metrical cornea  in  both  eyes.  In  the  case  of  185 
children  one  eye  was  normal.  Altogether  only 
339  eyes  were  free  from  astigmatism,  that  is, 
7.3  per  cent  of  the  ej'es  were  found  to  be  sym- 
metrical. The  minimum  degree  of  astigmatism 
was  .25  diopter,  as  nothing  less  than  this  was  reck- 
oned; and  the  maximum  degree  of  astigmatism 
was  7  diopters.  Among  the  girls  he  found  not 
only  a  greater  number  of  astigmatic  eyes  than 
among  the  boys,  but  the  degree  of  astigmatism 
was  on  an  average  greater  in  case  of  the  girls. 

Careful  investigations  have  been  made  also 
for  many  vears  by  Steiger  in  Ziirieh  and  Bern. 
During  the  years  1894-1903  a  total  of  25,905 
school  children  between  the  ages  of  6  and  7,  or 
sometimes  between  7  and  8,  were  tested. 
Among  these  7736  were  referred  to  Dr.  Steiger 
for  sjiecial  examination.  Of  these  5195  were 
found  to  be  definitely  abnormal,  and  about  half, 
2406,  were  astigmatic  in  one  or  both  eyes. 

According  to  Steiger's  investigations  more 
than  half  of  those  children  with  deficient 
vision  owe  this  condition  solely  or  chiefly  to 
astigmatism,  and  all  other  factors  together  have 
less  influence  than  this  one  defect.  Miss 
Harrington  and  Karl  Pearson  find  that  astigma- 
tism stands  next  to  myopia  as  a  cause  of  defec- 
tive vision. 

Not  only  is  the  vision  likely  to  be  affected 
by  astigmatism,  but  a  long  list  of  di.jorders 
follows  as  a  result  of  the  incident  eye  strain. 
The  symptoms  are  familiar  to  every  compe- 
tent oculist.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
nervous  headache,  dizziness,  nausea,  and  func- 
tional disorders  of  digestion,  and  neurasthenia 
or  nervous  weakness.  Many  inflammations  of 
the  cornea  arc  said  to  be  due  to  the  continuous 
contraction  of  the  ciliary  muscle  in  trying  to 
overcome  the  defect  by  accommodation.  And 
in  like  manner  inflammations  of  the  eyelids 
and  the  conjunctiva  are  often  due  to  this,  and 
are  cured  by  fitting  with  suitable  glasses. 

While  our  knowledge  of  aistigmatism  is  of 
recent  origin,  the  fact  of  astigmatism  must  have 
been  as  old  as  scholarship  itself.  Dr.  Gould 
has  attempted  to  diagnose  the  defects  of  a  group 
of  literary  men  and  men  of  science  from  the 
data  left  by  their  journals  and  the  like,  and  it  is 
his  belief  that  Carlyle,  Darwin,  Huxley,  George 
Eliot,  Herbert  Spencer,  Wagner,  Nietzsche, 
and  a  number  of  others  were  chronic  sufferers 
from  eye  strain,  and  that  most  of  their  physical 
troubles,  headache,  depression,  nervousness, 
indigestion,  and  the  like  were  due  primarily  to 
eye  strain.  While  Dr.  Gould  probably  exagger- 
ates and  ignores  the  influence  of  other  factors 
in  making  his  diagnoses,  he  does  make  out 
a  pretty  good  case  as  regards  a  numljer  of  these 
writers.  And  he  is  right  in  maintaining  that  the 
discovery  of  astigmatism  was  one  of  the  greatest 
medical  discoveries  of  the  last  century. 

The  invention  of  the  ophthalmoscope  and  the 
ophthalmometer   made  more   accurate  tests  of 


the  human  eye  possible.  And  among  the  results 
found  i)y  using  these  instruments  was  the  dis- 
covery that  few  if  any  eyes  are  perfectly  sym- 
metrical. Although  Dr.  Stocker  ignored  all 
cases  of  astigmatism  where  the  error  of  refrac- 
tion was  less  than  a  cjuarter  of  a  diopter,  he 
found  only  7.3  per  cent  of  the  eyes  of  the  school 
children  examined  free  from  astigmatism. 
Now  if  practically  everybody  has  at  least  one 
eye  more  or  less  astigmatic,  the  serious  question 
is  what  degree  of  astigmatism  should  be  cor- 
rected by  the  use  of  cylindrical  lenses.  The 
answer  is  an  individual  one.  A  considerable 
degree  of  astigmatism  is  often  corrected  by  the 
muscles  of  accommodation  without  apparent 
injury  to  health,  and  on  the  other  hand  in 
many  cases  of  slight  astigmatism,  half  a  diopter 
or  less,  great  advantage  comes  by  correcting  the 
error  of  refraction.  Many  cases  have  been 
reported  where  headache  and  serious  nervous 
disorder  were  greatly  relieved  by  correction  for 
such  slight  astigmatism.  No  general  rule  can 
be  laid  down,  but  in  all  cases  where  children 
are  nervous  and  suffer  from  headache,  indiges- 
tion, and  the  like,  a  competent  oculist  should 
be  consulted  and  the  question  decided  in  view 
of  the  conditions  of  the  individual  case. 

The  correction  of  astigmatism  by  the  use  of 
cylindrical  lenses  seems  not  to  have  been  made 
in  this  country  before  1872.  The  importance 
of  correcting  this  defect,  however,  was  soon 
recognized  and  emphasized  by  Weir  Mitchell, 
but  it  is  only  still  more  recently  that  the  hy- 
gienic importance  of  making  tests  for  astigma- 
tism in  the  schools  has  been  recognized.  Al- 
though Java!,  the  great  French  ophthalmologist, 
had  shown  the  significance  of  the  subject,  Cohn, 
even  in  the  second  edition  of  his  Hygiene  of  the 
Eye,  published  in  1892,  said  that  its  investiga- 
tion and  diagnosis  had  little  importance  for 
school  hygiene. 

Recent  investigations  emphasize  the  great 
importance  of  making  tests  for  astigmatism 
in  the  case  of  all  school  children.  Unfortu- 
nately in  many  schools  of  this  country,  even 
where  tests  for  myopia  and  hyperopia  are  made, 
tests  for  a.stigmatism  are  omitted.  It  is  ex- 
tremely desirable  that  a  system  similar  to  that 
employed  in  Zurich  should  be  adopted.  In 
that  city  at  the  beginning  of  each  new  school 
year  all  the  pupils  of  the  beginning  class  have 
their  eyes  tested  by  the  city  physicians.  All 
pupils  not  having  normal  acuity  of  vision,  and 
suspicious  cases,  are  referred  to  an  ophthalmolo- 
gist, Dr.  Steiger,  for  special  investigation. 

The  results  of  correcting  the  defects  by  suit- 
able glasses  are  often  remarkable.  The  child 
who  has  suffered  from  dizziness,  headache, 
nausea,  indigestion,  and  shows  perhaps  general 
symptoms  of  anaemia,  becomes  comfortable, 
free  from  nervousness,  and  capable  of  doing 
school  work  without  discomfort. 

The  recent  scientific  study  by  Miss  Barring- 
ton  and  Karl  Pearson,  as  well  as  the  investiga- 
tions of  Steiger,  show  that  regular  astigmatism, 


256 


ASTROLOGY 


ASTROLOGY 


like  other  conditions  of  refraction,  is  inherited. 
No  satisfactory  evidence  that  the  defect  is 
caused  by  the  conditions  of  school  environment 
has  been  found.  W.  H.  B. 

See  articles  on  the  Eye,  Hygiene  of;  Myopia; 
Hypermetropia. 

References  :  — - 

Allport,  Frank.  The  eyes  and  ears  of  school  children. 
Inlernatiortnles  Archiv  fur  Schulhygiene,  Bd.  3,  pp. 
20-36.     (Leipzig,  1907.) 

Barrington,  A.my,  and  Pearson,  Karl.  A  first  study  o/ 
the  inheritance  of  vision  and  of  the  relative  influence 
of  heredity  and  environment  on  sight.  {Eugenics, 
Laboratory  Memoirs.  Vol.  V,  61pp.)   (London,  1909.) 

Brav,  Aaron.  Astigmatism,  a  cause  of  vomituig 
in  school  children.  New  York  Medical  Journal, 
Aug.  26,   1905,  pp.  421-423.      (New  York,   1905.) 

Gould,  George  M.  Biographic  Clinics.  Vol.  1,  213 
pp.,  1904,  Vol.  2,  391  pp.    (Philadelphia,  1903.) 

NuEL,  J.  P.  Astigmatisme.  Dictionnaire  de  Physi- 
ologie.     Vol.  1,  pp.  779-802.     (Paris,  1895.) 

Standish,  Myles.  Facts  and  fallacies  in  the  examina- 
tion of  school  children's  eyes.  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1903, 
pp.  1020-1023. 

Steiger,  Adolf.  Schule  und  Astigmatismus.  Bericht 
iiber  den  1.  Internationale  Kongress  fiir  Schul- 
hygiene.    Vol.  3,  pp.  483-494.      (Nuremberg,  1904.) 

Stocker,  Friedrich.  Die  Augen  der  .Schiller  und 
Schillerinnen  der  Stadschulen  von  Luzcrn  mit 
spczicller  Beriicksichtigung  des  Astigmatismus. 
J ahres- Bericht  uber  die  Primar-  und Sckundarschulen 
der  Stadt  Luzem.  Schuljahr  1895-1896.  (Luzern, 
1896.) 

Swift,  Edgar  J.  Eye  defects  in  students  and  children. 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  Oct.,  1897.  Vol.  5,  pp. 
202-220. 


ASTROLOGY.  —  The  study  of  the  relative 
positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  especially  of 
the  sun,  moon,  planets,  and  twelve  signs  of  the 
zodiac,  with  a  view  to  determining  the  course 
of  human  affairs,  whether  of  individuals  or  na- 
tions. Astrology  would  appear  to  have  been 
first  elaborated  into  a  system  by  the  Semitic 
Chaldeans  about  a  thousand  years  before  our 
era,  and  it  is  to  their  sexagesimal  method  of 
reckoning  that  we  owe  our  division  of  the  circle 
into  360  degrees  and  the  division  of  the  degree 
and  the  hour  into  minutes  and  seconds.  This 
pseudo-science  of  the  stars,  allied  with  magic 
on  the  one  hand  and  with  astronomy  on  the 
other,  underwent  various  modifications  and 
adjustments  as  it  spread  westward  into  Greece 
and  Egypt.  The  astrological  works  attributed 
to  the  celebrated  geographer  and  astronomer, 
Ptolemy  (q.v.),  who  lived  at  Alexandria  in  the 
first  half  of  the  second  century,  .summed  up  the 
subject  in  a  scholarly  spirit.  These  works  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Arabic  astronomers  and 
through  them  reached  France,  Italy,  Germany, 
and  England  in  the  thirteenth  century.  As- 
trology continued  to  flourish  in  western  Europe 
for  four  centuries  or  more,  taking  on  a  suffi- 
ciently Christian  air  to  be  heartily  approved  by 
such  thoughtful  persons  as  Roger  Bacon  (q.v.) 
and  Melanchthon  (q.v.). 

Few  ideas  are  more  natural  or  persistent  than 
the  belief  that  the  heavens  influence  earthly 
events.  It  is  clear  enough  in  the  case  of  the 
sun.   and    moon,    why    not    in    that    of    the 


planets  too  ?  Then  the  Middle  Ages  held, 
with  Aristotle,  that  the  heavenly  bodies  were 
angelic  in  their  nature,  not  mere  huge  masses  of 
rock,  vapor,  or  glowing  gases,  as  we  conceive 
them.  Accordingly  even  the  most  learned  long 
accepted  the  main  presuppositions  of  astrology, 
however  bitterly  they  might  denounce  the 
arrogance  and  preposterous  claims  of  the  pro- 
fessional astrologer,  who  often  bore  a  strong 
resemblance  to  a  magician.  Astronomy  always 
exi.sted  alongside  of  astrology  and  was  based 
mainly  on  the  remarkable  Almagest  of  Ptolemy, 
in  which  he  gives  the  chief  results  of  the  work 
of  Hipparchus  and  earlier  investigators.  "  Nat- 
ural "  astrology  dealt  with  the  influences  of 
the  heavens  on  the  earth  itself  and  had  some 
affinity  with  meteorology;  "  judicial  "  astrol- 
ogy had  to  do  especially  with  the  fate  of  individ- 
uals. The  fundamental  principle  of  judicial 
astrology  was  based  on  the  assumption  that  all 
things  were  composed  of  the  four  elements, 
earth,  air,  fire,  and  water.  Every  man's 
character  is  due  to  his  temperainentum,  that  is  to 
say,  to  the  admixture  of  the  four  elements  in  his 
particular  case,  and  this  admixture  is  largely 
determined  at  the  time  of  his  conception  in 
the  womb  and  at  the  moment  of  his  birth. 
Now,  if  it  be  assumed,  that  the  heavenly 
bodies  inevitably  exercise  an  influence  on  the 
earth,  the  temperament  of  an  individual,  his 
natural  aptitudes,  and  liis  probable  fate  can  be 
forecast,  at  least  in  a  general  way,  by  ascertain- 
ing the  particular  situation  of  the  sun,  moon, 
and  planets  in  the  zodiac  at  the  time  of  his 
conception  and  of  his  birth.  Roger  Bacon, 
who  devotes  an  important  section  of  his  Opus 
Majlis  to  the  subject,  declares  that  no  jirudent 
astrologer  will  undertake  to  guarantee  his  fore- 
casts, but  will  confine  himself  to  a  considera- 
tion of  the  way  in  which  the  body  is  modified 
by  the  heavens,  and  in  its  turn  excites  the  mind 
to  public  and  private  acts,  just  as  external 
sights  and  sounds  are  seen  to  rouse  men's 
passions  and  ambitions.  For  are  not  the  heav- 
ens and  the  stars  more  potent  to  affect  the 
bodily  organs  than  the  lower  phenomena  of 
sight  and  hearing'?  The  prognostications  of  the 
astrologer  were,  therefore,  at  best  warnings  based 
on  the  discovery  of  a  person's  "  complexion"; 
it  was  unsafe  to  prophesy  particular  events, 
since  many  allowances  must  alwaj's  be  made 
for  errors  in  the  highly  intricate  calculations, 
for  the  exercise  of  free  will  and  acts  of  God. 
The  influences  ascribed  to  the  individual  heav- 
enly bodies  were  traditional,  but  subject  to 
varying  interpretations  —  Jupiter  and  Venus 
were  auspicious;  Saturn  and  Mars  boded  ill; 
Venus  was  connected  with  the  joys  of  this  life, 
Jupiter  with  those  of  the  next.  One  born  under 
the  influence  of  Venus  should  be  on  his  guard 
against  the  temptations  of  the  flesh,  but  in 
selecting  a  career  he  might  more  safely  engage 
in  one  connected  with  personal  adornment  than 
with  those  of  war,  appropriate  enough  to  a  per- 
son born  under  Mars.     It  was  deemed  especially 


VOL.  I — s 


257 


ASTRONOMY 


ASTRONOIMY 


essential  that  a  physician  should  be  familiar 
with  the  elements  of  astrology  in  order  that  he 
might  by  ol)serving  the  conjunctions  of  the 
planets  determine  the  critical  days  in  tlie  course 
of  [larticular  diseases  and  adjust  his  treatment 
accordingly.  Tiic  most  celebrated  of  medieval 
astrologers,  Cecco  d' Ascoli,  wiio  lield  the  cliair 
of  astrology  in  the  university  of  Bologna,  main- 
tained tliat  a  jihysieian  witliout  astrology  was  no 
better  than  an  eye  whicii  did  not  see.  Rasluhill 
records  an  instance  in  the  sixteenth  century 
of  a  scholar  admitted  i)y  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford to  practice  in  astrology,  and  assumes  that 
it  was  the  regular  custom  to  grant  such  licenses. 
The  University  of  Pressburg  {(/.v.),  founded  in 
1465-1467,  owed  its  special  fame  to  its  astro- 
logical professors.  By  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century  a.strology  began  to  lose  its  hold  on  the 
learned,  but  the  gifted  astronomer,  Kepler  (q.v.), 
who  died  in  1630,  still  adhered  to  the  ancient 
belief.  It  has  often  been  alleged  that  astrology 
served  to  foster  astronomy.  This  may  have  been 
true  in  the  beginning,  but  astronomy  had  become 
an  independent  science  in  the  times  of  Eratos- 
thenes and  Hipparchus,  w^hose  discoveries  are 
brought  together  in  Ptolemy's  AlmagcH,  which 
became  the  manual  of  the  Arabic  and  medieval 
astronomers.  In  the  Sphere  of  John  of  Holy- 
wood  (d.  1252)  (q.v.),  in  the  Opus  Majus  of 
Roger  Bacon  and  elsewhere,  astronomical  facts 
are  carefully  separated  from  the  study  of  astrol- 
ogy. We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that  the 
development  of  astronomj'  owed  little  or  noth- 
ing to  the  bastard  science  of  astrology. 

J.  H.  R. 
References  :  — 
Bennett,  E.  H.     Astrology.     (New  York,  1897.) 
Bridges,  ed.  Roger  Bacon,  Opus  Majus,  Vol.  I,  pp.  238 

sqq.      (O.^ford,  1897.) 
Myer.     Handhuch  dcr  Aslrologic.      (Berlin,  1891.) 
MAnRY,  A.     La  Magic  ct  I'Astrologie  dans  I'AntiquiU  et 
au  Moyen  Age.     (Paris,  1877.) 

ASTRONOMY.  —  Astronomy  is  the  oldest  of 
the  sciences:  doubtless  the  very  first  phenom- 
ena of  nature  ever  made  the  subject  of  human 
inquiry  were  astronomical  phenomena.  It  is 
probably  not  too  much  to  say  that  a  study  of  the 
state  of  culture  among  the  most  ancient  peoples 
involves  principally  an  investigation  of  their 
astronomic  acquirements.  There  must  have 
been  a  time  in  the  dim  past  when  every  man 
engaged  in  the  teaching  profession  was  instruct- 
ing every  one  of  his  students  about  astronomy; 
—  to-day,  only  an  infinitesimal  fraction  of  our 
teachers  teacli  this  science,  and  that  only  to  a 
small  number  of  students. 

The  change  must  have  been  gradual,  and  the 
reason  for  it  is  not  far  to  seek.  It  did  not  be- 
come operative  with  universal  effect  until  com- 
paratively recent  times:  astronomy  ceased  to 
be  taught  universally  and  extensively  about  the 
date  when  science  began  to  be  primarily  utili- 
tarian in  motive.  At  this  time  also  the  general 
facts  and  theories  of  astronomy  had  been  known 
so  long  that  it  seemed  as  though  they  had 

258 


always  been  known  to  every  one;  as  though 
children  were  now  born  with  astronomic  knowl- 
edge, or  would  at  least  acquire  it  themselves 
as  they  learn  to  creep  and  walk.  To  a  utili- 
tarian age  astronomy  seems  a  somewhat  worn- 
out,  useless  science:  it  has  been  relegated  to  a 
few  pages  in  schoolbooks  on  geography,  pages 
that  are  doubtless  often  onutted  when  the  book 
is  studied.  It  is  probably  a  real  fact,  and  an 
interesting  one,  that  the  entire  educated  public 
was  once  so  well  versed  in  astronomy  that  the 
science  was  ousted  from  the  curricula  of  pro- 
fessional teachers.  Children  learned  it  from 
their  parents,  no  doubt,  as  girls  learn  cooking 
and  other  domestic  accomplishments  from  their 
mothers. 

But  the  lapse  of  generations  has  seen  this 
kind  of  knowledge  pass  into  the  region  of  the 
forgotten.  Probably  Sir  George  Airy  was  right 
in  the  remark  attributed  to  him,  that  not  more 
than  one  man  in  a  thousand  knows  that  the 
stars  rise  and  set  like  the  sun  and  moon.  A 
learned  professor  (not  of  astronomy)  once 
asked  the  WTiter  whether  the  moon  passes 
through  the  phases  of  full  moon,  new  moon, 
etc.,  in  all  parts  of  the  earth,  as  it  did  in  the 
region  where  he  lived. 

Astronomy  formed  one  of  the  subj  ects  of  study 
included  under  the  quadrivium  {q.v.),  and  was 
usually  associated  with  mathematics.  The 
tendency  even  beyond  the  period  of  the  great 
astronomers  was  to  pay  more  attention  to 
the  fanciful  and  astrological.  This  was  fos- 
tered also  by  the  influence  of  the  Arabic  and 
Hebrew  wTiters  which  came  through  Spain. 
In  the  universities  the  subject  of  a.stronomy 
was  in  almost  all  cases  taught  by  a  professor 
of  mathematics.  Of  the  great  astronomers 
Tycho  Brahe  lectured  at  the  University  of 
Copenhagen  in  1574;  Galileo  Galilei  was  first 
professor  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  at 
Pisa  from  1589  to  1592,  but  did  not  meet  with 
so  much  success  as  at  Padua  where  he  lectured 
to  crowded  classes  for  twelve  years;  Kepler  was 
attracted  to  astronomy  from  theology  by  an 
opportunity  which  presented  itself  of  an  ap- 
pointment as  lecturer  on  mathematics  and 
astronomy  at  Gratz,  in  1594,  but  so  little  popu- 
larity did  these  subjects  enjoy  that  he  was  com- 
pelled to  fill  up  his  time  by  giving  instruction  in 
other  branches.  The  opposition  of  the  Church 
and  the  radical  views  of  the  leaders  in  the  field 
cooperated  effectively  to  prevent  any  change  in 
the  content  of  astronomy,  so  that  even  as  late 
as  the  beginnings  of  the  seventeenth  century 
Ptolemy's  Almagest  and  Thenrica  Plavctarum 
continued  to  be  used  as  official  textbooks. 
The  establishment  of  the  Savilian  Professorship 
of  Astronomy  at  Oxford  in  1619  put  an  end  to  the 
old  system.  Frequently  this  office  was  com- 
bined with  that  of  Royal  Astronomer  at  the 
Greenwich  Observatory.  Newton's  great  con- 
tributions at  Cambridge  were  made  as  Lucasian 
Professor  of  Mathematics.  The  chair  in  a.stron- 
omy   and    experimental    philosophy  at    Cam- 


ASTRONOMY 


ASTRONOMY 


bridge  was  not  instituted  until  1704;  in  1749 
another  chair  in  astronomy  and  geometry  was 
founded.  At  Glasgow  University  the  chair  in 
astronomy,  together  with  an  observatory,  was 
established  in  1760;  at  Dublin  in  1774;  and  at 
Edinburgh  in  1786.  As  a  general  rule  astronomi- 
cal studies  are  taken  up  by  advanced  students 
in  mathematics  and  physics.  At  Glasgow  the 
subject  may  be  offered  for  both  ordinary  and 
honors  degrees.  The  newer  universities  have 
not  as  yet  instituted  separate  chairs  in  astron- 
omy; the  subject  is  associated  usually  with  the 
department  of  physics. 

In  Germany  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  cen- 
tury general  courses  were  offered  in  the  uni- 
versities in  astronomy  as  a  cultural  subject. 
At  present  the  subject  is  usually  associated  with 
the  professorships  in  mathematics.  Few  of  the 
many  universities  have  a  separate  department  in 
astronomy;  in  several  the  subject  is  not  repre- 
sented by  a  professor.  At  Marburg  astron- 
omy is  associated  with  physics.  Many  of  the 
universities  are  furnished  with  observatories, 
which,  however,  through  lack  of  means,  are  not 
so  well  equipped  as  the  English  and  American. 

In  the  United  States  the  science  formed  a 
subject  of  the  college  curriculum  from  an  early 
date.  It  is  mentioned  in  New  England's  First 
Fruits  (1643)  as  being  studied  at  Harvard  in  the 
third  year  of  the  course.  When  the  course  at 
Harvard  was  lengthened  to  four  years,  astron- 
omy was  put  into  the  fourth  year;  so  the  Har- 
vard archives  in  a  manuscript  dated  1690  refer 
to  the  use  of  Gassendus'  Instituiio  Astronomica, 
a  textbook  which  had  a  long  vogue  and  is 
mentioned  again  in  the  diary  of  President 
Wadsworth  (1725-1736)  as  being  used  by  the 
Senior  Sophisters.  By  1742  the  textbook 
appears  to  be  Watts'  Astronomy,  which  is  also 
mentioned  in  a  letter  of  Joseph  Shippen,  who 
was  a  student  at  Princeton  (1750).  In  1760  it 
is  voted  at  Harvard  "  that  the  thanks  of  this 
corporation  be  given  to  the  Hon.  James  Bowdoin 
for  his  generous  donation  of  an  orrery  to  the 
apparatus  of  Harvard  College  " ;  and  an  expedi- 
tion was  sent  to  Newfoundland  to  observe  the 
transit  of  Venus.  In  1788  it  was  voted  that 
"  Mr.  Webber  be  desired  to  give  the  Senior 
Class  after  Commencement,  such  a  course  of 
astronomical  lectures  as  those  of  that  standing 
have  been  used  to  attend  in  the  fall  of  the  year 
for  several  years  past."  And  in  the  same  year 
it  was  voted  that  "  the  HoUi.s  Professor  of 
Mathematics,  shall  carry  the  four  classes  for- 
ward by  private  lectures  in  the  Mathematics 
in  the  following  order  ...  in  conic  sections 
as  far  as  shall  be  necessary  for  the  understanding 
of  those  parts  of  Natural  Philosophy  and  Astron- 
omy where  these  sections  are  applied;  in 
spheric  Geometry  and  Trigonometry,  with  the 
application  of  the  solution  of  Astronomical 
Problems,  etc.  .  .  .  That  it  be  recommended 
to  the  Professor,  in  his  public  lectures,  which  he 
shall  deliver  once  a  week,  viz.,  on  Wednesdays 
at  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  as   has   been 


259 


customary,  to  be  as  systematic  as  may  be,  and 
to  endeavor  to  go  through  a  regular  course  on 
the  Theory  of  Natural  Philosojihy  and  Astron- 
omy in  four  j'ears.  But  this  systematic  pursuit 
shall  not  prevent  the  Professor's  interesting 
lectures  upon  any  important  phenomena  that 
may  turn  up,  though  they  may,  for  a  short 
term,  interrupt  the  general  course.  .  .  .  He 
shall,  under  Solar  Astronomy,  particularly 
explain  the  Precession  of  the  Equinoxes,  the 
nutation  of  the  Earth's  Axis,  and  the  motion  of 
the  Apogee,  —  Under  Lunar  Astronomy,  the 
Moon's  Libration,  and  the  motion  of  her  Apogee 
and  Nodes;  and  under  sydereal  Astronomy,  the 
Aberration  of  Light."  In  1791  astronomy 
was  included  among  the  subjects  of  examina- 
tion, and  in  1796  Ferguson's  Astronomy  is 
mentioned.  The  subject  was  taught  by  the 
professor  or  tutor  in  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy,  and  the  mathematical  astronomy 
was  emphasized.  The  only  apparatus  used 
was  an  orrery. 

The  course  at  Harvard  is  typical  of  the  other 
universities  at  that  time.  At  Yale  "  natural 
philosophy,  astronomy,  and  other  parts  of 
mathematics  "  were  taught  in  the  third  year 
in  the  days  of  Rector  Williams.  In  1771  a 
professorship  of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy  was  estabhshed,  and  it  is  stated 
by  his  son  that  Dr.  Dwight  carried  his 
mathematical  class  "  as  far  as  any  of  them 
could  go  in  Principia  of  Newton."  In  addi- 
tion to  Gassendus'  Astronomy  the  textbooks  of 
Nehcmiah  Strong  {Astronomy  Improved)  and  of 
Benjamin  Martin  (Philosophia  Britannica,  a 
New  and  Comprehensive  System  of  the  New- 
tonian Philosophy,  Astronomy ,  Geography  with 
notes).  In  the  advertisement  of  King's  College 
(now  Columbia  University)  it  is  mentioned  that 
"  it  is  the  design  of  the  College  to  instruct  and 
perfect  youth  in  .  .  .  the  knowledge  of  all 
nature  in  the  Heavens  above  us  and  in  the 
Air.  ..."  (1754.)  And  in  1755  the  Laws  and 
Orders  include  mathematics  and  mathematical 
and  ex-perimental  philosophy.  In  1784  there  was 
appointed  a  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy 
and  Astronomy,  who  in  1789  lectured  once  a 
day  on  astronomy.  At  Princeton  astronomy 
was  evidently  taugnt  in  1750  with  the  aid  of 
textbooks  (Martin's  and  Watt's)  and  an  orrery 
constructed  by  David  Rittenhouse,  who  himself 
had  one  of  the  earliest  private  observatories  in 
America. 

Astronomy  continued  to  be  the  adjunct  of  the 
professor  of  mathematics  or  natural  philosophy 
or  both  until  the  last  century.  A  professor  of 
astronomy  appears  to  have  been  appointed  at 
Harvard  in  1825.  Observatory  work  was  a 
matter  of  slow  development.  Lack  of  funds  and 
opposition  from  those  who  did  not  understand 
the  needs  of  such  an  institution  or  suspected  its 
uses  prevented  any  progress  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  An  attempt  was  made  at  Harvard 
in  1816  through  John  Farrar,  Hollis  Professor 
of     Mathematics     and     Natural     Philosophy 


ASTRONOMY 


ASTRONOMY 


and  Nathaniel  Bowditch  to  establish  an  obser- 
vatory, but  no  more  advance  was  made  than  to 
secure  sketches  for  it.  In  1823  John  Quincy 
Adams  interested  himself  in  the  matter,  and 
made  an  offer  of  financial  help,  if  subscriptions 
could  be  raised.  But  this  attempt  also  failed. 
In  IS39  William  Cranch  Bond  was  appointed 
astronomical  ol)servcr.  Bond  brought  his  ap- 
paratus to  Cambridge  and  was  temporarily 
located  there.  In  1843  interest  was  aroused  in 
astronomy  by  a  remarkable  comet ;  the  occasion 
was  seized  by  Professor  Benjamin  Pcirce  to  raise 
subscriptions  for  an  observatory,  which  was 
finally  erected  and  opened  in  1847.  In  1832 
Yale  had  erected  a  telescope  on  the  tower  of  one 
of  her  buildings.  In  1837  Professor  Albert 
Hopkins  had  completed  an  observatory  at 
Williams  College,  the  first  in  this  country  of 
a  permanent  kind.  Hopkins  was  one  of  the 
earliest  teachers  of  astronomy  to  use  the 
observatory  in  connection  with  his  lectures. 
In  1838  an  observatory  was  established  at  the 
Central  High  School  in  Philadelphia.  At 
Princeton  the  first  observatory,  the  Halsted 
Observatory,  was  not  established  until  1872, 
followed  in  1878  by  an  observatory  of  instruc- 
tion. 

But  the  observatories  which  were  erected  at 
the  colleges  were  mainly,  with  few  exceptions, 
for  the  use  of  practical  astronomers.  Thus 
that  at  Harvard  became  the  seat  of  the  Ameri- 
can Nautical  Almanac.  It  was  onlj'  gradually 
that  the  importance  of  laboratory  work  in  as- 
tronomy became  established  as  a  principle  of 
instruction,  and  observatory  work,  which  for  a 
long  time  was  given  merely  as  a  favor  of  the 
])ractical  astronomer,  was  recognized  as  an 
essential  training. 

Astronomy  is  taught  to-day  to  a  similar 
extent  in  all  civilized  countries;  as  follows: 
(1)  brief  attention  in  elementary  geography 
classes;  (2)  classes  in  a  few  high  schools 
and  similar  institutions;  (3)  elementary  or  in- 
troductory courses  in  colleges;  (4)  advanced 
or  graduate  courses  in  universities. 

A  few  words  may  be  said  about  these  various 
sources  of  astronomic  instruction.  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  probably  hopeless  to  expect  much 
from  elementary  school  work,  because  any 
effort  to  give  more  attention  to  school  astron- 
omy would  surely  be  branded  as  a  non-utilitarian 
fad.  Moreover,  it  is  questionable  whether  such 
an  effort  would  be  justifiable;  for,  after  all, 
astronomy  as  a  study  has  its  best  (lisciplinary 
effect  upon  somewhat  maturer  minds.  It  should 
be  found  rather  in  the  latter  part  of  the  high 
school  course,  or  in  the  college. 

College  and  high  school  courses  in  elementary 
astronomy  consist  of  the  so-called  descriptive 
astronomy.  It  is  in  this  part  of  the  general 
educational  curriculum  that  astronomy  as  a 
study  has  its  proper  place,  not  merely  to  relieve 
ignorance  by  conveying  to  the  student  a  few 
facts  about  the  heavenly  bodies;  b>it  because 
this  science  has  so  particularly  high  a  value 


in  training  the  mind.  There  is  no  other  branch 
of  human  knowledge  possessing  a  subject 
matter  so  well  adapted  to  produce  the  habit  of 
accurate  thinking.  Astronomy  owes  its  real 
preeminence  in  this  respect  to  the  intricacy 
of  tiie  problems  it  [iresents,  to  the  extraordinary 
precision  of  which  their  solutions  admit,  and 
to  the  ajjpeal  it  makes  to  the  imagination  by 
reason  of  the  vast  volumes  and  areas  included 
within  the  scope  of  its  problems.  Events  occur 
within  a  drop  of  water  as  intricate  as  any  in  the 
solar  system;  they  occur  doubtless  even  within 
a  singh;  atom,  mere  element  in  a  constituent 
molecule  of  that  water;  but  for  educational 
purposes  the  study  of  those  atomic  intricacies 
is  surely  incomparably  inferior  to  the  vaster 
gyrations  of  our  sun  and  planets. 

But  notwithstanding  the  above  facts,  which 
are  sufficiently  obvious,  the  science  of  astron- 
omy is  taught  to-day  to  an  insignificant  frac- 
tion only  of  the  student  armj'  attending  our 
colleges.  Everywhere  it  is  an  elective  subject, 
and  it  is  not  elected  by  many  students.  This 
undesirable  state  would  doubtless  soon  cease 
to  e.xist  if  teachers  would  avoid  two  errors 
into  which  they  have  shown  a  surprising 
tendency  to  fall.  The  first  is  an  effort  to 
devote  altogether  too  much  time  and  atten- 
tion to  the  very  latest  discoveries;  the  second 
is  an  undue  use  of  the  stereopticon  in  the  hope 
of  making  the  subject  more  interesting.  The 
proper  way  to  plan  an  elementary  course  in 
astronomy  is  to  imagine  the  students  looking 
about  them  at  the  heavens  above  and  the 
earth  beneath,  and  to  give  them  simple  but 
complete  explanations  of  the  phenomena  that 
unfold  themselves  there  before  their  eyes. 
These  explanations  should  be  made  by  the 
teacher  verbally  with  the  assistance  of  black- 
board diagrams  and  home  textbook  reading 
by  the  student.  The  magic  lantern  should  be 
used  sparingly  and  occasionally  to  illustrate  by 
photographs  the  appearance  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  as  shown  by  great  telescopes.  Fre- 
quently the  professor  should  meet  the  class 
personally  at  the  observatory  in  small  sections 
to  emphasize  the  regular  classroom  work  by 
informal  explanations  and  questionings.  A 
large  quantity  of  observational  work  is  not  as 
important  as  the  sectional  meetings  just  men- 
tioned. But  the  observatory  meetings  should 
be  held  regularly,  irrespective  of  weather, 
because  the  explanatory  questioning  should  be 
considered  the  essential  thing,  and  not  "  nature- 
study  "  through  the  telescope. 

Having  thus  discussed  briefly  the  subject  of 
elementary  astronomy,  it  remains  to  touch 
upon  advanced  or  graduate  courses  in  this 
science.  These  are  e\erywhere  attended  by 
very  few  students.  Probably  most  candidates 
for  the  advanced  university  degree  of  Ph.D. 
intend  to  be  teachers,  and  they  nat\irally  desire 
to  study  subjects  of  which  the  elements  are 
widely  taught,  and  in  which  there  is  therefore 
a  good  opportunity  to  secure  a  position.     All 


260 


ASTRONOMY 


ATAXIA 


high  schools  and  colleges  have  professors  of 
mathematics  and  physics;  only  the  large  insti- 
tutions maintain  separate  professorships  of 
astronomy.  Therefore  graduate  students  who 
have  an  inclination  for  exact  science  take 
their  advanced  work  in  mathematics  and 
physics;  not  infrequently  they  find  advisable 
a  third  course  in  the  history  or  theory  of  educa- 
tion. The  ancient  and  most  honorable  subject 
of  celestial  mechanics,  always  extolled  as  the 
branch  of  learning  in  which  have  been  achieved 
the  highest  triumphs  of  the  human  intellect,  is 
now  neglected  almost  totally  by  graduate  stu- 
dents. It  does  not  appear  that  blame  attaches 
to  any  one  for  this  state  of  affairs,  as  is  the  case 
in  the  neglect  of  elementary  instruction.  The 
trend  of  events  has  brought  this  result  irresist- 
ibly, as  it  has  many  other  results  unforeseen  a 
generation  or  two  in  the  past. 

In  addition  to  the  very  advanced  courses, 
leading  to  the  Ph.D.  degree,  most  universities 
in  Europe  and  America  offer  also  certain  inter- 
mediate courses,  which  are  attended  each  year 
by  a  very  few  students  in  the  large  institutions. 
One  of  these  courses  is  always  practical.  Stu- 
dents are  instructed  in  the  use  of  the  sextant, 
transit,  and  other  astronomical  instruments; 
they  make  their  own  observations  and  carry 
out  the  necessary  calculations  under  direction. 
The  other  somewhat  advanced  course  usually 
deals  with  comet  orbit  calculations;  it  is  more 
or  less  introductory  to  celestial  mechanics, 
and  seldom  has  more  than  two  or  three  stu- 
dents. Finally,  one  or  two  universities  offer 
practical  courses  in  astrophysics,  the  work 
being  done  in  the  observatories,  and  requir- 
ing extremely  elaborate  and  costly  instru- 
mental equipment. 

On  the  whole,  we  may  sum  up  the  present 
educational  outlook  in  astronomy  quite  opti- 
mistically. Overinsistence  upon  laboratory 
work  will  cease,  and  will  be  replaced  by  study 
in  science  as  a  part  of  modern  culture.  When 
that  occurs,  astronomy  will  come  into  its  own 
again,  so  far  as  elementary  instruction  is  con- 
cerned. This  will  benefit  both  thS  teacher  and 
the  student;  both  will  be  better  men  because 
of  it.  The  immediate  future  of  advanced 
instruction  cannot  be  foreseen;  it  will  depend 
on  the  impetus  and  direction  given  to  human 
thought  by  those  few  men  of  genius  who  shall 
live  during  the  next  generation.  H.  J. 

References:  — 

Berry,  A.     Short  History  of  Astronomy.     (New  York, 

1899.) 
Hall,  A.     On  the  Teaching  of  Astronomy  in  the  United 

States,  in  Science,  July  6,  1900. 
LooMis.  E.     Progress  of  Astronomy.      (New  York,  1850.) 
Marie,  C.  F.  M.     Histoires  des  Sciences  mathematiques 

et  physiques.     (Paris,  1883-1888.) 
Safford,  T.  H.     The  Development  of  Astronomy  in  the 

United  States.      (Williamstown,  Mass.,  1888.) 
Snow,    L.    F.     The   College   Curriculum   in   the    United 

States.      (New  York,   1907.) 
Williams,    H.    S.     History  of  Science.     (London    and 

New  York.  1904.) 
Story  of  IQth  Century  Science,     (New  York,  1900.) 


ASYMBOLIA,  or  ASYMBOLY.  —  The  loss 
of  the  ability  to  understand  signs  of  speech,  and 
to  communicate  one's  ideas  by  words  or  ges- 
tures. Sometimes  used  as  a  synonym  of 
aphasia  {q.v.). 

Reference: — • 
Reich.     Asvmbolie    als    Stoning    der    Reproduktion. 
Berl.  Klin.  Wochenschr.,  Vol.  XVI,  1909,  p.  131. 

ATAVISM.  —  The  characteristics  of  an  indi- 
vidual are  very  frequently  due  to  inheritance 
which  must  be  traced  back  of  the  immediate 
parents  to  an  earlier  ancestor.  This  reversion 
to  an  earlier  generation  is  known  as  atavism. 
A  complicated  law  of  inheritance  was  worked 
out  by  Mendel.  In  accordance  with  this  law 
every  second  generation  resembles  the  grand- 
parents in  a  certain  definite  ratio.  The  inter- 
mediate generations,  that  is,  the  parents  of  the 
individual  under  consideration,  may  exhibit 
a  combination  of  the  characteristics  which 
appear  in  pure  form  in  the  last  generation  and 
in  the  grandparent.  One  interesting  case  of 
atavism  appears  in  the  fact  that  color-blind- 
ness is  likely  to  be  transmitted  through  a 
female  who  does  not  herself  exhibit  the  char- 
acteristic. A  boy  may  thus  resemble  his  grand- 
father in  being  color-blind,  though  the  mother 
does  not  exhibit  the  trait.  The  extent  to  which 
atavism  appears  in  human  beings  has  been  a 
subject  of  inquiry.  The  results  of  such  inves- 
tigations have,  however,  never  furnished  any 
large  grounds  for  educational  conclusions. 

C.  H.  J. 

ATAXIA,  —  A  deficiency  or  an  absence  of 
the  ability  to  coordinate  movements.  The 
term  is  applied  to  defects  of  movement  of  the 
body  as  a  whole  or  to  those  of  any  of  its  parts, 
and  at  times  is  used  as  the  name  of  the  disease 
that  produces  the  condition. 

When  a  movement  is  to  be  performed,  effer- 
ent nervous  impulses  are  sent  from  the  cells  in 
the  anterior  horn  of  the  spinal  cord  (which 
cells  may  have  been  activated  by  impulses 
from  higher  cells,  e.g.  those  in  the  cerebral 
cortex),  and  there  result  contraction  of  certain 
muscles  and  relaxation  of  others.  Accompany- 
ing the  movement  there  is  a  stimulation  of  the 
afferent  end  organs  in  the  moving  tissues.  The 
afferent  nervous  impulses  that  are  originated 
by  the  movement  go  to  the  spinal  cord  and 
thence  at  times  to  the  cerebellum  and  to  the 
cerebrum.  These  impulses  arise  from  the  end 
organs  in  the  skin,  the  joints,  the  tendons,  the 
muscles,  and,  possibly,  the  bones. 

Somehow  as  the  result  of  the  sequence  of 
efferent  and  afferent  impulses  a  nervous  asso- 
ciation is  formed  which  in  subsequent  move- 
ments exerts  an  influence  on  the  efferent 
impulse.  In  other  words,  a  control  is  estab- 
lished, and  it  is  found  that  movements  which 
at  first  are  of  a  gross  and  to  some  extent  of 
an  indiscriminate  character  become  finer,  more 
settled,  and   more  accurately  adjusted  to  the 


261 


ATAXIA 


ATAXIA 


desired  end.  To  characterize  the  later  stages 
of  muscular  education  and  control  the  term 
"coordination"  is  used,  while  the  movements 
in  which  the  control  is  lacking  or  defective 
are  called  incoordinate  or  ataxic. 

Since  it  is  neccssaiy  that  there  be  an  educa- 
tion in  movement,  and  since  it  is  known  that  the 
accuracy  of  movement  depends  upon  certain 
sensory  factors  (at  times  of  the  nature  of  rep- 
resentation), it  folio w.s  that  there  may  be  all 
grades  of  coordination  or  incoordination  de- 
pending upon  the  sensory  capabilities  and  upon 
the  amount  of  the  education.  It  also  is  easily 
understood  that  incoordination  or  ataxia  is 
natural  when  a  movement  has  been  performed 
only  a  few  times  and  when  the  sensory  ele- 
ments are  impaired. 

To  most  readers  it  is  unnecessary  to  point  out 
the  ataxic  condition  in  young  children,  which  at 
birth  is  almost  complete,  and  which  persists  for 
many  of  the  most  important  human  activities 
even  for  tliree  or  four  years.  In  this  connec- 
tion two  kinds  of  coordinated  movements  need 
but  be  mentioned:  walking  and  vocal  speech. 
In  other  activities  a  normal  incoordination  or 
ataxia  may  be  noted  even  in  adults.  The 
reader  need  but  call  to  mind  or  observe  the 
awkward  and  useless  motions  of  most  men 
when  they  sew;  the  badly  directed,  peculiar 
movements  of  a  woman  when  she  throws  a 
ball;  the  clumsy,  unskillful  activity  of  the 
adult  learning  to  dance;  and  the  laborious 
movements  of  one  learning  to  swim.  If  the 
education  process  begins  too  late  in  life,  cer- 
tain movements  may  never  become  so  wtU 
coordinated  that  the  activity  is  easily  and  well 
performed. 

The  ability  to  coordinate  movements  appears 
to  have  a  direct  relation  with  the  ability  of  the 
IcAver  centers  (i.e.  those  below  the  cerebral 
cortex)  to  assume  control  of  these  movements, 
but  the  condition  of  ataxia  may  be  the  result 
of  injury,  disease,  or  destruction  of  any  part  of 
the  afferent  system  that  is  used  in  coordination. 
It  is  known  that  lesions  or  functional  altera- 
tions of  the  peripheral  nerves,  of  the  spinal 
cord  and  medulla  oblongata,  of  the  cerebellum 
and  of  the  cerebrum  may  produce  ataxia, 
provided  the  appropriate  afferent  elements  are 
involved. 

A  common  ataxic  experience,  due  to  a  func- 
tional derangement,  is  that  experienced  in  the 
leg  w-hen  that  member  "goes  to  sleep."  The 
condition  persists  for  only  a  short,  time,  but, 
with  the  exception  of  cramp  or  of  paropsthesia 
(peculiar  subjective  sensations  of  tingling  and 
heaviness),  is  characteristic  of  mo.st  ataxic 
states.  If  cramp  is  not  present,  all  kinds  of 
movement  are  possible;  the  individual  may 
stand  or  walk  or  even  dance,  but  these  move- 
ments are  awkward,  and  both  objectively  and  sub- 
jectively apparently  uncontrolled.  The  leg  may 
be  dragged,  the  foot  may  be  lifted  too  high  or  put 
down  too  forcibly.  In  such  a  condition  the 
spinal  cord  or  the  brain  or  both  do  not  receive 


the  proper  afferent  impulses,  and  the  individual 

or  his  brain  or  his  spinal  cord  does  not  become 
aware  of  the  position  of  the  limb. 

Alcoholic  liquors  produce  an  ataxia  when 
taken  in  sufficient  quantities.  There  is  a 
staggering  gait,  a  stumbling  and  hesitating 
speech,  fumbling  of  the  hands,  and  a  difficulty 
in  the  performance  of  all  movements  requiring 
fine  adjustment.  In  such  a  condition  sensory 
deficiencies  can  be  demonstrated,  and,  wdien 
the  amount  of  the  ingested  alcohol  is  very  large, 
a  complete  anaesthesia  may  result. 

The  sway  of  the  body,  the  stagger,  the  slow, 
hesitating,  slurring,  and  jumbled  speech  of  the 
drunkard  are  paralleled  bj-  similar  states  due 
to  organic  nervous  disease  not  traceable  to 
alcohol.  These  symptoms  are  found  in  locomo- 
tor ataxia  (tabes  dorsali.'^).  In  this  disease  there 
is  a  degeneration  or  destruction  of  the  po.sterior 
nerve  roots  and  column.s  of  the  spinal  cord,  and 
the  afferent  impuLscs  that  normally  traverse 
these  paths  cannot  reach  their  respective  centers. 
A  similar  combination  occurs  in  the  diseases 
known  as  "  combined  sclerosis  "  and  "  Fried- 
reich's ataxia,''  although  in  both  diseases  there 
may  be  involved  the  efferent  paths  as  well  as 
the  afferent.  Some  cases  have  been  observed 
in  which  ataxia  is  due  to  defective  development 
of  the  cerebellum,  and  disease  of  this  organ 
in  adults  produces  a  similar  condition,  usually 
noticeable  only  when  the  individual  is  in 
the  upright  position.  It  may  also  be  men- 
tioned that  inflammation  of  and  hemorrhage 
into  the  internal  ear  produce  a  staggering  gait, 
associated  with  vertigo.  All  the  symptoms  in 
these  organic  diseases  may  be  simulated  in 
neurasthenia  (q.v.)  and  hysteria  (q.v.).  Loco- 
motor ataxia  and  combined  sclerosis  are  almost 
exclusively  diseases  of  adult  life,  while  Fried- 
reich's ataxia  and  the  ataxia  of  Marie  (due  to 
defective  development  of  the  cerebellum)  are 
congenital.  The  ataxias  due  to  internal  and 
middle  ear  diseases  and  those  associated  with 
neurasthenia  and  hysteria  may  arise  at  any  age. 

^lost,  but  not  all,  of  the  ataxias  are  chronic 
and  incurable.  Those  associated  with  neuras- 
thenia and  hysteria  give  way  to  normal  coor- 
dination under  appropriate  treatment  for  these 
diseases,  while  the  ataxias  of  organic  origin 
may  be  ameliorated  by  appropriate  measures, 
largely  of  an  educational  character.  In  many 
of  the  organic  ata.xias  associations  other  than 
those  between  the  normal  afferent  (i.e.  from 
skin,  muscles,  joints,  tendons,  and  bones)  and 
efferent  impulses  may  be  formed,  and  the 
individual  obtain  or  regain  a  degree  of  coordina- 
tion satisfactory  for  the  most  important  pur- 
poses of  life.  For  the  treatment  of  locomotor 
ataxia  Fraenkel  has  devised  a  system  of  train- 
ing w-hich  has  produced  apparently  wonderful 
results.  The  system  depends  upon  the  princi- 
ple of  the  substitution  of  other  afferent  impulses 
for  those  normally  employed  in  the  coordina- 
tion of  movement.  The  most  important  sub- 
stitution is  that  of  \-isual  and  motor  impulses 


262 


ATELIER 


ATHENAGORAS 


from  the  eyes  for  the  normal  afferent  impulses 
from  the  legs.  In  other  cases  in  which  ataxia 
is  not  associated  with  paralj'sis  or  other  motor 
defect  such  a  course  of  training  is  efficacious. 
A  few  words  may  be  added  about  the  popular 
misconception  of  an  exclusive  connection  be- 
tween paralysis  and  the  ability  to  perform 
actions.  In  locomotor  ataxia,  in  cerebellar 
ataxia,  and  in  the  early  stages  of  Friedreich's 
ataxia  no  true  paralysis  is  present,  but  there 
is  an  apparent  inability  to  move  the  limbs 
properly.  This  inability,  as  has  been  explained 
above,  is  entirely  due  to  the  lack  of  association 
between  the  afferent  and  efferent  elements. 
An  example  from  school  life  may  help  to  make 
this  fact  remembered.  A  teacher  of  a  lower 
grade  called  the  writer's  attention  to  a  boy  in 
her  class,  whose  apparent  inabilitj'  to  stand  in 
line,  to  perform  simple  gymnastic  movements 
when  he  was  shown  them,  etc.,  had  caused  her 
to  be  censured  by  one  of  the  supervisors.  The 
supervisor  would  not  believe  the  boy  was  ab- 
normal in  this  direction,  for  there  was  no  paral- 
ysis and  no  defect  of  vision  or  of  hearing.  A 
brief  examination,  suggested  by  the  teacher's 
report,  showed  that  the  boy  had  a  defective 
position  sense,  that  with  his  eyes  closed  he 
could  not  touch  his  nose,  did  not  know  the 
position  in  which  his  legs  were  placed,  and  was 
ataxic  from  absence  or  defect  of  the  normal 
afferent  movement  impulses.  Such  a  boy  can 
be  trained  to  walk,  to  stand,  and  to  perform  all 
other  important  coordinate  actions,  but  only 
when  there  is  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  the 
parents  an  appreciation  of  the  reason  for  the 
defect,  and  when  appropriate,  not  the  usual, 
methods  are  employed.  S.  I.  F. 

References  :  — 

FoEBSTER,     Q.     Die    Physiologie    und    Pathologic    der 

Coordination.     316  pp.      (Jena.  1902.) 
GoLDscHEiDER.     Kasuistischer  Beitrag  zur  Lehre   von 

der     sensorischen     Ataxie.       Neurol.     Ccntralblatt, 

1906,  Vol.  XXV,  338-. 
Leyden,  E.  v.,  und  Laz.irus,  P.     Ucber  die  sensorische 

Theorie  der  spinalen  Ataxie.     Festschr.  J.  Rosenthal, 

1906,  TeU  II,  pp.  3-10. 
Pexa,  W.     Beitrag  zur  Ataxie  im  Kinde.-salter.     Wien. 

med.    Wochensch..    1908,    Vol.    LVIII,    1779-1783  ; 

1841-1843  :     1882-1885. 
Thomas.     Article   on   Ataxie,    in    Richet,   Diction,    de 

Physiologie.  Paris,  1895,  Vol.  I,  pp.  805-813. 

ATELIER.  —  See     Aht    Schools;      Archi- 
tectural Education. 

ATHANASIUS,  ST.  —  Born  in  Alexandria  in 

297.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  early  life ;  but  about 
313,  when  he  was  16  years  of  age,  Alexander, 
his  predecessor  in  the  bishopric  of  Alexan- 
dria, made  him  his  pupil  and  private  secretary. 
Thereafter  he  devoted  himself  to  the  Christian 
ministry.  His  education  was  probably  gained 
in  his  native  city,  at  the  museum,  where  he 
would  have  learned  grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric. 
In  the  Christian  catechetical  school  he  would 
have  been  carefully  trained  in  the  philosophy 
of  Christianity.     However,  these  details  may 


be  uncertain;  but  it  is  clear,  from  his  own 
writings,  that  his  mind  was  well  disciplined,  and 
that  he  possessed  a  character  chastened  by 
asceticism,  while  his  intimacy  with  the  famous 
recluse,  Anthony,  served  to  develop  in  him 
faith  and  courage  of  a  high  order.  His  intel- 
lectual career  is  intimately  associated  with  the 
controversies  of  his  age,  cliiefly  the  movement 
which  centered  about  the  crystallization  of  the 
Catholic  dogma  of  the  Trinity,  in  which  he 
maintained  the  ultradogmatic  views  enun- 
ciated at  the  Council  of  Nicea  (325).  He  may 
also  be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  that 
movement  which  later  resulted  in  the  harden- 
ing of  tradition  under  the  Augustinian  influence, 
wliich  practically  dominated  the  intellectual 
life  of  the  Church  during  the  medieval  period, 
and  exerted  such  a  profound  influence  on  the 
education  of  that  and  succeeding  times.  The 
history  of  these  controversies  properly  belongs 
to  historical  theology,  and  need  not  detain  us 
here.  His  friend,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  de- 
scribes tliis  famous  controversialist  as  small  of 
stature,  but  his  face  was  "  as  the  face  of  an 
angel."  Though  engaged  in  the  bitterest 
contests,  resisting  false  charges,  suffering  in 
banishment,  he  seems  to  have  been  a  kindly 
man,  pleasant  in  conversation  and  in  temper, 
effective  both  in  argument  and  in  action.  As 
a  teacher  he  was  directed  by  the  desire  to  be  of 
ser\ace  to  all  classes  of  minds,  to  which  he  seems 
to  have  adapted  himself  with  success.  His 
long  and  somewhat  unprofitable  career  came 
to  a  close  in  373.  His  works  include  the  two 
essays.  Contra  Genies,  De  Incarnatione  Verhi, 
the  so-called  Festal  Letters,  and  his  Apologia, 
in  none  of  which  is  a  consistent  pedagogical 
doctrine  revealed.  His  significance  for  general 
education,  therefore,  is  small,  and  lies  chiefly, 
as  already  stated,  in  his  defense  of  the  orthodox 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  its  relation  to  the 
nature  and  extent  of  human  knowledge.  It 
seems  certain  that  the  views  of  Athanasius 
indicate  a  departure  from  those  held  by  the 
early  Church. 

The  works  of  Athanasius  are  included  in  the 
Library  of  Church  Fathers  (Oxford,  1843). 

Mohler's  Athanasius  (1827),  Farrar,  Lives 
of  the  Fathers,  Vol.  I,  pp.  369-42,5  (New  York, 
1889).  See  also  the  works  of  Dorner  and 
Sclileiermachor.  H.  D. 

ATHELHARD.  —  See  Adelhard. 

ATHENAGORAS.  —  Christian  philosopher 
born  at  Athens  in  the  second  century  a.d., 
exactly  when  it  is  not  known.  Nothing  reliable 
is  known  of  his  early  life  and  training,  except 
that  he  was  a  Christian  and  wrote  his  chief 
work,  the  Apology,  which  was  addressed  to  the 
Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  about  176  or  177  a.d. 
He  was  a  powerful  thinker  and  great  teacher, 
and  there  is  some  evidence  that  he  was,  at 
least  for  a  time,  the  head  of  the  famous  cate- 
chetical  school   at   Alexandria,    and   probably 


263 


ATHENS  COLLEGE 


ATHENS 


the  teacher  of  Clement  (q.v.),  its  ilhistrioiis 
leader  (150-220).  As  such  he  naturally  claims 
some  attention  in  the  history  of  educational 
theory  and  practice.  His  ])hilosopliical  doc- 
trine is  [jrofoundly  tinned  with  Platonism  and 
does  not  show  complete  independence;  yet  he 
is  one  of  the  most  attractive  writers  of  the 
period  of  the  Apologists,  and  did  much,  in  his 
office  as  a  teacher,  to  orient  the  western  mind 
ia  the  spirit  of  the  idealistic  faith  by  showing 
the  various  points  of  contact  between  Platon- 
ism and  ('hristianity.  Essentially  an  eclectic 
and  reconciler,  like  others  of  this  school,  he 
maintained  the  free  union  of  faith  and  knowl- 
edge, resisting  the  ultra-dogmatic  view,  and 
attracted  many  pupils  by  the  agreeable  com- 
bination of  the  Hellenistic  and  Christian  views 
and  by  the  beauty  of  his  presentation.  Quite 
naturally,  however,  the  theological  interest 
overtops  all  the  others.  Hence  his  importance 
for  technical  educational  theory  and  prac- 
tice is  small.  Perhaps  his  doctrine  of  knowl- 
edge bears  the  closest  relation  to  pedagogy, 
and  deserves  attention  for  its  irenic  tendency. 
He  maintained  that  the  Lognx,  or  divine  intel- 
ligence, was,  equally  for  the  Hellenic  poets  and 
philosophers  as  for  the  inspired  writers  of  the 
Scriptures,  the  source  of  the  perfect  clearness 
and  certainty  of  knowledge;  that  divine  truth 
was  the  result,  not  of  the  excogitations  of  the 
mind,  but  of  revelation,  vouchsafed  to  the 
thinker  by  the  Holy  Spirit  speaking  through 
the  Logos.  In  general,  rationality  is  the  ac- 
tive force  (iSfa  Kol  ivipyiia)  in  all  created  things 
and  minds,  and  emanates  from  God,  going 
forth  from  him  and  returning  to  him  like  a 
ray  of  the  sun.  His  pedagogical  doctrine, 
though  not  defined  in  so  many  words,  may  thus 
be  summarized  under  these  two  heads:  (1) 
knowledge  and  faith  arc  indissolubly  connected 
in  the  process  of  education;  (2)  the  substance 
of  teaching  is  the  truth  revealed  by  the  divine 
spirit  to  the  soul,  and  is  a  gradual  revelation, 
culminating  in  Christianity.  H.  D. 

References:  — 
The   work.s   of   Athenagoras   have    been   collected    and 

translated  in  the  Ante-Nicene  Library. 
Clarisse,  Th.   a.    De  Ath.   Vita,  Scriptis  el  Doclrina. 
(Leyden,  1819.) 

ATHENS  COLLEGE,  ATHENS,  ALA. — 

An  institution  for  the  education  of  young 
women  founded  by  the  Tennessee  Conference 
in  1842  and  transferred  to  the  North  Alabama 
Conference  in  1870.  Students  are  admitted 
at  the  age  of  15,  and  for  the  degree  courses  the 
requirements  are  ajjproximately  S  points  of  high 
school  work.  Classical,  scientific,  and  normal 
certificate  courses  are  offered.  Preparatory, 
fine  arts,  and  commercial  departments  are 
maintained.  There  is  a  faculty  of  16  pro- 
fessors and  instructors.  Mary  Norman  Moore 
is  the  president. 

ATHENS,   THE  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  The 

University  of  Athens  was  due  to  the  organiza- 


tion and  establishment  under  governmental 
control,  in  the  second  century  A. I).,  of  instruc- 
tion in  two  different  branches  of  study  —  philos- 
ophy and  rhetoric.  Both  of  these  had  been 
given  an  academic  standing  in  the  fifth  century 
B.C.,  or  soon  after,  as  a  result  of  the  impulse 
given  to  study  by  Socrates  and  the  Sophists. 
Philosophy  found  a  home  in  the  four  great 
schools  of  philosophy,  the  Academic,  the  Peri- 
patetic, the  Stoic,  and  the  Epicurean,  while 
rhetoric,  or  oratory,  was  developed  into  an 
art,  and  made  one  of  the  studies  of  the  Gre- 
cian youth,  by  Isocrates  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury B.C.  Into  this  higher  education  of  the 
fourth  and  third  centuries  m.c.  there  became 
dovetailcil  the  ephcbic  college.  This  was  a 
sort  of  military  academy,  in  which  originally 
all  native  male  Athenians,  on  coming  of  age, 
were  obliged  to  enroll  themselves  for  a  period  of 
two  years.  Later,  that  is,  from  the  end  of  the 
second  century  b.c,  foreigners  were  also  ad- 
mitted. Gradually  it  became  the  custom  for  the 
members  of  the  school  to  attend,  in  a  body  and 
under  the  leadershij)  of  their  director,  the  lec- 
tures of  the  philosophers,  rhetoricians,  and 
"grammarians."  Still  later  the  intellectual 
studies  took  preced(>nce  of  the  military  training, 
and  in  the  end  the  latter  became  wholly  second- 
ary to  the  former  or  was  allowed  to  lapse  alto- 
gether. For  the  period  of  the  University  proper, 
that  is,  from  the  second  century  a.d.  onward, 
the  ephebic  college  has  no  significance  in  the 
history  of  the  higher  education. 

From  the  fourth  century  b.c.  to  the  second 
century  a.d.  philosophical  and  rhetorical  schools 
flourished  side  by  side  at  Athens  as  private 
institutions,  and  students  flocked  to  them 
from  many  parts  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
worlds.  From  time  to  time  during  the  latter 
part  of  this  period  certain  privileges  were 
granted  to  teachers,  individually  or  as  a  class, 
but  no  attempt  was  made  to  give  them  an 
official  standing  until  the  time  of  Antoninus 
Pius.  Antoninus  is  said  to  have  granted 
honors  and  salaries  to  rhetoricians  and  philos- 
ophers throughout  the  provinces.  The  honors 
consisted  for  the  most  part  of  exemption  from 
taxes  and  immunity  from  i)ublic  duties,  many 
of  which  duties  required  the  expenditure  of 
much  time  and  money.  These  honors  were  to 
be  granted  only  after  formal  vote  of  the  local 
council  and  enrollment  of  the  beneficiary  in  the 
official  list  of  beneficiaries.  The  chair  of 
rhetoric  established  at  Athens  by  Antoninus 
was  called  the  "  political  "  chair,  but  whether 
by  this  was  meant  a  municipal  chair,  i.e.  a 
chair  endowed  by  the  municipality,  or  a  chair 
of  political,  as  distinguished  from  sophistical, 
oratory,  is  not  certain.  The  salary  of  this  chair 
was  one  talent  (SI 080).  Possibly  a  chair  of 
"  grammar"  and  a  chair  or  chairs  of  philosophy 
also  were  endowed  at  Athens  by  this  emperor. 

The  work  begun  by  Antoninus  Pius  was  con- 
tinued by  Marcus  Aurelius  (q.v.).  Marcus  es- 
tablished at  Athens  a  second  chair  of  rhetoric, 


264 


ATHENS 


ATHENS 


called  the  "  sophistical  "  chair,  as  well  as  two 
chairs  in  each  of  the  four  schools  of  philosophy. 
The  salary  of  each  of  these  chairs  was  10,000 
drachmae  ($1800),  which  was  to  be  paid  from 
the  imperial  funds.  Marcus  assigned  to  the 
venerable  sophist,  Herodes  Atticus,  the  duty 
of  making  the  appointments,  after  examina- 
tion, to  the  philosophical  chairs,  while  he 
reserved  to  himself  the  privilege  of  filling  the 
chair  of  sophistry.  This  arrangement,  so  far  as 
concerns  the  sophistical  chair,  continued  up  to 
the  middle  of  the  third  century.  With  the 
philosophical  chairs  the  case  was  otherwise. 
Herodes  died  about  179.  After  his  death  the 
duty  of  examining  the  candidates  and  making 
the  appointments  in  this  department  was  as- 
signed to  a  "  board  of  electors,"  the  constitution 
of  which  is  not  certain;  they  are  called  by  Lucian 
"  the  best,  the  oldest,  and  the  wisest  of  those 
in  the  city,"  and  it  has  been  thought  that 
they  were  members  of  the  local  council  or  the 
Areopagus.  The  holder  of  the  sophistical  chair 
ranked  in  dignity  above  the  other  professors. 

It  is  evident  that  Marcus  aimed  to  make  of 
Athens  a  real  university  center.  The  measures 
he  took  in  furtherance  of  this  aim  were  thorough- 
going and  extensive.  Loss  of  independence  on 
the  part  of  the  schools,  and  greater  oversight 
and  control  of  the  schools  on  the  part  of  the 
emperor  marked  the  changes  that  he  introduced. 
The  rhetorical,  or  sophistical,  instruction  thus 
officially  established  at  Athens  and  elsewhere 
by  Antoninus  Pius  and  Marcus  Aurelius 
claimed  to  prepare  young  men  for  professional 
and  official  life  (a  claim  that  the  philosophical 
schools  also  had  originally  made).  The  train- 
ing that  was  provided  was  literary  and  human- 
istic. The  "grammarian"  (a  term  of  much 
broader  import  than  the  term  as  used  in  Eng- 
lish) introduced  the  pupil  to  the  language, 
literature,  and  life  of  the  Greek  race;  the 
sophist,  whose  course  followed  that  of  the 
"grammarian,"  trained  him  to  individual  ef- 
fort in  the  use  of  language  and  argument. 

Through  the  second  century  and  until  about 
the  middle  of  the  third  century  the  University 
of  Athens  prospered  uninterruptedly.  Some 
of  the  distinguished  men  who  taught  there 
during  this  period  were  Herodes  Atticus, 
Theodotus,  Lollianus,  Philiscus,  and  Adrian. 
Early  in  the  second  half  of  the  third  century, 
owing  to  the  inroads  of  the  Gothic  tribes  from 
the  north,  the  whole  mechanism  of  the  Univer- 
sity fell  into  disarrangement.  With  the  ad- 
vent of  new  conditions,  however,  under  Dio- 
cletian and  Constantine,  the  University  entered, 
in  somewhat  altered  form,  upon  another  period 
of  prosperity.  The  various  schools  of  philos- 
ophy, with  the  exception  of  the  Academic 
school,  had  by  this  time  passed  out  of  exist- 
ence, but  sophistry  flourished  no  less  gloriously 
than  before.  Distinguished  sophists  at  Athens 
in  the  fourth  century  were  Pro»resius,  Julian, 
Himerius,  and  Hepha>stion. 

The  number  of  official  sophists  at  Athens  in 

265 


the  fourth  century  is  uncertain,  but  there  were 
at  least  three,  and  there  may  have  been  more. 
Besides  the  regularly  appointed  teachers,  there 
were  many  others  of  various  grades  who  held 
no  official  appointment,  and  who  depended  for 
their  income  solely  on  the  fees  of  their  students. 
The  local  council  was  at  this  time  the  appoint- 
ing power,  subject,  however,  to  the  direction, 
which  was  not  always  or  perhaps  even  generally 
exercised,  of  the  proconsul  and  the  emperor. 
Candidates  must  be  of  good  moral  character  and 
proficiency  in  the  subject  of  their  profession. 
Sometimes,  notably  on  occasion  of  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  Head  of  the  rhetorical 
school,  a  rhetorical  contest  was  in.stituted 
among  the  various  candidates,  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  which  candidate  could  assert 
the  best  claim  to  the  position. 

The  establishment  by  Constantine  of  Chris- 
tianity as  the  court  religion  contained  the  germs 
of  serious  consequences  for  Athens,  and  it  was 
this  that  contributed  in  largest  measure  to 
the  fall  of  the  University.  The  ancient  culture 
and  the  ancient  religion  were  so  closely  united 
that  the  two  were  generally  considered  insep- 
arable, and  the  fall  of  the  one  meant  the  ulti- 
mate fall  of  the  other.  The  fifth  century  is 
marked  by  the  gradual  decline  of  the  study 
of  oratory  and  the  growth  of  the  Neo-Platonic 
school  at  Athens.  Neo-Platonism  at  this 
time  represented  nearly  all  the  philosophy  of 
the  age.  It  pretended  to  be  simply  a  develop- 
ment of  the  ideas  contained  in  the  writings  of 
Plato,  but  it  really  embodied  doctrines  of 
other  schools,  as  the  Aristotelian  and  the  Stoic, 
and  finally  assumed  the  character  of  a  religion 
tinged  with  Eastern  mysticism.  The  Neo- 
Platonic  school  at  Athens  enjoyed  the  en- 
dowment of  the  Academy,  of  which  it  claimed 
to  be  the  legitimate  successor.  To  it  flocked 
the  most  of  those  who  were  philosophically 
or  spiritually  inclined,  but  were  out  of  sym- 
pathy with  the  new  religion.  The  deathblow 
to  the  ancient  instruction  came  in  a  rescript  of 
Justinian  of  the  year  529,  forbidding  the  teach- 
ing of  all  philosophy  and  the  expounding  of 
the  law  at  Athens.  All  grants  of  public  funds 
maile  by  previous  emperors  in  the  interests  of 
learning  were  withdrawn,  and  the  endowment 
of  the  philosophical  school  at  Athens  was  con- 
fiscated. 

The  University  of  Athens,  in  common  with 
most  other  Greek  universities,  was  of  the  nature 
of  a  voluntary  congregation  of  professors  and 
students,  without  governing  or  examining 
board.  The  various  streams  of  education  met 
either  in  the  local  council  or  in  the  emperor, 
but  no  attempt  was  made  by  either  of  these  to 
regulate  the  kind  or  the  amount  of  instruction. 
Athens  was  the  chief  center  of  sophistical 
study  in  ancient  times.  The  history  and  as- 
sociations of  the  city  exercised  a  powerful  in- 
fluence over  the  imaginations  of  men  through- 
out antiquity,  and  students  flocked  thither 
from  all  parts  of  the  Eastern  world.     Many  of 


ATHLETICS 


ATHLETICS 


the  distinctive  features  of  Greek  university  life 
existed  there  in  their  most  pronounced  form. 

J.  W.  H.  VV. 
See  Greece,   Education    in;  Universities. 

References  :  — 
Capes,    \\'.    W.     University    Life   in  Ancient    Athens. 

(London.    KS77.) 
Waldkn,  J.  W.  H.     The  Universities  of  Ancient  Greece. 

(New  York,  1909.) 

ATHLETICS,  EDUCATIONAL.  —  Forms  of 
phy.sifiil  oxcrci.scs  iiicludins  individual  and 
team  games,  track  and  field  athletics  and  all 
contests  of  phy.sical  strength  and  skill  for 
personal  jilcasure  or  individual  or  social  honors, 
which  arc  carried  on  in  connection  with  educa- 
tional work,  and  at  least  ostensibly  for  educa- 
tional ends.  All  youth  in  all  tribes  and  all  nations 
naturally  enter  into  jihysical  contests  of  some 
character,  especially  running,  leaping,  wresthng, 
throwing,  etc.  These  contests  develop  in 
widely  different  forms,  and  are  transmitted  by 
tradition,  thus  entering  into  the  customs  of  the 
people.  Social  thinkers  recognize  certain  educa- 
tional values  in  these  contests  and  encourage 
them.  Historically  this  tendencj-  developed  to 
its  greatest  perfection  among  the  Ancient 
Greeks.  In  England  athletics,  like  gymnastics 
in  Germany  and  Sweden,  are  a  well-rccognized 
phase  of  the  general  education  of  youth.  The 
movement  in  the  United  States,  educationally 
and  socially,  is  of  national  importance. 

During  the  la.st  decade  of  the  nineteenth 
century  and  the  first  decade  of  the  twentieth, 
a  nation-wide  development  and  organization 
of  athletics  among  youth  took  place.  Every 
institution  centered  in  the  hfe  of  youth,  either 
by  compulsion  or  choice  assumed  some  degree 
of  leadership  in  athletics.  The  older  move- 
ment in  athletic  clubs  and  especially  in  colleges 
became  more  intensive  with  grow'ing  faculty 
control  in  the  latter.  The  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Associations  put  greater  emphasis  on 
physical  work  and  organized  the  Athletic 
League  of  North  America.  Development  in 
high  schools  became  practically  universal, 
extended  to  elementary  schools,  and  gainecl 
an  added  power  through  the  organization  of 
public  school  athletic  leagues.  The  playground 
campaign,  with  its  athletics  for  the  "  older  chil- 
dren," became  a  national  issue.  Finally,  social 
settlements,  Sunday  schools,  and  boys'  clubs 
began  the  organization  of  athletic  activities, 
and  particularly  in  large  cities  the  formation  of 
athletic  leagues.  This  general  development 
came  partly  from  the  natural  inclinations  of 
youth  and  jiartly  from  the  deliberate  planning 
of  adults  interested  in  the  educational  and  social 
welfare  of  youth. 

While  the  values  of  athletic  activities  among 
youth  may  be  recognized,  certain  difficulties 
in  securing  these  values  for  large  numbers,  and 
certain  tendencies  to  evil,  are  also  recognized 
by  educators.  Furthermore,  there  is  a  tend- 
ency for    athletics   to  be    totally  transformed 


in  character,  as  they  develop  under  certain 
social  con<litions  best  illustrated  liistorically  in 
the  degeneration  of  the  contests  of  Ancient 
Greece  into  those  of  a  later  period,  and  finally 
into  those  of  the  Roman  Circus  and  Amphi- 
theater. 

Educational  Value  of  Athletics.  —  The  ed- 
ucational values  of  athletics  are  primarily 
those  of  all  vigorous  neuromuscular  exercise. 
(1)  Exercise  secures  organic  development,  i.e. 
the  development  of  those  organs  and  functions 
during  the  growth  of  the  individual  from  in- 
fancy to  maturity  that  gives  vitality,  vigor, 
functional  power  for  health  to  the  limit  of 
inherited  i)ossibilities.  (2)  Exercise  secures 
psj'chomotor  development,  i.e.  the  develop- 
ment of  that  control  of  the  nuiscular  system 
which  gives  skill,  body  resourcefulness,  and 
the  fundamental  basis  for  a  broad  "  manual," 
industrial,  and  artistic  training.  (.'5)  Exercise 
gives  the  opportunity  for  securing  a  mental 
and  moral  discipline  (a)  by  giving  a  drill  in 
vigorous  activities  which  require  alertness, 
effort,  determination;  (6)  by  giving  self- 
knowledge  of  physical  powers  through  com- 
parison with  others;  (c)  by  giving  standards 
for  intelligent  care  of  the  body,  esi)ecially  the 
nervous  system,  to  secure  the  greatest  physical 
efficiency;  (d)  by  giving  discipline  in  self-con- 
trol; (c)  by  giving  concepts  of  "team  work" 
or  cooperative  self-subordinatioti  and  social 
experience  under  conditions  that  identify  the 
youth  with  the  social  interests  of  the  group 
demanding  cooperation. 

These  values  may  be  secured  with  different 
emphasis  through  industrial  labor,  gymnastics, 
vigorous  play,  or  athletics.  The  aim  in  each 
of  these  activities  is  different,  hence  the  bodily 
results  vary.  In  industrial  activities,  the 
aim  is  industrial  results;  the  bodily  results 
may  be  and  usually  are  very  unbalanced.  In 
gymnastics  (q.i'.),  the  aim  is  physical  develop- 
ment through  set,  formal  movements,  delinitely 
arranged  and  susceptible  of  predetermination 
as  to  results.  In  athletics  (though  they  may 
also  be  taken  consciously  for  the  exercise),  the 
aim  is  the  contest,  and  the  movements  depend 
upon  the  exigencies  of  the  contest.  The 
exercise  is  not  so  easily  predetermined  as  to 
results.  This  gives  gymna.stics  the  advan- 
tage in  the  precision  of  physical  results  that 
may  be  secured.  In  athletics  the  movements 
are  more  specialized  and  less  easily  controlled, 
though  they  may  be  graded  loosely  to  fit  in- 
dividual needs  and  tastes.  While  athletics, 
generally  speaking,  secure  all  results,  gymnastics 
in  some  cases  will  succeed  where  athletics  will 
fail.  The  advantages  of  athletics  over  gym- 
nastics arise  from  their  competitive  and  social 
nature.  While  athletics  may  be  used  as  a 
gymnastics,  and  some  forms  of  gynuuistics 
may  be  used  in  the  spirit  of  athletics,  and  each 
made  to  grade  one  into  the  other,  athletics 
are  fundamentally  competitive  and  social; 
gymnastics  are  only  so  by  consent.     Athletics, 


266 


ATHLETICS 


ATHLETICS 


being  competitive  and  social,  rouse  a  broader 
range  of  social  impulses  and  emotions  than 
gymnastics.  They  furnish  possil)ilities  for  a 
deeper  social  stimulus  and  training.  Gym- 
nastics gain  all  fundamental  results,  but  can- 
not compare  with  athletics  in  these  broader 
disciplinary  values.  From  the  viewpoint  of 
general  education  and  a  broad  physical  educa- 
tion, athletics  must  be  considered  coordinate 
with  g}'mnastics  in  composing  the  technique  of 
physical  education  for  youth.  Atliletics  prob- 
ably possess  the  larger  values,  but  no  broad 
rational  system  of  physical  education  can  be 
based  on  either  alone. 

Athletics,  being  contests  between  two  or 
more  individuals,  are  essentially  social,  and  re- 
quire organization  through  mutual  agreement. 
Several  possible  groupings  of  individuals  for 
contests  may  take  place  in  any  social  com- 
munity. (1)  Two  or  more  individuals  or  groups 
of  individuals  may  organize  spontaneously, 
day  by  day,  irrespective  of  social  affiliations, 
for  a  contest  or  a  period  of  play.  This  is  the 
usual  method  among  town  boj's,  town  men, 
schoolboys,  and  many  college  men  untouched 
by  an  athletic  association.  (2)  Permanent  asso- 
ciations may  be  organized  to  furnish  facilities 
for  contests  among  members,  as  is  usually  the 
case  in  local  clubs  such  as  tennis  and  golf 
associations.  (3)  Institutional  groups  or  asso- 
ciations organized  for  other  functions  than  ath- 
letics may  organize  for  the  development  of 
facilities  and  the  promotion  of  interest,  as  is 
usually  the  case  in  schools  and  clubs.  (4) 
Finally  the  members  of  the  whole  complex 
group,  the  institution,  town,  city,  or  nation, 
may  organize  under  the  name  of  the  group  for 
intergroup,  interinstitutional,  or  international 
contests  with  other  groups.  The  conditions 
affecting  the  development  of  athletics  in  these 
various  groups  differ.  Manj'  of  the  tendencies 
to  evil  grow  with  progress  from  the  simpler 
to  the  more  complex  forms  of  organization. 
Under  simple  conditions  the  managerial  func- 
tion is  undifferentiated.  With  the  development 
of  athletics  in  formal  organization  the  manage- 
rial function  arises  as  a  distinct  special  force. 

Athletics,  like  all  games,  are  passed  on  by 
tradition  —  by  imitation  and  by  the  older  and 
experienced  teaching  the  younger  and  inex- 
perienced. As  athletics  progress  in  formal 
organization,  the  instructional  function  tends 
to  be  differentiated  and  specialized,  and  the 
instructor  or  coach  develops  with  special 
powers  for  good  or  evil. 

Creative  Forces  in  Athletics.  —  All  the 
various  forms  of  athletics  are  created,  and  all 
the  different  tendencies  in  development  are 
determined  by  two  different  classes  of  interests 
in  contests  common  to  all  men:  the  partici- 
pant's or  contestant's  impulses,  pleasures,  and 
interests  in  the  activities  and  result  of  the 
contest,  and  the  spectator's  impulses,  pleas- 
ures and  interests  in  the  contest  and  its  results 
as  a  spectacle. 


The  Contestant's  Incentives.  —  The  contes- 
tant's pleasures  and  interests  develop  out  of  a 
series  of  play  tendencies  which  must  be  under- 
stood to  understand  athletics.  At  the  founda- 
tion of  all  vigorous  muscular  play  there  is  a 
pleasure  in  the  mere  motor  discharge  exhibited 
by  the  young  of  all  animals  —  a  satisfaction  of 
the  primitive  hunger  for  activity.  To  these 
fundamental  pleasures  there  are  added  a  long 
series  of  pleasurable  emotional  states.  There 
is  the  conflict  of  daring  and  fear  in  feats,  the 
pleasure  in  accomplishment  and  success,  the 
pleasure  and  pride  in  overcoming  difficulties 
and  encountering  risk  or  danger  with  all  its 
emotional  tension,  the  exaltation  that  comes 
in  the  rebound  from  fear  through  relief,  the 
tension  of  expectation  and  shock  of  surprise, 
the  pleasure  of  enduring  hardships  and  suppress- 
ing pain,  the  pleasure  in  mastery  of  self,  the 
inspiration  of  being  a  cause,  and  all  the  emo- 
tional content  that  holds  attention  and  height- 
ens the  reality  of  life,  which  is  opposed  to 
ennui,  and  which  for  the  adolescent  is  a  neuro- 
logical necessity.  Then  there  are  the  impulses 
which  influence  the  form  of  play.  Through  all 
childhood  there  is  intense  pleasure  in  being 
chased  and  chasing,  hiding,  being  sought  and 
seeking.  The  combative  social  and  egoistic 
impulses,  appearing  in  plaj'  from  early  child- 
hood, become  especially  prominent  with  adoles- 
cence. Simple  running  for  its  own  sake  soon 
loses  its  charm  and  must  be  turned  into  a  con- 
test, thus  satisfying  the  combative  impulse. 
Rolling  about  on  the  floor  is  turned  into  a 
tu.s.sle.  The  egoistic  impulse  combines  with 
the  combative  to  give  keenness  to  do  something 
as  well  as  or  better  than  some  one  else.  This 
tendency  becomes  peculiarly  strong  in  the  ado- 
lescent period  (q.v.),  the  athletic  age. 

The  social  impulses,  with  perhaps  some  sexual 
elements,  add  their  force.  A  desire  for  social 
applause  and  approbation  leads  often  to  self- 
exhibition  and  a  display  of  skill  or  courage. 
Especially  keen  is  the  pleasure  of  achievement 
in  competition  under  social  conditions,  perhaps 
the  highest  stimulus  and  satisfaction  m  youth  to 
the  egoistic  impulses  and  emotions.  Cravings 
for  self-testings,  self-evaluation,  the  determi- 
nation of  one's  social  status,  become  promi- 
nent. Where  these  impulses  come  in  contact 
with  developed  or  traditional  play  activities, 
as  in  athletics,  there  arises  spontaneou.sly  a 
craving  to  gain  one's  place  in  the  social  system, 
to  become  a  member  of  the  team,  to  represent 
one's  fellows,  to  support  the  honor  of  the 
group,  and  to  win  the  satisfaction  and  applause 
of  achievement,  to  gain  honor.  Public  interest 
intensifies  these  expressions.  To  be  prominent 
in  social  activities  is  one  of  the  most  stimulating 
of  social  motives. 

Athletics  are  then  the  more  formal  contests 
among  plays  and  games,  limited  by  formal  rules 
and  arranged  by  social  usage  or  agreement  to 
give  the  largest  satisfaction  to  the  combative, 
egoistic,    and    social    impulses    and    emotions. 


267 


ATHLETICS 


ATHLETICS 


The  primary  incentive  in  athletics  is  to  secure 
these  pleasures.  Uninfluenced  from  without, 
there  is  no  other  conscious  aim  than  tliese  pleas- 
ures. \\'ith  the  development  of  athletics  in 
social  proniinenco,  motives  Ijccome  more  and 
more  social,  centering  in  honor.  A  series  of 
secondary  interests  and  motives  arise,  such  as 
a  desire  for  social  j)roniincncc,  leadership,  or 
power.  Under  the  stimulus  of  social  applau.sc 
and  tiie  desire  for  honor,  the  primary  pleasures 
in  the  contest  may  be  replaced  by  discomfort 
or  hardship,  or  even  pain,  yet  the  motive  sus- 
tains the  effort.  If  to  these  highly  developed 
motives  the  desire  for  material  gain  is  added, 
the  aim  becomes  professional.  How  the  mo- 
tives in  the  individual  shall  develop  is  deter- 
mined by  his  temperament  and  the  social  con- 
ditions surrounding  him.  It  is  in  the  soil  of 
specialized  social  motives,  so  far  as  the  athlete 
is  concerned,  that  most  of  the  difficulties  in 
athletics  develop. 

The  nature  of  the  incentives  that  create  play 
and  athletics,  and  the  need  of  vigorous  neuro- 
muscular activities  during  the  entire  period  of 
growth  and  development  in  order  to  realize 
bodily  powers,  reveal  the  functions  and  mean- 
ing of  athletics.  Nature  made  the  play  im- 
pulse the  guardian  of  physical  and  mental  needs. 
As  contests  appear  with,  and  are  especially  char- 
acteristic of,  the  adolescent  period,  they  may 
fairly  be  considered  the  natural  vigorous 
e.xercise  of  youth.  In  this  sense  they  may  be 
interpreted  as  nature's  means  of  physical  educa- 
tion during  the  adolescent  period.  The  pri- 
mary motives  in  athletics  and  the  normal  results 
are  purely  educational:  the  youth's  aim  in 
contests  is  pleasure;  nature's  aim  is  education. 
In  these  activities,  youth  has  inherent  rights, 
and  society  is  profoundly  affected  morally  and 
socially  by  a  neglect  or  protection  of  these 
rights.  The  place  of  athletics  among  the 
social  customs  of  a  people  and  in  an  educational 
system  must  be  determined  theoretically  by  the 
necessary  amount  of  daily  vigorous  activity 
required  during  the  successive  years  of  youth 
to  develop  complete  organic  power  and  funda- 
mental psychomotor  skill,  by  the  relative 
superiority  of  athletics  to  any  other  vigorous 
activity  for  moral  and  social  discipline,  and  by 
the  influence  of  these  activities  on  the  general 
recreative  and  social  customs  of  the  people. 

The  Spectator's  Incentives.  —  The  spectator's 
interest  in  athletics,  like  the  participant's, 
arises  from  a  deep-seated  tendency  in  human 
nature.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  dramatic 
interest.  The  struggles  of  others  excite,  fasci- 
nate, sway.  Through  sympathy  the  spectator 
enters  into  the  struggle.  Especially  strong  is 
the  excitement  in  fighting  contests.  Human 
nature  loves  to  see  a  fight.  The  extremes  of 
emotion  aroused  are  best  illustrated  by  the 
world's  great  fighting  spectacles:  the  gladia- 
torial contest,  the  chariot  race,  and  the  bull 
fight  of  earlier  times;  the  horse  race,  the  prize 
fight,  and  the  professional  baseball  contest  of 


modern  times.  The  less  extreme  expressions 
arc  seen  in  the  support  of  traveling  acrobats, 
foot  racers,  and  games  not  intended  for  spec- 
tators. Out  of  this  primal  interest  in  a  strug- 
gle, common  to  all  human  beings,  evolves  the 
spectator. 

The  nature  of  the  contest  that  will  satisfy 
different  individuals  depends  on  character, 
intelligence,  training,  culture,  and  life  condi- 
tions. On  one  side  there  are  those  who  are 
satisfied  with  the  pleasures  of  a  skillful  contest 
between  gentlemen,  on  the  other  those  who  are 
satisfied  oidy  with  a  fierce  personal,  often  brutal 
combat  that  reveals  and  rouses  primitive 
human  passions.  Between  these  two  extremes 
are  all  pleasure  seekers  at  an  athletic  contest. 
In  the  development  of  all  sports  these  two 
classes  are  ever  in  opposition.  The  desires  of 
the  one,  therefore  its  influence,  are  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  other.  Neither  can  be  satis- 
fied permanently  with  what  pleases  the  other. 
The  development  of  athletics  in  the  group  will 
be  according  to  which  element  dominates  in 
the  creation  of  public  sentiment.  In  propor- 
tion as  the  extreme  spectacle-loving  element 
can  make  its  desires  felt,  will  the  anti-social 
tendencies,  revealed  in  the  destruction  of 
many  sports  in  the  past,  reappear.  The  human 
tendencies  exhibited  in  the  more  or  less  extinct 
or  disgraced  contests  of  the  past  are  still  active, 
and  reveal  themselves  in  athletics  to-day  as  in 
older  times. 

Many  characters  are  not  satisfied  with  the 
emotions  connected  with  the  spectacle  alone. 
They  must  play  with  the  emotions  of  chance 
and  intensify  the  pleasures  in  the  spectacle  by  a 
wager  on  the  result,  hence  gambling  becomes 
associated  with  the  contest.  Furthermore, 
many  live  over  an  emotional  reverberation  of 
the  contest  after  it  is  finished,  thus  developing 
athletic  gossip  and  the  sporting  sheet  in  news- 
papers, which  in  turn  arouses  the  same  tenden- 
cies in  others. 

The  spectator  everywhere  tends  to  take 
sides  and  become  a  partisan.  With  the  devel- 
opment of  athletics,  the  organization  of  inter- 
group  contests,  and  the  selection  of  a  team 
to  represent  the  group,  partisan  athletics  arise; 
the  spectator  becomes  an  institutional  partisan 
and  takes  on  a  new  power  for  influence.  Social 
pride,  clannishness,  rivalry,  and  all  the  emotions 
exhibited  by  a  group  in  competition  with 
another  group,  surround  the  contest.  Group 
becomes  arrayed  against  group.  The  contest 
tends  to  take  on  the  characteristics  of  group 
war.  Public  interest  becomes  partisan,  and 
the  partisan  aim  becomes  the  dominant  aim. 
Interest  centers  in  the  emotions  connected  with 
the  chances  of  winning,  and  shifts  to  an  empha- 
sis on  results.  Partisan  demonstrations  add  to 
the  spectacle,  which  attracts  an  ever-widening 
circle  of  spectators. 

The  influence  of  the  spectator  on  the  more 
complex  development  of  athletics  has  been 
profound.     The    spectator's    pleasure    in    the 


268 


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ATHLETICS 


skilled  exhibition  or  contest,  and  his  willingness 
to  pay  for  the  pleasure,  added  to  the  economic 
needs  of  some  skillful  performers,  have  created 
the  professional  athlete  and  professional  ath- 
letics. The  professional  makes  a  business  of 
training  and  developing  personal  skill  to  supply 
a  social  demand  for  amusement.  His  activi- 
ties can  no  longer  be  classified  as  play.  Again 
the  spectator,  as  indicated  in  the  social  elements 
of  the  contestant's  incentives,  supplies  the  more 
stimulating  applause,  approbation,  and  honors, 
and,  as  his  interest  centers  on  the  more  exciting 
contests  and  the  most  skilled  athletes,  he  tends 
to  mold  the  athlete's  motives  and  the  form  of 
his  activities.  The  athlete's  motives  and  the 
spectator's  interests  tend  to  complement  each 
other.  This  tendency  is  particularly  conspicu- 
ous in  intergroup  partisan  athletics.  The 
susceptibilities  of  different  individuals  to  the 
influences  of  the  spectator  vary  greatly,  but 
the  combination  of  the  specialized  social  mo- 
tives in  some  athletes  and  the  spectator's 
desires  tend  to  the  development  of  a  form  of 
specialized,  highly  skilled  athletics  primarily 
for  the  amusement  of  the  spectator.  The 
athlete  requires  special  training,  thus  empha- 
sizing the  coaching  function;  the  spectator's 
interests  require  management,  thus  emphasizing 
the  managerial  function.  Therefore  the  influ- 
ence of  the  spectator,  while  a  stimulating, 
though  unessential  force  in  the  development  of 
athletics,  tends  toward  a  narrow,  highly  skilled 
form  of  athletics  rather  than  toward  a  widening 
sway  of  the  athletic  interest  as  an  educational 
force.  Hence,  the  spectator  and  his  influence 
are  the  most  serious  problem  in  the  advanc- 
ing power  of  athletics. 

Evils  of  Athletics.  —  A  number  of  evils  are 
associated  with  athletic  activities,  but  a  dis- 
tinction should  be  made  between  elemental 
tendencies  to  evil  and  the  exaggerated  compli- 
cations of  these  evils  through  specific  influences 
in  the  development  of  athletics. 

1.  There  is  the  tendency,  associated  with  all 
vigorous  activities,  to  physical  injury.  This 
tendency  is  increased  by  an  individual's  com- 
peting in  activities  for  which  he  is  unfitted, 
inadequately  traineil,  or  improperly  equipped, 
or  against  individuals  out  of  his  class,  or  while 
fatigued,  etc.  The  tendency  may  be  mini- 
mized by  proper  inspection,  classification,  and 
training. 

2.  There  is  the  tendency,  associated  with 
many  pleasurable  activities,  to  overindulgence 
which  results  in  physical  harm  and  a  dissipa- 
tion of  time.  This  is  chiefly  a  product  of  ill- 
advised  enthusiasm,  and  is  exaggerated  by  the 
pressure  of  partisan  rivalry.  It  is  eliminated 
by  competent  supervision  or  leadership. 

3.  There  is  the  tendency  to  specialization 
which  may  result  in  unbalanced  development 
and  unfortunate  play  habits.  It  is  exagger- 
ated artificially  by  the  pressure  of  partisan 
rivalry  in  intergroup  competition.  It  may  be 
eliminated  by  competent  supervision. 


4.  There  is  the  tendency,  common  to  all 
social  competition,  to  bad  manners,  to  irri- 
tability in  defeat  and  gloating  in  victory, 
though  individuals  differ  greatly  in  these  tend- 
encies. The  tendency  is  exaggerated  by  bad 
play  traditions  in  the  group,  by  bad  leadership, 
by  disrespect  for  rivals,  by  bad  treatment  on 
the  part  of  rivals,  and  by  the  pressure  of  parti- 
sans. It  may  be  controlled  by  strong  leader- 
ship in  building  wholesome  play  standards,  and 
by  good  management,  instruction,  and  disci- 
pline. 

5.  There  is  a  tendencj'  to  evasions  of  the 
rules  of  the  game.  The  rules  are  articles  of 
agreement  under  which  a  trial  of  skill  is  to  be 
made,  violations  of  which  are  dishonest.  The 
limitations  of  the  rules  offer  temptations  which 
test  character  and  training.  The  tendency  is 
exaggerated  by  bad  play  traditions,  by  vicious 
instructions  from  coaches,  by  suspicion  of  rivals, 
by  partisan  pressure  to  win,  etc.  The  tendency 
may  be  controlled  by  strong  leadership  in  the 
development  of  sentiment  among  athletes  and 
by  an  administration  that  counteracts  the 
influence  of  the  spectator. 

6.  There  is  a  tendency  to  violations  of  the 
principles  of  classification  in  any  group  which 
under  the  law  of  participation  narrows  partici- 
pation. This  tendency  is  seen  under  simple 
conditions  and  in  small  groups  where  the 
older,  stronger,  and  more  aggressive  eliminate 
the  younger,  weaker,  or  timid  from  certain 
games.  It  is  seen  under  complex  conditions 
in  large  groups  where  there  is  a  temptation  to 
neglect  players  less  skilled  than  the  few  best 
or  to  use  players  not  legitimately  members  of 
the  group.  The  tendency  to  violate  an  accepted 
classification  and  thus  to  gain  an  advantage 
is  strikingly  exaggerated  through  the  pressure 
of  partisan  rivalry,  the  interests  of  the  profes- 
sional coach,  and  suspicion  of  rivals  in  inter- 
group contests.  This  tendency  may  be  mini- 
mized by  educational  leadership  that  will 
control  the  influence  of  partisan  and  coach. 
Public  opinion  may  here  be  very  effective. 
(See  Amateurism.) 

7.  There  is  the  tendency  for  athletics  to 
come  under  the  control  of  the  spectator  and 
develop  into  specialized  intergroup  partisan 
contests,  which  in  turn  tends  to  destroy  general 
participation  and  the  social  respect  for  athletics. 
This  tendency  is  especially  strong  in  the  later 
years  of  youth.  With  the  development  of 
intergroup  contests,  the  desire  to  win  tends  to 
become  extreme.  Group  pride  is  involved,  and 
success  coveted  as  an  honor.  This  intensi- 
fication of  the  desire  to  win  and  the  exaggera- 
tion of  the  importance  of  winning  tends  to 
destroy  the  character  of  athletics  as  play. 
Training  for  skill  is  pushed  to  the  limit  of 
youthful  endurance,  which,  though  the  disci- 
pline majf  be  commended,  few  individuals 
are  capable  of  enduring.  Excc])tional  individ- 
uals must  carry  the  burden,  so  there  is  selected 
a  special  group  of  athletes  on  which  spectators, 


269 


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ATHLETICS 


coaches,  and  managers  focus  their  attention: 
leaving  the  majority  of  the  group  forgotten 
and  neglected.  Exceptional  individuals  are 
scarce,  hence  partisans  search  for  them,  and 
proselyting,  or  recruiting  methods  develop, 
which  tend  to  corrupt  violations  of  the  laws  of 
classification.  Even  for  the  exceptional  ath- 
lete, play  is  changed  into  work,  and  the 
energy  and  time  consumed  the  maximum.  As 
a  natural  result  there  develops  in  some  athletes 
the  question:  What  is  there  in  it?  This  the 
partisan  tends  to  meet  by  extra  encourage- 
ments, inducements,  honors  and  rewards,  and 
petty  professional  practices  develop  which  are 
])erpetuated  by  custom  and  the  enthusiasm  of 
partisans.  The  extreme  specialized  training 
aggravates  the  lesser  tendencies  to  evil,  to  avoid 
which  artificial  methods  are  adopted.  Trainers, 
rubbers,  and  the  training  table  are  employed 
to  meet  the  physical  needs;  officials  are  mul- 
tiplied to  minimize  the  tendencies  to  unsocial 
acts  and  violations  of  the  rules  of  the  game; 
and  complex  eligibility  codes  are  formulatetl 
to  reduce  the  tendency  to  ignore  the  laws  of 
classification. 

Both  the  managerial  and  instructional  func- 
tions tend  to  become  totally  divorced  from  the 
play  needs  of  the  masses  of  youth  and  to  be- 
come highly  specialized  agents  of  the  spectator. 
The  coach,  being  judged  by  the  results  of  con- 
tests, concentrates  his  efforts  on  exceptional 
athletes.  The  manager,  being  dependent  on 
the  spectator  for  finances,  tends  to  manage 
solely  in  the  interest  of  the  spectator.  This 
management  and  the  expenses  connected  with 
the  equipment  of  teams,  cost  of  games  and 
trips,  officials,  training  tables,  coaches,  trainers, 
rubbers,  doctors'  bills,  medical  supplies,  honors, 
rewards,  privileges,  etc.,  tend  to  surround 
athletics  with  a  strong  commercial  atmosphere 
unwholesome  and  destructive  to  the  play  spirit. 
The  final  tendency  of  partisan  athletics  is 
toward  a  business,  involving  a  few  specialized 
athletes  performing  for  the  satisfaction  of 
partisans,  which  is  essentialh'  professional  in 
methods  and  commercial  in  character.  Youth 
tends  to  lose  all  sense  of  athletics  as  a  natural, 
valuable,  and  dignified  acti\-ity,  and  public 
opinion  tends  to  consider  athletics  merely  as 
a  spectacle.  How  far  this  evolution  will  pro- 
ceed in  the  organized  athletics  in  any  group 
will  depend  upon  the  age  of  the  contestants 
and  the  elements  to  be  considered  under  con- 
trol. 

Several  factors  tend  to  exaggerate  the  special- 
izing influence  of  the  spectator.  The  press 
associates  partisan  contests  not  with  educa- 
tional topics,  but  with  professional  baseball, 
prize  fighting  and  horse-racing  gossip,  thus 
misguiding  public  opinion.  Educators,  con- 
centrated on  intellectual  education,  tend  to 
avoid  leadership  in  the  outdoor  life  of  youth. 
They  tend  to  leave  managers,  coaches,  and 
players  without  supervision,  subject  to  the 
domination  of  partisans,  and  free  to  use  their 


own  methods.  Winning  teams  have  been 
associated  with  the  advertising  movement, 
especially  in  colleges,  and  this  leads  educators 
to  tolerate  unwholesome  practices.  The  same 
results  flow  from  suspicion  of  rivals. 

Of  these  several  tendencies  to  evil  in  ath- 
letics, the  first  three,  or  the  tendencies  to  phys- 
ical injury,  overindulgence,  and  specialization 
reduce  or  destroy  the  valuable  physical  results 
of  play;  the  fourth  and  fifth,  or  the  tendencies 
to  bad  manners  and  violations  of  the  rules  of 
the  game,  reduce  or  destroy  the  valuable  moral 
results;  the  sixth  and  seventh,  or  the  tendencies 
to  violations  of  the  law  of  classification  and  to 
control  by  spectators,  reduces  or  destroys  the 
educational  values  of  athletics  for  the  many, 
and  the  social  respect  for  athletics  among 
serious  people. 

It  is  clear  that  the  tendencies  to  evil  increase 
in  seriousness  as  youth  approaches  maturity, 
as  the  intergroup  organization  becomes  em- 
phasized, and  as  the  partisan  spirit  develops. 

Control.  —  The  importance  and  the  values  of 
athletics  in  the  life  of  youth,  the  factors  con- 
trolling participation  and  the  tendencies  to 
evil,  show  a  need  of  administrative  authority 
with  larger  vision  and  broader  educational 
powers  than  arc  possessed  by  youth.  Experi- 
ence has  shown  that  the  play  life  of  both  chil- 
dren and  youth  must  be  supervised,  if  the 
values  of  play  are  to  be  secured  and  the  evils 
eliminated.  This  control  becomes  increasingly 
important  with  the  advancing  years  of  youth 
because  the  factors  tending  to  eliminate  from 
participation  and  the  tendencies  to  evil  become 
more  influential.  The  values  of  athletics  are 
the  normal  product  of  the  athletic  impulse; 
the  evils  are  the  product  of  the  ignorance  of 
youth,  social  influences  beyond  its  understand- 
ing, and  the  neglect  of  natural  leaders  or  teachers. 
Youth  is  helpless  alone  to  understand  or  con- 
trol the  factors  influencing  participation  or 
the  factors  causing  tendencies  to  evil.  Edu- 
cators or  social  workers  start  a  reform  wave 
when  they  realize  that  neglect  has  divorced 
atliletic  influences  from  the  aims  of  education, 
that  the  masses  of  youth  have  lost  the  habit 
of,  and  respect  for,  participation,  and  that 
public  opinion  through  lack  of  respect  is  un- 
favorable and  depressing  to  the  general  spirit 
of  play  among  youth.  Attempted  reform 
often  precipitates  an  athletic  struggle  between 
the  reform  interests  and  the  interests  in  control 
of  the  athletics  to  be  reformed.  Potentially  or 
actually  this  struggle  exists  under  all  conditions 
because  of  the  contrast  in  tendencies  between  the 
two  primary  interests  in  contests  and  a  corre- 
sponding contrast  in  public  opinion.  Between  the 
tw'o  primary  interests  a  transitional  mixture  of 
the  two  exists  which  causes  most  of  the  struggle. 
These  three  interests  give  three  general  con- 
cepts of  what  athletics  are  for  and  whom  they 
they  are  for,  to  which  all  current  opinions  and 
attitudes  refer  and  which  determine  all  policies 
and  methods  in  the  administration  of  athletics. 


270 


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ATHLETICS 


These  concepts  may  be  formulated  as  follows: 
(1)  Atliletics  are  solely  for  the  pleasure  of  the 
spectator  and  the  profit  of  the  athlete  who 
furnishes  the  pleasure.  (2)  Athletics  are  pri- 
marily for  the  pleasure  of  the  spectator,  espe- 
cially the  partisan  sympathizer,  and  secondarily 
the  pleasure  or  honor  of  the  athlete.  (3)  Ath- 
letics are  primarily  for  the  benefit  of  the  athlete 
seeking  pleasure,  and  achieving  organic  and 
social  power,  for  the  fellowship,  sympathy, unity, 
and  loyalty  among  members  of  the  team  and 
(where  intcrgroup  teams  exist)  among  the 
members  of  the  social  group  which  the  team 
represents.  If  athletics  are  organized  and  ad- 
ministered on  the  first  of  these  concepts,  there 
arises  pure  professional  athletics,  or  athletics 
for  the  spectator.  This  concept  has  its  legiti- 
mate place;  to  it,  in  respectable  expressions, 
there  have  been  no  serious  objections  so 
long  as  it  keeps  its  place.  If  athletics  are 
organized  and  administered  on  the  third  of 
these  concepts,  "educational  athletics,"  as 
defined  above,  are  the  result.  If  athletics 
are  organized  and  administered  on  the  second 
of  these  concepts,  there  develops  a  class 
of  athletics  somewhere  between  "educational 
athletics"  and  professional  athletics,  which 
are  seldom  truly  educational,  and  more  sel- 
dom frankly  professional.  The  tendency  they 
take  depends  upon  the  class  of  characters 
dominant  in  the  control  of  their  organization 
and  administration.  In  this  concept  there  is 
nothing  that  is  distinctly  independent  of  the 
other  two.  It  is  a  transitional  mixture  of  the 
two  primary  interests.  In  it  there  is  nothing 
that  does  not  logically  belong  to  the  first  or 
third  concept.  It  is  based  on  misguided 
notions,  half  evolved  customs,  and  incomplete 
logic. 

Again,  if  the  first  concept  is  accepted,  the 
policies  will  center  in  one  position:  "get  the 
best  talent  possible  "  and  satisfy  the  spectators. 
If  the  second  concept  is  accepted,  the  desires 
of  partisans  and  anxiety  concerning  questions 
of  material  for  winning  teams  will  be  paramount 
in  the  development  of  administrative  policies, 
always  with  an  exaggeration  of  tendencies  to 
evil.  If  the  third  concept  is  accepted,  the  only 
position  that  can  be  taken  is:  athletics  are  for 
the  education  of  all  youth  irrespective  of 
athletic  skill  or  ability  to  make  pleasure  for 
spectators,  bring  "honor"  to  a  group,  or  sat- 
isfy the  pride  of  partisans.  This  concept  and 
its  interpretation  does  not  necessarily  abolish 
pleasure  for  the  spectator,  nor  the  possibilities  of 
his  education  as  a  spectator,  but  it  determines 
absolutely  the  primary  point  of  view  in  the 
creation  of  administrative  policies  and  methods. 
It  determines  the  relative  amount  of  time 
that  should  be  devoted  to  vigorous  muscular 
activities  as  compared  with  other  educational 
activities,  the  obligations  of  institutions  to  fur- 
nish opportunities  for  participation  by  all  and 
instruction  for  all,  the  organization  of  activities 
to  meet  all  needs  and  capacities  and  to  conserve 


primarily  the  interests  of  the  many,  the  attitude 
•  on  violations  of  the  law  of  classification,  re- 
cruiting and  uneducational  methods  of  develop- 
ing teams,  the  supervision  of  the  conduct  of 
athletes  in  games,  in  training  quarters  and  on 
trips,  the  character  and  number  of  games 
played,  the  character  of  instructors  and  mana- 
gers, the  financial  methods,  the  kind  of  train- 
ing methods,  such  as  training  tables,  trainers, 
and  supplies,  the  attitude  in  inter-institutional 
relationships,  etc. 

An  effective  control  depends  on  public  opin- 
ion and  expert  educational  leadership.  Effec- 
tive leadership  will  be  hampered  by  an  unintel- 
ligent, careless,  or  vicious  public  opinion;  public 
opinion,  even  educationally  the  best,  can  be 
effective  only  through  technical  leadership. 
Educational  athletics  for  all  can  be  fully  realized 
only  when  the  public  sees  clearly  the  distinction 
between  athletics  as  an  educational  force  in  the 
life  of  youth  and  athletics  as  an  amusement  for 
the  public,  until  it  respects  athletics  as  an  es- 
sential element  in  the  education  of  youth,  fos- 
ters a  spirit  of  competitive  play,  and  supports 
an  educational  administration.  Public  opinion 
will  take  this  position  only  when  educational 
leaders  see  and  cultivate  this  viewpoint. 
Effective  leadership  requires  technical  skiU, 
knowledge,  authority,  and  character  to  secure 
the  participation  of  all  and  to  avoid  the  evil 
tendencies. 

To  secure  effective  participation,  an  educa- 
tional administration  must  supply  three  things. 
(1)  It  must  supply  opportunities  in  the  form 
of  equipment  and  activities  that  will  meet  the 
capacities,  needs,  and  tastes  of  all.  (2)  It 
must  supply  instructors  for  all  that  are  pri- 
marily interested  in  the  education  of  youth, 
that  are  trained  to  recognize  individual  capaci- 
ties, needs,  and  tastes,  and  that  will  give  sym- 
pathetic leadership,  encouragement,  and  stimu- 
lus, especially  to  the  less  fortunate,  in  the 
development  of  effective  play  habits.  (3)  It 
must  supply  an  organization  that  is  primarily 
concerned  in  conserving  the  educational  rights 
of  youth  in  athletics,  that  will  inspire  respect, 
and  that  will  maintain  a  fair  classification  for 
competition. 

To  avoid  the  evil  tendencies  an  educational 
administration  must  also  supply  three  additional 
influences.  (1)  It  must  supply  the  technical 
knowledge  and  skill  to  give  physical  examina- 
tions, supervise  the  amount  and  character  of  ac- 
tivities, and  care  for  minor  inj  uries,  thus  avoiding 
the  tendencies  to  evils  that  destroy  physical  re- 
sults. (2)  It  must  supply  a  moral  leadership 
with  knowledge  and  skill  and  character  power 
sufficient  to  control  bad  manners  and  tendencies 
to  violations  of  the  rules  of  the  games  and  all 
tendencies  that  destroy  moral  results.  (3)  It 
must  supply  a  social  leadership  with  educational 
ideals,  independent  character,  and  honesty 
sufficient  both  to  lead  the  earnest,  honest,  and 
reasonable  spectators  and  to  control  or  ignore 
the  nan'ow  or  selfish  partisan  in  all  tendencies 


271 


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ATHLETICS 


to  violations  of  the  law  of  classification,  the 
educational  viewpoint,  and  the  social  status  of 
athletics. 

All  these  requirements  in  an  efficient  educa- 
tional leadership  demand  specialists  trained  as 
educators  in  tlie  use  of  vigorous  play  activities 
as  educational  subject  matter.  C.  W.  H. 

Athletics  in  England.  —  Nothing  in  English 
school  life  has  been  more  generously  accepted 
and  develojied  than  the  passion  for  athletics. 
It  is  sometimes  said  that  this  exaltation  of 
athletics  is  an  entirely  modern  feature  in 
English  school  life.  In  a  sense  this  is  eminently 
true.  Consciously  and  purjiosely  we  have  ac- 
corded a  place  to  games  in  our  school  curriculum, 
which  would  have  been  incomprehensible  to  the 
schoolmaster  of  ninety  years  ago.  We  have 
given  athletics  a  definite  status  in  school  life. 
Nevertheless,  it  would  be  quite  wrong  to  imag- 
ine that  the  worship  of  sport,  as  its  detractors 
term  the  attitude,  is  the  mere  perversion  of  a 
modern  and  decadent  age.  Witness  my  Lord 
Chesterfield,  who  writes  in  1740:  "If  you  have  a 
right  ambition  you  will  desire  to  excel  all  boys 
of  your  age  at  cricket,  as  well  as  in  learning.'' 
Could  a  modern  paterfamilias  wTite  more 
sagely?  Witness  too  the  same  w'riter  when  he 
alludes  to  "  your  various  occupations  of  Greek 
and  cricket,  Latin  and  pitch-farthing."  Even 
the  poet  Cowpcr  recalls  with  pride  in  1781  that 
"as  a  boy  I  excelled  at  cricket  and  football." 
And  when  one  inquires  into  the  origin  of  some 
of  the  peculiar  forms  of  football  which  are  still 
played  at  ancient  English  schools,  and  is  frankly 
told  that  the  beginnings  of  the  game  "are  lost 
in  obscurity,"  or  "are  probably  coeval  with  the 
school  itself,"  can  one  imagine  that  the  boy  who 
led  his  side  to  \'ictory  in  the  old-established 
struggles  of  these  schools  was  anything  else  but 
a  hero  in  the  eyes  both  of  his  schoolmates  and 
of  the  ranks  of  society  from  which  the  school 
was  recruited?  But  at  the  same  time  it  is 
most  certainly  true  that  the  last  ninety  years 
of  education  in  England  have  placed  the 
athletics  of  the  schools  and  universities  on  an 
enormously  higher  plane. 

To  this  several  causes  have  contributed.  In 
the  first  place,  the  rapid  advance  of  industrial 
life  and  conditions,  in  the  place  of  the  less 
cramped,  more  active  existence  of  our  ancestors, 
has  concentrated  attention  on  physical  fitness 
and  well-being.  Secondly,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  since  1815  we  have  enjoyed  almost 
undisturbed  peace.  Rugby  football  may  not  be 
as  dangerous  an  occupation  as  fighting  pitched 
battles.  Nevertheless,  w^ith  the  aversion  to  the 
military  spirit,  w^hich  undoubtedly  exists  in 
England,  the  field  of  athletics  came  as  a  welcome 
outlet  for  the  fighting  spirit  of  the  nation's 
youth.  And  lastly,  and  most  important  consid- 
eration of  all,  the  advent  of  great  headmasters 
like  Arnold,  who  laid  enormous  stress  upon  the 
training  of  character  as  the  real  business  of  the 
English  school,  gave  a  very  real  impulse  to  the 
practice  of  athletics.     As  late  as  1834,  we  find 

27'. 


a  headmaster  of  Winchester  objecting  to  his 
scholars  rowing  a  match  against  Eton,  on  the 
ground  that  it  withdrew  them  from  their  work, 
and  complaining  of  the  "  intemperance  and 
excesses"  to  which  such  matches  gave  rise. 
When  we  find  that  one  of  the  school  crews 
starts  at  half-past  five  in  the  morning  and  re- 
turns about  nine  in  the  evening  having  dined 
en  route,  the  Headmaster's  hostility  to  this 
branch  of  athletics  as  thus  conducted  is  ex- 
tremely intelligible. 

But  the  new  impulse  to  the  formation  of 
character  at  school  grasped  at  once  the  ready 
instrument  which  lay  waiting  to  be  employed 
and  developed.  Athletics  became  a  serious  i)art 
of  school  training,  not  so  much  to  produce 
soundness  of  body  and  limb  as  to  give  an  op- 
portunity for  a  spontaneous  exercise  of  those 
qualities  of  cooperation  between  members  of 
the  team,  and  of  chi\alry  toward  the  opposi- 
tion, which  are  after  all  the  basis  of  subsequent 
civic  life.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  only 
sport  which  has  never  been  able  to  obtain  a 
real  hold  in  the  English  school  and  university 
is  the  sport  which  involves  mere  individual 
and  personal  effort.  The  winner  of  the  mile 
race  at  a  school  is  a  pale  shadow  compared  with 
the  captain  of  cricket;  and  yet  the  one  receives 
a  prize,  the  other  nothing  but  responsibility. 
Briefly,  therefore,  the  school  has  made  athletics 
an  essential  part  of  its  educational  machinery; 
in  the  formulation  of  its  ideals,  it  has  surveyed 
the  whole  field  of  a  boy's  activities,  and  has 
accepted  the  guidance  and  control  of  all.  The 
result  has  been  the  indefinite  extension  of  or- 
ganized games  throughout  the  schools  of  Eng- 
land. Adoption  of  the  same  rules  led  at  once 
to  competition.  In  the  case  of  rowing  and 
cricket,  agreement  more  or  less  complete  early 
existed.  Football  was  played  under  many  dif- 
ferent codes  of  laws,  but  by  1890  all  the  schools, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  had  accepted  either  the 
Rugby  or  Association  Code,  and  this  opened 
up  the  way  to  interschool  contests.  Naturally 
the  school  games  found  their  place  in  the 
universities  to  which  the  schoolboj-  proceeded, 
and  by  1880,  all  over  England,  the  games  were 
being  developed  and  improved  by  the  aid  of 
strenuous  rivalry.  Eton  had  played  the  first 
cricket  match  with  Harrow,  as  far  back  as  1S22; 
1827  was  the  date  of  the  first  match  at  the  same 
game  between  Oxford  and  Cambridge;  1829 
saw  the  first  intervarsity  boat  race;  1873 
the  first  intervarsity  Rugby  match.  At  the 
present  day,  there  is  a  rapid  succession  of  inter- 
school and  university  matches. 

The  universal  acceptance  by  the  schools  of 
responsibility  for  the  games  has  involved, 
of  necessity,  strict  organization.  At  all  the 
public  boarding  schools  games  are  compul- 
sory for  every  boy  unless  medically  exempted. 
Even  at  the  secondary  day  schools  the  same 
attitude  is  being,  so  far  as  possible,  gradually 
adopted,  though  obviously  the  nonresidential 
character  of  these  schools,  and  the  fact  that 


ATHLETICS 


ATHLETICS 


many  boys  come  from  a  considerable  distance, 
make  it  almost  impossible  to  insist  upon  any 
hard  and  fast  rules.  But  by  carefully  nursing 
school  opinion,  and  by  seeing  that  every  boy 
has  at  any  rate  the  opportunity  of  participating 
in  the  games,  the  modern  day  school  is  approxi- 
mating more  and  more  closely  in  this  respect 
to  the  principles  of  the  public  schools.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  school  term,  all  the  games 
are  placed  in  the  charge  of  the  school  captain, 
who  is,  as  a  rule,  the  senior  color  remaining  in 
the  school  from  the  team  of  the  previous  season. 
With  the  assistance  of  the  other  old  colors  he  ar- 
ranges the  whole  school  in  a  series  of  games, 
which  is  posted  at  once  on  the  school  notice 
board.  Each  game  has  its  appointed  captain, 
who  is  then  responsible  on  each  day  when 
games  take  place  for  arranging  the  sides  for  the 
day.  Any  boy  who  is  unable  to  play,  and  has 
got  leave  to  be  absent,  must  .strike  off  his  name 
before  a  certain  time,  and  his  place  is  filled, 
either  by  selecting  a  player  from  the  next  game 
—  a  method  which  involves  some  arrangement 
between  the  captains  —  or  in  some  cases  by 
making  the  games  always  contain  more  players 
than  is  absolutely  essential,  and  thus  allowing  a 
margin  for  defections.  From  the  top  game  the 
captain  selects  his  school  team  or  teams.  A 
boy  who  has  been  misplaced  in  the  games  has 
no  difficulty  m  making  the  misjudgment  known; 
for,  when  not  playing,  the  captain  of  the  school 
and  the  members  of  the  first  game  are  con- 
tinually undertaking  the  duties  of  referee  in 
the  lower  games,  while  at  some  schools,  matches 
are  periodically  arranged  between  the  lower 
division  of  the  higher  game  and  the  upper 
division  of  the  lower  game,  in  order  to  dis- 
cover any  injustice  of  placing.  Naturally, 
the  matches  against  other  schools  are  the  events 
of  the  year,  and  every  effort  is  made  by  the 
captain  to  get  together  the  best  side  the  school 
can  produce.  The  school  matches  are  usually 
arranged  toward  the  end  of  the  season,  so  that 
by  means  of  preliminary  club  matches  an  oppor- 
tunity may  be  afforded  of  building  up  the  best 
side  available.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
standard  of  play  in  the  lower  games  of  the 
school  is  apt  to  lose  place,  when  thirty  boys  or 
so  merely  repeat  day  after  day  the  same  per- 
formances against  each  other.  In  consequence, 
at  all  schools  matches  of  some  sort  have  been 
introduced  —  interhouse  or  interclass  matches, 
for  instance,  for  boys  of  all  ages,  and  the 
same  for  boys  under  a  certain  age,  or  under  a 
certain  school  game  —  and  nothing  has  been 
found  more  useful  than  these,  for  bringing  out 
into  notice  promising  young  players.  During 
the  season  colors  are  awarded  to  the  various 
teams  or  games,  by  the  captain  of  the  school. 
One  of  the  masters  is  always  president  of  the 
games  committee,  but  his  functions  are  limited 
to  advice  and  guidance.  The  question  of 
the  finances  of  school  games  is  very  simple. 
Every  boy  who  plays  games  pays  a  games  sub- 
scription, usually  very  light.     The  money  so 

VOL.  I — T 


provided,  together  with  any  other  source  of 
revenue  which  maybe  available,  —  for  instance, 
the  profits  of  the  school  "  shop,"  —  is  devoted 
to  the  upkeep  of  the  grounds.  The  boys  pay 
their  own  expenses,  in  traveling  to  play  other 
schools,  and  no  gate  money  is  taken. 

At  the  universities  the  games  are  run  on 
very  similar  lines,  save  that  the  undergraduate 
assumes  entire  active  control  of  each  branch 
of  sport,  with  no  dormant  authority  in  the  back- 
ground. Each  branch  starts  the  season  with 
its  committee,  consisting  of  the  senior  color, 
the  captain  or  president  for  the  current  year, 
and  of  the  other  "blues"  remaining  over  from 
the  previous  season.  Trials  are  arranged  for 
such  players  in  residence  as  have  either  made 
their  mark  in  previous  years,  or  come  fresh 
with  reputations  from  the  schools.  By  means 
of  these,  and  the  guidance  afforded  by  inter- 
college  matches,  the  captain  and  committee 
choose  the  university  team,  which  takes  its 
place  among  the  English  clubs,  and  is  gradually 
built  up  into  the  final  form  which  is  selected  to 
do  service  in  the  interuniversity  match.  The 
financial  aspect  of  university  sport  differs 
somewhat  from  that  of  the  schools.  Every 
one  who  represents  his  university  pays  his 
subscription  to  the  University  Club,  which 
is  distinct  in  each  case  from  the  College  Clubs 
which  pursue  the  same  sport.  Out  of  this 
fund,  and  the  gate  money,  which  is  taken  at 
university  fixtures,  the  bare  expenses  of  each 
member  of  the  team  are  paid,  in  accordance 
with  the  regulations  of  the  English  unions 
as  to  amateurism;  by  tacit  agreement  at  the 
present  moment,  a  player  always  loses  a  little 
in  the  incidental  expenses  of  traveling.  There 
are  old  players  who  would  prefer  to  see  univer- 
sity men  paying  all  their  own  expenses;  but 
with  the  amount  of  traveling  which  jsresent- 
day  athletics  entail  it  has  been  considered  best 
in  the  interests  of  the  games  themselves,  and 
in  order  not  to  prevent  the  best  talent  at  the 
university  participating  in  the  sports,  to  let 
jjlayers  avail  themselves  of  the  practical  basis 
laid  down  by  the  unions  and  associations. 
Needless  to  say,  the  limit  is  rigidly  observed, 
and  the  accounts  carefully  managed  by  more  or 
less  permanent  honorary  secretaries.  The  af- 
fairs of  the  various  college  clubs  within  the 
universities  differ  in  obvious  points.  No 
gate  money  being  available,  every  club  relies 
on  its  members'  subscriptions,  and  the  universal 
practice  is  for  an  undergi-aduate  to  pay  a  sub- 
scription to  the  combined  atUetic  clubs  of  liis 
college;  he  is  then  entitled  to  participate  in  any 
sport.  In  the  case  of  exceptional  expense,  when 
for  instance  a  coUege  crew  is  sent  to  compete  at 
Henley,  a  subscription  is  as  a  rule  specially  raised 
hi  the  college  to  defray  part  of  the  expenses  of  the 
members  of  the  crew. 

On    the   subject   of    athletics   there   is    un- 
doubtedly at    the  present  moment  a    certain 
division  of  opinion  in  England.     That  the  sport 
of  our  schools  and  universities  is  scrupulously 
273 


ATHLETICS 


ATHLETICS 


clean  and  honest,  no  one  for  a  minute  denies; 
nor  again,  does  anybody  question  tliat  tlie  dis- 
cipline of  mind  and  body  thus  secured  is  ex- 
tremely valuable  for  every  boy  —  a  discipline 
brought  into  play,  not  only  on  the  cricket  and 
football  field,  but  also  in  the  whole  manage- 
ment and  control  of  the  school  games.  Never- 
theless, even  among  those  who  grant  all  these 
contentions,  there  is  often  a  real  feeling  of 
uneasiness,  which  may  be  attributed,  as  a  rule, 
to  one  of  three  ideas.  In  the  first  place,  there 
are  those  who  are  of  opinion  that  the  vigor 
and  force  of  the  nation  might  be  much  more 
profitably  employed  in  these  days  than  in 
passionate  devotion  to  athletics.  They  think 
little  of  the  "muddied  oaf"  and  the  "flanneled 
fool,"  regard  his  blind  enthusiasm  as  something 
akin  to  madness,  and  piously  hope  tliat  one 
day  his  ardor  may  take  a  more  martial  and 
patriotic  turn.  But  the  charge  should  not  be 
laid  ui)on  the  athlete  as  such.  The  great 
volunteer  movement  of  1860  went  hand  in 
hand  with  a  vast  athletic  revival;  the  two  were 
regariled  as  aiming  at  a  single  object,  and  if  only 
the  athlete  were  as  convinced  of  the  serious 
purjiose  of  the  one  as  he  is  with  regard  to  the 
other,  there  would  be  no  question  of  conflicting 
interests.  Secondly,  there  is  a  much  more 
justifiable  reason  for  apprehension  with  regard 
to  athletics.  It  is  said  that  athletics  havi^  be- 
come the  dominating  factor  in  all  our  education, 
and  that  other  interests  and  occupations  are 
rajiidly  going  to  the  wall.  That  there  is  truth 
in  this  charge  must  unfortunately  be  admitted. 
Games  are  excellent  things  to  play,  but  when 
they  become  an  obsession  in  boys'  conversation, 
the  result  is  deplorable.  Boy  nature  admires 
physical  much  more  easily  than  intellectual 
prowess,  and  the  athlete  bulks  large  in  his  view; 
small  wonder,  therefore,  that  with  all  the  tinsel 
of  athletic  distinction  which  is  dangled  before 
his  eyes,  he  tends  sometimes  to  forget  that  ath- 
letics are  not  the  real  business  of  his  life.  Never- 
theless, the  danger  is  recognized,  and  it  is  not 
so  alarming  as  is  sometimes  alleged,  for  a  per- 
version can  be  corrected.  Finally,  some  would 
maintain  that  the  modern  treatment  of  games 
as  a  serious  part  of  school  life  is  destroying  the 
primary  purpose  for  which  a  game  exists  — 
the  purpose  of  relaxation  and  recreation.  Here 
again  we  must  to  some  extent  plead  guilty. 
The  strain  of  athletics  is  qvute  a  real  thing. 
But  on  the  other  hand,  even  a  change  of  oc- 
cupation is  recreation;  and  moreover,  boys 
do  get,  under  present  conditions,  as  much  time 
to  si)end  irresponsibly  as  many  schoolmasters 
think  desirable. 

Exaggerated,  therefore,  though  the  interest 
in  athletics  may  sometimes  be,  they  nevertheless 
perform  a  function  in  English  school  life,  with- 
out which  the  educational  machinery  would 
seem  gro.s.sly  inadequate  for  the  production  of 
the  ideals  which  are  entertained.  They  have 
become  bound  up  with  the  national  virtues; 
they  are  part  of  the  national  life.        D.  G.  S. 


See  articles  on  the  respective  English  Uni- 
versities and  Public  Schools. 

College  Athletics.  —  Athletics  occupy  a 
very  large  place  in  the  life  of  American  college 
students  to-day,  when  we  consider  that  the 
first  intercollegiate  contest  in  the  United  States 
was  a  boat  race  between  Harvard  and  Yale  in 
1852.  College  athletics  as  wc  have  them  to- 
day are  divided  into  four  major  sports,  rowing, 
baseball,  football,  and  track  atliletics;  and  about 
a  dozen  minor  sports,  basketball,  lacrosse,  soccer, 
cricket,  tennis,  golf,  swimming,  water  polo,  gym- 
nastics, fencing,  wrestling,  bowling,  and  shoot- 
ing. 

The  major  sports  arc  the  oldest,  rowing  dat- 
ing back  to  1852,  baseball  to  1859,  football 
to  the  early  seventies,  and  track  athletics  to  the 
late  seventies.  Most  of  the  minor  sports  were 
introduced  during  the  decade  from  1890  to  1900. 
The  growth  of  athletics  in  the  colleges  was 
rather  slow  from  1852  to  about  1880,  but  the 
advent  of  track  athletics  and  football  adih-d  new 
impetus  to  the  movement.  Before  1880  the 
methods  of  conducting  athletics  were  simple; 
there  were  no  salaried  coaches,  no  training 
tables  and  elaborate  uniforms;  the  expenses 
were  small,  and  they  were  paid  mostly  by  the 
participants  in  the  sports.  After  1880  the 
attention  given  to  athletics  increased  rai)idly; 
elaborate  methods  of  training  were  developed, 
expert  coaches  were  engaged  for  teams,  many 
new  sports  were  taken  up,  and  the  number  of 
students  taking  part  in  them  was  multiplied. 
The  cost  of  maintaining  athletics  increased  pro- 
portionately. The  students  interested  in  athlet- 
ics failed  to  secure  financial  support  from  the 
college  funds,  and  very  soon  learned  that  funds 
could  be  secured  from  gate  receipts  and  en- 
thusiastic alumni.  They  also  learned  from 
experience  that  the  public  and  the  alumni 
would  give  generous  support  to  winning  teams, 
but  would  soon  withdraw  their  support  from 
losing  teams. 

That  situation  was  undoubtedly  a  large 
factor  in  bringing  about  a  radical  change  in  the 
character  of  college  athletics.  The  old  con- 
ception of  securing  healthful  ])liysical  activity, 
wholesome  recreation,  and  friendly  competition 
for  all  stuilents  was  superseded  by  the  new  idea  of 
sacrificing  everything  for  the  sake  of  turning  out 
a  winning  team.  All  the  evils  of  professionalism, 
recruiting,  neglect  of  studies,  brutality,  extrava- 
gance, etc.,  that  have  existed  during  the  last 
twenty  years  are  the  result  directly  or  indirectly 
of  this  inordinate  desire  to  win  at  any  cost  be- 
cause a  winning  team  insures  financial  success. 
Tiie  annual  receipts  from  admissions  to  games  in 
each  of  several  colleges  amount  to  more  than 
one  hundred  thousand  dollars,  and  from  a 
single  football  game  to  as  much  as  seventy 
thousand  dollars.  The  effect  of  such  a  policy 
upon  the  students  was  distinctly  harmful.  The 
exaggerated  importance  placed  upon  winning 
led  to  such  a  degree  of  specialization  in 
athletics  that  only  men  of  exceptional  ability 


274 


ATHLETICS 


ATHLETICS 


could  earn  a  place  on  the  teams.  If  men  of 
exceptional  ability  were  not  found  in  the  student 
body,  they  were  recruited  from  the  outside  by 
offering  them  inducements  in  the  form  of 
scholarships  or  positions  with  light  work  and 
large  pay. 

One  of  the  greatest  defects  is  that  the  college 
equipment  for  exercise  is  monopolized  by  the 
teams,  with  the  result  that  the  main  body  of 
students  who  need  the  exercise  most,  must  con- 
tent themselves  with  the  exercise  involved  in 
"  rooting  "  for  the  teams.  The  amount  of  time 
and  energy  required  of  the  atliletes  is  so  great 
that  many  of  them  are  unable  to  maintain  satis- 
factory academic  standing.  The  standards  of 
extravagant  living,  the  newspaper  notoriety,  and 
the  hero-worship  enjoyed  by  the  successful  ath- 
letes during  their  atlJetic  career  leave  them  after 
graduation  with  extravagant  habits  of  living  not 
in  accord  with  their  financial  and  social  position. 
Another  most  unfortunate  result  of  placing  un- 
due emphasis  upon  winning  athletic  contests 
is  in  the  practice  of  gambling  upon  the  outcome 
of  the  games.  Many  students  acquire  the 
gambling  habit  while  under  the  influence  of  the 
hysterical  excitement  over  college  athletic  con- 
tests. 

These  evils  exist  in  varying  degree  in  many 
colleges;  they  reached  a  climax  during  the  pe- 
riod from  1900  to  1905,  when  the  situation  was 
revealed  through  discussion  in  the  public  press. 
The  death  of  a  college  student  during  a  foot- 
ball game,  and  the  reports  of  a  large  number  of 
serious  injuries  to  football  players,  precipitated  a 
widespread  outcry  for  reform.  A  conference  of 
representatives  from  all  the  colleges  and  uni- 
versities was  called  in  New  York  in  1905  to 
consider  the  problems  of  athletic  reform. 
Seventy  institutions  responded  by  sending 
official  delegates.  The  result  of  this  conference 
was  the  organization  of  the  Intercollegiate 
Athletic  Association  of  the  United  States.  The 
policy  adopted  by  the  association  was  to  in- 
stitute a  campaign  of  education  in  athletic  ad- 
ministration through  annual  conferences,  com- 
mittee reports,  discussions,  and  publication. 
The  results  thus  far  accomplished  are  most 
encouraging.  The  e\'ils  of  professionalism, 
proselyting,  extravagant  expenditures,  the 
training  table,  and  too  long  schedules  of  games 
have  been  greatly  lessened.  The  playing  rules 
of  football  have  been  improved,  and  provision 
made  for  more  efficient  officials  to  conduct  the 
games. 

Another  very  important  result  of  the  publicity 
given  to  problems  of  athletic  reform  is  a  fuller 
realization  by  college  authorities  of  their  respon- 
sibility in  correcting  existing  evils.  The  con- 
viction is  growing  among  college  officials  that 
athletics  when  properly  conducted  contribute 
to  the  physical,  moral,  and  social  development 
of  college  students.  But,  in  order  that  such 
results  may  be  obtained,  athletics  must  be  ad- 
ministered in  much  the  same  way  as  other 
branches  of  education.     It  is  necessary  to  ac- 


commodate all  the  students  in  the  institutions;  it 
is  also  essential  to  appoint  a  director  or  mana- 
ger to  organize  and  direct  the  athletic  activities. 

College  athletics  are  now  passing  through  a 
period  of  transition.  There  are  three  distinct 
policies  advocated  by  different  groups  interested 
in  the  problem.  The  younger  alumni  (par- 
ticularly those  who  were  pronainent  in  athletics 
when  undergraduates)  ;  some  of  the  under- 
graduates; the  "  sporting  element "  of  the  public; 
and  the  large  number  of  business  men  who 
represent  the  transportation,  hotel,  and  other 
interests  that  derive  financial  benefits  from 
athletic  contests,  advocate  the  policy  of  lais.sez 
faire  toward  commercialized  athletics.  A  small 
group,  including  some  college  officers,  a  few 
of  the  older  alumni,  and  some  parents  of  college 
students  take  the  opposite  view  and  advocate 
the  prohibition  of  all  intercollegiate  athletic 
contests.  The  majority  of  college  officers,  a 
large  proportion  of  alumni,  many  undergrad- 
uates, and  the  majority  of  their  parents  advo- 
cate more  educational  athletics  for  the  mass  of 
students  and  the  careful  supervision  and  control 
of  intercollegiate  athletics  by  college  authorities. 
That  the  advocates  of  this  policy  are  numerous 
and  influential  is  evidenced  by  the  present 
trend  of  college  athletics. 

In  1905  college  athletics  were  controlled  al- 
most entirely  by  students  and  alumni,  under  the 
supervision  of  an  atliletic  board  made  up  of  a 
minority  of  faculty  members  and  a  majority  of 
alumni  and  undergraduates.  Since  1905  a  grailual 
change  has  taken  place  in  methods  of  organiza- 
tion and  control.  The  aims  sought  by  the 
various  colleges  and  universities  are  essentially 
the  same;  i.e.  to  encourage  and  develop  intra- 
mural athletics  for  the  mass  of  students,  to 
curtail  and  control  intercollegiate  atliletics  by 
appointing  a  director  or  manager  of  athletics 
responsible  to  and  paid  by  the  college  authori- 
ties. In  the  smaller  institutions  this  respon- 
sibility is  given  to  the  gymnasium  director, 
but  in  many  of  the  large  colleges  and  uni- 
versities a  graduate  manager  of  athletics  is 
appointed  to  give  all  his  time  to  the  work  under 
the  direction  of  the  president  or  a  special  com- 
mittee appointed  for  the  purpose. 

The  problem  of  controlling  intercollegiate 
athletics  includes  three  parts.  First,  the  con- 
trol of  finances,  —  this  is  accomplished  by  re- 
cjuiring  managers  of  athletic  teams  to  submit 
budgets  at  the  beginning  of  the  season;  to  order 
all  supplies  on  official  order  slips;  to  pay  all 
bills  by  check,  all  order  slips  and  checks  to  be 
countersigned  by  the  graduate  manager;  and 
to  require  a  detailed  financial  report  at  the 
end  of  the  season.  Second,  the  control  of 
atliletic  policy;  schedules  of  contests;  absence 
of  students  from  academic  exercises  for  the  pur- 
pose of  athletic  training  and  competition;  ap- 
pointment, supervision,  and  dismissal  of  em- 
ployed coaches  and  trainers;  and  the  care  and 
maintenance  of  college  property  used  for  ath- 
letic   purposes  —  all    these    matters    are    con- 


275 


ATHLETICS 


ATHLETICS 


trolled  by  the  graduate  manager.  Third,  the 
control  of  students  representing  the  institu- 
tion in  intercollegiate  athletic  contests.  Every 
student  desiring  to  participate  in  such  contests 
is  required  to  answer  questions  on  a  printed 
blank  concerning  his  amateur  standing,  submit 
to  a  medical  examination,  and  maintain  a 
definite  standard  in  scholarship. 

The  results  already  obtained  are  most  en- 
couraging. In  colleges  where  a  few  years  ago 
baseball  was  played  only  by  fifteen  or  twenty 
expert  players  on  the  "varsity"  squad,  there 
are  now  scores  of  students  organized  into  class, 
dormitory,  and  fraternity  teams;  where  only 
two  "eights"  were  in  training  for  the  "  varsity" 
crew,  there  are  as  many  as  ten  or  even  twenty 
crews  getting  the  benefit  of  this  delightful  sport. 

Tangible  results  are  apparent  also  in  saner 
methods  of  conducting  intercollegiate  athletics. 
The  control  exercised  by  a  competent  man  with 
authority  is  efficient  in  setting  up  and  maintain- 
ing high  standards  of  conduct  and  manage- 
ment in  all  phases  of  intercollegiate  athletics. 
Further  development  along  these  lines  will 
undoubtedly  result  in  correlating  athletics  with 
the  intellectual  and  social  activities  of  college 
life,  and  thus  enhance  the  value  of  a  college  edu- 
cation in  fitting  young  men  for  life. 

An  indication  of  the  proportion  of  students 
participating  in  some  form  of  athletic  activity 
in  American  colleges  may  be  given  from  the 
following  table.  Out  of  about  80,000  male 
students  in  the  colleges  represented  in  this 
entire  inquiry  32  per  cent  are  engaged  in  some 
form  of  athletics.  Out  of  about  20,000  female 
students  18  per  cent  are  engaged  in  some  form  of 
atliletics.  The  reported  figures  for  a  typical 
list  of  institutions  are  as  follows:  — 


No 
Stud 

OF 
ENT8 

No.  OF  Stu- 

dent-sEngaged 

IN  Athletics 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Adelphi  College 

60 

440 

10 

50 

Amherst  College      .... 

550 

400 

Bowdoin  College      .... 

350 

300 

Colgate  University       .     .     . 

2087 

200 

Colorado  College     .... 

328 

250 

300 

200 

Columbia  University   .      .      . 

3000 

1500 

500 

200 

Cornell  University       .     .     . 

3150 

3.50 

1200 

Dartmouth  College      .     .     . 

1197 

300 



Dennison  University   .     .     . 

312 

240 

150 

100 

Dickinson  College  .... 

483 

97 

322 

Harvard  University      .     .     . 

3918 

2000 

Haverford  College        .     .     . 

150 

120 

Johns  Hopkins  University    . 

613 

30 

50 

Lehigh  University  .... 

720 

300 

Leland  Stanford.  Jr.  University 

1000 

500 

227 

25 

Miami  University    .... 

287 

244 

95 

25 

Swarthmore  College     .     .     . 

156 

203 

156 

203 

S>Tacuse  University     .     .     . 

2000 

1500 

U.  S.  Military  Academy  .      . 

600 



600 

University  of  California  .     . 

1728 

971 

500 

100 

University  of  Chicago       .      . 

1380 

920 

225 

ISO 

Br>-n  Mawr  College      .      .      . 

420 

378 

Vassar  College 

1014 

100 

The  special  aspects  of  the  problem  of  educa- 
tional athletics  are  discussed  above  under  the 
appropriate  caption.  See  below  for  athletics  in 
Secondary  and  Elementary   schools.     See    also 


the  various  games,  such  as  Baseball,  Cricket; 
Rowing,  Swimming;  sec  also  Athletic  Field; 
Dancing;  (iymnastics;  Hygie.ne,  Personal; 
Hygiene,  School;  Playgrounds;  etc. 

G.  L.  M. 

Secondary  Schools. — Slngea  of  Devclnpment.  — 
Athletics  for  high  school  boys  seem  to  be  iiassing 
through  tlu-ee  distinct  stages  as  regards  the  atti- 
tude of  the  school  authorities.  First,  opposi- 
tion; second,  toleration;  third,  cooperation. 
It  is  not  many  years  since  sciiool  authorities 
looked  upon  athletics  as  a  positive  evil,  and  not 
only  refused  to  allow  the  schoolboys  to  take 
part,  as  re])resenting  the  schools,  but  absolutely 
opposed  such  activities.  After  a  time  they 
began  to  realize  that  boys  were  sure  to  engage 
in  athletics,  whether  the  school  authorities 
gave  their  permission  or  not,  and  a  period  of 
toleration  followed.  The  result  was  that 
teams  competing  under  the  school  name  fre- 
quently brought  discredit  upon  the  school  and 
caused  principals  and  teachers  considerable 
annoyance.  The  difficulties  were  practically 
solved  when  the  teachers  took  hold  with  the 
boys  and  helped  to  organize  the  sports  and  to 
provide  the  necessary  accommodations. 

Organized  Athletics.  —  The  problem  of  con- 
trol has  been  made  difficult  through  neglect, 
but  organized  athletics  in  the  elementary  school 
is  helping  to  improve  the  situation  by  develop- 
ing a  proper  spirit  among  the  boys  and  bringing 
them  to  appreciate  the  necessity  of  rules  of 
eligibility  and  competition.  It  is  reasonable 
to  hope  that  well-organized  athletics  in  the 
elementary  and  high  schools  of  the  country  will 
help  solve  the  problems  of  athletic  control  in 
colleges  and  universities.  Cooperation  of  other 
athletic  associations,  as  the  Amateur  AtUctic 
Union,  the  Military  Association,  etc.,  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  in  order  to  enable  the  school 
authorities  to  enforce  their  authority,  and  is 
usually  given.  A  few  test  cases  bringing  home  to 
schoolboys  the  fact  that  they  can  have  no  stand- 
ing in  other  clubs  or  associations  unless  they 
preserve  their  athletic  standing  in  their  school 
are  sufficient  to  fix  the  authority  of  school 
officers. 

Rules  of  Eligibility.  —  The  following  rules 
of  eligibility  are  taken  from  the  handbook  of 
the  Public  Schools  Athletic  League  of  New 
York  City. 

No  high  school  pupil  shall  represent  hi.«i  school  unless 
he  has  attended  a  school  for  twenty  school  weeks,  ex- 
cept 

(a)  He   has   been   promoted   from   an   elementary 
school,    whereupon    he    shall    be    eligible    im- 
mediately : 
(6)   He  has  been  admitted  from  a  school  outside  the 
New  York  Public  Schools,  whereupon  he  shall 
be  eligible  after  an  attendance  of  twenty  school 
days. 
No  high  school  pupil  who  has  reached  the  age  of 
twenty-one  shall  be  eligible  to  represent  his  school  in  any 
branch  of  athletics. 

A  boy  shall  be  eligible  to  represent  his  school  in 
athletics  during  any  "marking"  interval  who  has  placed 
14  hours  {13  hours)  of  prepared  work  to  his  credit  at  the 
last  rating  in  the  office  records. 


276 


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Athletic  Meet  of  the  Colorado  Springs  School. 
Athletics  in  the  Schools. 


ATHLETICS 


ATHLETICS 


Note.  —  In  those  high  schools  where  physical  training 
is  not  conducted  according  to  the  syllabus  13  hours, 
instead  of  14,  shall  be  considered  as  constituting  eligi- 
bility. 

N.B.  —  Drawing  and  shop  work  in  manual  training 
schools  shall  count  one  hour  for  two. 

Any  extraordinary  case  shall  be  submitted  to  the 
high  schools  Games  Committee. 

A  graduate  of  a  three  years'  course  in  the  high  schools 
who  returns  to  take  up  postgraduate  work  is  permitted 
to  take  part  in  athletics,  providing  he  is  eligible  according 
to  the  rules  of  the  Public  Schools  Athletic  League. 

No  pupil  who  is  a  graduate  of  a  four-year  secondary 
school  course  shall  be  eligible  to  represent  any  school. 

Only  those  pupils  who  are  taking  full  work  in  a  regular 
course  shall  be  eligible  to  represent  the  school. 

No  pupil  shall  be  allowed  to  compete  in  the  mile  run 
unless  he  has  reached  the  age  of  sixteen  years  and  six 
months.  No  pupil  shall  be  allowed  to  compete  in  the 
junior  events  if  he  is  sixteen  years  old  or  older.  A  birth 
certificate  shall  be  accepted  as  proof  of  a  high  school 
junior's  age.  If  such  certificate  cannot  be  secured, 
other  evidence  may  be  submitted  to  the  High  Schools 
Games  Committee. 

Any  boy  who  has  matriculated  in  any  college  or  who 
has  played  on  a  college  team  shall  not  be  eligible  to 
represent  a  high  school. 

No  entry  shall  be  accepted  unless  countersigned  by 
the  principal  or  the  school's  representative  on  the  High 
Schools  Games  Committee. 

Any  high  school  pupil  known  to  have  bet  or  acted  as 
an  agent  for  others  in  betting  on  athletic  contests  shall 
be  debarred  from  competition  for  one  year. 

Safeguards.  —  In  the  secondary  schools  the 
events  are  graded  on  a  plan  similar  to  that  in 
the  elementary  schools,  and  a  limit  is  placed 
upon  the  number  of  events  in  which  a  boy  may 
enter.  All  boys  taking  part  in  the  interschool 
competitions  are  required  to  present  a  certif- 
icate signed  by  a  reliable  physician  stating 
that  they  are  physically  able  to  participate. 
Eflfort  is  made  to  ehminate  from  the  list  of 
events  those  that  present  any  danger  of  serious 
injury  to  the  participants.  As  an  example  of  this, 
football  under  college  rules  has  been  discouraged 
by  the  League.  In  New  York  City  soccer 
football  is  played  as  a  substitute.  The  game 
of  soccer  is  free  from  the  dangers  of  mass  plays 
and  tackles,  and  offers  an  opportunity  for  all 
boys  to  take  part.  The  small  boy  has  an  equal 
chance  with  the  larger  fellows.  In  fact,  he  is 
frequently  able  to  outplay  his  bulky  opponent. 

Events.  —  The  generally  accepted  events 
for  secondary  school  boys  are  ;  100  yard  dash, 
220  yard  run,  440  yard  run,  880  yard  run, 
1  mile  run,  100  yard  hurdles,  120  yard  hurdles, 
220  yard  hurdles,  half  mile  and  mile  relays; 
running  broad  .jump;  running  high  jump,  pole 
vaulting,  putting  12  pound  shot,  discus  throw, 
basketball,  baseball,  soccer  football,  cross- 
country running,  tennis,  swimming,  skating, 
marksmanship. 

Values.  —  Among  the  objections  that  are 
raised  against  athletics  for  schoolboys  are  the 
following:  Overstrain,  unfair  tactics,  too 
much  publicitj',  and  too  much  time  and  atten- 
tion. On  the  other  side  there  are  positive 
advantages  of  well-organized  athletics,  such  as 
the  development  of  courage,  decision,  alertness, 
tenacity,  resource,  obedience,  restraint,  fair- 
ness, cooperation,  self-sacrifice,  and  generalship. 


The  outlook  is  exceedingly  hopeful  because  the 
advantages  so  manifestly  outweigh  the  disad- 
vantages, and  because  under  a  well-organized 
system  the  evils  may  be  practically  eliminated. 

Elementary  Schools.  —  "  Organized  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  athletics  a  proper  place  in  our 
schools  "  is  the  reason  given  by  the  President 
of  the  Public  Schools  Athletic  Association  of 
Newark,  N.J.,  for  the  formation  of  his  Associa- 
tion. "  To  develop  the  rational  activities  of 
the  boys  and  girls  "  is  another  significant  quo- 
tation from  the  handbook  of  the  same  organiza- 
tion. The  declaration  of  purpose  set  forth 
by  the  Public  Schools  Athletic  League  of  New 
York  City  is,  "  to  provide  healthful,  joyous, 
and  constructive  play,  folk  dancing,  and 
athletics  for  every  boy  and  girl." 

School  principals,  teachers,  and  boards  of 
education  are  coming  to  realize  that  it  is  greatly 
to  their  advantage,  as  well  as  a  matter  of  simple 
justice,  to  cooperate  wth  the  pupils  in  their 
athletic  activities.  Evidence  of  this  is  the 
formal  organization  of  public  schools  athletic 
leagues  in  the  following  cities:  Baltimore,  Md., 
Birmingham,  Ala.,  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Fitchburg,  Mass., 
Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Newark,  N.J.,  New  Orleans, 
La.,  New  York,  N.Y.,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  Racine, 
Wis.,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  Seattle,  Wash., 
Springfield,  Mass.,  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  Tacoma, 
Wash.,  Troy,  N.Y. 

The  Beginning  in  New  York  City.  —  Since 
the  work  in  New  York  City  is  typical  of  what 
is  being  done  throughout  the  whole  country, 
some  reference  to  its  inception  and  development 
may  be  in  order.  The  first  step  was  the  forma- 
tion of  a  voluntary  organization  by  schoolmen 
and  citizens  interested  in  helping  boys  in  their 
athletic  sports;  then  the  extension  of  the  work 
so  that  the  great  mass  of  boys  and  girls  were 
reached;  and  finally  official  recognition  by  the 
school  authorities. 

In  1903  the  Director  of  Physical  Training  of  the 
New  York  public  schools,  together  with  the 
City  Superintendent,  members  of  the  Board  of 
Education,  principals,  and  other  public-spirited 
citizens  met  to  consider  what  might  be  done  to 
provide  opportunity  for  wholesome  athletics 
for  boys  in  the  public  schools.  Following  this, 
a  meeting  of  principals  was  held  at  which  a 
definite  plan  for  the  organization  of  a  league 
was  presented.  The  proposition  met  with 
general  approval,  although  some  were  skeptical 
about  the  possibility  of  making  it  succeed.  In 
order  to  bring  the  matter  before  the  public  and 
the  schoolboys  themselves,  a  set  of  games  for 
all  the  schools  of  the  city  was  held  in  Madison 
Square  garden.  It  was  by  far  the  largest 
athletic  meet,  as  regards  the  number  of  com- 
petitors, that  had  ever  been  held.  Some  1500 
boys  took  part.  The  usual  track  and  field 
events,  such  as  the  50  and  100  yard  dashes, 
relay  races,  broad  jumping,  high  jumping,  shot 
putting,  etc.,  were  the  only  ones  attempted  at 
that  time.     From  that  beginning  there  has  been 


277 


ATHLETICS 


ATHLETICS 


built  up  a  great  system  of  athletics  that  reaches 
not  only  the  few  athletically  inclined  boys,  but 
the  whole  mass  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  public 
schools.  This  has  been  brought  about  by 
inaugurating  special  forms  of  competition. 
Two  of  tiie  most  successful  of  these  are  "  class 
athletics  "  and  the  "  athletic  badge  test." 

Class  Athletics.  —  "  Class  athletics  "  is  a 
form  of  competition  in  which  the  whole  member- 
ship of  the  class  takes  part,  and  a  record  is 
made,  not  by  individuals,  but  by  the  class  as  a 
whole.  One  of  the  events  in  this  form  of  ath- 
letics is  the  standing  broad  .jump.  Every  boy 
in  the  class  must  jump.  The  records  of  all 
jumping  are  added  together,  and  the  total  dis- 
tance jumped  is  divided  by  the  number  of 
boys  taking  part,  thus  giving  the  jumping 
ability  of  the  class  as  a  whole.  This  record  is 
compared  with  those  of  other  classes  of  the 
same  school  grade,  and  the  class  making  the 
highest  record  is  awarded  a  trophy,  which  may 
be  hung  up  in  the  classroom  until  the  next 
season,  when  it  is  again  put  up  for  competition. 
This  plan  does  away  with  the  objection  that  is 
often  raised  that  the  athletic  games  provide 
for  the  experts  only,  and  that  these  are  not  the 
ones  in  greatest  need  of  its  benefits.  It  reaches 
the  boy  who  docs  not  usually  take  part,  and  class 
spirit  forces  him  to  train  conscientiously  and 
do  his  very  best  at  the  time  of  the  competition. 
During  the  season  for  class  athletics  it  is  no 
unusual  sight  to  see  clas.ses  in  groups  on  the 
athletic  fields  or  in  alleys  practicing  the  event 
that  is  soon  to  take  place,  the  more  expert 
coaching  the  others,  and  altogether  developing 
a  class  spirit  that  is  wholesome  and  good. 
Another  advantage  of  this  form  of  athletics  is 
that  the  small  class  has  as  good  a  chance  of 
winning  as  the  large  classes. 

Athletic  Badge  Test.  —  The  "athletic  badge 
test"  is  another  form  of  competition  distinctly 
different  from  all  other  kinds  of  athletics,  in 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  defeat  some  one  in 
order  to  win.  Every  boy  who  can  bring  him- 
self to  the  prescribed  standard  of  physical 
efficiency,  and  who  at  the  same  time  is  doing 
satisfactory  work  in  school,  may  win  an  ath- 
letic badge.  The  boys  are  divided  into  two 
classes  for  the  competition,  and  events  are 
prescribed  suitable  to  each  group. 

Boys  under  13  years  of  age  have  the  follow- 
ing standards:  60  yard  dash  in  8f  seconds; 
pull  up  4  times;  standard  broad  jump,  5  feet, 
9  inches. 

All  other  elementary  school  boys  have  the 
following  standards:  00  yard  dash  in  8  seconds, 
or  100  yard  dash  (out  of  doors)  in  14  seconds; 
pull  up  6  times;  standing  broad  jump,  6  feet, 
6  inches. 

When  the  tests  were  first  made  in  New  York 
City,  whole  classes  were  found  in  which  no  boy 
could  pull  himself  up  once.  In  fact,  less  than 
2  per  cent  of  those  taking  the  test  the  first  year 
were  able  to  qualify.  Five  years  later  59  per 
cent  of  the  boys  in  one  school  won  badges,  and 


in  many  schools  from  40  per  cent  to  50  per  cent 
of  the  boys  were  able  to  qualify.  These  badges 
are  greatly  i>rized  by  the  boys,  because  they 
stand  both  for  athletic  ability  and  satisfactory 
work  in  the  school. 

Eligibility.  —  The  development  of  star 
athletes  is  not  the  business  of  a  i)ui)lic  school 
athletic  league.  Its  activities  should  be  so 
closely  correhited  with  the  work  of  the  school 
that  they  will  result  in  a  better  school  spirit, 
better  classroom  work,  better  deportment,  and 
better  health.  One  of  the  first  considerations, 
therefore,  is  that  of  eligibility,  ami  all  agree 
that  every  boy  who  takes  part  in  the  school 
athletics  should  be  doing  satisfactory  school 
work.  He  should  have  a  passing  mark  in 
effort,  proficiency,  and  deportment. 

The  competitions  which  begin  in  an  informal 
way  are  sure  to  become  more  and  more  strenu- 
ous and  intense.  Interschool  rivalry  develops 
to  a  marked  degree,  and  the  pressure  becomes 
constantly  greater  to  relax  on  the  eligibility 
requirements  and  let  the  more  expert  take  part 
in  order  that  the  school  may  win.  This  is  one 
of  the  chief  dangers.  The  principal  should  be 
given  absolute  authority,  under  the  rules,  to 
control  competition  in  his  own  school,  and  must 
be  held  ultimately  responsible,  both  as  regards 
eligibility  and  conduct  in  the  games. 

Standards  of  Classification.  —  Classification 
of  the  boys  taking  part  is  another  necessity. 
That  is,  they  must  be  divided  into  groups  so 
that  those  shall  come  together  in  comi)etition 
who  are  of  the  same  general  physical  ability. 
Grouping  was  first  tried  on  the  basis  of  age, 
and  two  classifications  were  made;  boys  under 
1.3  years  of  age,  and  all  other  elementary  school 
boys.  Serious  objections  were  found  to  this 
classification.  First,  that  it  was  difficult  to 
guarantee  that  the  boy  rightfully  belonged  in 
the  group  in  which  he  was  placed.  Boys  of 
the  same  age  differ  greatly  in  physical  develop- 
ment, and  it  did  not  seem  fair  that  a  boy  5  feet 
tall  should  be  competing  against  a  boy  4  feet 
tall,  and  suspicion  that  the  5-foot  boy  was  older 
than  he  professed  to  be  was  a  natural  result. 
Second,  by  extensive  tests  it  was  found  that  a 
boy's  weight  is  a  better  index  of  his  physical 
al)ility  than  is  his  age.  Therefore,  the  classifi- 
cation bj'  weight  was  adopted,  and  the  follow- 
ing limits  set:  80  pounds,  95  pounds,  115 
pounds,  and  above. 

For  the  track  and  field  games  the  boys  were 
weighed  at  the  time  of  competition.  In  team 
tournaments  extending  over  a  considerable 
length  of  time  it  was  found  necessary  to  weigh 
the  boys  at  the  beginning  of  the  tournament 
only.  Objections  have  also  developed  to  this 
classification,  due  largely  to  the  great  interest 
and  the  vigor  of  competition.  In  order  to  keep 
under  the  weight  limits,  boys  have  been  found 
to  "train  down"  by  taking  frequent  Turkish 
baths  and  by  starving  them.sclves  just  before 
the  competitions.  This  has  been  met  by  the 
rule  that  any  boy  who  is  found  to  have  "  trained 
278 


ATHLETICS 


ATHLETICS 


down"  in  order  to  come  within  the  weight 
limits  shall  be  debarred  from  competition. 

In  New  Orleans  classification  by  height  has 
worked  out  very  satisfactorily.  A  recent  sug- 
gestion is  that  the  boys  should  be  classified  on 
a  combination  basis  of  age,  height,  and  weight. 
That  is.  Class  A  might  be  all  boys  whose  age 
in  years,  plus  one  half  the  height  in  inches,  plus 
one  quarter  of  weight  in  pounds,  shall  not 
exceed  62.  There  is  no  doubt  that  some  such 
plan  as  this  would  make  a  perfectly  fair  classi- 
fication, but  its  practical  working  is  not  certain. 

Limiting  Competition.  —  Another  leading 
consideration  in  athletics  for  schoolboys  is 
that  of  limiting  the  competition  both  as  to  the 
severity  of  the  events  and  the  number  of  events 
entered.  The  events  for  the  different  groups 
must  be  so  arranged  that  the  distance  for  the 
race,  or  the  length  of  playing  time  in  the  game, 
shall  absolutely  prevent  overstrain.  One  of 
the  events  that  is  hard  to  regulate  from  this 
view  point  is  the  "pull  up."  Consequently 
it  has  been  criticized,  and  in  some  cities  dropped 
from  the  list.  Beginning  with  the  moderate 
requirement  of  4  pull  ups  in  the  athletic  badge 
test,  the  boys  have  gone  on  practicing  in  this 
event  until  some  are  able  to  make  a  record  of 
40,  or  even  more.  Although  the  strain  may  be 
no  greater  than  that  in  other  forms  of  athletics, 
the  competition  cannot  be  controlled  suffi- 
ciently to  make  it  an  absolutely  safe  event. 

Limiting  the  number  of  events  in  which  a 
boy  may  take  part  is  another  definite  means  of 
safeguarding  him  in  the  games.  In  the  large 
city  systems,  where  hundreds  of  boys  are 
entered  in  the  same  event,  and  where  there 
must  of  necessity  be  the  trials,  the  semi-finals, 
and  finals  in  all  the  races,  it  is  usual  to  hmit 
elementary  school  boys  to  one  event  only,  with 
the  possible  exception  of  raising  it  to  one  track 
event  and  one  field  event.  In  small  cities, 
where  the  entries  are  small,  and  where  only  one 
"  heat"  is  necessary  in  any  race,  the  boys  may 
be  allowed  to  enter  more  than  one  event. 
Limiting  the  number  of  events  participated  in 
has  another  advantage  which  is  not  at  first 
apparent.  It  distributes  the  competition  and 
gives  a  large  number  of  boys  an  opportunity  to 
take  part.  For  example,  a  school  may  be 
allowed  to  make  2.5  entries  in  a  set  of  games. 
If  there  were  no  limit  to  the  number  of  events 
a  boy  might  enter,  it  would  be  possible  for  3 
or  4  boys  to  represent  the  entire  school,  but  by 
limiting  the  entry  to  one  event  for  each  boy, 
25  boys  are  given  a  chance  to  take  part. 

Athletics  for  Girls.  —  Athletics  for  the  girls 
is  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the  organization  of 
school  athletics,  and  the  mistake  has  quite 
generally  been  made  of  attempting  to  use  for 
the  girls  the  same  kind  of  competition  that  has 
developed  for  the  boys.  One  WTiter  on  the 
subject  says,  "  I  wish  that  we  might  break  away 
entirely  from  the  idea  that  in  order  to  have 
athletics  for  girls  we  must  approach  the  subject 
from  a  man's  point  of  view,  and  that  we  might 


face  the  issue  squarely  and  evolve  our  own 
individual,  natural  sports,  regardless  of  whether 
or  not  they  coincide  with  those  of  men." 
Athletics  for  girls  might  well  be  considered 
from  the  following  standpoints,  as  suggested 
by  the  Inspector  of  Athletics  for  girls  in  New 
York  City:  First:  What  exercises  are  likely 
to  be  injurious  to  the  girls?  Second:  What 
exercises  are  mechanically  suited  to  the  ability 
of  the  average  girl?  Third:  What  exercises 
are  best  suited  to  her  muscular  strength  and 
endurance?  Fourth:  What  forms  of  exercise 
will  contribute  to  her  health  and  vitality,  and 
help  to  fit  her  for  a  normal  woman's  life? 
Fifth:  What  forms  of  physical  activity  come 
nearest  to  containing  for  her  the  primitive 
appeal  that  atliletics  in  the  accepted  .sense  hold 
for  the  boys? 

The  following  are  some  of  the  events  recom- 
mended by  a  special  committee  of  the  Play- 
ground Association  of  America:  (a)  For  the 
immature  girl,  —  archery,  ball  throwing,  folk 
dancing,  low  hurdle  racing,  running  short  dis- 
tances, rowing,  skating,  swimming,  tennis, 
walking.  (6)  For  the  mature  girl,  —  the  same 
events  as  above,  plus  basketball,  climbing, 
field  hockey,  and  indoor  baseball.  Other  events 
that  are  used  with  satisfactory  results  are  the 
potato  race,  Indian  club  race,  and  volley 
ball. 

Effect  vpon  the  School.  —  The  leading  con- 
sideration in  atliletics  for  school  children  must 
always  be  that  of  the  effect  upon  the  school. 
In  cities  where  this  work  has  been  organized 
and  given  a  fair  test,  school  authorities  are 
practically  unanimous  that:  (1)  Class  work  is 
better.  (2)  The  health  of  the  school  children 
is  improved.  (3)  A  wholesome  school  spirit 
is  developed.  (4)  There  is  less  trouble  about 
disciphne,  owing  to  the  closer  relation  and  better 
understanding  between  the  pupils  and  teachers. 
A  district  superintendent  in  the  New  York 
City  schools  recently  declared  at  a  public  meet- 
ing that  organized  athletics  had  done  more  to 
break  up  truancy  in  his  district  than  anj^  other 
thing  that  had  been  tried.  The  following  quota- 
tion from  a  letter  wTitten  to  the  Secretary  of 
the  New  York  City  League  by  a  school  prin- 
cipal is  typical  of  the  attitude  of  teachers,  prin- 
cipals, and  superintendents:  "Permit  me  to 
add  a  word  of  commendation  to  the  many  you 
have  received,  for  the  excellent  work  your 
,  association  is  doing  toward  developing  a  love 
in  our  public  schools  boys  for  clean  athletics. 
These  sports,  I  believe,  improve  our  boys,  not 
only  physically,  but  also  mentally  and  morally. 
This  conclusion  has  been  the  result  of  my  per- 
sonal observations  extending  over  about  four 
years.  I  have  known  of  many  cases  where  boys 
who  had  previously  been  quite  neglectful  of 
both  studies  and  conduct  in  their  classes, 
showed  marked  improvement  in  both  lines 
after  entering  into  athletic  contests.  I  have 
yet  to  find  the  boy  who  has  done  poorer  work 
at  school  because  of  these  sports.  Many  times 
79 


ATHLETICS 


ATHLETICS 


the  leaders  in  athletics  have  also  been  the 
leaders  of  their  class  iu  their  studies." 

Progress  of  the  Movement.  —  Mention  of  a 
few  special  features  of  the  development  in 
school  athletics  throughout  the  country  may 
serve  to  indicate  the  progress  of  this  work. 
In  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where  the  athletics  were 
organized  and  conilucted  for  a  time  entirely 
without  official  recognition  by  the  school 
authorities,  the  school  board  has  adopted  resolu- 
tions which  are  in  part  as  follows:  — 

".\thlctic  events  and  games  arc  constituted  a  regular 
division  of  the  course  of  ijh>*sical  training,  and  shall  be 
provided  for  under  the  supervision  of  the  Department 
of  Phy.sieal  Training  in  such  manner,  approved  by  the 
Superinteiulent  of  Schools,  as  shall  subserve  the  purpose 
of  physical  training  as  herein  stated,  and  be  so  arranged 
that  ever}-  pviblic  school  pupil  desiring  to  do  so  may  be 
able  to  participate  in  activities  of  this  nature  appropriate 
to  his  age  and  development." 

The  resolution  states  in  detail  the  regulations 
that  shall  govern  participation  in  the  various 
athletic  events. 

In  Tacoma,  Wash.,  a  magnificent  stadium 
has  been  constructed  for  the  public  school  boys 
at  a  cost  of  approximately  $80,000..  A  con- 
siderable part  of  this  sum  has  been  donated 
by  the  business  men  of  the  city.  In  New 
Orleans  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
development  of  indoor  baseball  plaj-ed  outdoors 
as  a  substitute  for  the  regulation  baseball 
game.  This  was  done  as  a  means  of  making 
baseball  possible  to  large  numbers  of  boys 
where  playing  space  is  exceedingly  limited. 
It  is  reported  that  this  form  of  baseball  is 
exceedingly  popular.  Over  80  teams  par- 
ticipated in  a  recent  tournament.  The  Public 
Schools  Athletic  League  of  Troy,  N.Y.,  has 
pursued  a  noteworthy  course  concerning  medals 
and  trophies.  Trophies  are  given  to  the 
schools  only,  and  even  then  they  do  not  be- 
come the  permanent  property  of  any  school,  but 
are  competed  for  annually.  No  medals  are 
given  to  individual  competitors  in  the  games. 
A  careful  record  of  those  securing  first,  second, 
and  third  places  in  the  various  events  is  kept, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  year  a  big  athletic  cele- 
bration is  held.  Addresses  are  made  by  the 
mayor,  councilmen,  superintendent  of  schools, 
and  others,  and  the  boys  who  have  won  in  any 
event  throughout  the  j'ear  are  called  to  the 
platform  and  presented  with  a  ribbon  badge 
by  the  president  of  the  League.  This  avoids 
the  evil  of  excessive  prizes,  and  serves  as  a  big 
rally  day  for  all  the  schools,  at  which  school 
spirit  runs  high  and  the  citizens  are  shown 
what  the  schools  are  doing  in  this  department 
of  their  work.  Baltimore  has  an  unusual 
organization  known  as  the  Public  Athletic 
League,  one  department  of  which  has  to  do 
with  athletics  for  the  schoolboys  in  coopera- 
tion with  the  school  authorities,  and  another 
department  conducts  the  public  playgrounds 
chiefly  during  the  summer  recess.  In  Newark, 
N.J.,  a  splendid  athletic  field  has  been  provided 
for  the  public  schools  at  a  cost  of  $75,000. 


Athletic  CourtcKij.  —  One  of  the  benefits  of 
organized  athletics  for  schoolboys  is  the  oppor- 
tunity that  is  afforded  for  practicing  those 
manly  virtues  that  mean  so  much  to  success  in 
after  life.  One  public  schools  athletic  league 
])rints  in  its  handbook  the  following  standards, 
and  emphasizes  them  to  the  boys  as  the  ideal 
in  athletic  competitions:  (1)  The  rules  of  games 
are  to  be  regarded  as  mutual  agreements,  the 
sjjirit  or  letter  of  which  one  should  no  sooner 
try  to  evade  or  break  than  one  would  any  other 
agreement  between  gentlemen.  The  stealing 
of  advantage  in  sport  is  to  be  regarded  in  the 
same  way  as  stealing  of  any  other  kind.  (2) 
Visiting  teams  are  to  be  honored  guests  of  the 
home  team,  and  all  their  mutual  relationships 
are  to  be  governed  bj'  the  spirit  which  is  under- 
stood to  guide  in  such  relationships,  {'.i)  No 
action  is  to  be  taken  nor  course  of  conduct  pur- 
sued which  would  seem  ungentlemanly  or  dis- 
honorable if  known  to  one's  opponent  or  the 
public.  (4)  No  advantages  are  to  be  sought 
over  others,  except  these  in  which  the  game  is 
understood  to  show  superiority.  (5)  Officers 
and  opponents  are  to  be  regarded  and  treated 
as  honest  in  intention.  When  opponents  are 
evidently  not  gentlemen,  and  officers  manifestly 
dishonest  or  incompetent,  future  relationships 
with  them  may  be  avoided.  (6)  Decisions  of 
oflicials  are  to  be  abided  by,  even  when  they 
seem  unfair.  (7)  Ungentlemanly  or  unfair 
means  are  not  to  be  used,  even  when  they  are 
used  by  opponents.  (8)  Good  points  in  others 
should  be  aj)preciated  and  suitable  recognition 
given. 

Progress.  —  The  Board  of  Aldermen  of  New 
York  City  has  made  an  appropriation  of 
$500,000  for  the  purchase  and  equipment  of 
athletic  fields  for  schoolboys,  and  has  placed 
these  fields  under  the  direction  of  the  Board 
of  Education.  The  military  authorities  of  the 
city  have  been  most  courteous  in  allowing  the 
use  of  their  armories,  not  only  for  sets  of 
games,  but  also  as  practice  places  for  the  school- 
boys after  school  hours.  In  the  rapidly 
growing  cities  of  the  West  the  authorities  are 
realizing  the  necessity  of  setting  aside  space 
for  play  and  athletics.  A  bill  presented  in 
1909  before  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of 
Washington  prescribed  a  minimum  limit  of 
100  sciuare  feet  of  play  space  per  child  in  con- 
nection with  all  new  sites  for  school  buildings. 
Although  the  bill  failed  to  pass,  it  is  significant 
that  such  a  measure  should  have  been  presented, 
and  that  it  had  the  unqualified  indorsement  of 
the  State  Superintendent  of  Schools. 

Stati.stici.  —  In  1904-1905,  J.  H.  McCurdy, 
M.D.,  of  the  SprmgfieklY.M.C.A.  Training  School, 
made  a  careful  study  of  the  extent  of  physical 
training  and  athletics  in  the  public  schools  of  555 
cities  in  the  United  States.  These  cities  included 
58  having  a  population  of  over  50,000,  48  having  a 
population  of  from  25,000  to  50,000,  153  having 
a  population  of  from  10,000  to  25,000,  210  having 
a  population  of  from  5000  to  10,000,  86  under 


280 


ATHLETICS 


ATHLETIC   FIELD 


5000  population.  Among  the  555  cities,  12cS 
were  found  to  have  special  teachers  of  physical 
training,  and  102  of  these  had  high  school  athletic 
organizations.  In  the  427  cities  without  special 
teachers  of  physical  training,  243  had  high  school 
athletic  organizations,  makmg  a  total  of  345 
cities,  or  about  62  per  cent  of  the  whole  number, 
having  such  organizations.  The  school  superin- 
tendents were  asked  to  state  their  position  con- 
cerning competitive  athletics  in  high  schools.  In 
the  555  cities,  438  approved,  27  disapproved,  8 
were  doubtful,  82  did  not  answer.  The  popularity 
of  the  different  branches  of  atUetics  is  shown  in 
the  following  statistics  taken  from  this  same 
study:  In  the  555  cities  432  high  schools  have 
football  teams,  360  high  schools  have  baseball 
teams,  213  high  schools  have  basketball  teams, 
161  high  schools  have  track  teams. 

The  questionnaires  indicated  that  the  super- 
intendent put  considerable  emphasis  upon 
plays  and  games,  and  desired  to  place  in  charge 
of  the  boys'  sports  competent  supervisors, 
who  should  be  members  of  the  faculty. 

L.  F.  H. 

See  also  the  articles  on  the  various  forms  of 
athletics,  i.e.  Baseball;  Cricket;  see  also 
Amatedrism;  Athletic  Field;  Gymnastics; 
Hygiene,  Personal;  Hygien-e,  School,  etc. 


References:  — 

General : — 
JoH.NSON,  George  E.     Education  by  Plays  and  Games, 

with  Biljliography.      (Boston,  1907.) 
Leland,  Arthur  and  Lorna  H.   Playground  Technique 

and    Playcraft,     with    BibUography.      (Springfield, 

1909.) 
McCuRDY,    J.    H.     Bibliography   of  Physical  Training;. 

See   group   013,    Philosophy,    Relationships,  which 

gives  the  best  references  up  to  1905.     (Springfield, 

1905.) 
Mero,  E.  B.    American  Playgrounds,  with  Bibliography. 

(Boston,    1908.) 
Official  Handbook  of  the  Athletic  League  of  the  Young 

Men's    Christian    Association    of    North    America. 

(American  Sports  Publishing  Co.,  New  York.) 
Ofiicia!     Handbook    of    the     Public    Schools    Athletic 

League,    published   yearly  since    1904.      (American 

Sports  Publishing  Co..  New  York.) 
Official  Handbook  of  Sunday  School  Athletic  League  of 

Brooklyn,    New    York.     (The    Walden    Press,    64 

Fulton  Street,  New  York.) 
Playground    .Association    of    America.     Proceedings    of 

Annual  Playground  Congress,    1908,   1909.      (New 

York.) 
Proceedings  of  the  Athletic  Research  Societ.v.     American 

Physical  Education  Review,  Vol.  XV,  Nos.  3  and  4, 

March  and  .April,    1910. 
Proceedings  of   Intercollegiate   Athletic   Association   of 

the   United  States.      Published  yearly  since   1000. 

(These  papers  are  the  best  on  college  athletics,  an;l 

are  all  published  in  the  American  Physical  Education 

Review.) 
Report  and  Proceedings  of  Athletic  League  of  Balti- 
more,   1909. 
Report  of  Committee  on  An  Amatoir  Law.     American 

Physical  Education  Review,  Vol.  XV,  No.  3,  March, 

1910. 
Year  Rook  of  the  Public  Schools  Athletic  League  of  the 

City  of  New  York.     (Published  since  1905.) 

Athletics  in  England:  — 
CooKsoN,  C.     E.i.'tays  on  Secondary  Education,  pp.  283- 
305.      (London,   1S98.) 


CoRBiN,   J.     Schoolboy  Life  in  Englartd.     (New  York 
and  London,  1898.) 
Public  Schools  from  within.     (London,  1906.) 

Public  School  Athletics:  — 

Bishop,  E.  C.  How  Should  the  Athletics  of  the  Y.M. 
C.A.  Supplement  that  of  the  Public  School,  Hygiene 
and  Physical  Education,  Vol.  I,  No.  10,  p.  880. 
(Springfield,  Mass.) 

Cline.  Earle.  The  Advisability  of  Inter-High  School 
Contests  in  Athletics,  Physical  Education  Review, 
Vol.  XIV,  No.  1,  p.  22.     (Springfield,  Mass.) 

Handbooks  of  the  Public  Schools  Athletic  Leagues  of 
Baltimore,  Md.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Newark,  N.  J., 
New  Orleans,  La.,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  Seattle,  Wash. 
(These  will  be  sent  free  on  application.) 

L.\RNED,  C.  W.  Athletics  from  Historical  and  Educa- 
tional Standpoint,  Physical  Education  Review, 
Vol.  XIV,  No.  1,  p.  1.       (Springfield,  Mass.) 

Meanwell,  W.  E.  The  Team  Game  Tournament, 
Hygiene  and  Physical  Education,  Vol.  I,  No.  9, 
p.    896.     (Springfield,    Mass.) 

Nichols,  E.  H.  Competitive  Athletics,  Physical 
Education  Review,  Vol.  XIV,  No.  9,  p.  589.  (Spring- 
field, Mass.) 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Athletics  for  Boys  and 
Athletics  for  Girls  of  the  Playground  Association  of 
America,  1  Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City. 
(Sent  free  on  application.) 

Pamphlet  on  Public  Schools  Athletics,  Department  of 
(I^hild  Hygiene  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation, 
1  Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City.  (Sent  free  on 
application.) 

ATHLETIC  FIELD.  — An  athletic  field  is 
an  essential  part  of  the  equipment  in  every 
educational  institution.  The  size  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  field  vary  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  institution  and  the  number  of  stu- 
dents to  be  accommodated.  Some  of  the  large 
colleges  and  preparatory  schools  have  from  20 
to  30  acres  laid  out  for  baseball,  football, 
track  and  field  sports,  and  lawn  tennis.  Other 
institutions  located  in  or  near  cities  where  land 
is  expensive  have  smaller  fields,  often  limited 
to  a  few  acres.  There  is  a  marked  tendency 
to  increase  the  equipment  for  outdoor  sports 
and  games  in  schools  and  colleges.  Many 
new  and  growing  institutions  have  made  the 
mistake  of  not  acquiring  sufficient  land  for 
athletic  fields  when  land  was  cheap,  and  later 
found  it  impossible  to  secure  adequate  space. 
The  minimum  area  necessarj^  for  an  athletic 
field  to  accommodate  500  to  1000  students  in 
outdoor  sports  is  about  6  or  7  acres. 

The  location  of  the  athletic  field  is  of  utmost 
importance.  The  ideal  location  is  adjoining 
the  gymnasium  building ;  when  this  is  not  pos- 
sible, the  field  should  be  as  near  the  gj'mnasium 
as  possible.  Experience  has  shown  that  the 
value  of  a  field  to  the  students  decreases  rapidly 
as  the  distance  of  the  field  from  the  gymnasium 
increases.  When  the  athletic  field  is  located 
more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  gym- 
nasium and  campus,  the  following  difficulties 
are  encountered:  (1)  Students  object  to  the 
loss  of  time  and  energy  involved  in  walking  to 
and  from  the  field;  (2)  If  dressing  and  bathing 
facilities  are  not  provided  at  the  field,  students 
object  to  walking  to  and  from  the  field  in  exer- 
cising costume,  and  they  are  more  liable  to 
take  cold  after  exercise;    (3)  If  dressing  and 


281 


ATHLETIC   FIELD 


ATHLETIC   FIELD 


bathing  facilities  are  provided  at  the  field,  the 
cost  of  construction  and  administration  is 
greatly  increased.  A  small  field  near  tiic  sym- 
uasium  is  usually  preferable  to  a  large  field 
half  a  mile  or  a  mile  away. 

A  typical  athletic  field  containing  a  playing 
field  for  baseball,  football,  lacrosse,  soccer, 
field  sports,  (juartcr  mile  running  track,  tennis 
courts,  grand  stand,  etc.,  requires  a  field  400 
by  700  feet,  about  G\  acres.  The  arrangement 
of  such  a  field  is  shown  ou  the  diagram. 


Plau  for  an  Atfiletic  Field. 

This  is  a  quarter  mile  track  with  one  side 
prolonged  for  the  220  yards  straightaway. 
The  straight  sides  are  110  yards  in  length  and 
69  yards,  1  inch  apart,  measured  from  curb  to 
curb.  The  sides  are  joined  at  either  end  by 
semicircles  having  a  radius  of  103  feet,  6h 
inches  from  center  to  curb.  This  form  of 
track  is  the  best  for  running  races.  The  track 
should  be  at  least  12  feet  wide;  a  width  of  15 
or  18  feet  is  preferable.  If  it  is  not  practicable 
to  make  the  whole  track  18  feet  wide,  that 
breadth  should  be  given  to  the  straightaway. 

The  position  of  the  baseball  diamond,  catcher's 
path,  and  backstop  are  shown  in  I  and  O. 
The  diamond  may  be  shifted  a  little  in  either 
direction,  if  found  desirable.  The  letters  M, 
N,  S,  and  T  indicate  the  positions  of  the  4  goal 
posts  for  football.  The  best  way  to  arrange 
them  is  to  sink  4  posts,  a  foot  in  diameter  and 
4  feet  long,  2  inches  below  the  surface  of  the 
field.  These  posts  have  in  the  upper  ends 
holes  a  foot  deep,  into  which  the  goal  posts  fit. 
When  not  in  use  remove  the  goal  posts,  put 
wooden  plugs  into  the  holes,  and  cover  up  the 
sunken  posts,  so  as  to  leave  the  ground  unob- 
structed. The  inner  field  may  also  be  used  for 
soccer  football  and  lacrosse  by  erecting  goals 
which  may  be  put  up  and  removed  easily.  All 
that  portion  of  the  inner  field,  beginning  at  the 
end  of  the  track  opposite  from  the  baseball 
backstop,  and  extending  toward  the  baseball 
diamond,  may  be  marked  into  lawn  tennis 
courts.  Other  courts  may  be  laid  out  in  the 
corners  of  the  field,  not  used  for  grand  stand. 
The  most  convenient  positions  of  the  jumping 
and  pole-vaulting  runs  and  pits  are  indicated 
by  the  letters  P,  Q,  and  R.  The  circles  for  the 
shot  and  hammer  are  indicated  by  the  letters 
J  and  L. 


The  grand  stand  should  be  located  as  shown 
at  D,  on  the  other  side  of  the  track  from  the 
finish  line  of  all  the  races.  The  floor  of  the 
front  row  of  seats  on  the  stand  should  be  at 
least  6  feet  above  the  level  of  the  track,  in 
order  that  the  view  of  the  spectators  may  not 
be  obstructed  by  persons  walking  in  front  of 
the  stands.  On  the  outer  edge  of  the  track,  in 
front  of  the  grand  stand,  tiiere  should  be  a 
single  row  of  seats  reserved  exclusively  for 
contestants,  and  officials  not  actively  engaged 
in  the  contests  then  taking  place.  The  space 
under  the  grand  stand  may  be  used  for  dressing 
rooms,  bathrooms,  lavatories,  etc. 

To  lay  out  the  track,  first  mark  out  by  a  row 
of  small  wooden  ])egs  a  straight  fine  down  the 
center  of  the  field  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
On  this  line  stick  2  large  pegs,  540  feet  1  inch 
apart,  making  the  position  where  it  is  desired 
to  have  the  extreme  points  of  the  end  of  the 
track.  From  these  2  large  pegs  measure  off 
105  feet  A  inch  toward  the  center,  and  mark 
the  points  by  stakes.  Then,  with  a  wire  105 
feet  5  inches  in  length  held  at  one  end  against 
the  stakes  and  having  at  the  other  a  sharp 
spike,  scratch  out  on  the  ground  the  semi- 
circular ends;  mark  them  out  by  rows  of  small 
pegs,  which  will  be  tlie  straight  sides.  Then 
measure  carefully  around  the  course  thus 
marked  out  by  pegs,  and,  if  it  is  found  a  few 
inches  longer  or  shorter  than  a  quarter  mile, 
adjust  some  of  the  end  pegs  so  as  to  make  it 
exactly  correct.  Then  mark  out  the  line  for 
the  curb,  18  inches  inside  this  measurement 
line,  all  round  the  field,  and  the  track  is  laid 
out. 

The  curb  should  be  of  2  X  9  inch  wood, 
3  inches  above  the  path  and  6  inches  under 
ground,  so  as  to  be  firm.  This  should  be  bent 
around  the  curves  by  samng  slits  into  its  inner 
edges  as  frequently  as  necessary,  thus  making 
the  line  of  the  curb  round  and  not  a  succession 
of  straight  edges.  Holes  should  be  bored 
through  this  curb  every  few  feet,  just  at  the 
surface  of  the  path,  so  as  to  allow  the  water  to 
run  through  into  the  inner  field,  and  there 
should  be,  just  inside  of  the  curb,  an  open  ditch 
or  a  4-inch  covered  drain  to  receive  the  water. 
The  track  should  have  a  slope  from  the  outside 
to  the  inside,  just  enough  so  that  the  water 
will  run  off  freely  into  the  inner  field.  The 
lowest  part  of  the  track  should  not  be  less  than 
3  inches  above  the  level  of  the  inner  field,  .so 
that  in  wet  weather  the  path  will  drain  freely 
and  promptly.  On  the  ends  the  track  should 
be  sloped  up  from  the  curb,  about  one  quarter 
inch  to  the  foot,  so  as  to  permit  draining. 

The  proper  construction  of  the  track  surface 
is  of  utmost  importance.  A  good  track  is 
light  and  springy;  it  drains  easily  in  wet 
weather  and  does  not  get  dusty  in  dry  weather. 
These  results  are  most  likely  to  be  secured  by 
building  a  track  according  to  the  following 
directions:  — 

1.  Excavate  the  track  surface  to  a  depth  of 


282 


ATKINSON 


ATOMISM 


9  inches  below  the  final  grade  of  the  track,  giv- 
ing it  a  slope  of  3  inches  in  IS  feet. 

2.  Spread  a  layer  of  broken  stone  3  inches 
deep,  and  roll  to  an  even  surface. 

3.  Upon  this,  a  layer  of  3  inches  of  coarse 
cinders  to  be  carefully  spread  and  rolled  in 
thin  layers  and  thoroughly  soaked  while  being 
rolled. 

4.  The  final  layer,  or  top-dressing,  is  to  be 
laid  in  the  same  manner.  It  is  to  be  3  inches 
deep,  and  consists  of  a  mixture  of  loam  and 
cinders  in  the  proportion  of  half  loam  and  half 
cinders,  both  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  after 
sifting  in  most  careful  manner,  using  finest 
sieve.  This  layer  is  then  carefully  spread  and 
rolled. 

After  a  track  has  been  built,  constant  atten- 
tion is  necessary  to  keep  it  up  to  a  high  .stand- 
ard of  efficiency.  It  should  be  rolled  every 
day  and  sprinkled  as  often  as  necessary  to  keep 
it  smooth,  firm,  and  free  from  dust.    G.  L.  M. 

ATKINSON,  EDWARD  PARSONS  (1820- 
1890).  —  Educator  and  author,  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1838.  For  30  j^ears  he  was 
engaged  in  public  school  work  in  Massachu- 
setts, and  from  1868  to  1889  he  was  professor 
of  English  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology.  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
Massachusetts  Teacher  and  the  author  of  the 
following  educational  works:  Classical  and 
Scientific  Studies,  Great  Schools  of  England, 
History  and  the  Study  of  History,  Study  of 
Politics.  W.  S.  M. 

ATLANTA  BAPTIST  COLLEGE,  ATLANTA, 

GA.  —  An  institution  for  the  education  of 
negro  young  men,  organized  in  1867  in  Augusta, 
Ga.,  as  the  Augusta  Institute.  The  removal 
to  Atlanta  was  made  in  1879,  and  the  present 
title  was  obtained  in  1897.  It  is  under  the 
auspices  of  the  American  Baptist  Home  Mission 
Society.  Preparatory,  academic,  college,  and 
theological  departments  are  maintained.  The 
academy  gives  approximately  16  units  of  high 
school  work.  In  the  college  the  degree  of 
B.A.  is  conferred  on  those  who  complete  the 
course.  More  than  half  of  those  attending 
the  institution  are  in  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment, which  comprises  the  five  higher  grades  of 
the  public  school  and  equips  pupils  to  enter 
the  academy  or  to  pass  the  state  teachers' 
examination.  There  is  a  faculty  of  10  profes- 
sors and  7  instructors. 

ATLANTA,  CITY  OF.  —  The  capital  and 
the  largest  city  of  Georgia.  Organized  as  a 
city  in  1874,  and  operating  under  siiecial  laws 
of  the  state  of  Georgia.  In  1900  Atlanta  had 
a  population  of  89,872,  and  in  1908  an  esti- 
mated population  of  109,545.  Its  school  census, 
6-18  years  of  age,  was  25,490  in  1908,  and  its 
total  day-school  enrollment  was  15,952  in  1910. 
33  per  cent  of  the  total  population  in  1900  was 


of  the  colored  race,  and  2  per  cent  was  foreign- 
born. 

The  school  department  is  under  the  control 
of  a  Board  of  Education,  composed  of  10  mem- 
bers, consisting  of  1  elected  from  each  of  8 
wards,  and  the  Alayor  of  Atlanta  and  the 
Chairman  of  the  Public  School  Committee  of 
the  City  Council,  ex-officio.  The  Superintend- 
ent of  City  Schools  rejiorts  directly  to  the 
State  School  Commissioner,  instead  of  through 
the  County  School  Commissioner,  and  likewise 
the  city  draws  its  proportion  of  the  state  school 
fund  direct. 

The  city  maintains  elementary  schools  for 
the  two  races,  and  2  high  schools  for  whites, 
1  for  boys  and  1  for  girls.  It  employed  429 
teachers  and  13  supervisory  officers,  and  pro- 
vided a  term  of  200  days  in  1909-1910;  39 
teachers  were  employed  in  liigh  schools.  Thirteen 
teachers  were  employed  in  evening  schools,  and 
a  term  of  200  evenings  was  provided.  The  total 
receipts  for  current  expenses  in  1907-1908  were 
$330,320.  The  city  provides  manual  training 
in  the  elementary  school  and  in  the  boys'  high 
school. 

Reference :  — 

Reports  and   Manuals   Atlanta  Public  School's,  1871— 
1910. 

ATLANTA  UNIVERSITY,  ATLANTA,  GA. 

—  An  institution  for  the  higher  education  of 
negroes,  incorporated  in  1867  and  opened  in 
1869.  A  high  school  course  (college  and  nor- 
mal preparatory)  and  college  and  normal 
courses  are  offered.  The  college  entrance 
requirements  are  equivalent  to  about  21  years' 
high  school  work.  The  majority  of  the  stu- 
dents are  in  the  high  school.  The  normal 
work  is  done  in  2  years.  Degrees  are  given  at 
the  end  of  the  4  years'  course.  There  are  5 
professors,  5  instructors,  and  a  number  of  assist- 
ants on  the  faculty.  Rev.  Edward  T.  Ware, 
A.B.,  is  the  president. 

ATLANTIC  CHRISTIAN  COLLEGE.  WIL- 
SON, N.C.  —  A  coeducational  institution, 
founded  in  1902,  as  the  state  college  of  the 
Christian  Church.  Preparatory,  collegiate, 
ministerial,  commercial,  and  fine  arts  depart- 
ments are  provided.  Admission  is  by  cer- 
tificate from  an  accredited  high  school  or  by 
examination  requiring  about  21  years'  high 
school  work.  Diplomas  and  degrees  are  con- 
ferred. The  theological  course  may  be  com- 
pleted in  3  years  after  graduation,  or  in  4  years 
after  the  freshman  class.  There  is  a  faculty  of 
14  instructors.  Jesse  C.  Caldwell,  A.B.,  B.D., 
is  the  president. 

ATLAS,  SCHOOL.  —  See  M.\ps. 

ATOMISM.  —  The  philosophical  theory  of 
matter  which  endeavors  to  discover  the  nature 
of  its  constitution  by  resolving  it  into  its 
simplest  and  indivisible  elements.     These  are 


283 


ATOMISM 


ATTENDANCE 


called  atoms  {aTo/jui).  The  theory  (also 
known  in  modern  times  as  "materialism") 
found  its  first  formulation  among  several  (Jreek 
thinkers  (usually  referred  to  as  the  Atomists) 
in  the  ])re-So(Tatic  group  of  Greek  philosophers, 
chief  among  whom  were  Leucippus  (c.  500  B.C.) 
and  Demoeritus  (460-370  B.C.).  By  the  latter 
especially  matter  is  regarded  as  divisible  into 
an  infinite  number  of  infinitely  little  particles 
or  molecules  which  unite  and  separate.  These 
particles  possess  the  same  intrinsic  quality, 
ditTcr  in  form,  size,  and  relative  position,  and 
are  in  ceaseless  motion.  This  motion  is  orig- 
inally their  own;  and  the  changes  which 
happen  in  the  world  are  caused  by  them  accord- 
ing to  necessity,  and  not  according  to  any  end  or 
design.  The  soul  and  all  its  activities,  includ- 
ing knowledge,  are  also  explained  by  means 
of  atoms,  although  finer  and  smoother  ones  are 
postulated  for  tliis  purpose. 

In  one  form  or  another,  atomism  as  a  philo- 
sophical doctrine  or  a  scientific  theory  has 
continued  down  to  the  present  day.  Among 
the  philosophers  it  has  received  acceptance  as 
a  theory  of  all  things,  or  modification  as  a 
theory  of  matter  only,  by  Epicurus,  Lucretius, 
ScotusErigcna,  Cusanus,  Descartes  (corpuscles), 
Hobbes,  Leibnitz  (immaterial  monads),  Lamet- 
trie,  Holbach,  Kant,  Fechner,  and  others. 
In  more  recent  times  the  atomic  theory  has 
been  particularly  suggestive  for  the  develop- 
ment of  hypotheses  by  the  physical  sciences. 
Their  rapid  development,  especially  as  relates 
to  the  explanation  of  phenomena  in  physics, 
chemistry,  and  physical  chemistry,  has  ad- 
vanced largely  in  terms  of  an  atomistic  theory. 
Two  instances  illustrate  the  scientific  services 
of  modern  atomism;  namely,  the  molecular 
theory  of  gases,  and  the  important  theory  of 
atomic  weights.  Each  atom  in  a  given  chem- 
ical element  has  the  same  form  and  weight. 
But  the  different  elements  now  known  to  chem- 
istry are  regarded  as  having  atoms  of  different 
weights,  which  are  estimated  in  terms  of  tlie 
ratios  in  which  they,  respectively,  unite  with 
hydrogen,  the  latter  being  taken  arbitrarily 
as  one.  The  more  recent  theory  of  vorte.\ 
atoms  has  given  place  to  the  electric  theory  of 
matter,  which  holds  that  the  primitive  constit- 
uent of  the  atom  is  the  electron. 

For  the  most  part,  atomism  (or  materialism) 
as  a  philosophical  theory  has,  oddly  enough, 
not  formulated  a  definite,  positive  theory  of 
education.  Its  contribution  to  the  solution  of 
both  the  theoretical  and  the  practical  problems 
of  education  is  negligible.  The  chief  historical 
instance  where  a  materialistic  psychology  and 
philosophy  came  nearest  to  exerting  a  molding 
influence  upon  educational  theory  may  be 
found  in  French  thought  preceding  the  French 
Revolution.  The  logical  bearing  of  this  theory 
upon  education  is  to  eliminate  the  more  human 
values  and  to  require  a  complete  reduction  of 
formal  schooling  and  incidental  education  to 
the  status  of  a  mechanical  process.       E.  F.  B. 


References:  ^ 

Langk.     History  of  Materialism.     Eng.tr.lS92. 
Lasswitz.    Gcschichte  drr  Atomiatik  vom  Mitlelalter  bis 

Nni'tun.     2  vols,  IbllO. 
Mabillkau.    Histoirede  la  philosophic atomistiquc,  1895. 

ATROPHY.  —  When  any  organ  is  not  used 
it  tends  to  become  weaker,  and  in  many  cases 
shrinks  in  size.  This  reduction  of  an  organ 
to  inactivity  is  known  as  a  jjroce.ss  of  atrophy. 
The  term  "atrophy"  is  used  figuratively  with 
reference  to  mental  functions,  these  functions 
being  said  to  atrophy  through  lack  of  exercise. 
The  lack  of  exercise  necessary  for  the  proper 
development  of  an  organ  or  function  may  be 
due  to  a  variety  of  causes.  In  some  cases 
atrophy  of  functions  is  due  to  neglect,  in  other 
ca.ses  to  pathological  conditions  which  interfere 
with  proper  nutrition  or  circulation. 

ATTENDANCE. —  The  school  attendance 
of  a  child  is  recorded  in  terms  of  presence  and 
punctuality.  Reports  upon  a  child's  attend- 
ance are  usually  made  to  the  parents  by  indi- 
cating the  number  of  times  of  tardiness  and  the 
number  of  days  or  half  days  of  absence.  Aver- 
ages of  school  attendance  in  school  reports  are 
calculated  from  the  record  of  presence  or 
absence,  tarcUness  usually  being  disregarded 
in  the  measure  of  attendance.  The  measures 
of  attendance  used  to  indicate  the  attendance 
of  a  given  school  vary  with  different  localities, 
those  in  most  common  use  being  the  following: 
(1)  Total  enrollment  or  register  of  the  entire 
number  of  names  recorded  in  the  various 
registers;  (2)  Net  enrollment,  the  total  en- 
rollment minus  duplicate  enrollments  due  to  the 
transfer  of  children  from  grade  to  grade  or  to 
rcadmi.ssions;  (3)  average  enrollment,  or  average 
number  belonging,  a  variously  calculated  meas- 
ure which  attempts  to  express  the  average  en- 
rollments for  the  period  covered  by  the  mea.s- 
ure;  and  (4)  average  daily  attendance,  commonly 
found  by  dividing  the  total  number  of  days  of 
attendance  by  the  total  number  of  days  taught. 
The  last-named  measure  is  most  frequently 
used.  It  is  frequently  the  case  that  school 
moneys  are  distributed  to  schools  upon  the 
basis  of  some  measure  of  attendance. 

The  problem  of  maintaining  punctual  and 
persi.stent  attendance  is  important  in  school 
management,  particularly  in  districts  where 
parents  are  lax  in  the  control  of  their  children. 
Irregular  attendance  interferes  greatly  with 
the  efficiency  and  economy  of  school  effort. 
Every  child  who  returns  to  school  after  an 
absence  holds  back  the  progress  of  his  class, 
or  becomes  an  increased  burden  because  of  his 
need  for  more  or  less  individual  attention  from 
the  teacher.  In  consequence,  teachers  expend 
considerable  effort  in  the  maintenance  of 
attendance.  The  child  is  held  to  account  for 
his  absences  and  tardinesses,  and  a  written 
excuse  from  his  parents  is  required.  If  illness 
in  the  household  or  matters  of  important 
family  business  have  detained  the  child,  then 


284 


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ATTENDANCE 


the  excuse  is  accepted.  If  such  an  excuse  is 
not  provided,  the  child's  dehnquency  is  treated 
as  an  infraction  of  the  rules  of  the  school,  and 
punished  with  reprimands,  detention,  loss  of 
privileges,  etc.  Sometimes  the  standing  in 
attendance  is  permitted  to  affect  the  standing 
in  scholarship,  and  consequently  the  promotion 
of  the  pupil;  such  a  treatment  of  absence  is 
generally  regarded  as  unjustifiable  in  present- 
day  practice.  It  frequently  occurs  that  the 
teacher,  under  pressure  from  a  superior  ofRcer 
or  under  the  stress  of  interclass  or  interschool 
competition,  may  make  absence  and  tardiness 
seem  greater  offenses  than  they  are,  and  thus 
impel  children  to  a  morbid  fear  of  staying  out 
of  school,  even  when  illness  or  some  other 
course  justifies  the  same.  Under  normal 
circumstances  there  will  always  be  some  ab- 
sence, the  acceptable  average  daily  attendance 
being  variable.  Roughly  speaking,  the  attend- 
ance should  not  be  allowed  to  fall  below  an 
average  daily  attendance  of  about  90  per  cent. 
The  attempt  of  a  teacher  to  maintain  it  above 
about  98  per  cent  may  not  justify  the  effort  ex- 
pended and  the  discomfort  caused  to  the  legiti- 
mate absentees. 

The  problem  of  reducing  unpunctuality  or 
tardiness  is  similar  to  that  of  eliminating 
unnecessary  absences.  An  interesting  school 
life  increases  school  attendance,  a.s  interesting 
morning  exercises  or  assemblies  reduces  tardi- 
ness. It  occurs  now  and  then  that  teachers 
make  children  feel  the  disgrace  of  tardiness  so 
keenly  that  they  prefer  to  absent  themselves 
from  school  a  half  day  to  being  late.  Such  an 
emphasis  is  obviously  unwarranted. 

Many  devices  are  used  to  stimulate  proper 
attendance.  Among  these  are  the  ringing  of 
a  warning  bell  prior  to  the  final  bell  of  assem- 
bly, competition  between  classes  and  schools, 
demerit  marks,  honor  rolls,  the  po.sting  of 
names,  later  excusal  from  school  attendance, 
etc.  When  persistent  absences  occur  among 
children  of  compulsory  school  age,  the  aid  of 
the  attendance  or  truancy  officer  is  invoked. 

H.  S. 

See  Attendance,  Compulsory. 

References :  — 


Bagley. 

Seeley. 


School  Manngemcnl.  Chap.  V. 
New  School  Achievement,  Chap.  V. 


ATTENDANCE,      COMPULSORY.  —  The 

State  acts  toward  education  in  a  threefold 
way:  it  may  support  education;  it  may  control 
and  manage  it;  and  it  may  enforce  it  on  given 
communities  or  individuals.  Any  one  or  more 
of  these  functions  it  may  leave  to  private  initia- 
tive. But  the  nineteenth  century  has  witnessed 
state  activity  on  a  large  scale  "along  all  three 
lines,  with  reference  to  that  stage  of  education 
commonly  called  elementary.  The  right  of 
society  (acting  through  the  State)  to  compel 
a  certain  amount  of  attendance  at  school  has 
long  been  unquestioned;   and  in  recent  years  it 


has  become  customary  to  insist  also  on  a  mini- 
mum standard  of  educational  proficiency  be- 
ing realized  as  a  condition  for  leaving  school. 

Compulsory  education  has  become  closely 
identified  with  a  number  of  other  phases  of 
social  economy,  .such  as  restriction  of  labor  for 
young  children,  industries  prohibited  on  ac- 
count of  danger  to  life  and  health  or  morals, 
administration  of  relief,  and  the  education  of 
defectives.  In  America  the  recent  activity 
in  legislation  relating  to  compulsory  education 
has  not  come  so  much  from  educators  as  from 
the  leading  voluntary  movements  for  the  physi- 
cal, moral,  and  intellectual  welfare  of  children. 
These  movements  have  sought  the  fuller  pro- 
tection of  cliildhood  in  general,  and  compul- 
sory education  has  been  but  one  of  the  main 
features. 

Germany.  —  Historical.  —  The  notion  of  edu- 
cation made  compulsory  by  the  State  had  its 
origin  in  Germany.  The  Reformation  (q.v.), 
as  voiced  by  Luther  and  others,  stood,  among 
other  things,  for  universal  education  supported 
and  controlled  by  the  State.  Luther  also 
clearly  perceived  the  logical  necessity  of  com- 
pelling negligent  or  selfish  parents  to  procure 
education  for  their  children,  and  the  obligation 
of  communities  to  assist  needy  parents  in  this 
respect.  "  It  becomes  councilmen  and  magis- 
trates to  watch  over  youth  with  unremit- 
ting care  and  diligence."  Universal  education 
along  the  line  of  vernacular  studies  followed 
gradually  after  the  Reformation,  and  within 
200  years  of  Luther's  period  the  principle  of 
compulsory  education  was  being  put  in  prac- 
tice. As  early  as  1619  school  attendance  was 
made  compulsory  in  Weimar  for  all  children 
from  6  to  12,  while  in  1642  the  same  principle 
was  adopted  in  Gotha.  In  1773  compulsory 
attendance  was  made  effective  in  Saxony, 
the  ages  embraced  being  from  the  fifth  to  the 
fourteenth  year. 

As  early  as  1713  King  Frederick  William 
perceived  with  dissatisfaction  that  "parents, 
especially  in  the  country,  prove  negligent  in 
sending  their  children  to  school,  in  consequence 
of  which  negligence  the  poor  youth  are  kept 
in  grcss  ignorance  as  concerns  reading,  writing, 
and  ciphering,  as  well  as  that  which  concerns 
the  weal  and  salvation  of  their  souls."  In  1717 
the  Iving  issued  the  first  law  of  compulsory 
attendance  for  Prussia.  It  orders  that  "  here- 
after wherever  there  are  schools  in  the  place 
the  parents  shall  be  obliged,  under  severe 
penalties,  to  send  their  children  to  school." 
"School  is  to  be  attended  daily  in  winter, 
but  in  summer  at  least  twice  a  week."  "In 
cases  where  parents  have  not  the  means  to  pay 
so  much,  the  fee  is  to  be  paid  from  the 
community's  funds."  In  1763  appeared  the 
General  Countnj  School  Regulations,  which 
united  the  various  existing  ordinances  relating 
to  compulsory  attendance.  They  provided  for 
the  ages  of  compulsory  schooling,  the  fees  that 
might  be  charged,  penalties  to  be  imposed  on 


285 


ATTENDANCE 


ATTENDANCE 


negligent  parents,  and  the  obligation  of  com- 
munities to  educate  children  of  destitute 
parents.  These  regulations,  elaborated  under 
Frederick  the  (!rcat,  were  slightly  bettered 
from  time  to  time,  but  they  made  from  the 
outset  a  comprehensive  system  of  school  con- 
trol. In  many  respects  they  have  reciuired 
no  change  to  this  day.  Of  course  it  must  not 
be  understood  that  this  desirable  legislation 
was  everywhere  equally  enforced.  Local 
authorities  often  ignored  it;  and  there  was  a 
period  when  even  the  minister  of  State  (Woell- 
ner  in  1794)  undertook  distinctly  reactionary 
measures.  But  all  subsequent  rulers  who 
sought  the  well-being  of  the  people  favored  and 
usually  procured  compliance  with  compulsory 
education  legislation.  In  passing,  it  may  be 
noted  that  the  General  Code  of  1794  contained 
one  provision  which  in  modern  times  comes  to 
be  a  final  step  in  compulsory  education:  "  the 
instruction  in  school  must  be  continued  until 
the  child  is  found  to  possess  the  knowledge 
necessary  to  every  rational  being." 

Subsequent  steps  in  the  development  of 
compulsory  education  in  Prussia  are  mainly 
matters  of  detail.  In  18S8  fees  were  abolished. 
The  extension  of  Prussian  authority  over  ac- 
quired provinces  introduced  many  difficulties, 
which  resulted  in  bringing  all  types  of  educa- 
tion more  or  less  directly  under  the  state  author- 
ities, and  state  aid  was  provided  to  needy 
communities.  In  1890  all  compulsory  educa- 
tion legislation  was  unified,  and  by  a  series  of 
devices  responsibility  was  entailed  on  parents, 
employers,  and  communities  to  a  degree  which 
makes  evasion  of  this  obligation  impossible  in 
the  case  of  persons  of  settled  habitation,  and 
almost  impossible  in  case  of  shifting  peoples, 
hke  canal  boatmen,  etc. 

Present  System.  —  Compulsory  education  in 
Germany  has  now  the  following  marked  fea- 
tures: Except  in  case  of  some  defectives,  all 
children  must  complete  the  elementary  (Volk- 
schide)  course  of  study  or  attend  until  14.  After 
this  they  must  continue  in  school  unless  regu- 
larly employed;  and  in  most  parts  of  the 
empire  those  employed  must  until  they  reach 
17  or  18  make  a  minimum  of  attendance  at 
continuation  school,  an  amount  which  may 
be  stated  in  terms  of  hours  per  week  or  hours 
per  year  and  ranges  from  2  to  4  hours  per  week. 

See  CoN'TiNUATioN  Schools,  and  Germ.\ny, 
Education  in. 

Formerly  this  compulsory  attendance  was 
made  in  Sunday  or  evening  schools;  but  oppo- 
sition among  physicians  developed  toward 
compulsory  evening  school  attendance  for 
children  of  14  to  17  years  of  age,  and  the  tend- 
ency of  recent  legislation  has  been  to  require 
that  employers  should  release  their  apprentices 
for  sufficient  day  hours  per  week  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  compulsory  attendance.  For 
apprentices  in  some  fields  continuation  attend- 
ance is  obligatory  until  17,  in  others  until  18. 
When  it  is  recalled  that  the  typical  German 


must  at  19  or  20  begin  2  or  more  years  of  com- 
pulsory service  in  the  army,  which  is  in  effect 
a  school,  it  is  evident  that  the  period  of  com- 
pulsory education  for  the  German  youth  is  a 
long  one. 

France.  —  Prior  to  the  Revolution  the  ques- 
tion of  compulsory  education  was  mostly  an 
academic  one.  The  ai)plication  of  compulsion 
was  opposed  on  the  grounds  of  human  liberty 
by  WTiters  like  Talleyrand,  who  yet  argued  in 
favor  of  free  education  in  the  essentials  of 
knowledge. 

The  National  Convention  in  1792  created  a 
committee  on  public  instruction  which  among 
other  topics  debated  the  iirinciple  of  compulsion, 
usually  in  the  direction  of  favoring  it.  The 
so-called  loi  Bouqiden  made  attendance  for 
at  least  3  years  obligatory.  But  under  the 
Napoleonic  regime  the  compulsory  principle 
was  not  asserted.  For  30  years  no  further  prog- 
ress appears.  The  law  of  1833  did  not  compel 
attendance,  but  paved  the  way  for  it,  since  it 
was  made  obligatory  on  the  communes  to  pro- 
vide and  enforce  education.  In  1848  Carnot 
proposed  a  more  comprehensive  law,  but  all  the 
time  the  question  was  involved  with  that  of  free 
education.  In  1871  Simon's  projected  law 
asserted  the  necessity  of  requiring  each  child 
from  6  to  13  to  attend  school,  and  inipo.sed 
penalties  on  parents  who  employed  children 
during  this  period.  Local  committees  (com- 
missions scolaircs)  were  to  enforce  this  attend- 
ance. These  committees  were  also  to  hold 
examinations  of  children  educated  privately 
or  by  religious  bodies,  and  then  would  be  able 
to  send  the  child  to  another  school  in  case  he 
exhibited  imperfect  results  in  examination. 

But  not  until  1882  were  laws  finally  enacted 
that  expressed  the  principle  comprehensivelv. 
The  famous  law  of  March  28,  1882,  made  pri- 
mary education  compulsory  and  religious  educa- 
tion optional.  Education  could  be  given  any- 
where, but  a  local  committee  must  oversee  its 
results.  A  variety  of  detailed  measures  was 
aimed  to  secure  its  enforcement.  (Dreyfus- 
Brissac,  L'enseignemenl  ohligatoire,  in  Rccueil  des 
Monographies  Pedagogiques.) 

In  practice  the  above  law  was  good  except 
as  regards  the  testing  of  private  education. 
Local  examination  by  commissions  scolaircs  was 
quite  unworkable.  But  as  regards  some  kinds 
of  school  attendance  the  law  is  along  right  lines. 
The  local  authority  (mayor)  makes  out  a  list 
of  all  children  in  the  commune.  Absences 
must  be  notified  to  the  mayor  by  the  parents. 

The  weakness  of  the  law  at  present  consists 
in  the  early  age  (11)  at  which  a  child  may  take 
examinations  for  the  jirimary  certificate,  on 
obtaining  which  he  may  take  employment. 
The  brightest  children,  therefore,  can  be  earliest 
forced  into  labor  by  unscrupulous  parents. 

England.  —  The  early  efforts  for  the  protec- 
tion of  children  lay  along  humanitarian  lines. 
The  factory  system  made  legislation  to  protect 
children  from  premature  or  overwork  necessarj', 


286 


ATTENDANCE 


ATTENDANCE 


but  for  two  reasons  compulsory  education  re- 
ceived little  attention  until  after  1870.  The  first 
was  the  individualistic  character  of  Englishmen. 
"My  impression  is  that  such  an  Act  (subjecting 
to  imprisonment  any  parent  who  did  not  send 
his  child  to  school),  if  passed  and  attempted 
to  be  carried  out,  would  produce  a  national , 
commotion  not  much  less  dangerous  than  that 
which  attended  a  poll  tax,"  declared  Mr.  Bel- 
lairs,  an  experienced  inspector,  in  1864.  The 
second  was  that  the  administration  of  edu- 
cation was  still  a  private  or  philanthropic 
affair,  and  the  State  was  not  able  to  enforce 
attendances. 

But  in  1870  and  1873  the  establishment  of 
board  schools  carried  also  the  principle  of  com- 
pulsion, at  first  in  the  shape  of  powers  given  to 
local  boards.  A  more  complete  act  in  187G 
laid  down  a  variety  of  detailed  measures  for  en- 
forcement. Parents  or  guardians  of  children 
from  5  to  14  (originally  5  to  13)  were  put  under 
obligations  to  send  them  to  a  certified  school 
every  day  that  such  school  is  in  session.  In  case 
children  are  sent  to  an  uncertified  (inspected 
and  approved)  school,  the  burden  rests  on  the 
parent  to  prove  the  competency  of  the  school. 
Five  to  13  is  still  admitted  as  the  compulsory  age 
in  certain  rural  districts. 

A  considerable  list  of  exemptions,  however, 
existed.  At  12  children  could  be  examined, 
and  if  found  proficient  could  be  excused  from 
further  attendance.  A  system  of  part-time 
attendance  could  also  be  permitted  by  local 
authorities,  that  is,  for  children' from  12  to  14 
(11  to  14  in  agricultural  areas)  if  they  had  at- 
tained a  certain  standard  of  proficiency  or  made 
during  5  previous  years  a  required  number 
of  attendances.  As  modified  by  special  pro- 
visions, the  English  law  is  exceedingly  complex, 
and  local  authorities  have  considerable  latitude 
in  its  enforcement.  The  principle  of  com- 
pulsion has  always  been  resisted  there,  as  in  the 
United  States.  Local  authorities  have  not 
always  been  zealous  in  executing  the  laws,  and 
their  enforcement  has  been  due  largely  to  the 
authorities  engaged  in  carrying  into  effect 
factory  legislation. 

In  1908  the  passage  of  the  Children's  Act 
codified  a  variety  of  legislation  relating  to 
children,  and  opened  the  way  for  more  compre- 
hensive reform  measures  which  are  now  in  pro- 
cess of  discussion.  The  abolition  of  the  half- 
time  system  and  the  development  of  compulsory 
continuation  school  attendance  (already  legal- 
ized in  Scotland)  are  foreshadowed. 

United  States.  —  Hidorical.  —  Compulsory 
education  in  the  United  States  occurred  first  in 
Massachusetts.  As  far  back  as  1642  the  select- 
men were  enjoined  to  compel  parents  to  teach 
their  children  themselves  or  to  procure  that 
teaching  for  them.  But  the  need  of  compulsory 
education  is  not  keenly  felt  in  an  agricultural 
population,  especially  if  it  is  homogeneous,  and 
if  newly  arrived  foreigners  are  not  numerous. 
Not  till  the  approach  of  the  middle  of  the  nme- 


teenth  century  did  Massachusetts  realize  the 
need  of  enforced  attendance.  This  was  one 
of  the  matters  to  which  the  State  Board  of 
Education,  created  in  1837,  gave  its  attention. 
In  1842  a  child  labor  law  was  passed;  in  1852 
the  first  law  on  compulsory  attendance  ap- 
-  peared.  It  required  of  each  child  from  8 
to  14  years  of  age  at  least  12  weeks  of 
attendance  each  year,  of  which  6  should  be 
consecutive.  A  fair  penalty  was  imposed,  but 
parents  able  to  prove  poverty  or  inability  could 
be  excused.  The  law  seems  to  have  had  little 
force  and  to  have  claimed  little  attention. 
Many  of  the  absentees  were  children  whose 
parents  had  lost  control  of  them,  so  the  author- 
ities turned  their  attention  to  dealing  with 
truants. 

Recognizing  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of 
existing  laws,  the  State  Board  recommended 
a  new  law  in  1872.  This  was  passed  next  year. 
It  reduced  the  period  of  compulsorj'  attendance 
2  years  (but  this  was  again  raised  to  14  next 
year),  but  extended  the  time  each  year  from 
12  to  20  weeks.  Town  officials  were  subject 
to  a  penalty  if  they  refused  to  enforce  the  law. 
It  was  also  made  obligatory  upon  towns  to 
provide  a  place  for  the  confinement  of  truants. 
Truant  officers  were  made  a  part  of  the  school 
system,  receiving  their  appointments  from  the 
school  committee.  In  1875  Superintendent 
Philbrick  gave  expression  to  the  need  of 
a  registry  of  children  subject  to  the  law,  thus 
giving  rise  to  the  school  census  system  of 
Massachusetts.  In  1876  a  fairly  satisfactory 
child  labor  law  passed  the  legislature;  and  in 
1878  it  was  provided  that  state  grants  could 
be  withheld  from  towns  failing  to  carry  out 
truancy  legislation. 

Like  much  subsequent  legislation  in  other 
states,  these  early  laws  set  good  standards,  but 
were  irregularly  and  intermittently  enforced. 
This  matter  was  made  the  subject  of  a  detailed 
inquiry  by  the  secretary  of  the  State  Board  in 
1886.  He  found  a  variety  of  deficiencies  in  the 
enforcement  of  the  law.  This  agent,  Mr. 
(leorge  H.  Martin,  made  a  number  of  recom- 
mendations, some  of  which  have  appeared  in 
subsequent  legislation.  Most  important  were 
the  recommendations  that  the  burden  of  proof 
in  the  case  of  absence  should  fall  on  the  parent, 
that  attendance  should  be  compulsory  during 
the  entire  time  school  is  in  session,  that  the  State 
should  provide  clothing  and  books  of  children 
of  indigent  parents,  and  that  the  cost  of  educat- 
ing truants  should  fall  on  a  larger  area  than  the 
town  —  preferably  the  county  or  state.  He 
also  ad\'ised  the  creation  of  the  office  of  state 
agent  to  look  after  truancy,  as  in  Connecticut, 
but  this  has  not  been  adopted.  In  1889  com- 
prehensive legislation  was  again  ado])tcd  in  the 
matters  of  child  labor  and  compulsory  attend- 
ance. The  most  novel  provisions  of  this  legis- 
lation are  found  in  the  provisions  which  give 
school  committees  the  authority  to  approve  pri- 
vate schools,  attendance  at  which  is  considered 


287 


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ATTENDANCE 


equivalent  to  that  at  public  schools,  prohibits 
the  employment  of  children  during  hours  of 
school  session,  requires  the  presentation  of  a 
certificate  issued  by  the  school  authorities  in 
the  case  of  the  employment  of  children  un- 
der 16,  and  in  effect  imposes  an  educational 
qualification.  The  new  law  seems  to  have 
worked  well,  but  many  areas  had  insufficient  ac- 
commodations for  truants,  and  there  it  naturally 
failed  in  some  degree. 

The  early  history  of  compulsory  school  legis- 
lation in  Connecticut  seems  to  have  been 
similar  to  that  of  Massachusetts.  The  law 
expressed  an  ideal,  but  many  obstacles  inter- 
fered with  its  enforcement.  In  the  examina- 
tion of  these  laws  made  in  1890  {Re pi.  Com. 
Ed.  for  18S8-1S89,  pp.  470-526)  the  statement 
occurs  again  and  again  that  the  law  is  "prac- 
tically a  dead  letter."  The  chief  obstacles 
were:  the  indifference  of  local  public  opinion; 
the  unwillingness  of  local  police  or  other  offi- 
cials to  enforce  the  law  against  individuals, 
especially  those  who  needed  the  assistance  that 
came  from  the  labor  of  children;  the  lack  of 
school  accommodations,  especially  for  truant 
children;  the  lack  of  correspondence  between 
the  period  of  compulsory  attendance  and  the 
total  session  of  the  schools  which  always  pro- 
voked irregularity  and  lack  of  regard  for  the 
law;  and  the  poverty  of  parents.  In  its  legisla- 
tion of  1872  Connecticut  took  the  heroic  step 
of  putting  the  enforcement  of  child  labor  laws 
and  compulsory  education  laws  in  the  hands  of 
state  agents,  a  measure  which  has  probably 
given  that  state  the  most  effectively  enforced 
system  yet  devised.  The  law  refused  also  to 
recognize  poverty  of  parents  as  a  bar,  thus  re- 
moving one  of  the  commonest  grounds  of  eva- 
sion. 

The  following  list  shows  the  dates  at  which 
the  several  states  enacted  compulsory  education 
legi-slation  (from  Rept.  Com.  Erf.  "1888-1889, 
p. 471):  Massachusetts,  1852;  District  of  Colum- 
bia, 1864;  Vermont,  1867;  New  Hampshire, 
Michigan,  Washington,  1871;  Connecticut  and 
New  Mexico,  1872;  Nevada,  1873;  New  York, 
Kansas,  California,  1874;  Maine,  New  Jersey, 
1875;  Wyoming,  1876;  Ohio,  1877;  Wisconsin, 
1879;  Rhode  Island,  Illinois,  Dakota,  Montana, 
1883.  Between  1SS5  and  1890  Minnesota, 
Nebraska,  Idaho,  Colorado,  Oregon,  and  Utah 
made  laws  on  the  subject. 

It  is  true  that  i)r('vious  legislation  had  some- 
times the  effect  of  retiuiring  school  attendance. 
In  the  seventeenth  century  Connecticut  imi- 
tated Massachusetts  in  penalizing  selectmen, 
if  they  did  not  compel  parents  to  educate  their 
children.  The  same  state  in  1813  required  the 
proprietors  of  manufacturing  establishments  to 
see  that  the  children  in  their  employ  could  read, 
write,  and  cipher;  and  in  1842  the  employment 
of  children  under  15  was  prohibited  unless 
they  had  been  instructed  for  3  months  in 
the  preceding  year.  As  far  back  as  1850 
towns  in  Maine  were  authorized  to  make  laws 


against  truancy,  but  nothing  appears  to  have 
been  done. 

In  1890,  27  states  and  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia had  laws  on  compulsory  education.  This 
embraced  all  except  the  Southern  states,  which 
had  not  begun  to  legislate  on  the  subject.  In 
all  of  these  except  Wisconsin,  which  put  13 
as  the  minimum  age,  14  or  more  was  the  mini- 
mum age  of  exemption  from  school  attendance;, 
but  in  Maine,  Rhode  Island,  and  Washington 
the  minimum  age  was  15,  and  in  Connecticut, 
Minnesota,  and  Wyoming  the  minimum  age  was 
16.  More  important  was  the  amount  of  attend- 
ance to  be  made  each  year,  since,  if  the  com- 
pulsory attendance  is  considerably  less  than 
the  full  term,  the  practical  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  enforcing  the  law  are  multiplied.  In  17 
states  an  attendance  of  12  weeks  was  pre- 
scribed; in  4,  16;  and  in  4,  20.     Only  one  state 

—  Connecticut  —  required  attendance  as  long 
as  the  schools  were  in  session,  while  Massachu- 
setts, in  effect,  obtained  the  same  thing  in 
cities. 

In  all  states  except  New  Jersey  it  was  reported 
that  school  officers  and  their  truant  officers  were 
charged  with  enforcement  of  the  law.  There 
was  no  centralized  control  except  in  Connecti- 
cut. In  New  Jersey  police  officers  and  con- 
stables were  required  to  carry  out  the  law. 
Penalties  inflicted  on  parents  were  almost  uni- 
formly fines  ranging  from  $1  to  S20,  with 
augmentation  for  repeated  offense.  Very  few 
states  had  truant  schools,  though  in  some 
cases  youths  could  be  committed  to  reform 
schools. 

Only  10  states  report  a  minimum  age  — 
ranging  from  10  to  13  —  below  which  employ- 
ment during  school  hours  is  prohibited.  In 
13  states  a  certain  amount  of  school  attendance 
• —  from  1  to  5  years  —  is  made  a  prerequisite 
of  employment,  while  as  yet  there  was  no  refer- 
ence to  definite  educational  qualifications  which 
must  be  attained.  Twelve  states  take  some 
notice  of  the  kind  of  instruction  which  must  be 
given  in  private  schools,  if  this  is  to  l)e  ac- 
cepted in  lieu  of  attendance  at  public  schools, 
but  these  requirements  were  meager  and  jjrob- 
ably  unenforcible.  Only  Ohio  makes  attend- 
ance   compulsory  beyond    the    minimum    age 

—  from  14  to  16  —  in  case  of  children  not 
employed. 

In  8  or  more  states  local  authorities  were 
authorized  to  provide  free  books  for  children  of 
indigent  or  poor  parents;  but  as  many  other 
states  provided  free  books  for  all  pupils,  this 
comparison  is  not  of  much  value.  But,  very  sig- 
nificantly, 2  states  —  Ohio  and  Colorado  —  en- 
able local  authorities  to  provide  free  clothing, 
thus  coming  definitely  into  the  field  in  aid  of 
children  whose  parents  feel  too  poor  to  send 
them  to  school. 

Present  SyMem.  — By  1908  almost  all  the 
states  had  enacted  legislation  on  the  .subject. 
The  following  table  taken  from  the  Rcpt.  Com. 
Ed.  1908,  Vol.  I,  shows  in  detail  the  situation. 


288 


ATTENDANCE  ATTENDANCE 

STATUTORY    PROVISIONS   RELATING   TO   COMPULSORY    ATTENDANCE   AND    CHILD   LABOR 


CoMPuxsoBY  Education 


Child  Labor 


State 

Alabama . 


Arizona .  . 
Arkansas . 


California . 


Colorado . 


Connecticut . 


Delaware. 


District  of  Co- 
lumbia 


Florida. 


Georgia . 


Idaho. 


Illinois. 


Indiana . 


Age 


8-141 


8-14 


8-14 


-16' 


7-16" 


7-14^ 


Annual  period 


6  months ;  20  weeks 
consecutive. 


Full  term. 


Full  term , 


Full  term. 


5  months  (may  be  re- 
duced by  districts 
to  3). 


Full  term. 


Full  term. 


Full  term,  to  be  not 
less  than  110  days 
of  actual  teaching. 


Full  term . 


Penalty  on  parents  for 

neglect 


$5  to  S25. 


Age  under  which  specified 
employments  are  forbidden 

10  years,  in  factories  in  all 
cases ;  12,  unless  or- 
phans, or  children  of  the 
widowed  or  disabled  ; 
12,  in  mines. 


First,  not  over  $10  or 
5  days'  imprison- 
ment ;  subsequent, 
$10  to  $50,  or  5  to 
25  days,  or  both. 


$5  to  $25. 


Not  exceeding  S5  each 
week  of  absence. 


First,  not  over  $2 ; 
after,  not  over  $5. 
On  default,  impris- 
onment 2  to  5  days. 


Not  exceeding  $20  . 


Not  over  $300  or 
imprisonment  not 
over  6  months,  or 
both. 

$5  to  $20  and  costs, 
stand  committed 
until  paid.  Penalty 
for  false  statements 
as  to  age  or  attend- 
ance, $3  to  $20. 


5  to  $25,  and,  in 
discretion  of  court, 
imprisonment  2  to 
90  days. 


12  years,  in  all  cases  in 
manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, except  can- 
ning industries  in  vaca- 
tion ;  14,  unless  to  sup- 
port a  parent  or  self,  as 
specified  by  law  ;  14,  in 
mines  ;  females  not  at 
all  in  mines. 

14  years,  in  any  mercantile 
or  manufacturing  estab- 
lishment, workshop,  ho- 
tel, or  as  messenger,  etc. 
Children  12  to  14,  upon 
permit,  may  work  if  par- 
ents incapacitated,  or 
during  vacation. 

14  years,  in  any  under- 
ground works,  mine, 
smelter,  mill,  or  factory. 
No  female  may  be  em- 
ployed in  a  coal  mine. 


14  years,  in  any  me- 
chanical, mercantile,  or 
manufacturing  estab- 
lishment. 


14  years,  in  any  factory, 
workshop,  or  manufac- 
turing establishment, 
except  in  canning  indus- 
try, etc.,  or  to  support 
widowed  mother. 


14  years,  in  any  factory, 
workshop,  store,  office, 
hotel,  theater,  as  mes- 
senger, etc.  Children  12 
to  14  may  get  permit  to 
work  in  certain  cases. 

Children  under  15  may  not 
be  employed  more  than 
60  days  without  consent 
of  legal  guardian. 

10  years,  in  or  about  any 
manufactxiring  establish- 
ment :  12  years  after 
Jan.  1,  1907,  except  for 
support  of  self  or  parents 
in  specified  cases. 


14  years,  in  any  mine,  fac- 
tory, workshop,  mercan- 
tile establishment,  laun- 
dry, hotel,  etc.,  except 
over  12  during  vacations. 

14  years,  in  any  mercan- 
tile institution,  factory, 
office,  theater,  elevator, 
etc.,  or  as  messenger  or 
driver  ;  16,  in  or  about 
any  mine.  No  female 
may  work  in  or  about  a 
mine. 

14  years,  in  any  manufac- 
turing or  mercantile  es- 
tablishment,  mine, 
quarry,  laundry,  renova- 
ting works,  bakery,  or 
printing  office.  No  female 
may  work  in  a  mine. 


Educational   restrictions   on 
child  labor 


No  child  under  14  may  be  em- 
ployed during  school  hours. 

No  child  14  to  18,  unable  to 
write,  may  be  employed  in 
a  manufacturing  establish- 
ment, unless  he  has  attended 
school  12  weeks  the  preceding 
year. 


No  minor  under  16  may  work 
for  gain  in  school  hours,  un- 
less he  can  read  and  write 
English  or  attends  night 
school. 


Unlawful  to  employ  children 
under  14  during  school  hours 
unless  they  have  complied 
with  the  school-attendance 
law ;  under  16,  unable  to 
read  and  write,  unless  at- 
tending day  or  night  school. 

Children  under  14  may  not  be 
employed  while  school  is  in 
session.  Children  14  to  16 
cannot  leave  school  to  be 
employed,  unless  their  edu- 
cation is  satisfactory  to  the 
local  or  state  school  board. 

No  child  14  to  16  may  be  so  em- 
ployed, unless  he  has  at- 
tended day  or  night  school  12 
weeks  the  preceding  year. 


Children  under  14  maj^  not  do 
any  work  for  wages  during 
school  hours  ;  nor  under  16 
in  preceding  employments, 
unless  they  can  read  and 
\\rite,  and  attended  school 
130  days  preceding  year. 


After  Jan.  1,  1908,  no  child 
under  14  may  be  employed  as 
in  preceding  column  (with 
the  exception  there  noted) 
unless  aVjle  to  write  and  has 
attended  school  12  weeks  the 
preceding  j'ear ;  under  18, 
unless  so  attended  school. 

No  child  under  14  may  be  em- 
ployed in  any  way  during 
school  hours. 


No  child  1 4  to  1 6  unable  to  read 
and  write  may  be  empIo\-ed 
unless  attending  an  evening 
school,  if  there  is  one.  No 
child  under  14  may  be  em- 
ployed at  any  work  for  wages 
during  the  school  term. 

Children  under  16  uniible  to 
read  and  write  English  may 
not  be  employed  in  foregoing 
employments  except  in  vaca- 
tion of  public  schools. 


VOL.    I U 


289 


ATTENDANCE  ATTENDANCE 

STATUTORY  PROVISIONS  RELATING   TO  COMPULSORY  ATTENDANCE  AND  CHILD   LABOR  —  Continued 


CoMPCLsoBY  Education 


State 


Iowa, 


Kansas. 


Kentucky . 


Louisiana . 


Ma 


Maryland' 


Maasachusetts . 


Michigan. 


MioDesota. 


M  ississippi . 

Missouri  .  . 


Montana ' . 


Age 


8-15* 


7-14 


7-15 


8-12' 


7-16 


S-14» 


8-143 


Annual  Period 


16  consecutive  weeks 


Full  term". 


8  consecutive  weeks ; 
full  term  in  cities  of 
first,  second,  third, 
and  fourth  classes. 


Penalty  on  parents  for 
neglect 

$3  to  S20 


$5  to  $25. 


First,  $5  to  S20  ;  sub- 
sequent, $10  to  $50. 


Full  term. 


Full  term . 


Full  term. 


Full  term . 


Full  term . 


Not    leas    than  ^^  of 
term.     Full  term  in 
cities        of         over 
500.000. 


Full  term  ;   in  no  case 
less  than  16  weeks. 


Not  exceeding  $25,  or 
imprisonment  not 
exceeding  30  days. 


Not  exceeding  $5. 


Not  exceeding  $20 . . 


Fine  of  S5  to  $50,  or 
imprisonment  2  to 
90  days,  or  both. 


Not     over     $50, 
imprisonment 
over  30  days. 


$10  to  $25,  or  impris- 
onment 2  to  10 
(lays,  or  both. 


$5  to  $20. 


Child  Labor 


Age  under  which  specified 
employments  are  forbidden 

14  years,  in  any  mine,  fac- 
tory, mill,  shop,  laun- 
dry, packing  house,  ele- 
vator, or  store  where 
more  than  8  persons  are 
employed. 

14  years,  in  any  factory  or 
packing  house  or  in  or 
about  any  mine  ;  IG,  in 
any  dangerous,  etc., 
employment. 

14  years,  in  any  mine, 
workshop,  factory, 

store,  office,  hotel,  as 
messenger,  etc. 


14  years,  in  any  manufac- 
turing or  mercantile  es- 
tablishment, mine,  laun- 
dry, carrying  messages, 
etc. 


14  years,  in  any  manufac- 
turing or  mechanical  es- 
tablishment. 


14  years,  in  mills  and  fac- 
tories (except  canning 
establishments),  unless 
self,  widowed  mother,  or 
invalid  father  solely  de- 
pendent upon  such  em- 
ploj-ment.  19  counties 
exempt  from  law. 

14  years,  in  factories, 
workshops,  or  mercan- 
tile establishments. 


14  years,  in  any  manufac- 
turing or  mercantile  es- 
tablishment, workshop, 
laundry,  store,  oflSce, 
hotel,  messenger  ser- 
vice, etc. 

14  years,  in  factories,  mills, 
workshops,  or  mines. 


12  years,  in  any  mill,  fac- 
tory, or  manufacturing 
establishment. 

14  years,  in  any  mine, 
manufacturing  or  mer- 
cantile establishment, 
laundr\',  etc.,  in  cities  of 
over  10.000  ;  no  females 
in  mines. 

16  years,  in  mines  or  under- 
groimd  works. 


Educational  restrictions  on 
child  labor 


No  minor  under  16  may  work 
in  a  coal  mine  unless  he  can 
rend  and  write  and  has  at- 
tended school  3  months  in 
the  year. 

Under  14  may  not  be  employed 
in  any  way  during  school 
term  :  nor  from  14  to  16  in 
stated  occupations  unless  he 
can  read  and  write,  and  at- 
tended school  100  days 
preceding  year. 

Children  under  14  may  not  be 
employed  in  foregoing  em- 
ploj-ments,  nor  in  clothing, 
dressmaking,  or  millinery 
establishments,  unless  they 
have  attended  school  4 
months  in  preceding  jear. 

Children  under  15  shall  not  be 
employed  in  any  manufac- 
turmg  or  mechanical  estab- 
lishment, excepf  dviring  va- 
cation, unless  they  have 
attended  school  16  weeks 
during  preceding  year. 

No  minor  12  to  16,  unable  to 
read  and  write  English,  may 
be  employed  where  there  is 
an  evening  school,  unless  at- 
tending that  or  another 
school. 


Children  under  14  may  not  be 
employed  at  any  work  for 
wage?  during  school  hours  ; 
from  14  to  16  may  not  be  so 
employed  in  any  factory, 
workshop,  or  mercantile  es- 
tablishment if  unable  to  read 
and  write.^ 

Children  14  to  16  unable  to 
read  and  write  English  may 
not  be  employed. 


Children  under  14  years  may 
not  be  employed  in  any  ser- 
vice during  school  term  ; 
under  school  age  {16  years), 
in  any  occupation  during 
school  term  unless  they  have 
attended  school  the  pre- 
scribed period ;  under  16, 
unable  to  read  and  write 
English,  in  any  indoor  occu- 
pation (except  in  vacation) 
unless  attending  day  or 
evening  school. 


No  child  8  to  14  may  be  em- 
ployed in  any  way  in  school 
hours  unless  he  has  complied 
with  the  attendance  law. 

No  boy  under  16  may  work 
in  a  mine  unless  he  can  read 
and  write. 

Children  under  14  not  to  be 
employed  during  school  ses- 
sions unless  they  have  com- 
Cleted  the  studies  required 
y  law  ;  from  14  to  16,  if 
unable  to  read  and  write 
English. 


290 


ATTENDANCE  ATTENDANCE 

STATUTORY   PROVISIONS  RELATING  TO  COMPULSORY  ATTENDANCE  AND  CHILD   LABOR— Continued 


Compulsory  Education 


Child  Labor 


Nebraska^". . . 


Nevada . 


New       Hamp- 
shire " 


New  Jersey. . 

New  Mexico. 
New  York . .  . 


Age 


7-15 


S-14 
7-14 


7-1712 

7-14 
8-163 


North  Carolina 


North  Dakota. 


Ohio. 


Oklahoma . 
Oregon .... 


Pennsylvania. 


Rhode  Island . 


S-14n 


S-16 
0-14! 


8-16" 


7-1 5» 


Annual  Period 


Two  thirds  of  school 
term  ;  in  no  case 
less  than  12  weeks. 
Full  term  in  cities, 
hotel,  etc. 

16  weeks  ;  8  consecu- 
tive. 


8  Full  term . 


Full  term . 


3  months. 


Full  term  (Oct.  1  to 
June  1). 


16  weeks. 


Full  term . 


Full  term  ;  in  no  case 
less  than  24  weeks. 


.3  to  6  months", 
and  fi  Full  term. 


Full  term ;  but  the 
school  board  of 
each  district  has 
power  to  reduce 
this  to  not  less  than 
70  per  cent  of  the 
term. 


Full  term. 


Penally  on  parents  for 
neglect 

$5  to  S25  (on  truant 
officer) 


First.  $50  to  $100; 
subsequent,  SlOO  to 
S200 ;  with  costs. 

First,  SIO ;  subse- 
quent, $20. 


'  Punishable  as  a  dis- 
orderly person." 


$5  to  S25,  or  impris- 
onment not  exceed- 
ing 10  days. 

First,  not  exceeding 
S5 ;  subsequent, 
not  exceeding  $50, 
or  imprisonment 
not  exceeding  30 
days,  or  both  fine 
and  imprisonment. 


$5  to  $25. 


$5  to  $20  (on  school 
official). 


$5  to  $20  ;  on  default, 
imprisonment  from 
10  to  30  days. 


SIO  to  S50. 


$5  to  $25  fine,  or  im- 
prisonment 2  to  10 
days,  or  both. 


First ,  not  exceeding 
S2 ;  subsequent, 
not  exceeding  So ; 
on  default,  impris- 
onment ;  first,  not 
over  2  days  ;  subse- 
quent, not  over  5. 


Not  exceeding  $20. 


Acts  under  which  specified 
employments  are  forbidden 

14  years,  in  any  manufac- 
facturing  or  mercantile 
establishment,  office, 
hotel,  etc. 


12  years,  in  any  manufac- 
turing establishment. 


14  years,  in  factories,  work- 
shops, mills,  or  manu- 
facturing establish- 
ments ;   also  mines. 


14  years,  in  factories;  if 
14  to  16,  the  child  must 
have  attended  school 
130  days  the  preceding 
year,  and  be  able  to  read 
and  write  English,  and 
cipher.  Similar  provi- 
sions apply,  in  places  of 
over  3000  populat  ion , 
to  work  in  mercantile 
establishments,  business 
offices,  restaurants,  ho- 
tels, express  or  messen- 
ger service,  except  for 
children  over  12  in  small 
places  during  vacation. 
For  work  in  or  about 
mines  16  years  is  the 
minimum.  No  female 
may  work  in  a  mine. 

12  years  in  any  factory  or 
manufacturing  estab- 
lishment (does  not  apply 
to  oyster  canning  and 
packing)  ;  12  years,  in 
mines  employing  over  10 
men  (boys)  ;  children  12 
to  13  may  be  employed 
in  factories  only  as 
apprentices. 
12  years,  in  mines,  fac- 
tories, and  workshops 
(constitution  of  State). 


14  years,  in  any  factory, 
workshop,  business  of- 
fice, mercantile  estab- 
lishment, hotel,  as  mes- 
senger, etc. 

16  years,  in  mines  (no  girls 
in  mines). 

14  years,  in  any  factor>', 
store,  workshop,  in  or 
about  any  mine,  or  in 
the  telegraph,  telephone. 
or  public  messenger  ser- 


14  years,  in  any  employ- 
ment, except  domestic, 
coal  mining,  or  farm  la- 
bor ;  16  years  in  coal 
mines :  14  years  in  or 
about  the  outside  work- 
ings of  coal  mines.  Girls 
may  not  work  in  or 
about  coal  mines. 

13  vears  before,  14  after 
Dec.  31. 1906.  in  any  fac- 
tory, manufacturing  or 
business  establishment. 


Educational   restrictions  on 
child  labor 

No  child  under  14  may  be  em- 
ployed in  any  service  during 
school  hours. 


No  child  under  14  may  be  em- 
ployed during  school  sessions, 
nor  under  16  if  unable  to  read 
and  write  English.  No  mi- 
nor unable  to  read  and  write 
English  may  be  employed 
unless  attending  day  or 
evening  school,  if  any  is  held. 

Children  under  15  must  have 
attended  school  12  weeks  the 
preceding  year  as  a  condi- 
tion of  employment. 


Unlawful  to  employ  in  any 
business  or  service  child 
under  14  during  school  term  ; 
14  to  16,  unless  he  has  at- 
tended 130  da.\'s  preceding 
year,  and  can  read  and  write 
English,  and  cipher,  or  {in 
first  and  second  class  cities) 
has  completed  elementary 
course  or  attends  evening 
school  16  weeks  a  year.  See 
preceding  colunm. 


Apprentices,  12  to  13  years, 
must  have  attended  school  4 
months  in  preceding  12. 


Children  under  14  may  not  be 
employed  in  any  manner 
during  school  hours  unless 
they  have  attended  school  12 
weeks  during  the  year. 

No  child  between  14  and  16 
may  be  employed  in  fore- 
going occupations  without  a 
schooling  certificate. 


Foregoing  employments  for- 
bidden to  any  child  14  to  16 
unless  he  attended  school  160 
days  preceding  year  and  can 
read  English.  No  child  under 
14  may  be  employed  in  any 
work  for  compensation  dur- 
ing school  hours. 

No  child  14  to  16  may  be  em- 
ployed unless  he  can  read 
and  write  English  and  has 
complied  with  the  school 
laws. 


Children  under  13  may  not 
be  employed  except  during 
school  vacations. 


291 


ATTENDANCE  ATTENDANCE 

STATUTORY  PROVISIONS  RELATING  TO  COMPULSORY  ATTENDANCE  AND  CHILD  LABOR  —  CoMnued 


CouptiLsoRT  Education 

Child  Labor 

State 

Age 

Annual  Period 

PencUly  on  parents  for 

Acts  uuii'-r  which  specified 

Educational  rcHlriclions  on 

neglect 

employments  are  forbidden 

child  labor 

South  Carolina. 

10  years  after  May  1, 1903  ; 
11    after   May    1,    1904; 

Children  may  work  in  textile 

establishments  in  June,  July, 

12  after  May  1,  1905,  in 

and  August  if  they  have  at- 

any   factory,    mine,    or 

tended  school  4  months  dur- 

textile      establishment, 

ing  the   year  and  can   read 

except  that  certain  self- 

and  write. 

depentlent  children  may 

work  in  the  latter. 

South  Dakota. . 

A-14' 

Full   term  ;    but  di^ 
Iricts  may  reduce  it 

SIO  to  $20  and  costs  ; 
stand       committed 

14  years,  in  mines 

No  child  8  to  14  to  "be  employed 

during    school    hours    unless 

to     16     weeks,     12 

till  paid. 

he    has    attended    school    12 

consecutive. 

weeka  during  the  year. 

Tennesaee 

CO 

14    years,    in    workshops. 
factories,  or  mines. 

Texas 

12  years,  in  mills,  factories, 
manufacturing  or  other 

Unlawful  to  employ  children  12 

to  14  who  cannot   read   and 

establishments         using 

write  English,   in  mills,   fac- 

machinery ;    10  years  in 

tories,   etc..   certain   self-de- 

mines,    distilleries,     or 

pendent  children  excepted. 

breweries. 

Utah 

S-lfi 

20  weeks,  10  consecu- 
tive ;     in    cities    of 

First,    not    exceeding 
SIO ;       subsequent. 

14   years,   in  mines    (con- 
stitution of  State). 

the  Ist  and  2d  class 

not  exceeding  $30, 

30  weeks.    10  con- 

with costs. 

secutive. 

Vermont 

S~15>8 

Full  term    

$5  to  $25 

12  years,  for  any  railroad 
company  or  in  any  mil!. 

No  child  under  16  who  has  not 

completed  the  9-year  school 

factory,  quarry,  or  work- 

course may  be  employed  in 

shop,    or    carrying   mes- 

any railroad,   factory,   mine. 

sages. 

or  quarry  work,  or  in  deliv- 
ering; messages,  except  out 
of  school  hours. 

Virginia" 

8-12 

12  weeka 

First.  S2  to  $10  ;  sub- 
sequent, $5  to  $20. 

13  years,   after   March   1, 
1909;    14    after    March 

1,  1910,  in   any  factory, 

workshop,  mercantile  es- 

tablishment, or  mine,  ex- 

cept  in  certain  cases  of 

need  over  12. 

Washington.  .  . 

8-15 

Full  term 

Not  over  $25 

14  years,  in  mines  (boys)  ; 
12  (boys),  in  the  outside 

Children  under  1.5  may  not  be 

employed   while   the   schools 

workings   of   a   colliery  ; 

are  in  session,  unless  excused 

14,  in  any  factory,  mill, 

by  the  school  superintendent. 

workshop,   or  store,   ex- 

cept (12  to  14)  in  speci- 

fied cases  of  need. 

We3t  Virginia , . 

S-14 

20  week.<i 

First,  $2;  subsequent, 
$5. 

12     years,     in     factories, 
workshops,      mercant  ile 

No  child  under  14  shall  be  so 

employed  during  school  term 

or  manufacturing  estab- 

if it  hinders  regular  attend- 

lishment ;     14    in   mines 

ance. 

(no  girls  may  work   in 

mines). 

Wiaconain 

7-Us 

Full  term  in  1st  class 

$5  to  $50  and  costs, 

12  years,  in   any  occupa- 

Children 12  to  14  may  not  be 

cities  ;    in  2d  class 

or       imprisonment 

tion  ;     14,    in    factories. 

employed  in  any  occupation, 

cities  not  less  than 

not  over  3  months. 

workshops,    mines ;      14 

except    during    school    vaca- 

8,    elsewhere     not 

or  both. 

to  16.  in  any  occupation 

tions    by    specified    written 

less  than  6  school 

without  specified  wTitten 

permit,  in  stores,  offices,  ho- 

months. 

permit. 

tels,  mercantile  establish- 
ments, laundries,  or  public 
messenger  service,  where  they 
reside(docs  not  apply  to  farm- 
ing or  other  outdoor  work). 

Wyoming 

7-14 

6  months 

Not  exceeding  $25 

14   years,    in    mines ;     fe- 

males may  not    work  in 

mines.      (Constitution.) 

United    States 

12    years,  in    the    under- 
ground workings  of  any 

laws          (for 

territories). 

mine. 

*  To  16.  if  unable  to  read  and  write  English. 

*  Children  14  to  16  whose  labor  is  necessary  to  their  own  or  parents'  support  are  excused. 
'  Not  applicable  to  children  over  14  lawfully  employed  to  labor  at  home  or  elsewhere. 

*  Except  children  over  14  who  have  completed  eighth  crade,  or  have  to  support  selves  or  parents.  "  Inclusive. 

*  8  weeks  for  children  over  14  who  can  read  and  write  English  and  are  at  work  to  support  themselves  or  others. 

'  The  provisions  tabulated  for  Maryland  (except  in  fifth  column)  are  those  of  the  act  of  1902,  whose  operation  is  limited  to 
Baltimore  City  and  .Mlegheny  County. 

*  Must  be  able  to  so  read  and  write  as  is  required  to  enter  the  second  grade  in  1906,  third  in  1907,  and  fourth  in  1908  and  after. 
«  To  16  years  in  cities  of  over  500,000  for  children  not  lawfully  and  usefully  employed  6  hours  a  day. 

'°  To  16  years  in  cities.  "  To  "iG  if  unable  to  read  and  write  English. 

"  Does  not  apply  to  children  over  15  who  have  finished  grammar  school  course  and  are  regularly  employed  ;  otherwise  must 
attend  grammar,  or  high,  or  manual  training  school. 

"  Law  does  not  take  effect  in  any  county  until  voted  by  the  county  ;  does  not  apply  to  1 1  counties,  nor  to  children  over  12  law- 
fully employed  at  home  or  elsewhere.  i*  In  the  discretion  of  school  boards. 

^  Not  applicable  to  children  over  13  who  can  read  and  write  English  and  are  regularly  employed  in  useful  service. 

"  Not  applicable  to  children  over  13  who  are  lawfully  employed. 

"  A  compulsory  attendance  act  was  passed  in  1905  applying  only  to  Claiborne  and  Union  counties  ;  one  for  Campbell  and 
Scott  counties  in  1907.  »*  Children  over  15  or  under  8.  when  once  enrolled,  must  attend  the  full  term  they  are  enrolled  for. 

"  Compulsory  attendance  law  optional  with  the  voters  of  any  county,  city  or  town. 

292 


ATTENDANCE 


ATTENDANCE 


Enforcement  of  the  Law.  —  Contemporary 
attendance  legislation  involves  the  following 
chief  factors:  (a)  A  minimum  age  of  universal 
attendance;  (b)  a  minimum  age  unless  certain 
educational     requirements     have     been     met; 

(c)  the  obligation  of  attendance  beyond  the 
minimum  age  if  child  is  not  regularly  employed; 

(d)  amount  of  attendance  each  year  made 
obligatory,  and  its  distribution  within  the 
school  year;  (e)  special  requirements  and  ex- 
emptions, and  (/)   machinery  of  enforcement. 

(a)  Throughout  almost  the  entire  United 
States  some  school  attendance  is  compulsory 
from  7  or  8  years  of  age  to  14.  Alabama, 
Georgia,  Florida,  South  Carolina,  Texas,  and 
Viriginia  have  not  legislated  on  the  subject 
(1909);  and  in  North  Carolina  and  Ten- 
nessee legislation  so  far  passed  is  applicable 
only  to  special  sections.  (6)  Massachusetts, 
New  York,  Idaho,  New  Hampshire,  and  others 
require  certain  educational  qualifications,  other- 
wise attendance  is  compulsory  to  16.  The 
(1908)  law  of  New  Jersey  sets  an  upper 
limit  of  17  for  all  who  have  not  completed 
the  eight  grades;  those  finishing  the  elementary 
school  course  may  not  leave  until  15.  (c)  A 
number  of  states  require,  especially  in  cities, 
that  children  under  16  must  attend  school  regu- 
larly unless  definitely  employed.  Illinois,  Mary- 
land, Pennsylvania,  and  ^lissouri  (St.  Louis 
and  Kansas  City  only)  are  examples,  (d)  Laws 
on  compulsory  education  have  frequently  been 
nullified  because  the  amount  of  attendance 
each  year  was  not  specified,  and  consequently 
evasions  were  easy.  Even  yet  some  states 
prescribe  a  minimum  amount,  e.g.  Iowa,  16 
consecutive  weeks;  Missouri  (outside  of  St. 
Louis),  not  less  than  half  the  term;  Nebraska, 
two  thirds  of  term.  The  majority  of  states 
having  well-developed  legislation  now  make 
attendance  obligatory  for  the  entire  term 
during  which  school  is  in  session,  (e)  Re- 
cently special  legislation  in  some  states  pro- 
vides for  compulsory  attendance  from  8  to 
20,  at  State  School  for  Deaf.  Nebraska,  Min- 
nesota, and  North  Carolina  (for  whites),  have 
somewhat  similar  legislation.  In  earlv  stages 
poverty  of  parents  paved  the  way  for  exemptions, 
but  the  modern  tendency  is  away  from  this. 
Many  states  provide  for  supplying  free  books 
to  needy  children.  In  Ohio  and  Colorado  boards 
of  education  must  give  aid  in  clothing  where  it 
is  necessary.  In  some  large  cities  philanthropj' 
has  secured  the  provision  of  scholarships  for 
those  whose  parents  need  aid  in  keeping  chil- 
dren at  school.  (/)  Much  good  legislation 
relating  to  children  breaks  down  because  of 
poor  machinery  of  enforcement.  In  Connect- 
icut there  is  a  state  agent  with  assistants  who 
attends  to  the  execution  of  laws  on  compul- 
sory education  and  child  labor.  In  all  other 
states  the  enforcement  of  the  law  is  local.  In 
nonurban  areas  school  boards  and  local  con- 
stables are  authorized  to  proceed  against  par- 
ents failing  to  keep  children  in  school;  in  cities 


it  is  now  common  to  constitute  special  attend- 
ance officers  with  limited  police  powers. 
Most  of  this  machinery  is  yet  very  defective. 
Two  main  difficulties  present  themselves  in  the 
way  of  reform:  — 

Registration  of  children. — The  lack  of  ade- 
quate registration  of  the  school  children  con- 
tributory to  a  given  school  is  the  first.  In  the 
absence  of  any  registration  the  attendance 
officers  do  not  know  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  what  children  are  eligible  for  attendance 
at  school.  They  do  not  know  what  children 
are  being  sent  to  parochial  schools,  and  ^hey 
have  no  systematic  means  of  finding  the  chil- 
dren who  are  legitimately  out  of  school  owing  to 
health  conditions.  In  case  children  are  obliged 
to  attend  evening  school,  there  is  no  adequate 
means  of  knowing  whether  such  attendance  is 
made  or  not.  At  the  end  of  the  year  there  is 
no  evidence  as  to  how  much  of  school  attend- 
ance a  given  pupil  has  made.  Attendance 
officers  are  obliged  to  do  their  work  in  a  most 
unsystematic  fashion,  seeking  children  in  parks 
and  other  places  of  resort. 

AH  of  these  difficulties  are  to  be  obviated 
through  a  system  of  registration  by  which  all  of 
the  children  of  a  given  area  will  be  enrolled  on 
cards  and  these  cards  kept  in  some  central  place 
in  the  area,  preferably  the  school  principal's 
office.  The  attendance  officers  could  take  these 
cards  shortly  after  the  opening  of  school  and 
make  note  of  all  children  not  attending.  The 
attendance  of  local  parochial  schools  could  then 
be  taken,  and  there  would  finally  remain  a  small 
number  of  names  unaccounted  for.  The  attend- 
ance officer  would  then  immediately  visit 
the  homes  of  these  children  and  take  account  of 
the  reasons  for  their  absence.  A  similar  pro- 
cedure would  appl}^  in  the  case  of  enforcing 
evening  school  attendance  for  pupils  from 
14  to  16. 

In  the  enforcement  of  compulsory  education 
a  serious  difficulty  has  arisen  in  the  matter  of 
counting  the  equivalence  of  nonpublic  educa- 
tion. This  imposes  serious  difficulties  on 
officers  engaged  in  the  enforcement  of  the  law. 
The  Ohio  compulsory  law  required  every 
parish  school  to  furnish  the  names,  ages,  and 
places  of  residence  of  its  pupils.  One  large 
school  refused  to  do  this  on  constitutional 
grounds,  but  the  Supreme  Court  decided  that 
the  law  was  not  unconstitutional,  in  that  it  did 
not  really  interfere  with  the  right  of  parents  to 
educate  children  according  to  the  dictates  of 
their  conscience. 

Again  a  series  of  difficulties  were  encountered 
in  Wisconsin  and  Illinois  about  1890  regarding 
the  states'  right  to  inspect  the  quality  of  instruc- 
tion given  in  private  schools.  Nothing  is  ac- 
complished for  the  State  by  mere  attendance. 
The  so-called  Bennett  law  in  Wisconsin  open- 
ing the  way  to  state  inspection  of  private  schools 
was  fought  and  finally  repealed,  but  it  is  a  fact 
that  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode 
Island  have  all  along  recognized  the  right  of 


293 


ATTENDANCE 


ATTENDANCE 


inspection  of  private  schools,  though  in  no  very 
formal  manner.  To  a  certain  extent  compulsory 
attendance  must  stand  or  fall  with  the  right  of 
inspection  of  private  sdiools. 

From  the  start  it  has  been  found  that  the 
satisfactory  execution  of  attendance  laws  re- 
quires special  adjustments  within  the  schools. 
Ciiildren  forced  to  come  to  school  against  their 
will,  or  with  little  interest  in  school,  cannot  be 
classified  with  children  who  attend  regularly. 
Those  disposed  to  be  truants  should  have  special 
schools  where  close  discipline  may  be  exercised. 
Those  merely  irregular  need  ungraded  or 
specially  graded  classes  for  their  accommoda- 
tion. Under  former  conditions  of  administration 
it  was  customary  to  expel  the  incorrigible  pupil 
from  school.  Wliatever  the  effect  of  this  on  the 
pupil  expelled,  it  at  least  iiad  the  effect  of 
removing  from  the  schoolroom  what  was 
commonly  a  source  of  moral  contagion  and  of 
great  difficulty  to  the  teacher.  This  class  of 
children  still  exists;  and  no  adequate  compul- 
sory measures  can  be  directed  toward  them 
unless  special  schools  are  provided.  The  school 
authorities  themselves  will  hartlly  cooperate  in 
enforcing  the  law  if  such  is  not  the  case.  New 
York  State  passed  its  first  compulsory  law  in 
1874;  after  fourteen  years'  trial  it  was  found 
that  the  law  had  not  modified  school  attendance, 
had  not  secured  the  cooperation  of  school 
principals,  and  was  substantially  a  dead  letter. 
The  machinery  for  its  execution  was  inadequate, 
but  at  bottom  it  was  a  question  of  lack  of  ac- 
commodation for  the  difficult  pupil. 

Within  recent  years  it  has  become  obvious 
that  at  least  three  and  probably  four  different 
types  of  special  class  or  school  are  necessary  in 
any  city  to  procure  the  adequate  carrying  out  of 
the  law.  (a)  Those  pupils  who  have  l)ecome 
quite  incorrigible,  and  whose  parents  have  lost 
control  of  them,  must  be  sent  to  an  institutional 
school,  committed  for  a  term  of  years.  Only 
thoroughgoing  reform  is  adequate.  (&)  A  day 
truant  school,  where  hours  are  long  and  manual 
work  abundant.  This  school,  while  allo\\'ing 
pupils  to  sleep  at  home,  should  aim  primarily 
to  keep  them  off  the  street  and  away  from 
contagion  of  bad  company.  Such  schools  do 
not  exist  in  America,  but  are  found  in  English 
cities,  (c)  Special  classes  should  be  provided 
for  pupils  who  cannot  easily  be  brought  under 
the  ordinary  school  discipline.  These  classes 
may  have  the  same  programs  as  the  ordinary 
classes,  but  should  be  under  charge  of  teachers 
of  sufficient  maturity,  exiiericnce,  and  personal 
character  to  cope  with  this  type  of  child, 
(rf)  Possibly  a  fourth  Ujic  of  class  should  be 
for  those  who  by  irregular  attendance  have 
hopelessly  fallen  away  from  the  regular  class 
attainments. 

The  registration  of  children  is  not  a  function 
that  can  be  adequately  carried  on  by  the  police 
department.  It  should  center  around  the 
school,  and  the  officers  responsible  for  it  should 
be  finally  amenable  to  the  education  authorities. 


Labor  officials  and  others  concerned  with  the 
enforcement  of  child  labor  laws,  inspection,  and 
so  fortli,  dcahng  as  they  do  with  the  minority 
of  school  children,  should  always  have  acces.s  to 
the  registration  cards  in  order  to  get  any  special 
information  tliat  they  miglit  require.  Calcu- 
lations have  shown  that,  with  the  system  of 
registration  once  started,  an  average  of  one 
attendance  officer  to  four  or  five  thousand 
school  children  can  easily  carry  out  the  provi- 
sions of  compulsory  registration.  The  cards 
should  be  so  arranged  as  to  receive  at  the  end 
of  each  year  a  statement  of  the  amount  of 
attendance  made  by  each  pupil,  whether  in 
public  or  private  school,  and  also  some  state- 
ment as  to  reasons  for  absence. 

Until  some  adequate  system  of  registration 
is  enforced,  and  the  machinery  for  it  built  up 
within  the  school  system,  it  would  appear  that 
a  great  many  of  our  efforts  in  the  direction  of 
compulsory  attendance  must  be  futile,  and  nmst 
also  tend  to  bring  the  law  into  contempt. 

Classification  and  Treatment  of  Truants.  — 
The  second  difficulty  lies  in  the  unsatisfactory 
methods  of  cla.ssifying  and  treating  the  pupils 
who  have  already  become  addicted  to  truancy, 
or  who  are  misfits  as  far  as  the  school  is  con- 
cerned. It  is  well  known  that  principals  of 
schools  will  often  fail  to  aid  in  the  enforcement 
of  the  law  when  the  boy  concerned  is  one  who, 
if  forced  back  into  school,  does  not  profit  by  its 
work  and  is  a  continual  source  of  disturbance. 
The  ordinary  schoolroom  is  not  and  should  not 
be  a  reform  school,  and  a  principal  often  feels 
justified  in  refusing  to  inflict  on  a  schoolroom 
with  forty  well-disposed  pupils,  a  boy  who  has 
become  addicted  to  truancy,  and  has  become  a 
possible  source  of  moral  contagion  to  the  re- 
maining children.  The  school  principal  knows 
that  one  or  two  spoiled  children  may  claim  an 
altogether  disproportionate  share  of  the  teacher's 
time  and  energj',  and  may  also  very  materially 
demoraUze  the  schoolroom.  On  the  otlier  hand 
it  may  not  be  at  all  practicable  to  send  such  a 
boy  to  the  reform  school. 

The  obvious  remedy  lies  in  the  fuller  develop- 
ment of  disciplinary  classes,  one  of  which  at  least 
should  be  attached  to  each  large  school,  and  tlie 
principal  should  have  full  power  of  commitment 
to  this  disciplinary  class.  The  disciphnary  class 
would,  of  course,  be  an  ungraded  class,  and  the 
teacher  should  be  specially  selected  and  com- 
pensated, and  not  more  than  20  or  25  boys 
should  be  kept  in  a  room.  Attendance  in  this 
disciplinary  class  should  continue  as  long  as  it 
seems  that  the  pupil  is  mentally  or  morally  a 
misfit  for  the  regular  schoolroom. 

Beyond  this  disciplinary  class  there  should 
be  a  day  truant  school  of  a  type  not  now  found  in 
America,  but  which  is  working  verj'  successfully 
in  certain  English  cities.  This  day  truant 
school  should  receive  all  children  who  are  too 
incorrigible  for  the  disciplinary  class,  and  who 
possess  homes  which  are  capable  of  supplement- 
ing the  school  work.     In  the  day  truant  school 


294 


ATTENDANCE 


ATTENTION 


the  program  should  be  very  different  from  that 
in  the  elementary  school.  The  school  day 
should  be  long,  from  9  to  12  hours.  There 
should  be  abundant  opportunity  for  su]Der- 
vised  play,  and  half  of  the  working  hours 
should  be  given  to  some  form  of  industrial  work. 
By  this  means  the  boys  would  be  kept  off  the 
streets,  something  which  is  not  practicable  in 
the  ordinary  school.  The  systematic  course  of 
treatment  would  result  in  the  building  up  of 
right  habits,  and  the  school  itself  would  keep 
in  close  touch  with  the  homes. 

Of  course,  for  children  who  have  got  quite 
beyond  the  control  of  the  parents,  or  who  come 
from  so-called  broken  homes,  the  ordinary 
boarding  reform  school  is  the  only  solution. 
These  schools  already  exist,  and  the  procedure 
for  the  commitment  of  cases  to  them  is  well 
known.  Until  we  have  some  such  fundamental 
classification  and  segregation  of  the  more  diffi- 
cult cases  of  truancy  as  that  proposed  above,  it 
would  be  very  difficult  to  enforce  the  law  with 
regard  to  a  large  group  of  boys  for  whom  it  is 
especiallj'  necessary. 

The  American  states  are  obviously  moving 
toward  certain  standards  in  compulsory  at- 
tendance which  will  partly  depend  upon  de- 
velopment of  additional  school  facilities.  For 
example,  child  labor  legislation  is  increasingly 
closing  up  industries  to  youths  under  16. 
The  raising  of  educational  standards  will  com- 
pel many  children  to  attend  school  until  they 
are  16.  The  State  will  provide  for  those 
who  are  demonstrably  needy,  rather  than  allow 
dependent  parents  to  withhold  from  children 
their  educational  heritage.  The  increasing 
appreciation  of  the  need  of  vocational  education 
will  result  in  the  provision  of  special  school 
facilities  for  imparting  either  the  whole  or  part 
of  this  education.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
the  advanced  position  of  Germany  in  this 
respect  {i.e.  compelling  children  from  fourteen 
to  eighteen  to  give  part  time  to  continuation 
education  of  a  vocational  or  other  character), 
will  be  imitated.  Special  schools  will  be  pro- 
vided for  defectives  and  delinquents,  and  at- 
tendance at  these  made  obligatory.  Ulti- 
mately a  complete  system  of  registration  of 
all  children  must  be  provided,  to  be  carried  on 
by  attendance  officers  and  centralized  in  each 
limited  school  area,  not  only  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  attendance,  but  for  obtaining  com- 
pliance with  child  labor  legislation,  and  the 
provision  of  medical  or  other  aid.  D.  S. 

See  articles  on  Child  L.ibor,  Official  State 
Publications  on  Education,  and  on  the  va- 
rious national  systems. 

References:  — 

Each  Report  of   the  Commi.ssion  of   Education  con- 
tains material.     See  especially  one  for  U»U7,  p.  4L3. 
Murphy,  E.  G.     Problems  of  the  Present  South.     (New 

York,    1904.) 
Sewall,  Hann.\h  R.     Child  Labor  in  the  United  States, 

in  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor.  Bull.  No.  52,  Vol.  9. 
Shaw,  W.  B.      Compulsory  Education  in  the  United 

States,  Ed.  Rev.  3  ;  444  ;  4  :  47,  129. 


SuLLiv.iN,  J.  D.  Summary  of  Compulsory  Attendance 
and  Child  Labor  Law.  New  York  State  Education 
Department,  Bull.  114,  Legislature  34.  (Albany, 
1007.) 


ATTENDANCE  OFFICERS. 

ANCE,  Compulsory. 


■  See  Attend- 


295 


ATTENTION. --The  Conscious  Activity  of 
the  Mind.  Attention  is  the  great  gateway  of 
the  mind.  Through  it  must  pass  every  sen- 
sation and  every  idea  which  would  gain  access 
to  the  field  of  consciousness.  This  fact  is 
sometimes  expressed  by  saying  that  the  mind 
always  has  a  focus  point,  that  thoughts  mo- 
mentarily in  this  focus  are  more  intense,  or 
at  lea.st  clearer  and  more  distinct,  than  those 
outside.  Only  such  thoughts  as  gain  entrance 
to  this  focus  really  come  to  full  and  complete 
consciousness.  Many  others  succeed  in  forcing 
their  way  into  the  margins  of  the  focus,  but 
further  than  that  they  do  not  get.  This  selec- 
tive property  of  mental  activity,  this  fact  of  con- 
centration it  is  to  which  the  term  "  attention  " 
is  applied.  Evidently  it  is  one  of  the  most 
fundamental  attributes  of  the  mind  and  one 
which  must  condition  every  stage  of  mental 
development  and  education.  We  may  well 
ask  first  what  influences  are  responsible  for  the 
success  or  failure  of  particular  items  to  secure 
a  place  in  this  focal  region  of  the  mind. 

Primarily,  no  doubt,  one's  inherited  nervous 
organization  is  the  most  important  element. 
A  child  may  be  relatively  more  sensitive  to 
sound  than  to  light.  In  this  case  his  primitive 
consciousness  will  tend  to  be  dominated  by 
auditory  experiences  rather  than  by  those  of  a 
visual  kind.  In  later  life  this  bias  toward  one 
sensory  realm  may  lead  to  the  formation  of  a 
serious  interest,  which  will  control  his  entire 
career.  He  may  thus  be  led  to  become  a 
musician.  Certain  sorts  of  stimulation  appeal 
strongly  to  all  of  us  by  virtue  of  our  common 
human  ancestry  and  without  regard  to  the 
peculiar  personal  organization  which  we  may 
chance  to  have  acquired  in  the  vicissitudes  of 
inheritance.  All  intense  stimuli  thus  tend  to 
arouse  attention.  All  emotional  objects,  such, 
for  example,  as  those  which  occasion  fear,  anger, 
love,  and  all  the  stronger  feelings,  tend  similarly 
to  transfix  our  attention  at  the  expense  of  less 
exciting  competitors.  On  the  other  hand,  at- 
tention is  often  drawn  through  the  influences 
of  experience  to  objects  which  inherently  pos- 
sessed no  attraction.  In  this  way  one  may  be 
led  into  some  form  of  employment  with  no 
other  interest  than  the  securing  of  a  livelihood, 
but  in  the  progress  of  time  the  duties  therewith 
connected  may  take  on  an  interest  which 
renders  them  most  alluring  to  attention. 

Psychologists  have  been  in  the  habit  of  using 
several  classifications  of  the  various  ways  in 
which  we  exercise  our  attention.  They  speak 
of  sensory  or  ideational  attention,  depending 
on  the  particular  nature  of  the  conscious  fact 
to  which  we  attend.     If  some  object  present  to 


ATTENTION 


ATTENTION 


the  physical  senses  is  the  focus  of  attention, 
we  have  the  first  variety;  if  the  object  is  a 
thought  in  tiie  mind  of  something  not  present 
to  the  senses,  we  have  the  second  form.  Again 
they  speak  of  immediate  or  derived  attention,  de- 
pending on  whether  the  tliought  is  one  possess- 
ing inherent  interest  or  one  gaining  its  power 
over  the  mind  by  virtue  of  some  rehition  to 
another  object  itself  having  such  attractive- 
ness. The  interest  of  the  .youth  in  the  maiden 
is  direct.  His  interest  in  his  profession  may  be 
only  indirect  or  mediate,  brought  about  by  the 
possibility  tliat  it  may  afford  means  to  care  for 
the  maiden.  Both  these  divisions  seem  to  be 
based  on  circumstances  more  or  less  extrinsic 
to  the  act  of  attention  itself.  A  more  genuinely 
intrinsic  division  is  that  into  sjiontaneous, 
involuntary,  and  voluntary  attention. 

Spontaneous  attention  •  is  sufficiently  ex- 
plained, perhaps,  by  the  very  title.  Whenever 
we  attend  willingly  and  without  effort,  we  have 
in  some  measure  spontaneous  attention.  In 
the  life  of  the  child  such  attention  is  manifested 
by  the  response  to  almost  every  form  of  sensory 
stinnilation.  It  is  manifested  by  everj-body 
through  the  interest  in  objects  which  appeal 
to  our  feelings  strongly,  especially  those  which 
please  or  excite  us  powerfully.  Involuntary 
attention  is  represented  by  such  experiences 
as  those  in  which  we  are  assailed  by  some  ex- 
tremely intense  stimulation,  like  a  violent  noise, 
to  which  we  are  obliged  to  attend,  momentarily 
at  least,  whether  we  so  desire  or  not.  Morbid 
ideas  sometimes  exercise  a  similar  coercive 
influence  over  attention.  The  mind  cannot 
leave  them  alone,  no  matter  how  great  the 
effort.  Voluntary  attention  is  exercised  when- 
ever we  attend  as  a  result  of  a  definite  purpose 
and  effort  so  to  do.  The  student  applying 
himself  to  his  task  in  the  face  of  distraction 
represents  this  form  of  mental  activity. 

Different  as  these  three  kinds  of  attention 
at  first  sight  appear,  there  is  reason  to  think 
that  they  are  in  reality  derivatives  of  a  common 
primitive  type,  i.e.  spontaneous  attention. 
As  the  mind  gains  in  maturity,  its  ideas  become 
systematized  and  arranged  with  reference  to 
definite  desires  and  purpo.ses.  The  need  of 
food  and  warmth  may  be  taken  as  illustrations 
of  influences  which  from  the  very  beginning 
exercise  pressure  on  the  mind,  and  thereby 
little  by  little  force  attention  to  display  pref- 
erence for  such  objects  and  ideas  as  are  pleas- 
urably  related  to  these  items,  with  a  corre- 
sponding neglect  of  all  other  competing  items. 
This  organization  of  a  set  of  relatively  perma- 
nent interests  is  the  beginning  of  voluntary 
attention,  which  thus  grows  out  of  the  spon- 
taneous type  of  attentive  process.  Involuntary 
attention  in  the  case  of  ideas  is  essentially 
pathological.  In  the  ease  of  sense  stimuli 
occasioning  this  form  of  attentive  response,  it 
is  simply  an  expression  of  the  evolutionary 
value  of  giving  heed  to  strong  stimuli  so  many 
of  which  are  dangerous  for  the  organism.     If 


violent  stimulations  did  not  contain  menace 
for  the  welfare  of  the  individual,  most  of  the 
instances  of  involuntary  attention  would  never 
occur.  Until  voluntary  purpcses  are  formed 
involuntary  attention  is  indistinguishable  from 
spontaneous  attention.  When  these  purposes 
are  matured,  involuntary  attention  remains 
as  a  safeguard  against  too  great  absorption  in 
purely  intellectual  forms  of  interest  with  for- 
getfulness  of  the  possible  dangers  and  demands 
of  physical  nature. 

One  of  the  interesting  problems  connected 
with  attention  is  that  of  the  number  of  objects 
to  which  we  can  attend  sinuiltaneously.  A 
great  many  striking  experiments  have  been  per- 
formed, showing  that  in  a  practical  way  the 
number  of  elements  which  may  enter  into  the 
focus  of  attention  varies  widely  under  different 
circumstances.  For  example,  if  3  letters  be 
exposed  to  the  eye  for  a  fraction  of  a  second, 
it  maybe  impossible  to  read  more  than  one  of 
them  with  certainty.  But  if  they  spell  a  word, 
they  can  be  readily  recognized,  and  under  such 
conditions  even  more  letters  may  be  correctly 
read  in  the  same  period  of  time.  However 
many  elements  may  thus  enter  into  an  object 
of  attention,  they  are  combined  by  the  mind 
into  essentially  one  "  thing,"  so  that  psycho- 
logically speaking  it  may  be  said  that  we 
attend  to  but  one  object  at  a  time.  The 
problem  as  to  how  many  movements  we  can 
perform  at  once  must  be  sharply  separated 
from  the  problem  just  stated.  We  can  do  an 
indefinite  number  of  things  at  one  time,  the 
only  limitation  being  native  skill  and  practice. 
But  such  achievements  do  not  involve  attending 
to  each  part  of  the  activity.  Indeed,  it  is 
only  as  we  learn  to  get  along  without  attending 
to  the  details  that  our  skill  rises  toward  per- 
fection. 

Another  interesting  feature  of  attention  is 
the  fluctuating  or  rhythmic  character  of  it. 
The  reasons  for  these  fluctuations  have  been 
sought  in  various  directions:  they  have  been 
attributed  to  fatigue  in  the  muscles  involved  in 
the  retention  of  our  bodily  attitudes;  they 
have  been  referred  to  fatigue  in  the  cells  of  the 
cerebral  cortex,  etc.  Indeed,  some  evidence 
has  recently  been  brought  forward  to  discredit 
the  belief  that  the  fluctuations  are  really  attrib- 
utable to  attention  at  all.  But  in  a  practical 
way  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  attention  has 
periodic  shifts.  Certainly  if  we  wish  to  con- 
tinue our  attending  to  a  given  subject  of 
thought,  we  find  it  necessary  to  keep  noting 
something  new  about  it.  Simply  to  fixate  it 
in  a  blind  sort  of  fashion  results  in  our  suddenly 
finding  ourselves  attending  to  something  quite 
foreign  to  the  topic  with  which  we  started. 
The  length  of  these  periods  of  fluctuation  de- 
pends on  many  circumstances  which  forbid 
any  general  statement.  But  they  may  be 
said  to  be  relatively  brief,  in  many  instances 
not  more  than  2  or  3  seconds,  often  much  less. 

Attention   sustains   certain   important   rela- 


296 


ATTENTION 


ATTENTION 


tions  to  other  parts  of  mental  life  which  deserve 
special  mention.  In  the  first  place,  attention 
is  all-important  for  memory.  A  good  memory 
depends  on  many  factors,  but  on  none  more 
invariably  than  upon  attention.  Nine  tenths 
of  all  the  inability  to  remember  which  vexes 
the  life  of  the  ordinary  person,  and  especially 
the  ordinary  school  child,  is  due  to  inattention, 
i.e.  attention  to  something  other  than  the 
thing  to  be  remembered.  On  the  other  hand, 
all  persons  who  possess  good  memories  are 
capable  of  concentrating  their  minds  with 
firmness  and  at  will  upon  the  matter  in  hand. 
Five  minutes  of  such  concentrated  attention  is 
worth  an  hour  of  the  diffused  and  wandering 
attention  which  is  the  best  contribution  that 
many  students  ever  make  to  their  intellectual 
development. 

Attention  is  also  related  to  habit,  to  will,  and 
to  motor  activities  in  the  most  intimate  manner. 
It  is  a  commonly  accepted  doctrine  among 
psychologists  that  attention  is  the  cardinal  fact 
in  the  exercise  of  the  will.  What  we  attend  to  is 
that  which  determines  what  we  will.  Indeed,  to 
attend  fixedly  to  an  idea  of  action  with  complete 
disregard  of  all  competing  ideas  is  to  will  the 
act.  Only  by  the  power  of  inhibiting  ideas  is 
any  idea  ever  prevented  from  immediately 
occasioning  action.  To  attend  unwaveringly 
to  an  idea  is  to  forestall  this  inhibitive  process 
and  thus  bring  action  to  pass.  The  principles 
of  attention  are  accordingly  the  principles  of 
the  will.  Not  only,  however,  are  motor 
activities  consequences  of  attention;  they  are 
also  conditions  of  its  occurrence.  To  give 
attention  to  an  object  of  vision  requires  a 
certain  accommodation  of  the  muscles  of  the 
eye.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  auditory  atten- 
tion, and  even  attention  to  ideas  involves  cer- 
tain bodily  attitudes  which  facilitate,  if  they  do 
not  render  possible,  the  directing  of  attention 
to  intellectual  ends.  In  the  last  case  these 
attitudes  are  generally  such  as  tend  to  assure 
freedom  from  distraction  and  the  securing  of 
an  easy  bodily  position  from  which  fatigue  will 
not  speedily  arise.  It  is  furthermore  a  com- 
monplace of  modern  psychology  that  habits  are 
built  up  by  a  slow  process  in  which  we  first 
give  attention  to  the  various  steps  in  the 
coordination  to  be  learned,  whereupon  little 
by  little  we  find  ourselves  coming  into  posses- 
sion of  the  power  to  execute  the  act,  whatever 
it  may  be,  without  any  thought  and  with  an 
increasing  speed  and  accuracy  that  is  almo.st 
miraculous.  Learning  to  master  the  type- 
writer or  the  piano  will  illustrate  the  point. 
Attention  to  motor  activities  is  therefore  the 
first  step  in  that  most  significant  of  all  the 
chapters  of  our  life  accomplishments,  i.e.  the 
process  by  means  of  which  we  come  to  command 
hundreds  of  automatic  acts  which  take  charge 
for  us  of  the  routine  of  everyday  affairs.  Walk- 
ing, eating,  dressing,  —  what  is  there  which  does 
not  illustrate  the  matter? 

The  foregoing  sketch  contains  certain  obvious 


implications  for  educational  procedure  and 
theory.  An  attribute  of  the  mind  which  is  of 
fundamental  consequence  for  memory,  for  will, 
and  for  the  formation  of  habit  must  possess 
extreme  importance  for  education.  The  sig- 
nificant educational  problems  which  center 
about  attention  may  be  formulated  as  follows. 

How  can  children  be  taught  concentration 
of  attention?  Without  such  concentration 
memory  can  never  be  reliable,  and  efficiency  of 
every  kind  will  be  on  a  low  level.  How  can 
voluntary  attention  be  superposed  upon  spon- 
taneous and  involuntary  attention,  or  inatten- 
tion, as  the  latter  conditions  are  often  called  ? 
No  one  has  acliieved  any  material  mastery  over 
himself  who  cannot  at  will  control  his  atten- 
tion even  amid  distractions. 

On  the  whole,  modern  psychology  agrees 
with  pedagogical  practice  in  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  reply  which  it  makes  to  these  ques- 
tions. Concentration  can  only  be  gained  by 
successful  appeal  to  interest  (q.v.).  This 
interest  maj'  be  of  a  highly  vicarious  type,  as 
when,  under  the  older  regime,  the  birch  was 
introcluced  to  secure  concentration  of  attention 
upon  classical  literature.  Or  it  can  be  direct, 
as  in  the  modern  efforts  so  to  arrange  the 
curriculum  as  to  meet  the  child's  mind  on  the 
level  of  its  native  vital  needs.  In  actual  execu- 
tion this  latter  method  is  often  charged  with 
sentimentalism  and  mushiness.  It  is  not  yet 
clear  that  consequences  such  as  would  justify 
this  charge  necessarily  emanate  from  it. 
Voluntary  attention  is  generally  procured  by 
the  appeal  to  the  indirect  rewards,  and  natur- 
ally, for  such  attention  is  precisely  that  variety 
where  in  the  nature  of  the  case  interest  is  not 
felt  in  the  task  itself.  Here  again,  however, 
the  actual  practice  differs  widely;  in  some 
schools  the  incentive  comes  almost  wholly  from 
fear  of  punishment,  in  other  schools  it  is  con- 
nected with  rewards  of  one  sort  or  another.  In 
whatever  manner  gained,  nothing  is  clearer  than 
the  fact  that  in  one  way  or  another  the  capacity 
to  stand  being  bored  and  uncomfortable  is  a 
sine  qua  non  of  any  high  mental  efficiency. 

Interest  conceived  in  a  broad  and  sane  way 
is  doubtless  the  clew  to  a  deeper  solution  of  the 
educational  problems  of  attention  than  any 
other  yet  suggested.  But  it  must  be  interest 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  deep,  persistent, 
socialized  human  needs,  not  from  that  of  tran- 
sient, ephemeral  likes  and  di.slikes,  which 
would  speedily  reduce  to  chaos  any  educational 
system  that  undertook  to  recognize  them.  We 
always  do  appeal  to  interest  of  one  kind  or 
another,  and  always  must  so  appeal  in  our 
efforts  to  train  attention.  The  only  problem 
which  we  have  to  face,  therefore,  is  that  of 
selecting  the  special  type  of  interest  upon  which 
we  shall  plac«  our  reliance  and  seeing  to  it 
that  we  employ  it  in  a  way  to  encourage  the 
qualities  we  desire  to  develop,  rather  than 
defeat  the  end  for  which  we  strive.      J.  R.  A. 

See  Discipline,  Formal. 


297 


ATTITUDE 


AUDITORY   DISCRIMINATION 


References:  — 

Baulky.   \V.  C.     The  Educative  Process.     (New  York, 

1!)0S.) 
Dewey,  J.     Interest  as  related  to  will.     (BloominEton, 

111.,  1.S96.) 
J.t.MEs,  W.     Talks  to  Teachers.     (New  York,  1899.) 
PiLL-SBCRY,   W.  B.     Attention.     (New  York,   1908.) 
Tuor:jdike,    E.    L.      Principles    of    Teaching.     (New 

York,  1900.) 
TiTCHENER,  E.  B.     Psychology  of  Feeling  and  Attention. 

(New  York,  1908.) 

ATTITUDE.  —  A  term  which  has  been  u.-<ed 
to  describe  in  a  general  way  the  reaction  of  a 
subject  upon  any  impression  received  from  his 
environment.  Used  in  this  fashion  it  is  suffi- 
ciently comprehensive  to  include  feeling,  atten- 
tion, and  other  similar  general  jihases  of  mental 
experience.  It  refers  also  to  bodily  activities 
when  these  are  directed  toward  given  objects, 
and  thus  serves  the  useful  purpose  of  associat- 
ing in  discussion  mental  states  with  the  bodily 
reactions  which  they  condition  or  by  which 
they  are  themselves  conditioned.  Thus  one 
speaks  of  an  attitude  of  di.sgust  or  pleasure,  and 
includes  at  once  the  inner  mental  emotional 
experience  and  its  physical  external  accom- 
paniments of  muscular  response.        C.  H.  J. 

See  Ability,  General  and  Special  ;  Indi- 
vidual Differences. 

ATYPICAL.  —  Deviation  from  the  normal 
or  typical  in  either  direction,  e.g.  both  genius 
and  idiot  are  atypical  in  comparison  with  nor- 
mal individuals.  See  Abnormal;  Exceptional 
Classes,  Education  of,  Individual  Differ- 
ences. 

ATYPICAL  CHILDREN.  —  See  Defec- 
tives, Education   of;    DEFECT^^^Es,  Schools 

FOR. 

AUBURN  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY, 
AUBURN,  N.Y.  —  Established  in  1819  by  the 
Cleneral  Presbyterian  Assembly  for  the  training 
of  ministers.  Students  who  have  graduated 
from  college  with  the  degree  of  B.A.  are  ad- 
mitted, although  candidates  over  25  are  ad- 
mitted on  examination.  The  degree  of  bachelor 
of  divinity  is  conferred  at  the  end  of  3  years' 
study.  Courses  in  religious  pedagogy  and 
Sundaj'  school  history  and  principles  are  given. 
There  are  10  professors  and  1  instructor  on  the 
faculty.  Rev.  George  Black  Stewart,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  is  the  president. 

AUDIOMETER.  —  An  instrument  for  deter- 
mining the  degree  of  auditory  sensitivity  and 
discrimination  of  sound  intensities  possessed  by 
an  individual.  The  audiometer,  or  acoumeter, 
enables  one  to  produce  sounds  of  a  uniform  char- 
acter, but  of  variable  and  measurable  strength. 
At  present  audiometers  are  built  on  the  principle 
that  the  sound  in  a  telephone  receiver  varies 
with  the  strength  of  the  current  which  is  sent 
through  it.  Tuning  forks,  singing  flames, 
falling  pellets,  falling  hammers,  have  been  used 


for  the  same  purpose,  but  are  not  practical. 
The  almost  universal  substitute  for  an  audiom- 
eter is  a  ticking  watch  held  at  variable  dis- 
tances from  the  ear.  (For  the  history  of 
audiometry  and  illustrations  of  the  different 
types  of  audiometers,  see  Vaschide,  "  Dc 
I'audiometrie  "  in  Bulletin  laryngohnjic,  otologic 
et  rhinologic.  Vol.  V,  Sept.,  1001.)  The  audiom- 
eter is  used  in  psychology,  as  in  the  measuring 
of  sensitivity  and  discrimination  for  the  inten- 
sity of  sounds,  auditory  attention,  auditory 
fatigue,  the  effect  of  physical  and  mental 
stimuli  upon  hearing,  etc.;  in  education,  for 
the  determination  of  hearing  ability  of  school 
children,  or  selected  classes  of  people;  in  medi- 
cine for  proving  up  cases  under  treatment  by 
the  aurist.  C.  E.  S. 

AUDITORY.  —  See  Hearing. 

AUDITORY  DISCRIMINATION.  —  This 
term  may  refer  to  the  aliility  to  distinguish  inten- 
sities or  to  the  ability  to  distinguish  qualitative 
differences,  especially  of  tones.  The  measure- 
ment of  auditory  discrimination  for  intensity 
is  one  of  the  best  known  of  the  so-called  mental 
or  sensory  tests  (q.v.).  The  measurement  con- 
sists in  determining  how  small  a  deviation  in 
intensity  from  a  given  standard  tone  an  indi- 
vidual can  hear.  The  magnitude  of  this  least 
perceptible  difference  in  intensity  of  tone,  to- 
gether with  the  measurement  of  the  reliability 
of  that  magnitude,  are  taken  as  indices  to  the 
capacity  for  intellectual  use  of  the  difference  in 
the  strength,  loudness,  or  intensity  of  sound. 
(See  Audiometer.) 

Keenness  of  tonal  hearing  is  measured  by  the 
threshold  of  discrimination,  i.e.  the  smallest 
vibration  difference  which  can  be  perceived  as 
a  difference  in  pitch.  Individuals  differ  greatly 
in  this  capacity,  and  lack  of  tone  discrimina- 
tion is  not  necessarily  a  sign  of  lack  of  general 
mental  ability.  A  good  musical  ear  will  detect 
a  pitch  difference  of  one  vibration  or  less; 
ordinary  students  of  music  may  get  along  with 
a  discrimination  of  from  1  to  5  vilirations, 
and  those  who  cannot  discern  less  than  5  to  15 
vibrations  may  be  al)le  to  appreciate  something 
of  music.  But  those  whose  discrimination 
lies  beyond  15  vibrations,  should  not,  and  sel- 
dom do,  have  anything  to  do  with  music. 
These  estimates  are  given  upon  the  basis  of 
measurements  at  43.5  vibrations  per  second. 
At  this  point  1  vibration  is  equivalent  to 
about  3V  of  a  tone.  This  discrimination  can 
be  measured  most  conveniently  by  a  series 
of  tuning  forks,  each  fork  varying  from  the 
standard  by  small  steps  in  a  series.  The  dis- 
crimination is  usually  keenest  about  the  age 
of  10,  provided  the  child  has  had  sufficient 
training  at  that  time  to  under.stand  the  mean- 
ing of  pitch.  The  measurement  may  be  made 
so  as  to  determine  approximately  the  physio- 
logical limit,  which  is  the  limit  set  by  the 
physical  structure  of  the  ear,  and  if  this  is  done, 


298 


AUDITORY  PERCEPTION 


AUGUSTINE  OF  CANTERBURY 


no  improvement  will  result  from  training.  It 
is  therefore  possible  to  use  the  discrimination 
test  for  diagnosis,  early  in  childhood,  to  deter- 
mine whether  or  not  the  child  is  physically 
capable  of  musical  appreciation.  A  class  of 
eighth  grade  pupils  will  show  a  better  average 
record  than  a  class  of  university  students. 
Girls  and  boys  have  about  equal  ability  in  this 
respect.  Poor  discrimination  results  in  lack 
of  real  enjoyment  of  music,  and  usually  makes 
music  pupils  dull.  C.  E.  S. 

AUDITORY  PERCEPTION.  —  Certain 
phases  of  auditory  perception  are  of  importance 
because  the  organs  of  hearing  are  especially 
significant  in  all  social  intercourse.  The  human 
ear  differs  from  the  animal  ear  in  that  it  is 
employed  chiefly  for  the  recognition  of  fine 
distinctions  in  sound.  It  would  be  disadvan- 
tageous for  a  human  being  to  have  the  long, 
funnel-shaped  ear  of  an  animal,  since  this  funnel 
would  act  as  a  resonator  and  modify  the  char- 
acter of  external  sounds,  thereby  obscuring 
many  of  the  differences  essential  in  the  recog- 
nition of  language.  The  ear  of  the  animal  is 
employed  in  the  recognition  of  the  direction 
from  which  sounds  come.  In  human  experience 
recognition  of  spatial  relations  through  sound 
is  relatively  undeveloped.  This  recognition 
of  spatial  relations  through  sound  depends 
very  largely  upon  binaural  hearing  (q.v.). 
Other  phases  of  auditory  perception  are  dis- 
cussed under  Be.\ts,  CoMBiN.-i.TioN  Tones, 
Tones  and  Noises.  See  also  Deafness;  Tone 
Deafness;  and  Perception.  C.H.J. 

AUGSBURG  SEMINARY,  MINNEAPOLIS, 
MINN.  —  Founded  in  1869  by  Norwegians  at 
Marshall,  Wis.,  to  train  ministers  for  the  Lu- 
theran Free  Church;  removed  to  the  present 
location  in  1S72.  The  basis  of  the  institution 
has,  however,  been  broadened,  and  in  addition 
to  the  theological  course,  preparatory  and 
college  departments  are  maintained.  The 
admission  requirements  to  the  college  are 
equivalent  approximately  to  2  years'  high  school 
work.  The  degree  of  B.  A.  is  given  in  the  college 
on  completion  of  the  4  years'  course,  and  the 
degree  of  candidatus  theologiae  in  the  theological 
department.  Nearly  half  the  number  of  stu- 
dents are  in  the  preparatory  department. 
The  faculty  consists  of  10  professors  and  6 
instructors  and  lecturers.  Professor  Sven 
Oftedalil  is  the  president. 

AUGUSTANA  COLLEGE,  CANTON,  S.D. 

—  A  coeducational  institution  of  the  United 
Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  of  America, 
originally  the  Lutheran  Augustana  School, 
founded  in  1860  and  located  at  Chicago,  since 
when  it  was  moved  several  times,  and  finally 
to  Canton  in  1884.  Preparatory,  academic, 
normal,  music,  and  commercial  courses  are 
offered.  The  4-year  normal  course  leads  to 
a   5-year   state   certificate  on    the  graduation 


diploma.  A  parochial  normal  course  of  2  years 
is  also  maintained  to  prepare  teachers  for 
Lutheran  parochial  schools.  There  are  11 
instructors.     Anthony  G.  Tuve  is  the  president. 

AUGUSTANA     COLLEGE     AND    THEO- 
LOGICAL SEMINARY,  ROCK  ISLAND,  ILL. 

—  A  denominational  institution  owned  by  the 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Augustana  Synod  of 
North  America,  founded  in  1860.  While  prima- 
rily intended  for  the  preparation  of  ministers, 
the  institution  now  includes  preparatory, 
academic,  collegiate,  normal,  business,  and 
music  departments.  Admission  to  the  college 
is  by  certificate  from  any  state  accredited  high 
school,  the  academy,  or  by  examination  re- 
quiring about  12i  units.  In  the  college  six 
groups  are  offered  —  classical,  modern  lan- 
guage, Latin-scientific,  general  science,  pre- 
medical,  and  mathematical.  Degrees  are 
granted  on  completion  of  prescribed  courses. 
Students  may  enter  into  the  normal  depart- 
ment from  the  preparatory.  Candidates  are 
admitted  to  the  theological  course  who  have 
graduated  in  a  college  course.  Three  years' 
residence  is  required  for  the  B.D.  degree. 
The  archives  of  the  college  contain  a  historical 
collection  of  American  Lutheran  and  Scandi- 
navian American  literature,  and  files  of  the 
leading  American  Lutheran  periodicals.  There 
is  a  faculty  of  42  professors,  instructors,  and 
assistants.  Rev.  Gustav  Albert  Andreen, 
Ph.D.,  R.N.O.,  is  the  president. 

AUGUSTINE     OF     CANTERBURY.  —  As 

the  founder  of  the  English  Church,  St.  Augus- 
tine was  the  father  also  of  English  education. 
For  the  school  had  in  those  days  become  an 
inseparable  accident  of  the  church.  Nothing 
is  known  of  Augustine's  birth  or  life  before  he, 
being  a  monk  and  Prepositus  or  Provost  of  St. 
Andrews  monastery  at  Rome,  was  selected  by 
Pope  Gregory  the  Great  in  595  to  go  out  as  a 
missionary  to  England.  He  was  to  go  at  first 
to  Deira,  or  Yorkshire,  to  convert  to  Chris- 
tianity the  people  whose  golden-haired  sons, 
according  to  the  legend  told  by  Bede,  had 
attracted  Gregory's  attention  in  the  slave 
market,  as  looking  like  angels  rather  than 
Angles,  and,  being  Deirans,  to  be  saved  De  ira 
Dei.  But  when  in  Gaul,  on  his  way  to  England, 
Augustine  heard  such  dreadful  accounts  of  the 
fierceness  of  the  North  that  he  and  his  30  com- 
panions gave  up  the  mission  and  returned  to 
Rome.  They  were  sent  out  again,  this  time  to 
Canterbury  instead  of  York,  because  the 
Queen  Bertha,  being  a  Prankish  princess,  was 
a  Christian,  and,  according  to  Gregory's  letter 
to  her,  "  endowed  with  learning."  Ethelbert, 
her  husband,  was  converted,  and  in  602  or 
603  Augustine,  having  been  made  bishop  in 
597,  consecrated  Christ  Church,  an  old  Roman 
church,  it  is  said  by  Bede,  as  a  cathedral. 
Though  Augustine  is  never  spoken  of  as  a 
learned  man  otherwise  than  in  the  scriptures, 


299 


AUGUSTINE,  ST. 


AUGUSTINE,  ST. 


he,  of  course,  knew  Latin  and  was  able  to  teach 
it.  He  was  expressly  told  by  Gregory  that, 
being  a  bishop,  he  must  give  up  the  monastic 
life  and  live  like  other  bishops  with  his  clerks, 
but,  being  a  monk,  he  sliould  live  witli  them 
not  on  a  separate  portion  of  the  episcopal 
estate,  hut  like  tiic  early  Christians,  having  all 
things  in  common  with  them.  That  he  set  up 
a  school  is  to  be  inferred  from  Bede's  mention 
(iii,  IS)  of  the  Canterbury  School  as  a  thing  of 
course,  when  he  recounts  the  establishment  by 
Sigebert,  King  of  the  East  .\ngles,  on  his  return 
from  exile  in  Gaul,  "  wishing  to  imitate  what 
he  had  seen  well  arranged  there,"  of  a  grammar 
school  {xcolfim  in  qua  piicri  liltcris  erudirentur). 
Bishop  Felix,  whom  he  liad  got  from  Kent, 
helped  him,  and  "  provided  for  them  (the  boys) 
pedagogues  and  masters  after  the  fashion  of  the 
people  of  Canterbury."  Augustine's  episco- 
pate was  very  short.  After  a  signal  failure, 
due  to  his  insolent  assumption  of  superiority, 
to  bring  tlie  British  bishops  to  acknowledge 
his  primacy  and  enter  into  communion  with 
the  English  church,  which,  besides  Canterbury, 
consisted  onlv  of  two  bishoprics,  London  and 
Rochester,  he  died  May  26,  605.         A.  F.  L. 

References:  — 

Bede.     EccI.  Hist.    EtI.  by  Plummcr. 

Hadda.n  and  8tubbs.     Eccl.  Doc. 

CuTTs,  E.  L.     Augiustinc  of  Canterbury.     (London,  l^i*o.) 

AUGUSTINE,  ST.  (354-430  .^.d.).  —  Bi.shop 
of  Hippo,  and  one  of  the  most  noted  of  the 
Latin  Fathers.  He  has  the  high  educational 
interest  of  exhibiting  the  Latin  culture  to  us 
at  the  moment  when  the  Western  Empire 
reaches  its  pedagogic  culmination,  and  then 
revealing  one  of  the  causes  of  the  decay  of 
culture  and  education  in  Europe.  Born  at 
Thagaste  (now  South-Arras,  in  Algeria)  on 
Nov.  13,  354,  he  passed  through  the  hands 
'  of  the  public  elementary  teacher  (calcvlo 
or  literator),  and  went  on  to  the  higher  school 
of  the  grammaticits  or  litcr(itu.s,  another  mu- 
nicipal institution,  for  Greek  and  Latin  lit- 
ters. Greek  he  never  adequately  commands  1, 
and  it  is  not  without  bearing  on  the  inexact- 
ness of  his  erudition  that  the  grammaticiis 
merely  gave  his  pupils  history,  geography,  etc., 
in  the  form  of  a  rambling  commentary  on 
the  poets.  Donatus  was  just  then  beginning 
his  reform  of  the  grammatica.  As  he  was  in- 
tended for  the  bar,  he  then  studied  rhetoric  at 
Madaura,  in  the  third  and  highest  grade  of 
municipally  subsidized  school. 

In  his  sixteenth  year  Augustine,  whose 
father  —  a  pagan,  and  curial  of  his  town  — 
had  just  died,  was  sent  by  a  wealthy  uncle  to 
the  metropolitan  school  (a  kind  of  provincial 
university)  at  Carthage.  Here  logic,  music, 
mathematics,  and  astronomy  were  imparted. 
The  reading  of  Cicero's  Hortensius,  in  his 
eighteenth  year,  gave  him  a  serious  bent  for 
philosophy,  and  he  embraced  Manicha'ism. 
Abandoning    his   forensic    ambition,    probably 


from  lack  of  funds,  he  returned  to  teach  gram- 
mar at  Thagaste,  and  continue  his  study  of 
philosophy.  There  he  wrote  his  first  treatise, 
De  ApU)  et  Pulchro,  which  has  not  survived. 
In  379  or  380  he  opened  a  school  of  rhetoric  at 
Carthage,  but  the  unruly  conduct  of  the  pupils 
and  a  breach  with  the  Manicha^ans  induced 
him  to  leave  Africa.  In  384  he  opened  a  pri- 
vate school  of  rhetoric  at  Rome,  and  in  the  same 
year,  disliking  Rome,  obtained  the  position  of 
public  teacher  of  rhetoric  at  Milan. 

The  religious  condition  of  Rome  had  inclined 
Augustine  to  the  philoso])hy  of  the  New  Acad- 
emy (skepticism),  and  he  had  two  years  of  great 
unrest.  At  last  a  "  Platonist  "  (more  probably 
a  Neo- Platonist  —  his  references  to  Greek 
schools  are  always  loose)  work  removed  his 
materialistic  difficulties,  and  he  yielded  to  the 
entreaties  of  his  mother,  St.  Monica,  and  St. 
Ambrose.  With  a  few  pupils  he  retired  to  a 
villa  toward  the  Ali)s,  and  there  wrote  or 
dictated  —  shorthand  was  in  common  use  at 
the  time  —  a  series  of  Platonist  treatises  and 
discussions  {Contra  Academicos,  De  Bcata 
Vita,  De  Ordine,  and  the  SoUloquia).  He 
returned  to  Milan  for  baptism  in  the  spring  of 
387,  and  set  out  for  Africa. 

Losing  his  mother  at  Ostia,  he  proceeded  to 
Rome  and  began  his  long  controversial  career 
with  a  vigorous  camiiaign  against  the  Mani- 
chees.  On  his  return  to  Thagaste  he  converted 
his  father's  house  into  a  religious-philosophical 
community,  and  wrote  his  De  Vera  Religione 
(in  which  his  philosophic  stage  culminates), 
Dc  Genesi  (a  liberal  interpretation),  and  De 
Musica.  His  fame  for  asceticism  (of  philo- 
sophic moderation)  and  learning  made  him  so 
much  sought  as  a  bishop  that  he  had  to  move 
about  warily,  but  he  was  captured  and  made 
auxiliary  bishop  by  the  little  pamccin  at  Hippo 
in  391.  In  the  succeeding  years  of  heavy 
controversial  work  against  Manichees,  Pagans, 
Donatists,  and  Pelagians,  his  zeal  for  culture 
wholly  disappeared.  He  ceased  to  read  lay 
works,  derided  questions  of  natural  science, 
and  came  to  speak  of  Plato  as  "  that  fool." 
Only  when  he  comes  to  write  his  Dc  Civilate 
Dei  —  written  at  intervals  from  413  to  427  — 
against  the  cultivated  pagans  do  we  realize  the 
culture  he  had  garnered.  All  the  weightier 
writers  concur  that  his  erudition  was  as  loose 
and  ill  disciplined  as  it  was  vast  and  varied. 
The  fault  lies  with  the  pedagogy  of  the  time, 
and  his  later  absorption  in  controversial  work. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  learned,  and  the  most 
subtle  and  jihilosophical,  of  later  Latin  writers. 

In  the  kind  of  small  seminary,  or  clergy-house, 
which  he  established  at  Hippo,  there  was  no 
systematic  teaching,  nor  did  he  demand  any 
in  the  monasteries  which  he  encouraged.  He, 
however,  laid  down  rules  for  the  .systematic 
study  of  scripture  in  his  De  Doctrina  Chris- 
tiana (397  and  426),  wrote  a  small  manual  De 
Cnlcrhizandi.'i  Rudibu.'i  (400),  and  in  423  com- 
piled for  a  rebellious  community  of  nuns  the 


300 


AURELIUS 


AUSTRALIA 


code  of  regulations  which  became  the  Rtde  of 
Si.  Augustine.  His  Retractationes  (426  or  427) 
embody  the  idea  of  revising  rather  than  re- 
tracting, but  show  a  wide  removal  from  his 
early  philosophy.  He  died  on  Aug.  28,  430, 
saddened  by  the  spectacle  of  the  Vandals 
destroying  his  whole  lifcwork. 

Augustine  is  perhaps  best  known  as  the 
author  of  the  Confessions,  an  account  of  his 
life  up  to  the  time  of  his  baptism.  Whether 
the  work,  which  was  written  about  400,  was 
motivated  by  a  desire  to  moderate  the  enthu- 
siasm of  his  admirers  or  to  praise  God  for  his 
conversion,  it  is  marked  by  the  care  with  which 
the  author  lays  bare  his  inmost  thoughts.  As 
a  psychological  studj'  of  the  development  of  a 
human  soul,  the  Co7ifessions  have  a  strong 
interest  for  the  reader.  In  addition  to  the 
narrative  of  his  own  life  the  author  includes 
discussions  of  philosophic  and  religious  ques- 
tions. J.  MacC. 

References :  — 
Harnack,   a.     Confessions.     Tr.     (London,    1901.) 
McCabe,  J.     St.  Augustine  and  his  Age.     (New  York, 

1903.) 
ScHAFF,    P.,    and  Wace,   H.  Nicene   and    Post-Nicene 

Fathers.     (New  York,  1903.) 

AURELIUS.  —  See  Maecds  Aurelius. 

AURICULAR  INSTRUCTION.—  See  Deaf, 

Education  of. 

AUSONIUS,  DECIMUS  MAGNUS.  ^  Born 
at  Bordeaux  about  the  year  309;  was  educated 
in  the  city  of  his  birth,  and  afterwards  at 
Toulouse,  under  the  auspices  of  his  uncle,  the 
rhetorician  Arborius.  His  studies  were  prin- 
cipally, after  the  manner  of  the  time,  in  Latin 
and  (Sreek  grammar,  rhetoric  and  law.  After 
essaying  the  practice  of  law  Ausonius  turned  to 
the  art  of  teaching,  and  accepted  a  chair  of 
grammar  at  Bordeaux,  in  which  he  was  emi- 
nently successful,  finall}'  becoming  a  rhetorician 
and  the  most  conspicuous  teacher  in  Gaul. 
His  fame  reached  the  ears  of  Valentinian,  who 
called  him  to  the  imperial  court,  intrusted  him 
with  the  education  of  his  young  son  Gratian, 
then  a  lad  of  8  years,  and  thus  permitted  him 
to  compare  himself  with  other  tutors  of  princes, 
including  the  great  Seneca,  Fronto,  and  Lac- 
tantius.  It  was  perhaps  at  this  time  that 
Ausonius  first  professed  himself  a  Christian, 
and  the  shallowness  of  his  profession  accorded 
perfectly  with  that  of  the  Emperor  himself. 
The  good  fortune  of  Ausonius  gave  a  new  im- 
pulse to  his  muse,  and  won  him  the  friendship, 
besides,  of  such  notables  as  Symmachus  and 
Probus. 

Gratian  had  barely  emerged  from  the  age  of 
tutelage,  when  he  succeeded,  in  37.5,  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  empire,  and  soon  bestirred  him- 
self to  reward  his  teacher.  Ausonius  became 
prefect  of  Africa  and  Italy,  and  afterwards  of 
Gaul;  and  the  sum  of  his  honors  was  completed 


by  the  gift  of  the  consulship  for  the  year  379. 
But  the  downfall  of  his  protector  was  near,  and 
with  the  fall  of  Gratian  Ausonius  retired  from 
court  to  the  nest  of  his  old  age  in  Aquitaine, 
notwithstanding  that  apparently  the  favor  of 
Theodosius  also  would  have  been  extended 
toward  him.  Here  he  superintended  the 
education  of  his  grandson,  wrote  elegies  to  his 
parents  and  the  professors  at  Bordeaux,  and 
poems  inspired  by  well-worn  remnants  of  the 
ancient  mythology;  and  here  he  may  have 
died  about  the  year  394.  He  lived  in  an  age 
when  true  poetry  was  impossible ;  but  his 
verses  have  delicacy  and  ingenuity,  and  traces 
of  an  original  grace  and  love  of  natural  beauty; 
and  incidentally,  they  reflect  considerable  light 
on  the  methods  and  character  of  contemporary 
Roman  education.  They  indicate  the  disci- 
pline of  the  schools,  the  content  of  grammati- 
cal studies,  the  widespread  use  of  shorthand 
and  mnemonic  rhymes,  the  scope,  specializa- 
tion, and  imperial  support  of  higher  education, 
the  high  culture  of  Gaul  in  the  fourth  century, 
and  the  arid  and  pedantic  character  of  the 
literary  instruction  of  the  period.         P.  R.  C. 

References:  — 

Ausonius,  Opera,  ed.  by  Schenkl.     (Berlin,  1883.) 
Ibid.,     Mosella,    tr.     by    C.     T.    Brooks,     in    Waring's 

Bride  of  the  Rhine.     (Boston,    1878.) 
Dill.     Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Western 

Empire.     (London,  1899.) 
Cole,   P.   R.      Capella,  Ausonius  and  the  Theodosian 

C'ode.     Teachers  College  Publications.     (New  York, 

1909.) 

AUSTIN   COLLEGE,  SHERMAN,  TEX.  — 

Founded  in  1849  by  the  Presbyterians  of  Texas, 
and  first  located  at  Huntsville,  but  removed 
to  Sherman  in  1876.  Preparatory  and  college 
departments  are  maintained.  The  admission 
requirements  amount  approximately  to  8  points 
of  high  school  work.  There  is  a  faculty  of  8 
professors  and  3  instructors. 

AUSTRALLA,      EDUCATION      IN.  —  The 

character  of  Australian  education  is  on  the 
whole  homogeneous;  but  the  sy.stcms  in  oper- 
ation in  the  different  states  are  totallj'  inde- 
pendent of  one  another  and  of  the  federal  gov- 
ernment, and  must  accordingly  receive  separate 
treatment.  It  is  perhaps  unfortunate  that  no 
provision  of  any  character  concerning  education 
has  been  included  in  the  act  of  federation; 
but  this  fact  also  indicates  the  general  com- 
petency of  the  state  governments  with  reference 
to  educational  matters.  The  peculiarity  of  Aus- 
tralian education  is  that  the  State  not  only 
controls,  but  completely  and  absolutely  sup- 
ports and  regulates  the  system  of  public  educa- 
tion, without  support  from  or  interference  by 
the  localities  in  which  the  schools  may  lie. 
Australian  education  tends  therefore  to  be  cen- 
tralized, systematic,  and  homogeneous;  but 
since  local  interest  is  naturally  fitful,  the  ex- 
ternal equipment  of  the  schools  is  usually  of  an 
inferior  character,  while  the  qualifications  of  the 


301 


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teachers  are  distinctly  superior.  The  schools 
are  open  220  days  or  more  during  the  year. 
Primary  education  is  free,  secondary  education 
not  so.  Tiie  state  secondary  schools  arc  fewer 
and  somewhat  less  important  than  tho.se  of  a 
semi-pul)lic,  endow^ed,  or  denominational  char- 
acter. The  iituversities  of  Sydney  (New  South 
Wales),  Melbourne  (Victoria),  and  on  a  smaller 
scale  Adelaide  (South  Australia),  and  the 
University  of  Tasmania  arc  excellent  colleges 
after  their  kind,  staffed  by  British  professors, 
and  reflecting  oversea  rather  than  Australian 
culture.  A  fifth  university  is  about  to  be 
founded  at  Brisbane,  (Queensland. 

Primary  education  throughout  Australia  is  free, 
eomi)ul.sory,  and  secular,  notwithstanding  that  its 
development  has  been  che(iuered  by  private  and 
denominational  uifluences.  \'ictoria  practically 
adopted  the  tlireefold  ideal  by  an  act  of  1S72, 
New  South  Wales  in  18S0,  (Jucen.sland  in  1S75, 
South  Australia  and  Western  Australia  in  1S7S. 
Until  recently  a  nominal  fee,  tlireepence  per 
week  per  child,  had  been  charged  upon  such 
parents  as  were  able  to  afford  it,  but  all  such 
charges  have  been  repealed,  partly  upon  prin- 
ciple, since  the  State  owes  education  to  its 
citizens,  and  the  older  generation  to  the  younger, 
and  partly  for  expediency-,  in  that  the  half-con- 
cealed distinction  between  eleemosynary  and 
contributing  pupils  had  tended  to  become 
invidious. 

New  South  Wales.  —  For  the  purposes  of  the 
present  undertaking,  it  seems  preferable  to  con- 
sider education  in  New  South  Wales  as  a  type, 
rather  than  to  attempt  to  describe  education 
in  each  of  the  Australian  colonies  in  an  equally 
abbreviated  way.  The  first  white  settlement 
was  effected  in  Australia  in  1788,  at  Sydney,  New 
South  Wales.  It  is  clear  that  the  earliest  settlers 
were  not  blind  to  the  claims  of  education,  since  it 
is  upon  record  that  the  first  church  in  Australia, 
built  in  1793,  was  used  also  as  a  schoolhou.se. 
An  orphan  school  and  asylum,  founded  in 
New  South  Wales  in  1801,  was  supported  by 
an  endowment  of  13,000  acres  of  land,  also 
by  harbor  dues,  various  fines,  and  the  con- 
fiscation of  stray  goats  !  In  1821  there  were 
only  1524  children  being  instructed,  out  of  a 
population  of  upwards  of  35,000;  and  although 
the  years  1824-1835  saw  the  establishment  of 
a  free  grammar  school,  infant  schools,  the  King's 
School,  and  the  Sydney  College  (now  Sydney 
Grammar  School),  there  was  great  need  of  a 
liberal  and  extensive  system  of  education  such 
as  only  the  State  could  provide.  An  adaptation 
of  the  monitorial  system  of  Bell  and  Lancaster 
was  in  vogue  in  the  primary  schools.  Thus 
education  fared  as  ill  as  might  be  in  New  South 
Wales  until  1848,  when  vigor  was  infused  into 
the  situation  by  the  creation  of  a  dual  system  of 
national  and  state-aided  denominational  schools. 

The  dual  system  was  obviously  wasteful  and 
undemocratic  in  principle,  but  it  was  not  until 
the  superior  efficiency  of  the  national  schools, 
largely  due  as  it  was  to  a  system  of  training 


teachers  and  pupil  teachers  at  a  model  school 
and  training  college  in  Sydney,  had  amply 
demonstrated  their  superiority  to  the  public, 
that  the  complete  victory  of  the  national 
schools  was  assured.  An  act  of  1866  abolished 
the  dual  boards  in  favor  of  a  new  Council  of 
Education,  and  unified  the  organization  of  the 
two  orders  of  schools.  This  act  was  su])er.seded 
by  that  of  1880,  which  established  a  state 
department  of  education,  under  a  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  with  a  permanent  lender 
Secretary.  Departmental  officers  and  teachers 
were  henceforth  civil  servants,  and  education 
was  compulsory  and  practically  secular  and  free, 
save  that  a  i)ortion  of  the  time  of  the  impils 
might  be  set  aside  for  the  religious  instruction 
of  school  children  by  the  clergymen  of  their 
denomination,  and  a  fee  of  threepence  per 
child  (recently  abolished),  not  exceeding  a 
shilling  for  one  family,  was  paid  weekly  to 
the  State.  Meanwhile  the  University  of  Sydiiey, 
established  in  1852,  was  steadily  growing  more 
influential  and  eflRcient.  In  1902  a  com- 
mission appointed  to  investigate  and  report 
upon  the  methods  of  education  in  use  in  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  and  the  principal 
countries  of  Europe  was  influential  in  securing 
several  drastic  changes,  especially  the  abolition 
of  payment  by  results  and  the  pupil  teacher 
system,  and  the  extension  of  facilities  for  the 
training  of  teachers  and  for  technical  education. 
The  great  problem  of  New  South  Wales,  and  in- 
deed of  all  the  Australian  colonies,  is  at  present 
how  to  provide  a  more  accessible  and  popvilar 
system  of  secondary  education  to  facilitate 
progress  from  primary  schools  to  the  university, 
and  to  prepare  scholars  for  the  higher  walks  of 
commercial  and  industrial  life. 

In  New  South  Wales  all  children  between 
the  ages  of  6  and  14  years  are  required  to 
attend  a  state  or  private  school,  or  to  receive 
regular  instruction  in  some  equivalent  way. 
In  a  state  having  an  area  of  310.372  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  only  1,527,000,  it  is 
readily  seen  that  the  determined  effort  of  the 
State  to  educate  all  its  citizens  is  attended  by 
unusual  difficulties.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
population  is  remarkably  homogeneous,  all 
but  2J  per  cent  being  British  or  Australian 
born.  It  is  remarkable  that  of  the  total  popu- 
lation more  than  one  third  is  concentrated  in 
the  city  of  Sydnej',  which  accordingly  is  well 
equipped  with  public  schools  comparable  to 
those  of  the  other  great  cities  of  the  world. 
The  principal  difficulty  is  to  reach  the  sparse 
population  of  the  inland  districts.  In  order 
that  this  may  be  more  effectually  done,  central 
schools  are  established  in  svich  localities,  to 
which  children  are  conveyed  from  a  distance  in 
suitable  vehicles  free  of  charge.  Since  the  rail- 
ways, like  the  public  schools,  are  owned  and 
operated  by  the  State,  school  children  are  al- 
lowed to  travel  free  by  rail  to  the  school  near- 
est their  homes,  or  to  the  nearest  public  high 
school,  as  the  case  may  be. 


302 


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AUSTRALIA 


The  public  schools  are  nonsectarian.  Gen- 
eral religious  instruction  is  given,  but  this  is  not 
connected  with  any  particular  religious  organ- 
ization. Periods  are  set  apart  during  which 
sectarian  ministers  may  instruct  the  children 
who  profess  their  respective  denominations, 
subject  to  the  consent  of  the  parents  or  guard- 
ians. 

While  the  public  elementary  schools  are  free, 
this  is  not  the  case  with  the  public  secondary 
schools.  These,  moreover,  are  few  in  number, 
though  they  compete  successfully  as  to  results 
with  the  great  semi-public  secondary  schools 
which  flourish  in  the  Australian  colonies  as 
they  do  in  England.  While  the  extension  of 
public  facilities  for  secondary  education  is  a 
question  very  ardently  agitated  at  the  present 
time,  it  ought  to  be  stated  that  all  of  the 
larger  so-called  elementary  schools  of  New 
South  Wales  give  instruction  to  older  boys  and 
girls  in  secondary  subjects,  that  not  only  the 
principals,  but  the  assistant  teachers  in  these 
schools  are  frequently  university  graduates, 
and  that  they  are  fully  competent  as  at  present 
constituted  to  prepare  pupils  directly  for  the 
entrance  examinations  of  universities.  It  is 
therefore  possible  in  fact,  but  not  in  theory, 
for  pupils  to  receive  advanced  secondary  in- 
struction in  the  ordinary  state  schools.  Many 
scholarships  and  bursaries  enable  children  who 
are  successful  in  competitive  examinations  to 
attend  the  secondary  schools  and  afterwards  the 
university  free  of  any  charge  to  their  parents. 

There  are  altogether  2918  state  schools  in 
New  South  Wales.  At  the  census  of  1901 
it  was  found  that  only  8  per  cent  of  the  popu- 
lation of  5  years  and  over  were  unable  to 
read.  The  annual  expenditure  of  the  govern- 
ment on  education,  science,  and  art  is  about 
£970,000  sterling.  This  is  pro^^ded  out  of 
the  consolidated  revenue.  There  is  no  special 
tax  or  rate  for  education,  and  no  local  contri- 
bution is  required  from  townships  or  counties 
for  the  support  of  schools.  The  number  of 
pupils  in  attendance  at  the  state  schools  of  New 
South  Wales  in  1907  was  235,736.  There 
were  60,000  scholars  in  attendance  at  private 
and  denominational  schools.  The  plan  of 
giving  state  aid  to  denominational  education 
was  abandoned  in  18S0,  and  there  is  no  likeli- 
hood of  its  revival.  The  training  of  .state  school 
teachers  is  in  a  stage  of  transition  to  a  high 
and  uniform  level. 

Technical  education  receives  a  rapidly  in- 
creasing appropriation  from  the  state  govern- 
ment, amounting  in  1907  to  about  £25,000 
sterling.  The  several  government  technical  col- 
leges and  schools  together  have  an  enrollment  of 
about  12,000  students,  male  and  female  The 
State  also  conducts  an  admirable  agricultural 
College  and  four  experimental  farms  ;  and 
great  expansion  is  taking  place  in  the  direction 
of  agricultural  education  even  in  the  rural 
schools. 

Sydney  University  maintains  a  high  standard 


of  college  education,  and  many  of  its  graduates 
have  achieved  distinction  in  postgraduate  study 
at  British,  American,  and  German  universities. 
One  thousand  one  hundred  and  si.xty  five 
students,  including  136  women,  attended 
lectures  during  1906.  The  staff  consisted  of 
15  professors,  with  an  average  annual  salary  of 
more  than  £  1000,  and  68  lecturers  and  demon- 
strators. The  year's  expenditure  was  £50,298 
sterling,  of  which  sum  £  13,750  sterling  was 
granted  by  the  government.  This  endowment 
has  been  increased  in  1908  to  £22,500. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  Australian  and 
Technological  Museums  count  more  than 
357,000  visitors  annually,  that  the  free  public 
library  under  the  state  Department  of  Public 
Instruction  has  nearly  200,000  volumes,  that  the 
new  Mitchell  Library  contains  the  best  collec- 
tion of  Australian  books  in  the  world,  and  that 
the  national  art  gallery  at  Sydney  has  paint- 
ings and  objects  of  art  estimated  at  a  value  of 
£  130,000  sterlirig. 

School  libraries,  school  banks,  and  school 
gardens  play  important  parts  in  the  lives  of  the 
children  who  attend  the  state  schools.  The  older 
boys  are  drilled  as  cadets  and  are  taught  the  art 
of  rifle  shooting.  Swimming  is  also  taught 
wherever  possible  in  connection  with  the  schools. 
A  very  lively  spirit  of  progress  has  within  the 
last  few  years  taken  possession  of  the  edu- 
cational world,  dating  on  the  whole  from  the 
accession  of  Mr.  Peter  Board,  M.A.,  as  perma- 
nent head  of  the  department  of  public  instruc- 
tion. As  in  all  the  colonies,  this  depaitment 
is  under  the  final  control  of  a  minister  for 
public  instruction,  who  is  nominated  by  the 
state  premier,  and  whose  tenure  of  office 
depends  upon  that  of  his  party  in  Parliament. 
The  director  of  education,  or  under  secretary 
for  public  instruction,  is  the  permanent  head  of 
the  department  subject  to  the  minister  who 
represents  its  parliamentary  and  fiscal  interests. 

Victoria.  —  It  will  be  unnecessary  to  char- 
acterize Victorian  education  at  such  length, 
since  in  its  general  outline  it  resembles  education 
in  New  South  Wales.  In  this  comparison,  the 
system  of  Victorian  education  must  be  recog- 
nized to  be  equal  and  in  some  respects  superior 
to  that  of  New  South  Wales.  Continuation 
schools  of  a  vocational  character  are  in  their 
infancy  in  both  colonies;  but  more  practical 
progress  is  being  made  with  them  in  Victoria. 
The  equipment  for  the  training  of  teachers  is 
also  superior  in  the  southern  state,  which  has, 
like  New  South  Wales,  a  reforming  director  of 
education,  Mr.  Frank  Tate,  M.A.,  the  author  of 
an  important  report  upon  observations  made 
during  an  official  visit  to  Europe  and  America. 
Victoria  is  behind  New  South  Wales  in  the 
establishment  of  central  district  state  schools. 

There  are  in  Victoria  at  present  (1908)  2088 
state  schools,  having  a  total  enrollment  of  203,- 
782  pupils.  The  state  expenditure  for  1907 
was  as  follows:  for  primary  education,  £665,403 
sterling;  for  secondary  education,  £5874  ster- 


303 


AUSTRALIA 


AUSTRIA 


ling;  for  technical  education,  £22,322  sterling; 
for  university  education,  £21,000  sterling.  The 
expenditures  upon  secondary'  and  technical  edu- 
cation are  l^eing  rapidly  augmented.  The  ex- 
penditure upon  university  education  merely 
represents  an  annual  grant  in  aid  of  the  work 
of  the  University  of  Melbourne,  which  is  not  to 
be  regarded  as  a  state  university,  although 
the  government  college  for  the  training  of 
teachers  is  affiliated  to  it. 

South  Australia.  —  During  1907  there  were 
in  all  721  schools  in  operation  in  South 
Australia,  having  an  average  daily  attendance 
in  public  schools  of  31,365,  and  in  provisional 
schools  6496,  giving  a  total  a  .-erage  attendance 
of  37,861.  The  number  of  teachers  employed 
was  1389,  of  whom  419  were  male  and  970 
female.  The  net  cost  of  educational  operations 
to  the  State  was  tl.")0,l,57  sterling. 

Western  Australia.  —  In  1907,  the  average 
enrollment  in  the  public  schools  was  29,679;  the 
average  attendance  24,9.50,  or  84.07  per  cent. 
The  compulsory  ages  for  attendance  are  from 
6  to  14;  but  8.8  per  cent  of  the  children  are 
under  6  and  6.3  per  cent  over  14.  In  New  South 
Wales  a  still  higher  percentage  is  found  of 
children  over  14,  namely  9.3.  In  all  there 
were  395  schools  open  during  1907.  There 
were  744  regular  adult  teachers,  86  pupil  teach- 
ers, and  56  sewing  mistresses.  An  acute  diffi- 
culty in  Western  Australia  and  all  the  sparsely 
populated  districts  in  the  Australian  colonies 
is  to  find  teachers  for  the  increasing  numbers 
of  small  schools.  The  average  salary  for  all 
adult  teachers  in  1907  was  £149.  The  total 
state  disbursement  for  education  during  the 
financial  vear  from  July  1,  1906,  to  June  30, 
1907,  was  £168,7.53. 

Queensland.  —  In  1907  there  were  2396 
teachers  employed  in  the  state  schools  in 
Queensland,  wliich  numbered  altogether  1090, 
including  provisional  schools.  The  gross  de- 
partmental expenditure  was  £342,600  ster- 
ling. Of  this  sum  £313,792  went  to  primary 
education,  £6182  to  scholarships  and  ex- 
hibitions, £  7000  to  endowments  to  grammar 
schools,  £  7749  to  technical  education,  and 
£  2070  to  grants  in  aid  of  schools  of  arts.  The 
average  daily  attendance  for  all  schools,  state 
and  provisional,  amounted  to  66,849.  Queens- 
land is  now  principally  occupied  with  the  proj- 
ect of  a  university  at  Brisbane,  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  sufficient  number  of  itinerant  teachers 
to  penetrate  the  vast  spaces  of  the  interior,  tlie 
establishment  of  continuation  clas.ses,  and  the 
improvement  and  extension  of  technical  educa- 
tion. 

Tasmania.  —  Although  separated  from  the 
Australian  continent  by  water,  Tasmania  is  one 
of  the  states  of  the  Australian  federation.  Dur- 
ing the  year  1906  tiiere  were  in  all  350  schools 
in  operation.  The  total  number  of  children 
taught  in  these  schools  during  the  year  was 
22,622,  allowance  having  been  made  for  those 
enrolled  in  more  than  one  school  during  1906. 


The  average  daily  attendance  was  13,730. 
This  average  is  considered  very  low;  moreover, 
the  accommodation  in  the  schools  is  less  ade- 
quate than  in  other  Australian  states,  and 
little  attempt  is  made  to  enforce  the  clauses 
governing  compulsory  attendance.  The  total 
number  of  teachers  of  all  ranks  in  1906  was  546. 
Of  these  12.8  per  cent  were  pupil  teachers.  The 
total  expenditure  on  primary  education  for  the 
year  1906  was  £  57,819  sterling,  while  an  amount 
of  £2650  was  devoted  to  technical  education. 
Fuller  information  may  be  obtained  from 
the  annual  reports  issued  by  the  ministers  for 
public  instruction  in  the  several  states. 

P.  R.  C. 

AUSTRIA,  EDUCATION  IN.  —  Austria- 
Hungary  is  a  constitutional  monarchy  com- 
prising two  states  entirely  independent  of  each 
other  locally,  but  united  through  the  identity 
of  the  sovereign  and  affairs  common  to  both. 

Austria  comprises  14  provinces,  with  an  area 
of  115,903  English  square  miles;  population 
26,150,708  (census  of  1900).  Hungary  (exclud- 
ing Croatia  and  Slavonia)  has  an  area  of  109,007 
English  square  miles;  population  16,721,574 
(census  of  1900).  The  educational  system  of 
Hungary  will  be  treated  in  a  separate  article. 

Historical  Development.  —  The  history  of 
education  in  Austria  deals  not  with  the  develop- 
ment of  a  single  race,  but  of  several  races  living 
in  different  territories,  which  have  been  united 
under  one  government  in  the  course  of  several 
centuries.  The  earliest  schools  in  what  is  now 
included  in  Austrian  territory  were  the  cathedral 
and  monastic  schools  (gq-v.)  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  establishment  of  these  schools  dates  from 
the  beginning  of  the  eighth  centur.v,  and  until 
the  thirteenth  century  they  afforded  the  only 
means  of  instruction.  During  this  period 
parish  schools  were  established,  but  they  offered 
little  instruction  except  in  singing  and  in  the 
catechism,  which  were  requirements  of  the 
Church.  Universities  were  also  founded,  one 
at  Prague  (q.v.)  in  1348  and  one  at  Vienna  (q.v.) 
in  1365.  These  were  modeled,  in  general, 
after  the  University  of  Paris,  with  the  faculties 
of  arts,  theology,  law,  and  medicine. 

At  the  timj  of  the  Reformation  (1524)  parish 
schools  under  the  direction  of  the  Catholic 
Church  had  been  established  in  many  of  the 
towns  and  villages.  Followers  of  Martin  Luther 
were  bitterly  opposed,  and  attempts  by  teachers 
of  the  new  faith  to  open  schools  were  the  occasion 
of  strife.  The  Jesuits  iq.i'.),  on  the  other  hand, 
were  encouraged  to  open  schools  which  naturally 
strengthened  the  Catholic  Church.  This  strife 
grew  bitter  in  Austria,  and  finally  culminated 
in  war,  which  was  detrimental  to  all  schools 
and  disastrous  to  the  Protestants  (1620). 
After  this  war  the  field  of  instruction  was  prac- 
tically limited  to  the  Catholic  Church!  During 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  schools  of  higher 
instruction  were  in  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits, 
and  primary  instruction,  still  confined  chiefly 


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to  religious  teaching  and  the  catechism,  remained 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Church;  advance, 
however,  was  made  in  schools  established  by 
the  Piarists  (q.v.),  in  which,  besides  the  cate- 
chism, reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  were 
taught.  Special  schools  for  the  nobilitj'  and 
schools  for  military  training  were  opened  in 
some  of  the  cities  during  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

Down  to  1770  the  government  had  exercised 
no  control  over  schools  further  than  to  enforce 
the  church  regulations,  to  act  as  arbiter  in 
settling  disputes,  and  to  permit  the  teaching 
of  the  poor  in  schools  other  than  those  of  the 
religious  orders.  The  first  decisive  step  to- 
ward the  formation  of  a  state  system  of  edu- 
cation was  taken  during  the  reign  of  Maria 
Theresa  (q.v.).  The  defeat  of  her  armies  by 
Frederick  the  Great  (1762)  and  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits  (1773)  both  conduced  to  this  re- 
sult. A  new  education  law,  enacted  1774,  pro- 
vided for  a  central  school  commission  (Studien- 
hofkommission)  which  should  exercise  general 
control  over  all  schools,  and  an  administrative 
council  in  each  of  the  provinces.  The  law 
further  provided  for  three  classes  of  schools, 
Volksschulen,  or  trivial  schools  (as  they  were 
called),  Hauptschiden,  or  high  schools,  and 
normal  schools.  The  Volksschulen  were  to  be 
opened  in  every  parish,  for  instruction  in  religion, 
morals,  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic;  the 
expense  to  be  borne  by  the  communities  and 
the  manorial  lords.  High  schools  were  required 
in  every  circle  or  district  for  instruction  in  geog- 
raphy and  history,  composition,  arithmetic 
and  geometry,  and  the  elements  of  Latin;  and 
normal  schools  serving  the  twofold  purpose  of 
training  teachers  and  of  model  schools  in  the 
capitals  of  the  crown  lands.  Religious  instruc- 
tion was  left  to  the  clergy.  The  salaries  of 
high  school  and  normal  school  teachers  were 
fixed,  and  the  country  teachers  were  recom-- 
mended  to  the  manorial  lords  and  the  communi- 
ties for  aid,  and  were  also  permitted  to  engage 
in  other  occupations.  A  publishing  house  for 
schoolbooks  was  established ;  textbooks  and 
methods  of  instruction  and  discipline  were  pre- 
scribed. The  school  age  was  from  6  to  12  years. 
Sunday  schools  for  the  benefit  of  children  who 
were  over  12  years  of  age  and  not  attending 
school,  and  for  apprentices,  especially,  were 
opened.  As  a  result  of  the  reform  many  new 
schools  were  established,  and  a  general  desire  for 
education  was  awakened  throughout  the  prov- 
inces. In  1775,  Bohemia  had  about  1000 
schools,  with  30,000  pupils;  in  1789,  2244 
schools,  with  about  165,000  pupils.  In  1775 
Mahren  had  about  10,000  pupils,  and  in  17S5 
about  67,000  pupils. 

The  movement  already  started  was  continued 
under  the  reign  of  Joseph  II  (1765-1790).  Act- 
ing on  the  advice  of  the  school  commission,  he 
sanctioned  measures  which  made  attendance  at 
school  compulsory  on  penalty  of  fine;  relieved 
teachers    from    military    service,  and    fixed    a 


minimum  salary,  any  deficiency  being  supplied 
from  the  school  fund;  and,  what  is  of  more  con- 
sequence, he  granted  religious  liberty  to  the 
Protestants  (1781),  which  enabled  them  to 
establish  schools. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  century  the  effects  of 
the  political  movements  in  France  were  felt 
in  other  countries  of  Europe.  The  measures 
taken  by  Francis  II  to  safeguard  the  empire, 
which  consequently  restricted  the  freedom  of 
his  subjects,  tended  at  the  same  time  to  lower 
the  ideals  of  the  schools.  His  adviser,  Rotten- 
han,  maintained,  however,  that  the  object  of 
the  Volksscfnde  was  to  make  the  laboring 
classes  more  industrious  and  amenable  to  the 
law,  and  that  even  the  laboring  man  was  capa- 
ble of  conducting  a  school.  His  views  carried 
weight,  as  appears  from  the  Poliiische  Verfassnng 
derdeutschen  Schiden  {Constitution  of  the  Austrian 
Public  Schools),  enacted  in  1805.  No  change 
was  made  in  the  general  plan  of  supervision 
for  the  state  and  crown  lands,  but  the  Con- 
stitutiun  provided  for  district  supervision  by 
the  clergy  of  the  districts,  who  reported  to  the 
bishops  or  consistorial  council  and  also  to  the 
magistrates;  and  it  placed  the  parish  schools 
under  direction  of  the  respective  pastors  of  the 
parish  in  which  the  school  was  located. 

The  subjects  of  instruction  for  the  Volks- 
schulen were  extended  to  include  vocal  music, 
the  native  language,  and  manual  exercises. 
In  towns  the  course  of  study  was  extended  so 
that  20  hours  of  instruction  a  week  should 
be  given  and  an  assistant  teacher  provided 
wherever  required.  Children  of  the  poor  were 
to  be  instructed  gratuitously.  Teachers  must 
have  received  at  least  3  months'  normal 
training;  the  regulations  determined  their 
mode  of  appointment  as  well  as  that  of  school 
officers,  and  also  specified  requirements  for  the 
construction  and   equipment   of   schoolhouses. 

Except  for  minor  changes,  the  schools  were 
administered  according  to  the  Constitution 
until  1848.  During  this  period  the  province 
of  instruction  was  extended,  notably  by  the 
founding  of  schools  of  trades  and  industry.  The 
technical  high  schools  of  Vienna,  Prague,  Gratz, 
and  Lemberg  were  opened.  From  1828  to 
1847  the  number  of  Sunday,  or  adult,  schools 
increased  from  8867  to  11,432.  During  the 
same  period  the  number  of  superior  elementary 
schools  increased  from  261  to  333,  the  Volks- 
schulen, from  14,750  to  16,800,  and  the  schools 
for  girls,  from  1380  to  2550. 

The  political  upheaval  in  Europe  in  1848  led 
to  a  revolution  in  Austria  and  the  general 
demand  for  a  revision  of  the  constitution. 
The  new  era  was  marked  by  the  creation  of  a 
ministry  of  public  instruction  replacing  the 
school  commission,  which  for  three  quarters 
of  a  century  had  controlled  school  affairs,  and 
under  the  direction  of  the  ministry  new  regu- 
lations pertaining  to  elementary  schools  were 
promulgated  in  1848,  followed  in  1849  by  a 
law    for    secondary    and    superior    education. 


VOL.  I  — X 


305 


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Elementary  education  was  made  a  first  charge 
upon  communities,  the  province  and  state  to 
render  assistance  where  local  resources  proved 
inadequate.  Provision  was  also  made  for  the 
establishment  of  "burgher"  schools,  offering 
advanced  courses  of  instruction  covering  2 
and  3  years.  This  class  of  high  schools  af- 
forded a  general  education  for  those  who  were 
not  preparing  for  the  university  or  technical 
schools. 

Present  System.  —  The  organization  of  the 
system  of  public  instruction  under  govern- 
ment direction  was  completed  by  the  law  of 
1869,  which  is  still  in  force. 

Adiniiiistrntion  of  Elementary  Schools.  —  The 
minister  of  public  instruction  has  general  direc- 
tion and  supervision  of  the  schools  of  the  em- 
pire. In  each  crown  land  there  is  a  provincial 
school  council  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  super- 
intendent of  the  province  (Lnndes-SchuUnspek- 
tnr),  who  is  the  medium  of  intercommunication 
between  the  minister  and  lower  authorities. 
Each  crown  land  is  divided  into  Bezirke,  or 
school  districts,  the  schools  of  which  are  super- 
vised by  a  school  council  (Bczirksschulrat). 
The  members  of  this  council  are  nominated  by 
the  teachers  of  the  district,  and  are  appointed 
l)y  the  higher  school  councils.  Each  district  is 
subdivided  into  smaller  districts  for  the 
individual  schools,  which  are  under  the  control 
of  local  school  boards. 

Classification  and  Curricidum.  —  The  ele- 
mentary schools  include  the  Volksschulen  and 
the  superior  elementary  schools  or  Biirger- 
schulen.  Many  of  the  Volksschulen  are  un- 
graded, especially  in  the  country,  while  those 
in  towns  and  cities  have  from  2  to  8  classes 
or  grades.  The  subjects  of  instruction,  and  the 
plan  for  an  ungraded  school,  are  shown  in  the 
following  table. 


Subjects 


Religion 

Mother  tongue 

Arithmetic 

Natural    history   and   elementary 

physics 

Geography  and  history     .... 
Writing 

Drawing,  and  elementary  geometry 

Singing 

Gymnaatics 

Total  ntimber  of  hours  per  week 


Hours  a  Week 


First 
Year 


2 

12 

4 


19 


Second, 
Third. 

and 
Fourth 
Years 


2 

10 

4 


25 


Fifth  to 
Eighth 
Years 


2 

10 

4 

2 
2 
2 

[Fori 

3    girls 

1  hr. 


28 


1  Domestic  science  for  girls. 

Plan  of  studies  for  an  eight-grade  "burgher" 
school  for  boys  :  — 


Subjects 


Religion 

Mother  tongue    .     .     . 

Gfogranhy  and  history 

Natural  history  .'    . 

Elementary  physics 

Arithmetic      .     .     .     . 

Geometry,  and  geo- 
metrical   drawing 

Freehand  drawing   . 

Writing 

Singing    ^ 

Gymnastics     .     .     .     . 

Total  number  of  hours 
per  week      .... 


Yeahs — Hours  a  Week 


1st  2d  3d  4th  5th  6th  7th  8th 


1 
12 


18 


20 


23 


25 


26 


Compnlsory  School  Attendance.  —  Attendance 
at  school  is  conipulsor_v  in  most  of  the  provinces 
for  every  child  from  the  age  of  6  to  14.  In 
Istria,  Galicia,  and  Dalmatia,  the  age  is 
from  6  to  12,  and  in  Bukowina,  from  6  to 
13.  The  child  is  allowed  to  withdraw  from 
school  only  when  he  can  give  a  certificate 
showing  that  he  has  completed  the  required 
course  of  study.  Children  employed  in  large 
factories  continue  their  education  at  special 
schools  supported  by  their  employers.  Sepa- 
rate schools  for  boys  and  girls  are  common  in 
the  cities  and  towns,  while  in  the  country  they 
are  taught  together.  The  cost  of  erecting 
school  buildings  and  the  payment  for  teaching 
is  borne  chiefly  by  the  commune. 

Although,  from  time  to  time,  efforts  have 
been  made  through  the  predominant  influence  of 
the  Cierman  population  to  force  the  use  of 
the  German  language  upon  all  the  provinces, 
instruction  in  the  native  tongue  is  a  privilege 
which  has  been  jealously  guarded  by  the  several 
nationalities,  and  consequently  textbooks  are 
printed  in  their  various  tongues.  It  is  often 
necessary  to  instruct  children  of  several  nation- 
alities in  the  same  school,  which  greatly  in- 
creases the  teacher's  task. 

In  1906  there  were  21,666  elementary  schools, 
with  4,067,243  pupils.  The  languages  of  in- 
struction in  1906  were  as  follows:  German, 
8194;  Czech,  5496;  Slavish  dialects,  6448; 
Italian,  598;  Rumanian,  150;  Magyar  4;  while 
in  277  schools  more  than  one  language  is  used. 
The  total  expenditure  for  elcmcntarv  instruc- 
tion was  121,0.58,000  kr.  or  S24,574,774. 

Teachers  and  Teachers'  Training.  —  Schools 
for  the  training  of  teachers  in  Austria  were  first 
established  in  1774,  and  it  was  ordered  that  one 
such  school  should  be  provided  in  the  capital  of 
every  province;  upon  the  establishment  of  the 
schools  a  limited  amount  of  training  became 
compulsory  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  This 
requirement  is  still  in  force. 

In  1905,  there  were  111  training  schools  for 
teachers,  57  for  men,  with  11,161  students  and 
993  teachers;  and  54  for  women,  mth  7519 
students  and  986  teachers.  The  course  of  train- 
ing covers  4  years,  and  includes  a  review  of  the 


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high  school  subjects,  together  with  pedagogy, 
psychology,  historj'  of  education,  drawing, 
gymnastics,  and  music. 

Teachers  are  appointed  by  the  district  council, 
and  their  nominations  are  confirmed  by  the 
provincial  authorities.  The  general  school  law 
fixes  the  minimum  salary,  which  may  be  in- 
creased by  communities;  hence  the  salaries  paid 
in  the  different  districts  vary  according  to  the 
wealth  and  progressive  spirit.  After  40  years' 
service  teachers  are  entitled  to  a  pension  equal 
in  amount  to  the  salary  received. 

In  1906  the  total  number  of  teachers  in  the 
elementary  schools,  including  special  teachers 
of  religion  and  manual  arts,  was  96,300. 

Secondary  Schools.  —  The  history  of  second- 
ary education  in  Austria  for  a  period  of  three 
centuries  is  confined  chiefly  to  the  schools 
under  the  control  of  the  religious  orders,  which 
were  established  as  early  as  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  State  made  no  provision  for 
secondary  instruction  until  1773,  consequently 
these  schools  were  conducted  according  to  the 
regulations  of  the  different  orders  controlling 
them.  In  the  schools  of  the  Jesuits  the  Ratio 
Studiorum  was  followed,  which,  because  it  was 
not  modified  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  people, 
became  one  cause  of  the  expulsion  of  this  order 
(1772).  Their  property  was  seized  b}^  the  State, 
and  their  schools  reorganized  as  State  institu- 
tions, to  be  conducted  according  to  official  reg- 
ulations ( 1 773) .  When  expelled  the  Jesuits  were 
maintaining  37  gymnasia.  Schools  of  a  similar 
grade  were  also  conducted  by  the  Piarists  (g.v.) 
(24  in  number),  by  the  Benedictines  (q.v.),  and 
other  religious  orders.  The  Latin  language  had 
been  used  almost  exclusively  in  the  Jesuit 
schools  for  both  speaking  and  writing.  The 
Piarists  followed,  in  general,  similar  methods, 
but  they  also  gave  attention  to  Greek,  German, 
history,  geography,  mathematics,  and  physics. 

The  organization  of  the  gymnasia  adopted  by 
the  State  was  similar  to  that  of  the  Piarist  schools, 
and  the  course  of  study  practically  the  same. 
The  principal  aim  of  the  grammar  classes  was 
to  teach  the  pupils  to  speak  Latin  with  cor- 
rectness, an  accomplishment  of  first  importance 
for  clergy  and  diplomats.  No  important  changes 
in  the  general  regulations  for  the  state  gymnasia 
were  made  until  1805,  when  the  Constitution  of 


the  Austrian  schools  was  adopted.  The  regula- 
tions therein  embodied  increased  the  number  of 
classes  to  6  and  required  as  many  teachers  as 
classes.  The  hours  of  study  were  limited  to  IS  a 
week,  and  were  divided  as  follows:  9  hours  a 
week  to  the  subjects  of  geography,  history, 
mathematics,  natural  history,  and  physics  in  the 
three  lower  classes;  9  hours  a  week  to  Greek,  in 
the  three  upper  classes;  while  9  hours  a  week 
were  devoted  to  Latin  throughout  the  course. 
The  speaking  of  Latin  was  required  in  the  third 
and  higher  classes.  Improved  textbooks  were 
issued,  with  instructions  respecting  their  use. 

The  establishment  of  gymnasia  was  encour- 
aged by  wealthy  communities  and  cities,  and 
also  by  the  religious  orders,  so  that  the  number 
of  the  schools  gradually  increased;  in  1818 
there  were  altogether  82  secondary  schools, 
public  and  private. 

No  further  attempts  toward  a  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  gymnasia  were  made  until  1849. 
The  regulations  then  adopted  separated  the 
philosophical  course  from  the  higher  depart- 
ment, and  united  it  mth  the  humanity  classes 
to  form  the  upper  gymnasium  (Obergymnasium), 
from  which  the  lower  gymnasium  (  Unter- 
gi/tnnasium)  was  distinct  in  gradation.  The 
course  of  study  was  extended  to  8  years.  The 
gymnasia  are  still  conducted  according  to  these 
regulations.  The  same  law  (1849)  recognized 
the  realschulen  and  regulated  their  organiza- 
tion. The  subjects  of  study  and  the  extent  of 
the  course  were  unsettled  questions  until  1869, 
when  a  new  law,  defining  the  course  of  study, 
was  enacted.  This  law,  which  is  still  in  force, 
prescribed  a  course  of  study  for  7  classes,  or 
years.  Another  class  of  secondary  schools, 
closely  related  both  to  the  gymnasia  and  the 
realschulen,  are  the  realgymnasia,  which  were 
first  opened  in  1864,  but  not  officially  recognized 
until  1869,  when  regulations  were  enacted  pre- 
scribing the  course  of  study.  This  class  of 
schools  is  intended  for  students  who  do  not 
expect  to  enter  either  the  universitj'  or  the 
higher  technical  schools,  but  the  training  they 
give  admits  to  the  higher  classes  of  both  the 
gymnasia  and  realschulen. 

The  relation  between  these  three  classes  of 
schools  is  indicated  by  the  following  tabular 
view  of  their  curricula. 


Gymnasidm  (8  Yr9.) 

Total 
Number 

OF 

Hours 

Realschulen  (7  Yrs.) 

Total 
Number 

OF 

Hours 

Realgymnasium  (4  Yrs.) 

Total 

Number 

OF 

Hours 

Religion 

Latin      ....          ... 

Greek    .                

680 
2000 
1120 

1000 
960 
920 
760 

Religion 

German  language  and  literature 

French       

English 

History  and  geography     .     .     . 

Mathematics 

Natural  history  and  physics 

Chemistry 

Geometrical  drawing    .... 

Freehand  drawing 

Penmanship 

320 

960 

920 

280 

960 

1160 

1120 

440 

960 

960 

80 

Religion 

German 

320 

480 

1120 

German 

Mother  toncue 

History  and  geography      .     . 

Mathematics        

Natural  history  and  physics 

Greek 

French 

History  and  geography     .     .     . 

Mathematics 

Natural  history  and  physics 

Chemistry 

Geometrical  drawing   ...    I 
Freehand  drawing   .     .     .     .    / 

320 
240 
560 
480 
420 
60 

560 

307 


AUSTRIA 


AUSTRIA 


The  administration  of  secondary  schools  is 
vested,  first,  in  the  ministry  of  instruction; 
second,  in  an  inspector  for  the  schools  of  each 
crown  land;  third,  in  a  local  board.  Church 
and  private  schools  arc  subject  to  the  same 
regulations  as  state  schools.  The  public 
gymnasia  (including  roalgymnasia)  and  real- 
schulen  are  maintained  either  by  the  State, 
the  crown  lands,  or  the  cities.  A  majority  of 
them,  however,  are  maintained  by  the  State. 
Private  gymnasia  derive  their  maintenance 
from  subventions  and  from  ecclesiastical  foun- 
dations. A  small  tuition  fee  is  charged  in  these 
schools.  The  number  of  state  and  private 
gymnasia  in  1908-1909  was  267,  with  91,267 
students.  The  languages  of  instruction  used 
in  these  schools  was  as  follows:  German,  127; 
Bohemian,  53 ;  Polish,  56 ;  Italian,  6 ;  Ruthe- 
nian,  7;  Serbo-Croatian,  6;  mixed  languages,  12. 
During  the  same  year  there  were  141  real- 
schulen,  with  46,374  students. 

The  teachers  are  trained  at  the  univcr-sities 
and  at  the  teachers'  seminaries.  After  8  years' 
teaching  service  they  are  entitled  to  a  pension, 
which  after  30  years  amounts  to  full  salary. 
The  number  of  teachers  in  the  gymnasia  in 
1905-1906  was  5329  and  in  the  Vcalschulen 
(1905-1906)  2817.  In  every  scliool  there  must 
be  a  library  containing  books  suitable  for  both 
teachers  and  students.  The  teachers  of  a 
district  must  meet  for  conference  once  a  year, 
and  all  those  of  a  province  must  meet  once  in 
3  years. 

Trade  Schools  (Fachschulen) . — Trade  schools 
were  established  originally  in  the  larger  cities 
and  towns  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  home 
industries.  Within  the  last  quarter  century 
they  have  been  opened  in  all  parts  of  the 
empire,  and  the  trades  taught  conform,  as  far 
as  possible,  to  local  demands.  The  course  of 
instruction  therefore  varies,  requiring,  however, 
about  the  same  time,  i.e.  from  2  to  4  years, 
for  completion.  In  every  school  a  certain 
number  of  hours  each  week  is  devoted  to  com- 
mercial education,  bookkeeping,  shorthand, 
commercial  arithmetic,  drawing,  and  design. 
The  school  hours  are  from  8  to  12  in  the  morn- 
ing and  from  2  to  6  in  the  evening.  Pupils 
must  have  completed  the  course  of  study  in  the 
elementary  schools  before  entering  the  trade 
school.  The  tuition  is  from  2  to  5  crowns  a 
term.  The  great  variety  of  schools  indicates  the 
range  of  industries  for  which  Austria  is  noted. 
They  include  schools  for  weaving,  stone  cutting, 
jewelry,  stone  setting,  cabinet  work,  basket 
making,  glass  making,  pottery,  and  other  trades. 
About  150  fackschulen  are  subject  to  state 
supervision,  and  of  these  70  receive  state  aid. 
Closely  related  to  the  trade  schools  for  men 
are  the  lace  schools  for  women.  These  are 
under  the  direction  of  the  central  lace  school 
of  Vienna,  which  is  also  a  training  school  for 
teachers.     In  1905  there  were  30  such  schools. 

Besides  the  class  of  trade  schools  named 
there  are  high  schools  for  arts  and  crafts  ( Hii- 


here-Gewerbeschitlc) ,  foremen's  schools,  for  those 
who  have  had  experience  in  some  trade,  general 
artisans'  schools,  which  give  a  better  prelimi- 
nary training  than  the  pupils  can  get  in  the 
public  school,  and  continuation  schools.  The 
last-named  schools  arc  conducted  evenings  and 
Sunday  morning,  and  are  attended  by  appren- 
tices and  artisans.  They  number  above  800, 
many  of  which  are  subsidized  by  the  govern- 
ment. 

The  total  number  of  industrial  schools  in 
1905  was  1274,  with    127,400  pupils. 

Commercial  Schools.  —  Commercial  educa- 
tion received  a  new  impulse  upon  the  reorgan- 
ization of  the  ^'icnna  commercial  academy  in 
1873.  Since  then  similar  academies  have  been  es- 
tablished by  comnmnes,  chambers  of  commerce, 
and  private  corporations  in  different  parts 
of  the  empire.  Many  of  these  schools  are 
granted  a  subvention  by  the  State,  and  are  under 
the  control  of  the  ministries  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion and  Commerce  (since  1888).  There  are 
academies  which  offer  advanced  commercial 
training,  and  commercial  schools  which  prepare 
for  office  and  ordinary  business  affairs.  The 
course  of  study  in  all  commercial  schools  com- 
prises geography,  arithmetic,  writing,  phonog- 
raphy, and  German,  while  in  the  academies 
it  includes  foreign  languages,  mathematics, 
geometry,  physics,  commercial  law,  and  chem- 
istry. 

In  1905  there  were  272  commercial  schools, 
with  29,300  students.  The  language  of  instruc- 
tion (  UtUerrichtssprache)  in  these  schools 
varies:  185  use  German;  60  use  Czech;  5, 
Polish;    6,  Italian;    and  16,  mixed  languages. 

Higher  Education.  —  The  institutions  for 
higher  education  maybe  divided  into  two  classes: 
universities  and  professional  schools,  and 
higher  technical  schools. 

Universities.  —  There  are  8  universities  in 
Austria,  the  oldest  of  which,  the  University  of 
Prague,  was  founded  in  1348  by  an  imperial 
charter  issued  by  Charles  IV,  which  provided 
for  four  faculties,  theology,  medicine,  arts,  and 
law,  with  a  rector  at  the  head  of  each  faculty. 
In  1370  the  law  faculty  was  separated  from  the 
university,  and  for  a  time  regulated  its  own 
affairs  as  a  separate  university. 

The  students  were  granted  a  voice  in  the 
administration,  and  to  this  end  the  student 
population  was  divided  into  four  nations:  Bo- 
hemia, Poland,  Bavaria,  and  Saxony,  an  organi- 
zation which  had  formal  recognition  down  to  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  heads  of  these  nations 
sat  in  the  council  which  regulated  the  affairs  of 
the  university.  Prague  soon  attracted  students 
from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  especially  those 
of  the  German  and  Bohemian  nationalities.  As 
a  consequence  the  political  and  religious  dif- 
ferences of  the  Teutons  and  Czechs  invaded 
the  university  life,  much  to  its  detriment. 
The  quarrel  was  ended  by  the  withdrawal  of 
the  German  students  (estimated  at  5000),  in 
1409.     As    a    consequence    Prague   suffered   a 


308 


AUSTRIA 


AUSTRIA 


decline,  and  for  nearly  two  centuries  was  repre- 
sented by  the  single  faculty  of  theology.  In 
1793  a  chair  of  the  Bohemian  language  and 
literature  was  founded.  From  this  small 
beginning  the  use  of  the  language  rapidly 
increased,  and  an  intense  rivalry  grew  up  be- 
tween the  Bohemian  and  German  students. 
The  difficulties  were  finally  adjusted  in  1S8I 
by  the  creation  of  a  Bohemian  university 
coequal  with  the  old  institution. 

The  University  of  Vienna  was  founded  by  a 
charter  issued  by  Rudolf  IV  in  1365,  the  con- 
stitution being  similar  in  many  respects  to  that 
of  Prague.  After  the  decline  of  Prague  (1409) 
Vienna  attracted  a  great  number  of  students 
and  was  soon  at  the  head  of  all  the  German 
universities.  For  more  than  a  century  it  has 
been  distinguished  particularly  for  its  school 
of  medicine.  With  the  single  exception  of 
Cracow,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  table 
below,  none  of  the  remaining  universities  was 
founded  before  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  universities  are  subject  to  the  Ministry 
of  Instruction,  but  enjoy  a  high  degree  of 
autonomy.  The  internal  affairs  are  regulated 
by  rectors  and  by  the  deans  of  the  faculties. 
They  are  maintained  by  fees  and  annual  appro- 
priations from  the  State.  The  number  of  pro- 
fessors and  instructors  in  each  faculty  and  the 
number  of  matriculates  are  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table:  — • 

Professors  receive  a  salarj^  from  the  State, 
the  honorarium  having  been  abolished  in  1896. 
They  are  appointed  by  the  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction  upon  recommendation  of  the  faculty 
in  which  the  vacancy  exists. 

There  are  independent  theological  faculties 
at  Olmiitz  (founded  as  a  university  in  1581, 
but  suppressed  in  1853),  at  Salzburg  (founded 
in  1623,  but  deprived  of  secular  faculties  in 
1815),  and  at  Vienna.  These  faculties,  which 
in  1907  comprised  350  students,  rank  with 
those  of  the  universities. 

Technical  Education.  — State  technical  schools 
are  located  at  Briinn,  Gratz,  Lemberg,  Prague, 
and  Vienna.  The  school  at  Prague  was  estab- 
lished as  early  as  1806,  and  the  school  at  Vienna 
in  1815.  The  principal  courses  of  study  are 
chemistry,  electrical  and  mechanical  engineer- 
ing. These  schools  rank  with  the  universities. 
The  following  table  shows  the  number  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  teachers  and  students  in  1907- 
1908. 


Technical  High  Schools 

Teach- 
ers 

Stu- 
dents 

Volumes 

IN 

Library 

Brunn  (German) 

Brunn  (Bohemi.in)      .... 

Gratz 

Lemberg 

Prague  (German)        .... 
Prague  (Bohemian)    .... 

Vienna 

Vienna  (Agriculture)       .     .     . 

94 
70 
43 
56 

74 
118 
180 

00 

613 

439 

703 

1629 

1030 

2541 

2998 

772 

27,600 
10,035 

14,050 

103,425 
26,000 

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2  SS  sis  2.2 


In  addition  to  the  above-namtd  institutions, 
there  are  many  technical  schools,  of  an  inferior 
order  or  narrower  scope,  training  pupils  for 
special  indu.stries;  in  particular  for  mining, 
agriculture,  and  forestry.  In  1906  the  agricul- 
tural and  forestry  schools  numbered  190,  with 
8000  pupils. 

Academies  and  Societies.  —  Study  and  inves- 
tigation is  encouraged  by  academies  and  so- 
cieties, some  of  which  are  subsidized  by  the 
State.  Located  at  Vienna  are  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  Science,  founded  in  1847,  the  Anthropo- 


309 


AUSTRIAN   METHOD 


AUTOIVIATON  THEORY 


logical  Society  (1S70),  with  450  members,  and 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society  (ISaG),  with 
2000  members  and  a  lihrarj'  of  8000  volumes. 
At  Prague  are  the  Bohemian  Academy  of  Sci- 
ence, Literature,  and  Art  (1890),  and  the;  Royal 
Bohemian  Society  of  Science  (1770),  the  latter 
having  230  members  and  a  library  of  30,000 
volumes.  A  Royal  Academy  (Polish)  is  located 
at  Cracow,  and  a  Society  for  the  Advancement 
of  Polish  science  at  Lemberg.  L.  D.  A. 

References:  — 

Austria,      llunrlhiich  dcr  Rcichsgesclze  und  Mitiistmal- 

vcrordnunui-n  iihcr   dns   VolkssehulwcsfH    in  den    im 

Hcicharate    verlretrnen    K'tnigrcichen    und   Ldndcrn. 

(Wien,  1S7S-1S79.)     2  vols.     .Svo. 
Ministeriuni    fiir    Cultus    and   Unterricht.      Instruc- 

lionen  iiher  den  Unterricht  an  den  Realschulen.    5  Aufl. 

(Wicu,  1S99.)      256  pp.     4vo. 
Sammlung   der  fiir  die    osterreichischen    U niversittiten 

giltigen  Geseize  und  Verordnungen.     (Wien,  18S5.) 

2  vols.     Svo. 
Verordnungsblatt   fiir  das   Volksschdwesen    im    KOni- 

greich  liiihmcn.     (Prag.  1,S72-1N<)().)     19  vols.     8vo. 
Egger-Miiluvald.  .\lois.     Ocslerreichischcs  Volks-  und 

M iltelseliulwescn    in    dcr    Periode    von    1867-1877. 

(Wien,  1878.)      164  pp.     8vo. 
J.VME.s,  Edmund  J.      Higher  Commercial  Instruction  in 

Austria.      In   his   Education  of   Bttsiness  Men  in 

Europe,  pp.  1-52.     (New  York,  1893.) 
Klemm,    L.     R.     Education    in    Austria-Hungary    in 

1889-1890.      In  Vnited  States  Bureau  of  Education, 

Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner,  1889-1890,  pp. 

419-454. 
Levetus,    a.    S.     Imperial    arts    and    crafts    schools, 

Vienna.     International  Studio,  Vol.  30,  pp.  323-334, 

Feb.,  1907. 
Marenzeller,  Edmund.     N ormalien  fiir  die  Gymnasien 

und  Realschulen  in  Oesierreich.      (Wien,  1884-1889.) 

2  vols.     8vo. 
Public  Instruction  in  Austria.     The  American  Journal 

of  Education,  Vol.  6,  pp.  5-32,  337-352,  609-624, 

1866. 
Strakosch-Grassman,  Gustav.      Geschichte  des  Sster- 

reichisehen   Uttterrichtswescns.     (Wien,   1905.)     372 

pp.     8vo. 
TEGonoRSKi,    LuDwiK.     Dc    V instrnciion    puhligue  en 

Aulriche.  par  un  diplomate  etranger  qui  a  longtemps 

reside  (Idusce  pays.     (Paris,  Is  11.)      .360  pp.      Tinio. 
Weiss,    .\.ntox.      Die    Ensleluuigxgeschichte    des    Volks- 

schuljilaiirs  con  1804.      (Craz.  1906.)     227  pp.     8vo. 

AUSTRIAN  METHOD  OF  SUBTRACTION. 

—  See  Subtraction. 

AUTO-.  —  A  general  prefix  which  indicates 
any  process  initiated  by  the  individual  without 
external  interference;  such  as  autohypnosis. 
Sec  Self-Instructiox. 

AUTOMATIC  MOVEMENT.  —  Certain 
movements  of  the  body  are  executed  without 
deliberation  or  choice.  Thus  one  winks  when 
any  object  moves  rapidly  toward  the  eyes;  one 
throws  out  his  hands  to  protect  himself  when 
falling  forward.  Such  activities  as  these  are 
due  to  an  organized  nervous  mechanism,  which 
was  cither  inherited  or  has  been  so  completely 
perfected  through  long  use  as  to  be  entirely 
beyond  the  control  of  consciousness.  Auto- 
matic activities  are  of  the  same  general  type 
as  reflexes  (q.v.).  The  distinction  which  is 
sometimes  drawn  between  the  two  terms  is 
that  reflexes  are  regarded  as  somewhat  simpler 


than  automatic  movements.  Topics  which 
should  be  consulted  in  the  same  connection  are 
instinct  and  habit.  The  importance  of  dis- 
tinguishing automatic  movement  in  any  edu- 
cational discussion  is  that  the  complete  per- 
fection of  a  movement  relieves  consciousness  so 
that  attention  may  turn  to  the  other  phases  of 
the  situation  and  not  be  drawn  to  the  details 
which  would  guide  the  movements.     C.  H.  J. 

AUTOMATISM.  —  Refers  to  forms  of  ac- 
tivity which  arise  in  response  to  internal  stimu- 
lation. These  internally  initiated  forms  of 
behavior  are  very  frequently  due  to  circulatory 
stimuli  acting  directly  on  the  nerve  centers,  or 
to  toxines  contained  in  the   blood. 

See  Somnambulism. 


The  AuTOMATOi;nArii. —  Winn  m  use  a 
screen  (not  shown  in  the  illustration)  cuts  off 
the  view  of  the  apparatus  from  the  subject. 
The  recording  dc\nce,  which  may  also  be  used 
separately,  is  shown  in  outline  in  half  its  full 
size.  R  is  a  glass  rod  which  moves  freely  up 
and  down  in  the  glass  tube  T,  whirh  is  set  into 
the  cork  C.  A  rubber  band  B  is  pro\'ided  to 
prevent  the  rod  from  falling  through  the  tube, 
when  not  resting  upon  the  recording  plate. 


AUTOMATOGRAPH.  —  An  apparatus  for 
the  study  of  involuntary  movements.  One  type 
is  exhibited  in  the  figure.  For  further  discus- 
sion of  records  see  Mind  Reading. 

Reference:  — 

Jastrow.  J.      Facland  Fable  in  Psychology,  pp.  306-336. 
(Boston,  1901.) 

AUTOMATON  THEORY.  —  The  physio- 
logical processes  which  are  involved  in  reflex 
action  (q.v.)  seem  to  operate  without  any  refer- 
ence to  conscious  choice.  The  mechanism  is 
accordingly  said  to  constitute  an  automaton. 
When  all  action  is  reduced  to  reflex  activity,  as 
it  is  by  some  students  of  human  behavior,  the 
body  is  treated  as  an  automaton,  and  no  ])lace 
is  left  in  the  theory  of  such  writers  for  the  recog- 
nition of  consciousness  as  a  cause.  Conscious- 
ness is  merely  an  added  phenomenon  without 
influence  in  determining  bodily  action.  The 
automaton  theory  is  not  necessarily  opposed  to 
the  principle  that  education  can  modify  indi- 
vidual character.     Even  reflex  activities  can  be 


310 


AVENTINUS 


AVICENNA 


modified  tlirougli  use  and  througli  fluctuations 
in  external  stimuli.  Tlie  body  could  be  in- 
fluenced in  its  development  quite  apart  from 
the  training  of  consciousness.  The  automaton 
theory,  however,  lays  greater  emphasis  upon 
habit  and  reflex  activity  than  upon  the  opposite, 
which  may  be  described  as  freedom  of  choice 
and  conscious  control.  For  further  discussion  of 
this  matter  see  Will.  C.  H.  J. 

AVENTINUS,  J9HANNES  (1477-1534).  — 
A  Bavarian  liumanist,  so  called  from  his  birth- 
place, Abensberg ;  his  real  name  was  Turn- 
mair.  He  was  author  of  the  first  Latin  gram- 
mar which  was  (partly)  written  in  German, 
and  published  in  Munich  in  1512.  (Cf.  Rau- 
mer's  Geschichte  der  Padagogik,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  108.) 

AVERAGE.  —  See  Graphic  Curve. 

AVERAGE  MEMBERSHIP.  —  A  term 
used  in  educational  statistics,  which,  however, 
yet  lacks  standardization.  Total  enrollment 
(q.v.)  and  average  daily  attendance  are  also 
used  as  measures  of  school  attendance,  but  are 
respectively  too  large  and  too  small  to  be  satis- 
factory measures  to  the  end  of  school  accom- 
modation. The  pupil  is  a  member  of  a  school, 
or  technically  belongs,  as  long  as  he  has  not 
removed  or  been  absent  too  long  to  preserve  his 
claim  to  his  seat.  In  some  states  after  5 
days  of  unexcused  absence  the  pupil  ceases  to 
be  a  member;  in  others  the  number  is  3.  In 
some  cases  the  pupil  technically  belongs  even 
after  some  weeks  of  absence,  if  that  be  neces- 
sary owing  to  sickness.  The  consequence  is 
that  whereas  the  signification  of  the  measures 
total  enrollment  and  average  daily  attendance 
are  practically  uniform,  that  of  average 
membership  is  not.  D.  S. 

See  Attendance. 

References  :  — 

Ddtton  and  Snedden.  Administration  of  Puhlic 
Education  in  the  United  States,  ch.  xxx-  (New 
York,    1U08.) 

Snedden  and  Allen.  School  Reports  and  School 
Efficiency.     (New  York,  1908.) 


AVERAGES. 

TISTICS. 


See  Graphic  Curve;    St.\- 


AVERROES,  ABU'L  WALID  MOHAM- 
MED.—The  son  of  Achmet,  tlie  son  of  Mo- 
hammed, the  son  of  Rushd;  born  at  Cordova,  in 
Spain,  in  11 26.  Few  men  have  exerted  a  greater 
influence  upon  the  course  of  the  thought  of  the 
Western  world.  His  sire  and  grandsire  had 
been  eminent  in  jurisprudence,  and  his  own 
studies  proceeded  from  theology  and  canon  law 
to  philosophy  and  medicine.  His  talents 
procured  him  an  appointment  to  expound 
Aristotle  to  the  Khalif  Abu  Yakub  Yusuf ;  and 
he  is  heard  of  also  as  a  judge  at  Seville  and 
Cordova.  The  rationalism  of  Averroes  was, 
however,  his  undoing,  and  in  1195  his  fanatical 


enemies  caused  him  to  be  banished  to  a  Jewish 
settlement  at  Lacena.  Restored  after  two  years 
to  safety  and  the  royal  favor  of  Khalif  Yakub 
al-Mansur,  he  died  shortly  afterwards,  on 
Dec.  10,  1198,  in  Morocco,  leaving  a  family 
of  several  sons. 

Averroes  is  the  great  master  in  the  history 
of  Mohammedan  philosophy,  and  it  was  only 
due  to  the  victory  of  orthodox  Moslem  fanati- 
cism that  his  successors  were  compelled  to  come 
from  Christendom  rather  than  Islam.  In 
Averroes  the  pure  philosophy  of  Aristotle  was 
almost  entirely  freed  from  the  persistent 
mystical  influence  of  Neo-Platonism.  Aver- 
roes was  the  great  commentator  whom  Dante 
and  the  medieval  thinkers  could  not  regard 
entirely  as  a  heathen.  His  work  was  the 
medium  whereby  a  great  part  of  the  lost  work 
of  Aristotle  was  restored  to  the  civilization  of 
western  Europe.  His  debt  to  earlier  Hebrew 
philosophy  and  his  influence  upon  subsequent 
Hebrew  speculation  were  perhaps  equally  great. 
The  first  greeting  of  the  writings  of  Averroes 
and  Aristotle  in  Christendom  took  the  form  of 
persecution;  but  through  the  genius  of  Albertus 
Magnus  (q.v.)  and  Thomas  Aquinas  (q.v.)  the 
dangerous  tenets  were  molded  to  the  support 
of  orthodoxy.  It  appears  to  be  true  that  the 
first  complete  infidelity,  or  skepticism,  indeed, 
the  first  complete  rationalism,  which  entered 
the  fold  of  Christendom  crept  in  with  the  fearless 
criticisms  and  impartial  theological  judgments 
of  the  famous  Moor. 

Reference:  — 
Renan.    Averroes  et  VAverro'isme. 

AVICENNA  (ABU  ALI  EL-HOSSEIN  IBN- 
ABDALLAH  IBN-SINA).— Born  about  980  a. d. 
at  Efsene,  in  the  Bokhara  region.  His  father, 
a  tax  collector,  removed  to  Bokhara,  and  ap- 
pears to  have  given  the  son  an  excellent  edu- 
cation, an  advantage  which  was  appreciated 
to  such  a  degree  that  the  boy  was  the  marvel 
of  all  who  knew  him.  In  medicine  and  philo.s- 
ophy  he  surpassed  all  others,  even  in  a  region 
then  famous  for  these  studies.  At  17  he  be- 
came court  physician,  utilized  the  librarj'  of  the 
Emir,  and  on  his  father's  death  proceeded  ui)on 
travels  which  closed  with  an  appointment  as 
Vizier  to  the  Emir  of  Hamadan.  Driven  thence 
by  a  mutiny  of  the  troops,  he  continued  to 
study  and  teach  in  secret,  until  discovered  and 
imprisoned  by  a  new  Emir  of  Hamadan. 
Escaping  in  disguise,  Avicenna  found  security 
and  honor  at  Ispahan,  acting  as  court  physician, 
studying  and  writing,  yet  leading  a  life  of  orien- 
tal pleasure  and  excess.  His  complex  career 
was  terminated  in  June,  1037. 

The  importance  of  Avicenna  to  Western 
thought  lies  in  the  fact  that  his  work,  based 
largely  on  Galen  and  ultimately  Hippocrates 
and  Aristotle,  became  the  great  medical  text- 
book of  the  medieval  universities.  His  system 
of   medicine,   Kanun  fi'l  Tibb,  carries  minute- 


311 


AXIOM 


BACCHANTS 


ness  of  classification  of  bodily  ailments  to  an 
extreme,  but  is  inferior  in  the  parts  which  deal 
with  surgery.  His  canon  only  lost  its  hold  on 
the  Western  universities  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  philosophical  works  of  Avicenna 
are  characterized  by  an  attempt  to  combine 
religion  and  philosojjhy  in  a  consistent  system, 
and  were  not  without  influence  upon  Albert  us 
Magnus  iq.v.)  and  the  later  scholasticism. 

AXIOM.  —  A  term  used  in  mathematics  to 
indicate  a  general  assumption  agreed  to  by  all. 
Euclid  iq.v.)  used  the  expression  "  common 
notions"  (koivuI  ivfotac) ,  but  his  commentator 
Proclus  iq.v.)  uses  "  axiom  "  (d^i'w^a),  and 
this  name  has  replaced  the  older  one.  The 
distinction  between  an  axiom  and  a  postulate 
is  not  always  clearly  set  forth  in  the  works  of 
the  Greek  geometricians,  but  in  Euclid  it  is 
quite  evident.  A  postulate  (aiVr^/ia)  is  a 
request  made  by  a  teacher  to  his  pupil,  or  a  con- 
cession by  the  latter,  that  some  proposition  may 
be  granted  without  proof,  as  a  basis  upon 
which  the  particular  science  in  question  (in 
Euclid's  case,  geometry)  may  be  built.  An 
axiom  is  a  demand  of  a  more  general  nature, 
also  relating  to  basal  principles,  and  commonly 
assented  to  by  every  one.  Tluis  it  is  an  axiom 
that  quantities  that  are  equal  to  the  same 
quantity  are  equal  to  each  other,  —  a  gener- 
ally accepted  truth  in  all  mathematics,  at  least 
with  slight  modifications  or  explanations.  It  is 
a  postulate  that  through  a  point  only  one  line 
can  be  drawn  parallel  to  a  given  straight  line, 
for  this  is  an  assumption  peculiar  to  geometry, 
and  is  by  no  means  as  generally  agreed  to  as 
the  axioms.  Indeed,  this  particular  postulate 
may  be  denied,  and  a  contradictory  one  sub- 
stituted for  it,  as  was  done  in  the  works  of 
Lobachevsky  (1793-1856)  and  Bolyai  (1802- 
1860),  resulting  in  the  "  non-Euclidean  geom- 
etry." The  postulates  of  Euclid  were  5  in 
number,  and  the  "  common  notions  "  (axioms) 
were  also  5,  the  latter  having  been  supple- 
mented by  various  commentators.      D.  E.  S. 

AXIS  CYLINDER.  —  See  Nervous  System. 

AZARIAS,     BROTHER.  —  See     Mullany, 

P.\TRIt'K    Fr.\NCIS. 

AZTECS,  SCHOOLS  OF.  —  See  Mexico, 
Education  in;  Primitiv'e  Society,  Educa- 
tion IN. 


BABYHOOD. 

Psychology. 


See  Child  Study;    Child 


BACCALAUREUS.  —  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  numerous  derivations  assigned  to  this 
word  hitherto  were  fanciful.  It  is  now  well 
established  that  the  word  baccalaurcus,  or 
baccalarius,  was  derived  from  the  Low  Latin 
bacca  (for  vacca),  and  was  a  term  applied  to  a 


cowboy  or  herdsman  ser\'ing  under  a  farmer. 
Young  warriors  who  were  not  yet  knights  were 
also  called  bachelors.  Clearly  it  denoted  one 
who  was  serving  an  apprenticeship.  As  used 
in  connection  with  the  universities  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  term  was  ap])lied  to  a  student 
who,  while  still  pursuing  his  studies  under  a 
mayistcr,  was  permitted  to  lecture  or  prepare 
other  students.  This  interpretation  brings  the 
medieval  universities  into  line  with  the  guild 
organizations  of  the  period.  Before  a  stuilent 
could  become  a  master,  or  obtain  the  license 
to  teach,  he  had  to  serve  a  term  of  apprentice- 
ship. The  period  of  apprenticeship  began  in 
the  earlier  universities  at  the  end  of  a  5  years' 
course  of  study.  Later,  when  the  "  arts 
faculty  "  came  to  be  recognized  as  part  of  the 
universitj',  the  period  iiegan  on  the  completion 
of  the  study  of  the  trivium  (q.v.).  Although 
there  was  nothing  in  the  nature  of  an  exami- 
nation, the  candidate  for  the  title  had  to  go 
through  a  ceremony  or  "  determination,"  an 
imitation  of  the  disputation  of  the  masters. 
Admission  to  the  bachelor's  degree  belonged 
either  to  the  proctors  (Paris),  the  rector 
(Bologna),  or  to  the  Chancellor  (Oxford). 
At  Paris  an  Examen  Baccalariandorum  was 
introduced  about  1275,  and  was  conducted  by 
a  board  of  examiners,  who  decided  whether  a 
candidate  might  be  admitted  to  determine. 
After  the  institution  of  the  examination  the 
baccalaureate  became  an  inferior  degree. 
See  article  on  Degrees. 
Reference : 

Ra.shdall,    H.     Unwersilics  of  Europe  in  the  Middle 
Ages.      (Oxford,  1895.) 

BACCHANTS  {Baccantes  from  vaganfes, 
"wanderers";  also  referred  to  Bacchus).  —  The 
wandering  student  of  the  late  Middle  Ages. 
The  term  was  usually  apjjlied  to  the  students  of 
grammar  and  rhetoric,  who  led  a  roving  life, 
visiting  the  various  church,  mona.stic,  or  burgher 
schools,  usually  accompanied  by  smaller  boys 
(.see  Shooters),  who  were  nominally  ap- 
prenticed to  them,  until  in  time  a  permanent 
place  was  found,  when  the  bacchant  became  a 
localus  iq.v.).  The  wandering  priests  (ckrici 
vagantes)  had  formed  a  feature  of  the  Hfe  of 
the  Church  from  the  fifth  century,  at  least. 
With  the  founding  of  the  early  universities,  the 
wandering  scholars  became  a  class  distinct  from 
the  wandering  priests,  though  many  of  the 
scholars  were  in  orders,  and  most  of  the  re- 
mainder aspired  to  be.  Those  who  adopted 
the  wandering  life  as  a  definite  mode  of  living 
as  distinguished  from  those  who  simply  sought 
to  follow  the  most  attractive  teacher  were 
called  Golinrds  (q.v.).  By  the  fourteenth 
century  these  Goliards  had  sunk  in  poimlar 
esteem,  and  they  tended  to  fuse  with  other 
wandering  classes,  as  the  minstrels.  But  witli 
the  growth  of  a  more  extensive  system  of 
grammar  schools  throughout  Europe  during 
the   Renaissance  period    a   younger    group   of 


312 


BACHE 


BACON 


migrating  students  grew  up,  —  the  bacchants, 
—  in  time  to  become  a  social  nuisance  and  an 
educational  perversion.  It  became  one  of  the 
aims  of  the  Protestant  reformers  to  suppress 
this  class.  The  development  of  state  systems  of 
schools  giv  ng  uniform  opportunities  in  almost 
every  locality  made  this  possible.  However, 
the  migrating  teacher  (see  Boarding  Round  of 
Teachers)  continued  in  Teutonic  lands  as  a 
sur\'ival.  Two  classic  accounts  of  the  wander- 
ing scholars  have  been  left,  the  Autobiographies 
of  Thomas  Platter  (q.v.)  and  of  Johannes  Butz- 
Bach  {q.v.).  See  Symonds,  Wine,  Women,  and 
Song. 

References:  — 

Freyt.\g,  Gustav.  Pictures  of  German  Life  in  the 
Fifteenth,  Sixteenth  and  Sneiilcenth  Centuries. 
Tr.  Mrs.  Malcolm.     (London,   1.S02.) 

Monroe,  P.  Thomas  Platter  and  the  Educational 
Renaissance  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.    (N.Y.,  1909.) 

BACHE,    ALEXANDER    DALLAS     (1806- 
1867).  —  Educator   and   author,    was   born   in 
Philadelphia   July    19,    1806.     He   was   gradu- 
ated from  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
at    West    Point    in    1826,    and    for    2    years 
was   an   in.structor    in    that    institution.     For 
8  years    (1828-1836)    he   was  professor  in  the 
University     of     Pennsylvania.      Having     been 
elected  president  of  Girard  College,  he  was  sent 
by  the  board  of  trustees  of  that  institution  to 
Europe  for  2  years  that  he  might  study  the 
educational  systems  of  the  old  world.     During 
this   interval    he   visited   all    the   countries   of 
western    Europe,  and  came    to    know    with    a 
good  deal  of  intimacy  their  educational  insti- 
tutions.    His   Report  on    Education  in   Europe 
(Philadelphia,  1839,  666  pp.)  was  the  earliest 
comprehensive    account    of    European    school 
systems  published  in   America,   and   certainly 
no  account  has  ever  since  been  published  that 
covers   the   same   ground    so   well.     While   in 
Europe   he   visited    278   different   institutions, 
including    practically    every    class,   from    the 
elementary  schools  to  the  higher  seats  of  learn- 
ing, and  including  schools  for  defectives,  de- 
pendents, and  deUncjuents,  as  well  as  technical 
and   industrial   institutes.     He   was    president 
of  Girard  College  until  1841,  when  he  accepted 
the  prineipalship  of  the  Central  High  School 
at  Philadelphia.    From   1843   to   1847  he  was 
superintendent   of    the    United    States    Coast 
Survey.     He  was  one  of    the   incorporators  of 
the    Smithsonian    Institution     (q.v.)     and    the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  (q.v.)  and  was  active  in  the  organization 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Science  (q.v.)  and 
its   first   president.     He   was   an   advocate   of 
school   athletics   and   other   forms   of  physical 
training,  and  was  keenly  interested  in  the  edu- 
cation   of   women.     His   report    (1840)    on    ,4 
High    School   for    Girls    and    a    Seminary   for 
Female  Teachers,  which  was  widely  reprinted, 
aided  greatly  the  cause  of  the  higher  education 
of  women.     His  published  essays  include  150 


titles,  many  of  which  are  on  education.  He 
died  Feb.  17,  1867.  W.  S.  M. 

BACHI,  PIETRO  (1787-1853).  —  Teacher 
of  foreign  languages,  educated  in  Sicily  and  at 
the  University  of  Padua.  He  was  for  20  years 
instructor  in  Italian  and  Spanish  at  Harvard 
College,  and  the  author  of  a  series  of  college 
textbooks  on  these  two  languages.        W.  S.  M. 

BACKWARD  PUPILS.  —  Children  who   do 

not  progress  from  grade  to  grade  according  to 
the  normal  rate  of  the  school  system,  and  who 
constantly  require  special  assistance  in  the 
classes  in  which  they  are  enrolled,  are  called 
"  backward,"  "  over-age,"  or  "  retarded  " 
pupils.  Bright  pupils,  slightly  and  tempo- 
rarily retarded,  because  of  illness,  necessary 
ab.sence,  transfer  from  one  school  system  to  an- 
other, or  other  circumstantial  causes,  are  not, 
strictly  speaking,  "  backward  pupils."  The 
"  backward  "  child  is  caused  by  phy.sical  or 
mental  defects  of  a  congenital  type,  or  by 
family  neglect,  irregular  school  attendance,  and 
inefficient  modes  of  instruction.  Various  de- 
vices, particularly  the  ungraded  class,  have 
been  utilized  to  relieve  the  regular  graded  classes 
of  the  burden  of  the  "  backward  "  child  and  to 
make  it  possible  for  such  "  over-age  "  children 
to  get  the  special  attention  they  require. 

H.  S. 
See  Retardation;  also.  Grading  and  Pro- 
motion. 

BACON,  FRANCIS  (1561-1626).  —  Baron 
Verulam,  Viscount  St.  Albans;  English  philos- 
opher, statesman,  and  man  of  letters.  Bacon 
was  one  of  the  greatest  lights  of  the  brilliant 
age  of  Elizabeth,  being,  as  he  said,  "  two  years 
younger  than  her  Majesty's  happy  reign."  He 
was  a  contemporary  also  of  Elizabeth's  suc- 
cessor, the  pretentious  pedant.  King  James. 
Shakespeare  was  3  years  Bacon's  junior  and 
was  outlived  by  Bacon  10  years.  Bacon  did 
not  highly  esteem  the  profession  of  actor,  say- 
ing "  and  though  the  thing  itself  be  disreputa- 
ble in  the  profession  of  it,  yet  it  is  excellent  as 
a  discipline;  we  mean  the  action  of  the  theatre." 

In  his  twelfth  year  Bacon  went  with  his 
brother  Anthony  to  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. After  3  years  spent  here,  during  which 
he  came  to  dislike  the  philosophy  of  Aris- 
totle as  formal  and  profitless,  he  traveled 
in  France  as  an  attache  of  the  English  embassy, 
gaining  valuable  experience.  On  returning  to 
England,  having  but  little  means,  he  studied 
law,  and  became  a  barrister  in  1582.  Two 
years  later  he  was  elected  to  Parliament,  where 
he  displayed  great  ability,  conceived  high 
ambitions  for  poUtical  preferment,  suffered 
from  financial  embarrassments,  but  profited 
politically  and  financially  by  the  friendship  of 
the  Queen's  greate.st  favorite,  the  brilliant 
Essex,  and  cherished  his  youthful  purpose  to 
renew  science  by  showing  to  it  both  jts  true 


313 


BACON 


BACON 


method  and  its  grand  mission.  About  1592 
he  addressed  a  letter  to  his  uncle,  the  prominent 
Lord  Burleigh,  asking  for  aid,  and  saying, 
among  other  things:  "  I  confess  that  I  have  as 
vast  intellectual  ends  as  moderate  civil  ends; 
for  I  have  taken  all  knowledge  to  be  my  prov- 
ince; and  if  I  could  purge  it  of  two  sort  of 
rovers  .  .  .  (the  frivolous  disputers  and  the 
blind  experimenters),  I  hope  I  should  bring  in 
industrious  observations,  grounded  conclusions, 
and  profitaljle  inventions  and  discoveries;  the 
best  state  of  the  province.  This,  whether  it  be 
curiosity  or  vain-glory,  or  nature,  or  (if  one  take 
it  favorably)  philanthropia,  is  so  fixed  in  my 
mind  as  it  cannot  be  removed." 

The  latter  part  of  his  political  career  was 
crowned  with  high  honors,  though  shadowed 
by  his  prosecution  of  his  friend  and  benefactor, 
Essex,  for  the  crime  of  treason,  and  disgraced  by 
the  charge  and  confession,  as  Lord  Chancellor, 
of  bribery.  In  1595,  Bacon  became  Queen's 
Counsel;  in  1607,  under  James,  Solicitor- 
General;  in  1613,  Attorney-Cieneral;  in  1617, 
Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  as  his  father  before 
him  had  been;  in  1619,  Lord  Chancellor,  with 
the  title  of  Baron  Verulam;  in  1620,  Viscount 
of  St.  Albans.  Concerning  the  two  notaiile 
charges  against  his  character,  his  so-called 
treachery  to  Essex  and  his  being  guilty  of 
bribery,  it  may  in  justice  be  remarked  that 
the  rash  Essex  had  indeed  been  guilty  of  trea- 
son in  championing  the  Scottish  succession, 
and  Bacon  as  the  Queen's  Counsel  simply  did 
his  official  duty  in  a  difficult  situation,  though 
perhaps  with  unbecoming  zeal.  As  to  the 
bribery,  it  was  common  in  those  days  for  liti- 
gants to  make  presents  to  the  judges,  and  it 
was  not  common  to  take  notice  of  it.  Bacon 
himself  fairly  observes;  "  I  was  the  justest 
judge  that  was  in  England  these  fifty  years; 
but  it  was  the  justest  censure  that  was  in  Par- 
liament these  two  hundred  years."  He  also 
maintained  that  the  bribe  had  never  been  in 
his  eye  when  he  gave  judgment.  But  he  was 
stripped  of  his  offices,  though  allowed  to  retain 
his  titles  by  a  small  vote,  and  Pope,  with  sting- 
ing satire,  could  write;  — 

"  If  parts  allure  thee,  think  how  Bacon  shined  ; 
The  wisest,  brightest,  meanest  of  mankind." 

During  his  busy  public  life  Bacon  had  used 
his  leisure  moments  in  writing.  After  his  fall, 
some  six  years  of  feeble  health  were  devoted  to 
the  same  purpose.  His  death  came  from 
catching  cold,  while  experimenting  on  the  pre- 
servative properties  of  snow.  His  writings 
show  the  flexibility  of  the  newly  formed  Eng- 
lish language;  they  are  very  quotable,  despite 
the  heaviness  of  the  thought  and  the  compact- 
ness of  the  style;  and  they  are  very  compre- 
hensive and  remarkable,  making  epochs,  in 
fact,  in  literature,  in  science,  and  in  philosophy. 
Though  anticipating  much  of  modern  progress. 
Bacon  did  not  anticipate  the  future  of  the 
English  language.     Conforming  to  the  Renais- 


sance custom  of  the  time,  he  either  wrote  in,  or 
else  translated  into,  Latin  all  his  main  works. 

Bacon  had  a  vast  plan  in  his  writings,  which 
he  was  not  able  fully  to  execute.  The  plan 
was  called  the  Magna  In.stauratiu,  the  Great 
Renewal.  In  short,  the  Great  Renewal  meant 
that  the  new  object  of  knowledge  is  not  words, 
but  nature;  the  new  source  of  knowledge  is  not 
[)ure  reason,  but  the  senses;  the  new  method  of 
knowledge  is  not  deduction,  but  induction;  and 
the  new  aim  of  knowledge  is  not  discipline,  but 
l)ower.  The  first  jiarl  of  the  Magna  Jiixtauralio 
was  published  in  1605,  and  was  entitled  Of  the 
I'roficience  and  Advancement  of  Learning.  This 
work  refutes  the  objections  to  learning,  and 
distrii)utes  knowledge  into  the  three  main  di- 
visions of  history,  poesy,  and  philosophy,  thus 
making  "  a  small  glolje  of  the  intellectual  world  " 
and  exhibiting  its  undiscovered  countries.  He 
rang  the  bell,  as  he  said,  to  call  the  wits  to- 
gether. The  second  part  of  the  Magna  InMau- 
ratio  appeared  as  the  Novum  Urganinn  in  1620. 


Title  page  to  Novum  Organiim  (1(520). 

In  the  short  preface  to  this  work  he  contrasts 
"  the  method  of  cultivating  the  sciences," 
"  the  anticipation  of  the  mind,"  with  "  the 
method  of  discovering  the  sciences,"  "  the 
interpretation  of  nature."  In  .sum,  the  one  is 
deduction,  the  Organum  of  Aristotle;  the 
other  is  induction,  the  Xoviim  Organvm_  of 
Bacon.  The  first  aphorism  of  Book  I  gives 
the  animating  spirit  of  the  whole:    "  Man,  as 


314 


Francis  Bacon  (1561-1526).     (Stv  p.  313.) 


Alexander  Bain  ;1^1.S-1'JU3;.      C6i.e  p.  olh.; 


George  Berlieley  (l(3.s4-1753).     (See  p.  365.)  Frcaoriclc  Eduard  Bencke  (1798-1S54).     (See  p.  362.) 

A  Group  of  Philosophers,  Contributors  to  Education. 

(With  the  permission  of  the  Open  Court  Publishing  Co.) 


BACON 


BACON 


the  minister  and  interpreter  of  nature,  does 
and  understands  as  much  as  his  observations 
on  the  order  of  nature,  either  with  regard  to 
things  or  the  mind,  permit  him  and  neither 
knows  nor  is  capable  of  more."  Yet,  Bacon 
admitted  revelation  to  be  a  source  of  knowledge 
and  a  basis  for  religion.  The  famous  "  idols  " 
appear  in  this  piece.  The  third  part  of  the 
Magna  Instaiiratio  is  represented  by  the  Sylva 
Sylvarum,  together  with  some  minor  works.  This 
part  attempts  to  present  the  data  of  the  universe 
as  phenomena  for  induction,  to  provide  an  "ex- 
perimental history  of  nature."  It  shows  the 
range  of  Bacon's  knowledge,  his  moderate  ca- 
pacity in  handling  induction,  his  failure  to  appre- 
ciate the  element  of  risk  that  enters  into  every  in- 
ductive leap  of  the  understanding,  his  consequent 
excessive  caution  in  generalizing,  and  his  undue 
depreciation  of  deduction.  The  tlu-ee  remaining 
parts  of  the  Magna  Instauratio  were  unfortu- 
nately never  completed. 

Among  the  other  writings  of  Bacon  possess- 
ing particular  educational  significance  are  the 
unfinished  New  Atlantis,  and  certain  of  the 
ever  living  Essays.  The  Neiv  Atlantis  is  an- 
other one  of  the  Renaissance  Utopias,  con- 
cerning which  Bacon's  first  editor,  Wm.  Raw- 
ley,  says:  "  This  fable  my  lord  devised,  to 
the  end  that  he  might  exhibit  therein  a  model 
or  description  of  a  college,  instituted  for  the 
interpreting  of  nature,  and  the  producing  of 
great  and  marvellous  works,  for  the  benefit  of 
men;  under  the  name  of  Solomon's  House,  or 
the  College  of  the  Six  Days'  Works."  In 
truly  modern  fashion  Bacon  describes  "  Solo- 
mon's House  "  as  an  investigating  university, 
science  appearing  as  the  civilizing  agency  in  the 
ideal  society,  binding  man  to  man,  and  also 
leading  man  to  God. 

The  Essays  or  Counsels  Civil  and  Moral 
were  written  and  rewritten  at  intervals  from 
1597  to  1625.  They  provide  that  analysis  into 
elements  of  the  inner  life  of  man  which  his 
inductive  philosophy  requires  of  the  outer  life 
of  nature.  Many  of  these  counsels  are  excel- 
lent, some  in  Machiavellian  fashion  separate 
politics  from  ethics,  and  all  are  shrewd  and  sug- 
gestive. Of  particular  educational  moment 
may  be  mentioned  those  entitled:  "  Of  Parents 
and  Children,"  "  Of  Travel,"  "  Of  Regimen 
of  Health,"  "  Of  Custom  and  Education," 
"  Of  Gardens,"  "  Of  Studies."  These  essays 
were  so  purely  distilled  in  the  retort  of  Bacon's 
analyzing  thought  that  they  cannot  be  sum- 
marized, and  perluxps  quotations  that  might  be 
made  from  them  are  already  in  the  mind  of  the 
reader. 

Bacon  rarely  discussed  specific  educational 
questions.  The  more  interest  attaches  to 
certain  views  of  his  on  the  "  Arts  of  Teaching  " 
that  appear  in  Book  VI,  ch.  iv,  of  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Learning.  We  there  learn  that 
education,  according  to  Bacon,  should  go 
on  in  colleges  and  not  wholly  in  private 
houses  and  schools;   that  too  concise  methods. 


too  hasty  opinions,  are  to  be  avoided,  which 
"  rather  make  a  show  of  improvement  than 
procure  it  ";  that  there  are  two  ways  of  exer- 
cising genius,  from  the  easy  to  the  hard  and 
from  the  hard  to  the  easy,  "  for  it  is  one  method 
to  begin  swimming  with  bladders,  and  another 
to  begin  dancing  with  loaded  shoes";  that 
"  excursions  of  genius  are  to  be  somewhat 
favored";  that  "  the  suiting  of  studies  to  the 
genius  [ability]  is  of  singular  use";  that 
"  e%'eryone  makes  greater  progress  in  those 
studies  whereto  he  is  naturally  inclined  ";  that 
"  there  are  certain  remedies  in  a  proper  choice 
of  studies  for  particular  indispositions  of  mind," 
e.g.  he  recommends  mathematics  for  inatten- 
tion; and  that  exercises  should  be  varied  in 
character  to  prevent  the  fixation  of  faults. 
These  definite  views  on  teaching  hardly  surpass 
the  customary  principles  advocated  by  the 
Renaissance  educators.  In  fact,  they  rather 
indicate  that  Bacon  paid  only  casual  attention 
to  teachers  and  teaching. 

This  conclusion  is  borne  out  also  by  the 
repeated  and  undiscriminating  praise  he  accords 
the  Jesuits.  In  this  same  chapter  he  says,  "For 
the  doctrine  of  school-learning,  it  were  the  short 
way  to  refer  it  to  the  Jesuits,  who  in  point  of 
usefulness  have  herein  excelled."  In  the  first 
book  of  the  Advancement  of  Learning  he  wntes, 
"...  the  wisdom  of  the  ancientest  and  best 
times  always  complained  that  states  were  too 
busy  with  laws  and  too  remiss  in  point  of  educa- 
tion. This  excellent  part  of  ancient  discipline 
has  in  some  measure  been  revived  of  late  by  the 
colleges  of  Jesuits  abroad ;  in  regard  of  whose  dili- 
gence in  fashioning  the  morals  and  cultivating 
the  minds  of  youth,  I  may  say,  as  Agesilaus  said 
to  his  enemy  Pharnabasus,  talis  quam  sis,  utinam 
noster  esses."  Shall  we  say  that  Bacon  had  not 
worked  out  carefully  the  bearings  of  his  own 
fundamental  principles  of  investigation,  of 
induction  in  science,  upon  education,  or  that  he 
simpl)',  reflecting  a  popular  opinion,  misunder- 
stood what  the  Jesuits  were  doing,  since  Jesuitic 
and  Baconian  results  are  mutually  contradictor}', 
or  perhaps  that  both  alternatives  are  true  ?  The 
man  who  did  see  the  application  of  Bacon's  phi- 
losophy to  education  was  Comenius  iq.v.). 

In  sum,  the  educational  influence  of  Bacon 
was  general  rather  than  specific;  he  discovered 
a  mine  that  has  enriched  modern  thought,  life, 
and  civilization,  but  he  was  unable  to  work  out 
all  its  veins;  his  immediate  service  is  to  educa- 
tion in  the  broad  sense  of  the  term  rather  than 
to  the  school.  Thus,  broadly  speaking.  Bacon 
initiated  the  greatest  reform  movement  in 
education  following  the  Renaissance,  viz. 
"sense-realism."  His  followers  reconstituted 
the  curriculum  and  revolutionized  school 
method.  He  destroyed  the  reign  of  authority 
in  science;  he  helped  to  make  modern  science 
and  modern  philosophy  possible;  he  substituted 
nature  for  dialectic  disputation;  he  considered 
the  narrow  humanism  of  Ascham  and  Sturm  to 
be  "  the  first  distemper  of  learning,  when  men 


315 


BACON 


BACON 


study  words  and  not  matter";  he  substituted 
induction  for  deduction  in  the  study  of  nature, 
thus  giving  education  tlie  sense  basis;  and  in  tlie 
spirit  of  philanthropy  he  started  the  ideal  of 
pansophism  iq.v.),  tliat  all  knowledge  might  be 
unified  for  dissemination  among  men.  These 
wonderful  innovations  were  not  effected  with- 
out tlie  assistance  of  the  scientific  geniuses  and 
the  practical  schoolmasters  of  the  period,  such 
as  Bruno,  Copernicus,  Da  X'inci,  Galileo,  Kepler, 
Grotius,  Boyle,  Mulcaster,  Katke,  and  C'omenius. 
But  Bacon  was  the  philosophical  inspiration  of 
the  modern  scientific  movement.  His  great- 
ness consists  in  his  formulation  of  the  scientific 
problem,  his  provision  of  the  means  for  its 
solution,  and  his  now  fulfilled  )5rophesies  of  the 
results.  Bacon  has  provided  the  mottoes  for 
modern  contributions  to  uiuversal  scholarship, 
from  Kant  to  Sandys. 

Of  the  epoch-making  character  of  his  work 
he  was  very  well  aware,  finding  comfort  in  the 
fruits  to  come  from  the  travail  of  his  mind. 
Rewrote:  "I  have  held  up  a  light  (Induction) 
in  the  obscurity  of  philosophy  which  will  be 
seen  centuries  after  I  am  dead.  It  will  be  seen 
amid  the  erection  of  temples,  tombs,  palaces, 
theatres,  bridges,  making  noble  roads,  cutting 
canals,  granting  multitude  of  charters  and 
liberties  for  comfort  of  decayed  companies  and 
corporations;  the  foundation  of  colleges  and 
lectures  for  learning  and  the  education  of 
youth;  foundations  and  institutions  of  orders 
and  fraternities  for  nobility,  enterprise,  and 
obedience;  but,  above  all,  the  establishing 
good  laws  for  the  regulation  of  the  kingdom, 
and  as  an  example  to  the  world."        H.  H.  H. 

References  :  — 
Chfrch,  R.  W.     Bacon.     fXcw  York.  18S4.) 
Complete  Works.  —  Ed.    by  Willi.ui    Rawlet.     (Am- 
sterdara,   1G03.) 
Ed.  bv  MoMTAGUE.     (London,  1825-1834.) 
Ed.  by  H.  G.  Bohr.     (London,  1846.) 
Ed.    by   Ellis,    Spedding,    and  Heath.      (London, 
1857-18.59.) 
Fischer,  Kuno.     Francis  Bacon  und  seine  Nachfolger. 

2d  od.      (Leipzig,    1875.) 
Fowler,  Th.     Bacon.      (London,   1881.) 
NicHOL.  J.     Bacon.    2  vols.     (Edinburgh,   1888-1889.) 
Re.\jus.\t,   Ch.   de.     Bacon,  sa   vie,   son  temps,  sa  phi- 
losophic et  son  influence  iusquh    nos  jours,  2d  ed. 
(Paris.  1858.) 
Spedding,  J.     Account  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  Francis 
Bacon.     2  vols.     (London.  1879.) 

BACON,  ROGER  (c.  1214-1294).  —  This 
monk  was  the  most  profound  thinker  and  per- 
haps the  most  learned  man  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Probably  under  the  influence  of 
Grosseteste  (q.v.),  one  of  his  teachers,  he  joined 
the  Franciscan  Order.  He  studied  at  Oxford 
and  in  Paris,  and  returned  to  England  about 
the  year  1250.  In  1257  he  was  sent  back  to 
Paris,  and  was  twice  put  under  restraint.  At 
the  end  of  the  first  period  (1267)  he  composed 
for  Pope  Clement  IV  his  great  works,  the  Opus 
Majus,  an  encyclopedic  treatise  on  all  the 
learning  of  his  day;  the  Opra  Minus,  in  which 
he  discusses  the  obstacles  of  learning  in  his 


day,  and  the  varying  and  various  versions  of 
the  Scriptures;  and  the  Opu.s  Tertium  which 
deals  with  many  scientific,  philosophical,  gram- 
matical, and  philological  questions.  To  those 
works  we  must  add  the  Conipctidium  Studii 
I'hilosophiac,  the  Compendium  Studii  Tlicologiac 
(1292),  his  Greek  and  Hebrew  grammars,  and 
many  still  unprinted  works.  He  seems  to 
have  died  at  Oxford  in  1294. 

Bacon  is  important  in  the  history  of  education 
as,  from  the  point  of  view  of  general  culture, 
marking  the  high  watermark  of  medieval 
intellectual  activity,  and  as  an  uncompromising 
critic  of  the  methods  of  education  in  his  own 
times.  Dr.  T.  A.  Walker,  in  his  chapter  on 
Education  in  Vol.  II  of  the  Cambridge  History 
of  English  Literature,  deals  with  the  first  point. 
He  says:  "  The  glory  of  the  Grey  Friars  cul- 
minated in  Roger  Bacon  (e.  1214-1294). 
Skilled  in  all  the  recognized  studies  of  his  age, 
he,  in  opposition  to  prevailing  ideas,  though 
remaining  a  schoolman,  pointed  to  the  study 
of  languages  and  mathematics  as  affording  the 
true  basis  for  a  sound  system  of  education,  and 
incurred  amongst  his  contemporaries  and  suc- 
ceeding generations  the  lasting  suspicion  of 
tampering  with  the  illegitimate  by  leading  the 
way  in  the  pursuit  of  natural  science."  A 
leading  spirit  in  the  universities  of  Paris  and 
Oxford,  he  was  of  course  intimately  familiar 
with  the  intellectual  needs  of  his  age;  and  it  is 
important  to  realize  that  he  was  essentially 
a  forerunner  of  the  Renaissance  in  England,  and 
not  only  of  the  classical  Renaissance,  but  of  that 
other  aspect  of  the  Renaissance,  the  philosophic 
and  scientific  Renaissance,  which  began  to  ex- 
tend the  horizon  of  English  thought  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  His  activity  in  the  sphere 
of  education  was  precisely  of  the  same  nature 
as  his  activity  in  other  directions  —  in  the  direc- 
tions of  pure  thought,  of  pure  scholarship,  of 
natural  science.  An  infinitely  greater  thinker 
than  his  later  namesake,  Francis  Bacon  (q.v.),  he 
had  the  same  universality  of  nund,  the  same 
desire  to  provoke  a  divine  discontent  in  the 
minds  of  men,  the  same  determination  to  go 
back  to  reality  and  to  sweep  away  the  shams 
and  unrealities  of  current  intellectual  life. 
That  he  did  much  for  that  life  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  his  textbooks  and  treatises  steadily 
circulated  in  England  up  to  the  very  eve  of  the 
Reformation.  His  views  can  be  well  illustrated 
by  his  educational  efforts.  He  and  the  scholars 
that  he  gathered  together  had  a  great  influence 
on  educational  thought.  We  may  rightly 
attribute  to  his  influence  and  the  memory  of  his 
work  the  remarkable  provisions  made  by  the 
Council  of  \'ienne  in  1.311  for  the  teaching  of 
Hebrew  in  the  universities  of  Oxford,  Bologna, 
Salamanca,  and  in  the  Roman  schools.  His 
work  on  arithmetic  was  circulating  as  late  as 
the  fifteenth  century,  his  De  Caelo  et  Mundo 
was  in  the  library  that  Humphrey  Duke  of 
Gloucester  gave  to  Oxford  in  the  next  century, 
his   De    Grammatica,  his  Greek   Grammar,  his 


316 


BACON 


BAHRDT 


Hebrew  Grammar,  all  had  their  place  in  the 
slow  rebirth  of  European  intellectual  life. 
But  he  not  only  produced  books  for  educational 
use.  His  mind  was  intensely  critical  as  well 
as  supremely  constructive,  and  his  attacks  on 
the  schoolbooks  current  in  his  own  day  show 
better  than  any  other  evidence  his  attitude 
to  education  and  his  lines  of  educational  in- 
fluence. Five  writers  of  popular  schoolbooks 
he  literally  slaughters,  Papias,  Hugutio,  Alex- 
ander de  Villa  Dei,  Neckam,  and  Brito.  The 
first  schoolbook  in  use  in  England  after  the 
Conquest  was  the  Eleinenlarium  of  Papias  (com- 
posed about  1053  a.d.).  Hugutio  was  Bishop 
of  Ferrara  from  1191  to  1212,  and  compiled  a 
Vocahidarium  (which  Johannes  de  Janua  de 
Balbus  used  in  conjunction  with  the  Elemen- 
tarium  of  Papias  to  form  his  Catholicon  or 
Summa,  which  appeared  in  12S6).  Alexander 
Neckara's  De  Utensilibus  appeared  before  1217, 
while  Alexander  de  Villa  Dei  (q.v.)  produced  his 
Docirinale  Puerorum  about  1209,  a  work  that 
widely  circulated  in  France  and  England. 
Bacon  attacks  most  of  these  works.  He  vio- 
lently attacks  Alexander  de  Villa  Dei's  Dociri- 
nale Puerorum  (Greek  Grammar,  p.  121).  So 
much  for  Bacon's  criticism  of  schoolbooks. 
It  is  sound  in  every  particular,  and,  if  it  did  not 
save  the  schools  from  such  books,  it  must  have 
done  much  good  in  the  universities.  For  the 
most  part  Bacon  reserved  his  praise  for  Boethius, 
Bede,  and  Grosseteste,  and  he  is  never  tired  of 
preaching  the  need  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  in  in- 
tellectual life.  The  Latins,  he  declared,  forgetful 
of  Roman  Law,  "  had  not,  themselves  originated 
a  single  branch  of  learning"  (see  Greek  Grammar, 
Introduction,  p.  xvi).  Bacon  learned  Greek 
from  Greek  teachers,  and  so,  as  did  Reuchlin 
(q.v.)  two  centuries  later,  adopted  the  pro- 
nunciation known  as  Ilacism  "  in  distinction 
from  the  Elacism  introduced  by  Erasmus." 
Though  Bacon  based  his  Grammar  on  Priscian, 
he  does  not  hesitate  to  differ  from  him,  if  he 
disagrees.  Thus  he  contradicts  the  assertion 
of  Priscian  that  Mi  cannot  be  the  dative  of 
Ego  (Opus   Tertium,  Ixi,  p.  24.5). 

' '  Bacon  possessed  the  true  phOological  instinct ; 
he  had  a  keen  perception  of  the  connection  sub- 
sisting between  the  various  dialects  belonging 
to  groups  of  languages.  At  a  time  when  that 
study  was  as  yet  entirely  unknown  in  Europe, 
Bacon  speculated  on  the  kinship  of  languages" 
(Hirsch)  and  endeavored  to  prove  the  existence 
of  auniversal  grammar  with  accidental  differences 
in  particular  cases.  It  was  in  sucli  a  spirit 
that  he  produced  for  the  use  of  Latin  scholars 
his  Greek  and  Hebrew  grammars.  He  re- 
garded grammar  (or,  if  the  term  might  be  used, 
culture;)  as  the  necessary  antecedent  of  special- 
ization in  science  (Opus  Terliiun,  xxviii,  p.  102), 
and  in  this  anticipates  much  modern  thought 
on  education.  The  revival  of  Greek  by  Bacon  is 
a  stage  in  that  fascinating  subject,  the  history 
of  Greek  learning  in  England  and  Europe.  In 
668  Theodore  and  Adrian  (q.v.)  brought  back 


Greek  to  England.  Some  of  the  scholars 
who  survived  into  Bede's  time,  such  as  Tobias, 
Bishop  of  Rochester  (d.  726)  and  Tatwine 
(d.  734)  were  as  familiar  with  Latin  and  Greek 
as  their  mother  tongue.  Odo,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  who  died  in  961,  carried  on  the 
Greek  tradition.  An  examination  of  the 
early  English  Psalters  and  books  of  antiphone 
shows  that  Greek  was  used  in  parts  of  the 
services,  in  certain  places  at  least,  to  the  end  of 
the  Saxon  period  (see  King  Ethelstan's  Psalter 
and  the  Winchester  copy  of  the  Gloria  of  the 
first  half  of  the  eleventh  century).  For  the  most 
part  it  is  written  phonetically,  but  we  have  a 
Sanctus  in  Greek  uncials.  This  dwindling 
echo  of  Greek  scholarship  was  given  new  life 
by  Roger  Bacon,  who  passed  on  the  tradition  to 
the  days  of  the  New  Learning. 

J.  E.  G.  DE  M. 
References  :  — 

Brewster,  J.  S.    Fr.  Rogeri Bacon,  Opera  inedita.    (Rolls 

Series,  1859.) 
Charles,  E.     Bacon,  sa  vie,  ses  ouvrages,  ses  doctrines. 

(Paris,   1861.) 
Nolan,    E.,   and    Hirsch,   S.    A.     Greek  Grammar    of 

Roger  Bacon.     (Cambridge,  1902.) 
Sandys,     J.     E.      A     History   of  Classical   Scholarship, 

Vol.  I.     (Cambridge,   1903.) 

BACONE  COLLEGE,  BACONE,  OKLA- 
HOMA. —  A  coeducational  institution  estab- 
lished in  1880.  The  school,  which  has  a  campus 
of  160  acres,  provides  a  4  years'  high  school  and 
freshman  and  sophomore  college  courses. 

BACTERIOLOGY.  — See  Biology;  Botany; 
Household  Arts  ;   Medical  Education. 

BADEN,  GRAND-DUCHY  OF,  EDUCA- 
TION IN.  —  See  German  Empire,  Education 

IN. 

BAHNMAIER,  JONATHAN   FRLEDRICH 

(1841).  —  A  German  theologian,  born  in  Obris- 
tenfeld  in  Wiirtemberg.  In  1806  he  became 
pastor  in  Marbach;  in  1815professor  of  theology 
and  pedagogy  in  Tubingen.  He  was  a  follower 
of  Pestalozzi,  and  did  much  for  the  schools  of 
his  native  country. 

BAHRDT,  KARL  FRIEDRICH  (1714-1792). 
—  A  German  theologian  and  educator,  promi- 
nent in  the  philanthropinist  movement  (q.v.). 
Born  in  Bischofswerda,  Saxony,  he  attended 
the  school  of  Schulpforta,  and  then  went,  rather 
ill  prepared,  to  the  University  of  Leipzig,  where 
he  became  professor  of  biblical  theology  (1766). 
Owing  partly  to  his  very  unorthodox  religious 
views,  and  partly  to  his  immoral  life,  he  was 
compelled  to  give  up  his  university  work,  and 
accepted  in  1775  a  call  of  Baron  de  Salis  to  di- 
rect the  Philanthropinum  of  Marschlins  in 
Switzerland.  The  work  there,  as  well  as  in  a 
new  Philanthropinum,  which  he  opened  in 
Heideshcim  in  the  Palatinate  in  1777,  was  an 
utter  failure.  From  1779  until  his  death,  he 
lived  in  Halle,  where  he  lectured  on  moral  phi- 


317 


BAILEY 


BAINES 


losoiihy,  and,  at  the  same  time,  kept  an  inn, 
which  was  largely  patronized  by  the  students. 
Bahrdt  was  a  man  of  brilliant  intellect,  but 
totally  lacking  in  character.  As  a  theologian, 
he  was  one  of  the  most  extreme  exponents  of 
rationalism,  while  his  pedagogic  ideas  are  based 
on  those  of  Basedow.  The  absurdities  of  his 
educational  practice,  however,  as  well  as  his 
charlatanism  and  immorality,  brought  ill  re- 
pute upon  the  whole  movement  of  Philanthrop- 
inism.  F.  M. 

Reference:  — 

Lgyser,  J.  K.  Ft.  Bahrdl.  dcr  Zcilgenosse  Pestalozzis, 
sein  Vfrhliltnis  znm  Philunthrojnttismutt  und  zur 
neueren  PUdagogik.     (Neustadt  a.d.  H.  1870.) 

BAILEY,  EBENEZER  ( 1 795-1839).  —  School- 
man, educated  in  the  schools  of  Massachusetts 
and  at  Yale  College;  principal  of  schools  in  ^'i^- 
ginia  and  Massachusetts  and  of  the  Girls' 
High  School  in  Boston:  one  of  the  organizers 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction; 
author  of  Young  Ladies'  Clnss  Book,  Philosophi- 
cal Conversations,  and  a  textbook  in  algebra. 

W.  S.  M. 

BAILEY,  WILLLAM  RUFUS  (1793-1863). 
—  Educator,  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College 
in  1813.  For  ten  years  he  was  a  teacher  in 
academies  in  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  and 
for  twenty  years  he  was  principal  of  secondary 
schools  in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.  He 
was  professor  in  Austin  College,  Tex.,  from  1S.'J4 
to  1858,  and  during  the  next  five  years  he  was 
president  of  that  institution.  His  textbooks  on 
grammar  were  widely  used  in  the  South. 

W.  S.  M. 

BAIN,  ALEXANDER,  LL.D.  (1818-1903).— 
Professor  of  Logic  and  English  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Aberdeen  from  18(50  to  1880.  He  was 
elected  Lord  Rector  of  the  University  in  1881, 
and  reelected  for  another  term  of  office  in  1884. 
He  wrote  largely  on  psychological  and  logical 
subjects,  his  chief  contributions  being:  The 
Senses  and  the  Intellect  (1855);  The  Emotions 
and  the  Will  (1859);  The  Study  of  Character 
(1861);  Mental  and  Moral  Science  (1868); 
Logic,  Deductive  and  Inductive  (1870);  Mind 
and  Body  (1873);  James  Mill,  a  biography,  and 
John  Stuart  Mill,  a  criticism  icith  some  personal 
recollections  (1882).  His  chief  contributions 
to  educational  theory  and  practice  were: 
Education  as  a  Science  (1879);  English  Gram- 
mar (1863);  A  Manual  of  English  Comjiosition 
and  Rhetoric  (1866);  On  Teaching  English 
(1887). 

His  most  important  contribution  to  edu- 
cation is  contained  in  his  Education  as  a 
Science.  In  this  work  Bain  treats  of  the 
scope  of  education;  of  the  bearings  of  physiol- 
ogy and  psychology  on  educational  practice 
and  methods;  of  educational  values;  of  the 
logical  and  psychological  sequence  of  subjects; 
and  of  the  methods  of  teaching  the  various  sub- 


jects of  school  instruction.  Chapters  are  also 
devoted  to  moral  and  to  art  education.  Accord-  ' 
ing  to  Bain,  the  science  of  education  is  con- 
fined "to  the  efforts  made  of  set  purpose  to 
train  men  in  a  jxirticular  way,  the  efforts  of  the 
grown-up  i)art  of  the  community  to  inform  the 
intellect  and  mould  the  character  of  the  young, 
and  more  especially  to  the  labours  of  professional 
educators  or  schoolmasters."  It  is,  moreover, 
the  arts  and  methods  employed  by  the  school- 
master which  form  the  main  study  of  the 
science  of  education,  for  though  he  is  not  alone 
in  the  work,  yet  in  his  efforts  he  typifies  the 
process  in  its  greatest  singleness  and  purity. 
If  in  any  way  we  can  improve  the  art  of  the 
teacher,  we  shall  have  done  nearly  all  that  can 
be  required  of  a  science  and  art  of  education. 
Two  important  i)oints  are  to  be  noted  in  Bain's 
conception  of  education.  He  excludes  physical 
education  from  the  conception,  on  the  ground 
that,  whilst  the  "  fact  of  bodily  health  or  vigour 
is  a  leading  postulate  in  bodily  or  mental  train- 
ing," yet  the  "  trainer  docs  not  take  upon  himself 
to  lay  down  the  rules  of  hygiene."  Education 
again  docs  not  embrace  the  employment  of  our 
intellectual  functions  when  directed  to  produc- 
tive labor,  and  as  a  consequence  technical  and 
professional  education  does  not  come  within 
the  scope  of  the  pure  science  of  education. 

The  other  princiiilc  of  importance  is  that 
Bain  considered  that  the  leading  intjuiry  in  the 
art  of  education  is  how  to  strengthen  memory, 
and  hence  the  chief  contribution  of  psychology 
to  education  lay  in  the  statement  of  the  con- 
ditions of  the  retentive  functions  of  mind. 

A.  D. 

References:  — 

Bain,    A.      Autobiography,    ed.    by    W.    L.    Davidson. 

(London,  1904.) 
Davidson,    W.    L.     Prof.    Bain's    Philosophv.    Mind, 

Vol.  29,  p.  161. 

BAINES,  EDWARD  (1774-1848).  —  A 
leader  of  opinion  against  governmental  action 
in  English  national  education;  organizer  of 
Mechanics'  Institutes;  born  near  Preston 
(1774);  descended  from  a  Yorkshire  yeoman 
family;  educated  first  at  Hawkshcad  Grammar 
School  (where  he  was  a  younger  schoolfellow 
of  the  poet  Wordsworth)  and  afterwards  at 
Preston  Grammar  School;  apprenticed  (a't. 
16)  to  a  printer  in  Preston;  in  1795  moved  to 
Leeds,  Yorkshire,  where  he  entered  the  office 
of  the  Leeds  Mercury;  was  ambitious  to  follow 
the  example  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  whose  life 
he  made  his  model;  drawn  by  sympathy  with 
their  political  principles,  he  joined  the  Inde- 
pendents, and  was  a  strenuous  advocate  of 
Nonconformist  principles  during  the  whole  of 
his  political  life.  In  1801  he  became  proprietor 
of  the  Leeds  Mercury,  which,  under  his  direction, 
became  the  chief  Liberal  organ  in  the  North  of 
England;  Liberal  Member  for  Leeds,  1834-1841; 
\'igorous  advocate  of  the  abolition  of  church 
rates  and  of  the  civil  disabilities  of  Noncon- 


318 


BAINES 


BAKER  UNIVERSITY 


formists;  a  student  of  county  history  and 
author  of  useful  works  of  topographical  re- 
search. Leeds  was  at  that  time  an  important 
center  of  political  and  social  thought,  and  out 
of  local  discussions  on  economic  and  constitu- 
tional questions  there  emerged  striking,  but 
somewhat  extreme,  theories,  both  in  favor  of 
laissez  faire  and  of  governmental  action  in 
social  reform.  Baines,  an  honest  but  self- 
educated  man,  strenuous  in  political  agitation, 
but  lacking  in  philosophic  insight  into  the  com- 
plexity of  English  political  conditions,  became  a 
protagonist  of  the  extreme  opponents  to  the 
bureaucratic  tendency  in  English  administra- 
tion, which  drew  its  strength  from  Benthamism 
on  the  one  hand  and  socialistic  aspirations  on 
the  other.  In  1846  he  addressed  a  series  of 
letters  to  Lord  John  Russell,  then  Prime 
Minister,  in  which  he  reviewed  the  extent  to 
which  voluntary  effort  had  met  educational 
destitution  in  England  and  Wales.  He  argued 
that  it  would  be  unwise  to  depart  from  the  prin- 
ciples of  voluntary  and  independent  organiza- 
tion in  educational  work  —  that  any  imitation 
of  Continental  systems  of  governmental  con- 
trol of  education  would  impair  the  habit  of 
English  self-reliance,  and  ultimatelj'  undermine 
political  freedom.  He  maintained  that  the 
emulation  of  the  religious  bodies,  working 
together  with  the  competition  of  private  school- 
masters, would  afford  a  better  guarantee  for 
improvement  in  national  education  than  any 
system  under  the  management  and  support  of 
the  State.  He  violently  opposed  the  new 
Minutes  of  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Educa- 
tion, published  in  August,  1846,  with  their 
elaborate  scheme  of  grants  to  schoolmasters, 
pupil  teachers,  and  normal  schools.  With  the 
help  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hamilton  of  Leeds,  he 
organized  a  popular  agitation  against  the  new 
scheme  of  State-aided  elementary  education. 
His  efforts  produced  a  breach  in  the  Liberal 
party  between  those  who  would  apply  to  na- 
tional education  the  principles  of  laissez  faire 
which  had  been  adopted  in  certain  matters  of 
trade,  and  those  who  believed  that  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  people  could  not  be  effectively 
secured  without  governmental  action  and  sub- 
sidy. In  1848  Baines,  with  Edward  Miall, 
Henry  Richard,  and  others,  delivered,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Congregational  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, a  series  of  lectures  upon  the  relation 
between  education  and  the  State.  Baines' 
lecture  On  the  Progress  in  Efficiency  of  Volun- 
tary Education  in  England  helped  in  making 
the  published  volume  of  these  lectures  (called 
The  Crosby  Hall  Lectures  on  Education)  a 
locus  classicus  of  arguments  against  government 
grants  for  educational  purposes.  He  was  also 
an  active  friend  of  mechanics'  institutions,  and 
took  a  chief  part  in  organizing  in  1825  the 
Yorkshire  Union  of  Mechanics'  Institutes, 
by  which  it  was  hoped  to  strengthen  the  edu- 
cational work  of  the  institutions  by  a  form  of 
voluntary  federation  and  by  cooperation  in  the 


319 


employment  of  traveling  teachers  of  science. 
In  connection  with  the  Yorkshire  Union  was 
organized  a  system  of  traveling  libraries,  i.e. 
boxes  of  books  which  were  sent  out  in  rotation 
to  mechanics'  institutions  in  villages  and 
small  towns.  The  Union,  with  its  traveling 
libraries,  still  maintains  its  work,  and  the  system 
of  travehng  libraries  subsequently  adopted  in 
connection  with  the  university  extension  sys- 
tem was  copied  from  this  precedent. 

Baines  was  typical  of  the  vigor,  self-reli- 
ance, political  zeal,  and  intellectual  limitations 
of  the  middle-class  Nonconformists  in  the  indus- 
trial districts  of  Yorkshire  during  the  period  of 
individualistic  free  trade.  No  one  applied  in 
a  more  thoroughgoing  way  the  doctrines  of 
voluntaryism  to  the  problems  of  national  edu- 
cation. His  limited  sympathies  prevented  him 
from  appreciating  the  possibility  of  a  form  of 
state  action  in  English  education  which  would 
avoid  alike  the  evils  of  centralized  bureaucracy 
and  of  wasteful  laissez  faire.  His  influence 
kept  many  of  the  industrial  leaders  in  York- 
shire from  throwing  themselves  vigorously  into 
educational  reform  in  conjunction  with  the 
State,  and  by  the  violence  of  its  prejudices  pre- 
pared the  way  for  a  reaction  in  popular  opin- 
ion toward  an  undue  reliance  upon  govern- 
mental effort  in  elementary  education. 

M.  E.  S. 

See  Adult  Schools. 

Reference:  — 

Baines,  E.     Life  of  Edward  Baines.     (London,  1851.) 
Crosby  Hall  Lectures  on  Education.      (London,  1848.) 

BAKER,  HUMPHREY.  —  Writer  of  an  arith- 
metical book  called  The  Wellspring  of  Sciences, 
1562.  The  British  Museum  has  editions  1574, 
1580,  1583,  1602,  showing  the  popularity  of 
the  work  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign.  Baker's 
teaching  of  arithmetic  was  practical,  whilst 
Recorde's  Ground  of  Artes  (or  arithmetic), 
enlarged  by  John  Dee,  1561,  was  strong  on  the 
theoretical  side.  In  Baker's  book  in  the  1562 
edition  is  a  prospectus  of  his  specialistic  school 
for  teaching  the  subject.  This  is  one  of  the  very 
early  private  schools,  instituted  for  business 
men  as  well  as  schoolboys,  who  ordinarily  did 
not  have  arithmetic  in  the  grammar  school  till  a 
much  later  period.  Baker's  prospectus  states 
"  such  as  are  desirous  eyther  themselves  to 
learn  or  to  have  thejT  children  or  servants  in- 
structed ...  it  may  please  them  to  repayre 
unto  the  house  of  Humphrey  Baker  .  .  .  when 
they  shall  fyiide  the  Professors  of  the  said 
Artes  etc.  Readie  to  do  their  diligent  endeav- 
ours for  a  reasonable  consideration."  For  the 
convenience  of  those  living  at  a  distance.  Baker 
took  in  boarders.  This  is  a  very  early  instance 
of  a  private  boarding  school.  F.  W. 

BAKER  UNIVERSITY,  BALDWIN,   KAN. 

—  A  coeducational  institution,  the  first  col- 
lege of  liberal  arts  in  the  state,  was  founded  1858, 


BALDWIN 


BALTIMORE 


by  the  Kansas  Educational  Association  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  an  organization 
chartered  by  the  territorial  legislature.  The 
40  members  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  are 
elected  by  the  Kansas  and  South  Kansas  Con- 
ference of  the  same  church.  The  institution 
maintains  a  college  of  liberal  arts,  a  prepara- 
tory academy,  a  normal  school,  a  conserva- 
tory of  music,  schools  of  oratory,  business,  and 
art,  and  a  summer  school.  Admission  to  the 
college  is  by  examination  or  certificate  from  an 
approved  high  school;  after  the  freshman 
year  the  studies  are  largely  elective.  The 
Normal  School  requires  a  common  school  edu- 
cation; on  the  completion  of  a  4-year  course, 
in  addition  to  a  satisfactory  examination  in  5 
professional  branches,  a  life  certificate  is  given 
to  teach  in  any  city  or  district  of  Kansas. 
The  same  certificate  may  also  be  given  to  grad- 
uates of  the  college.  The  Conservatory  of 
Music  confers  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music. 
The  M.A.  degree  may  be  gained  for  1  year's 
work  in  residence  or  2  years'  in  absentia. 
College  fraternities  have  been  established  as 
follows:  Delta  Tau  Delta,  Kappa  Sigma, 
Delta  Delta  Delta,  Xu  Alpha,  the  last  two  are 
women's  societies.  There  are  5  buildings, 
valued  (1906),  with  grounds  and  equipment, 
including-  libraries,  at  8307,023.  The  total 
annual  income  is  about  S42,000.  About  $9,500 
a  year  is  appropriated  for  the  support  of  the 
college  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
There  are  724  students  (1909),  representing 
15  states  and  territories,  and  divided  as  fol- 
lows: College  of  Liberal  Arts,  378;  Academy, 
152;  Normal  School,  35;  Conservatory  of 
Music,  99;  School  of  Art,  13;  School  of  Ora- 
tory, 48;  School  of  Business,  55.  Of  the  22 
members  of  the  instructing  staff,  18  are  full 
professors.  The  average  salary  of  a  professor 
is  S12.50.  Lemuel  Hubert  ^lurlin,  D.D.,  is 
president.  C.  G. 

BALDWIN,  JOSEPH  (1827-1900). —  Edu- 
cator; educated  in  the  common  schools  of 
Pennsylvania,  at  the  New  Castle  Seminary, 
and  at  Bethany  (Va.)  College.  He  was  instruc- 
tor in  private  and  state  normal  schools  in 
Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  and  Missouri;  principal 
of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Kirksville,  Mo., 
for  14  years;  principal  of  the  State  Normal 
School  at  Huntsville,  Tex.,  for  10  years,  and 
from  1891  to  1897  profe.ssor  of  pedagogy  in  the 
University  of  Texas.  Author  of  Art  of  School 
Management,  Elemcntanj  Psychology  and  Educa- 
tion, Psychology  Applied  to  Art  of  Teaching,  and 
School  Management  and  Methods.       W.  S.  M. 

BALDWIN,  THERON  (1801-1870).  — 
Educated  in  the  schools  of  Connecticut  and  at 
Yale  College;  founded  the  Illinois  College 
and  was  its  agent  (1829-1834);  principal  of 
the  Female  Seminary  at  Monticello,  111.  (1835- 
1843) ;  active  in  the  organization  of  the  Western 
College  Society.  W.  S.  M. 


BALDWIN  UNIVERSITY,  BEREA,  OHIO. 

—  FdUMilrd  in  1S5G  as  a  coeducational  institu- 
tion for  higher  education.  I'rcparatory  colle- 
giate (classical,  philosophical,  scientific,  legal, 
and  theological),  normal,  and  nmsical  depart- 
ments are  maintained.  The  requirements  for 
admission  to  the  college  arc  aljout  15  units. 
Students  may  enter  the  law  school  and  the  nor- 
mal course  without  fulfilling  these  requirements. 
Degrees  are  conferred  in  the  college  deiuirt- 
ment.  The  institution  works  in  conjunction 
with  the  Cicrman  Wallace  College,  where  com- 
mercial courses  and  other  privileges  are  open 
to  students  of  ]5aldwin  University.  There  is  a 
faculty  of  9  professors,  some  of  whom  are  also 
engaged  at  the  German  Wallace  College,  and 
1 1  instructors  and  assistants. 

BALTIMORE  CITY  COLLEGE.  BALTI- 
MORE, MD.  —  Founded  in  1S39  as  a  high 
school  for  boys  by  the  Commissioners  of  Public 
Schools  on  the  resolution  of  the  mayor  and  city 
council.  In  1848  the  title  of  Central  High 
School  was  adopted;  the  present  title  was 
adopted  in  1866.  There  are  9  members  on  the 
Board  of  Trustees,  who  arc  appointed  l)y  the 
mayor.  Pupils  who  have  completed  the  work 
of  the  eighth  grade  in  a  public  grammar  school 
of  the  city  are  admitted  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  their  principal  and  the  approval  of  the 
superintendent.  Others  mu.st  pass  an  examina- 
tion in  the  subjects  of  the  eighth  grade.  The 
usual  number  of  courses  of  a  high  school  are 
offered,  but  3  years  of  English,  2  years  of  a  for- 
eign language,  2  j'ears  of  mathematics,  1  year 
of  science,  ancl  2  years  of  drawing  are  constants 
in  all.  A  complete  curriculum  consists  of 
15  units.  A  department  of  pedagogy  is  main- 
tained to  afford  an  opportunity  to  i)reparc  for 
the  graded  list  of  candidates  for  positions  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  citj'.  Students  may 
enter  this  department  in  their  fourth  year. 
Certificates  of  graduation  are  given  to  those 
who  complete  the  courses.  Francis  A.  Soper, 
A.M.,  is  the  principal. 

BALTIMORE,     CITY     OF.  —  The     largest 

city  in  Maryland,  and  an  important  commercial 
center.  Incorporated  as  a  city  in  1898,  and 
operating  under  a  special  charter  granted  at  the 
time  of  incorporation.  In  1900  the  city  had  a 
population  of  508,957,  and  its  estimated  popu- 
lation in  1909  was  576,023.  Of  the  total  popu- 
lation in  1900,  13.5  per  cent  were  negroes,  and 
15.5  per  cent  were  foreign-born.  Of  the  latter 
one  half  were  Germans,  one  seventh  Russians, 
and  one  eighth  Irish.  Its  school  census,  8-16 
years  of  age,  was  75,728  in  1908,  and  its  total 
day  school  enrollment  in  1909  was  80,363  in  day 
schools  and  9024  in  night  schools.  It  is  estimated 
that  25,000  children  were  enrolled  in  private 
and  parochial  schools.  Of  the  total  enrollment 
18.5  per  cent  was  in  the  schools  for  the  negro 
race. 

History.  —  The  first  quasi-public  school  in 


320 


BALTIMORE 


BALTIMORE  POLYTECHNIC 


Baltimore  was  a  Lancastrian  charity  school, 
opened  in  1820.  In  1825,  the  legislature 
passed  an  act  permitting  the  establishment  of 
a  system  of  schools  in  Baltimore,  and  the  levy- 
ing of  a  general  tax  to  help  maintain  them.  In 
1828,  a  Board  of  School  Commissioners,  num- 
bering 6,  was  organized,  and  in  1829,  3  schools 
were  opened.  In  18.30,  the  first  schoolhouse 
belonging  to  the  city  was  erected.  By  1839, 
the  school  enrollment  had  increased  to  1126, 
and  the  mayor  and  city  council  requested  the 
school  commissioners  to  establish  a  high  school. 
This  was  done,  the  school  opening  in  1839, 
and  being  one  of  the  earliest  high  schools  estab- 
lished. The  next  year  9  schools  were  in  opera- 
tion, with  an  enrollment  of  1834  pupils.  In 
1849,  a  Superintendent  of  City  Schools  was 
appointed.  In  1898,  Baltimore  was  organ- 
ized as  a  city,  and  adopted  a  charter  in  which 
provision  was  made  for  the  reorganization  of 
the  school  sj'stem,  and  for  the  complete  separa- 
tion of  business  and  educational  affairs. 

Present  School  System.  —  The  public  school 
system  of  the  city  of  Baltimore,  at  present,  is  as 
follows:  — 

A  Board  of  School  Commissioners,  consisting 
of  9  members,  appointed  by  the  mayor,  for 
6-year  terms,  from  the  city  at  large,  and  from 
those  "  most  capable  of  promoting  the  interests 
of  public  education,  by  means  of  their  intelli- 
gence, character,  education,  and  business 
habits,"  have  control  of  the  schools.  The 
members  serve  without  pay.  The  board 
appoints  and  fixes  the  salaries  of  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  and  his  assistants, 
and  all  other  officers,  clerks,  and  employees, 
with  the  right  to  remove  them  at  pleasure; 
confirms  or  rejects  all  nominations  of  teachers 
made  by  the  superintendent,  from  his  graded 
examination  lists;  removes  teachers  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  superintendent  after 
trial;  passes  on  all  plans  for  school  buildings 
and  repairs,  tlie  work  to  be  done  bj*  the  Inspec- 
tor of  Buildings;  and  purchases,  through  the 
Board  of  Awards,  textbooks,  stationary,  furni- 
ture, and  all  supplies.  Expenditures  for  build- 
ings and  sites  are  onlj'  indirectly  under  the 
control  of  the  Board  of  School  Commissioners. 

The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
is  the  executive  officer  of  the  board.  He  has 
general  supervision  of  the  schools;  examines 
all  teachers,  nominates  them  to  the  board  for 
appointment  and  promotion,  and  assigns  and 
transfers  them  at  will;  and  advises  the  board 
in  respect  to  the  course  of  study,  textbooks,  and 
methods  of  instruction.  He  is  aided  by  3 
assistant  superintendents,  and  24  principals, 
1  for  each  of  the  24  groups  into  which  the 
city  is  divided.  A  group  usually  consists  of  a 
number  of  primary  schools  and  a  central  gram- 
mar school.  There  are  116  elementary  schools 
in  the  city,  besides  a  number  of  portable  school 
buildings  and  rented  branch  buildings.  The 
superintendent  is  also  assisted  by  12  Attend- 
ance Officers  ;    a  Supervisor  of   School   Build- 


ings; and  special  supervisors  of  drawing,  music, 
physical  training,  sewing,  cooking,  and  manual 
training. 

The  school  system  includes  kindergartens; 
elementary  schools  for  both  races,  covering 
8  years'  work;  evening  schools;  and  high 
schools.  In  9  of  the  elementary  schools,  Ger- 
man is  taught  along  with  English  throughout 
the  entire  course.  Latin  may  be  begun  in  the 
seventh  year,  if  desired.  Ungraded  classes  are 
maintained  for  irregular  pupils.  Evening 
schools  are  maintained  for  6  months  each  year, 
on  3  evenings  each  week.  Free  textbooks  are 
provided  bj'  funds  received  from  the  State  for 
that  purpose.  A  Parental  School  is  main- 
tained for  the  care  of  habitual  truants,  com- 
mitted to  it  by  the  Juvenile  Court.  Instruc- 
tion in  the  subjects  taught  by  the  special 
teachers  is  offered  in  both  the  grades  and  the 
high  schools.  Five  4-j'ear  high  schools  are 
maintained  at  public  expense:  the  Eastern 
and  Western  high  schools  for  girls,  and  the 
Baltimore  City  College,  the  three  of  which  offer 
similar  secondary  work;  the  Baltimore  Poly- 
technic Institute,  a  manual  training  high 
school;  and  the  colored  high  school  for  both 
sexes,  offering  general  and  industrial  courses. 
The  city  also  maintains  two  training  schools 
for  the  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  ele- 
mentary schools  of  the  city,  one  for  each  race. 
The  teachers'  training  course  requires  2  years 
beyond  high  school  graduation,  the  first  of 
which  is  given  to  study  and  observation,  and 
the  second  largely  to  practice  in  actual  teaching. 
The  enrollment  in  the  training  schools  in  1909- 
1910  was  161  in  the  white  school  and  82  in  the 
colored  school.  The  passing  of  the  regular 
competitive  examinations  for  elementary  teach- 
ers constitutes  the  graduation.  Those  pass- 
ing are  placed  on  a  graded  eligible  list,  from 
which  the  superintendent  recommends  for 
appointment.  A  teachers'  retirement  act  for 
Baltimore  was  passed  by  the  Maryland  legis- 
lature in  1907. 

The  city  employed  1777  teachers  in  1908- 
1909.  Of  these  21  were  kindergarten  teachers, 
1514  were  in  elementary  schools,  168  in  high 
schools,  and  80  were  special  teachers.  The 
total  expense  of  maintaining  the  schools  during 
1909-1910  was  81,608,776.07,  all  but  $48,768.46 
of  which  was  raised  by  the  city  by  a  school  tax 
of  42i  cents.  The  average  cost  for  all  schools 
based  on  average  number  belonging  was  $23.61. 

E.  P.  C. 
Reference:  — 

Annual  Reports,  Board  of  School  Cortimissioners  to  the 
Mayor  and  City  Council  of  Baltimore,  1829-date. 
Statistics  based  on  the  1908  Report  and  1909  Direc- 
tory. 

BALTIMORE  POLYTECHNIC  INSTI- 
TUTE, BALTIMORE,  MD.  —  The  second 
manual  training  school  in  the  United  States  to  be 
established  as  part  of  the  public  school  system, 
organized  and  opened  in  1884  as  the  Baltimore 


321 


BALTIMORE  SCHOOL  OF  LAW 


BARNARD  COLLEGE 


Manual  Training  School,  changed  to  the  present 
title  in  1893.  The  Institute  is  by  charter  of 
1901  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  School 
CDmniissioners  appointed  by  the  mayor;  these 
in  turn  apiioint  a  Board  of  School  \'isitors. 
Students  who  have  completed  the  elementary 
school  course  are  admitted  to  the  Institute. 
The  aim  of  the  Institute  is  to  provide  a  broad 
education  and  to  lay  the  foundation  for  speciali- 
zation in  those  jirofessions  which  are  based  on 
mechanical  arts  and  applied  sciences.  Speciali- 
zation docs  not  begin  until  the  fourth,  the  last, 
year  of  the  course.  There  were  enrolled  in 
1908-19(19  776  students.  The  faculty  includes 
nearly  forty  instructors. 

BALTIMORE  UNIVERSITY  SCHOOL  OF 
LAW,  BALTIMORE,  MD.  —  Incorporated  in 
1SS4  to  afford  an  oiiportunity  to  those  wlio 
wish  to  enter  the  legal  profession  of  receiving 
assistance  in  their  reading.  All  lectures  arc 
held  in  the  evening.  The  course  of  instruction 
is  3  years,  and  leads  to  the  degree  of  Bach- 
elor of  Laws.  No  preliminary  examination  is 
required  for  entrance.  A  moot  court  is  con- 
ducted by  the  members  of  the  law  faculty, 
which  luunbers  15  lecturers,  to  afford  the 
students  a  training  in  practice,  pleading,  and 
forensic  debate. 

BAMBERG,  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF,  BA- 
VARIA. —  l':stal)lished  in  1648,  the  year  that 
marks  the  close  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  It 
was  a  Catholic  university  that  owed  its  origin  to 
the  bishop  of  the  territory,  the  theological  fac- 
ulty being  the  most  important  branch  of  the 
institution.  The  university  never  attained 
any  special  prominence,  and  ceased  to  exist  in 
1803. 

BANCROFT,  CECIL  FRANKLIN  (1839- 
1901).  — One  of  the  leaders  in  private  secondary 
education  in  New  England;  was  educated  at 
Dartmouth  College,  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary, and  the  universities  of  Germany.  For 
12  years  (1860-1872)  he  was  principal  of 
secondary  schools  in  New  Hampshire  and 
Tennessee,  and  for  28  years  (1873-1901)  he 
was  principal  of  Phillips  Academy  at  Andover. 
He  contributed  numerous  articles  to  the  litera- 
ture of  secondary  education.  W.  S.  M. 

BANCROFT,  GEORGE  (1800-1891).— 
Historian,  educated  at  Harvard  College  and 
the  University  of  Gottingen;  tutor  at  Harvard 
College;  with  Dr.  Cogswell  he  founded  the 
famous  Round  Hill  School  at  Northampton, 
Mass.,  in  1823;  author  of  several  textbooks 
and  of  numerous  historical  works  of  great 
renown.  W.  S.  M. 

BANGOR  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY, 
BANGOR,  ME.  —  Founded  in  ISl  1  and  opened 
in  1816  at  Hampden,  Mass.,  by  the  Society 
for  Promoting  Theological  Education;  it  was 
removed  to  Bangor  in  1819.     The  curriculum 


covers  a  period  of  3  years.  The  institution 
since  1905  is  empowered  to  grant  degrees  in 
divinity.  The  course  is  open  to  men  and 
women  who  have  had  a  college  or  high  school 
training  or  its  equivalent.  There  is  a  faculty 
of  6  professors  and  2  instructors.  Rev.  David 
Nelson  Beach,  D.D.,  is  the  president. 

BANISTER,  ZILPAH  GRANT  (1794-1874). 
—  One  of  1  he  pioneers  in  t  lie  higher  education  of 
women,  was  educated  by  private  tutors  and  at 
the  Rev.  .Joseph  Emerson's  Seminary  for 
Young  Ladies  at  Saugus;  siie  taught  for  sev- 
eral years  in  the  district  schools  of  Connecti- 
cut, was  principal  of  the  Adams  Female  Acad- 
emy at  Derry,  N.H.  (1824-1828),  and  of  the 
Female  Seminary  at  Ipswich  (1828-1839); 
she  contributed  numerous  articles  on  female 
education  to  the  Connecticut  Common  School 
Journal.  W.  S.  M. 

BANKS.  —  See  S.wings  Banks  in  Schools. 

BAPTIST  UNIVERSITY  FOR  WOMEN.  — 

See  Meredith  College,  Raleigh,  N.C. 

BARCELONA,     UNIVERSITY     OF.  —  See 

Spain,  Education  in. 

BARET,  JOHN.  —  An  English  lexicographer 
of  tiie  sixteenth  century.  The  date  of  his  birth 
is  unknown,  and  it  is  very  probable  that  he 
died  at  some  time  during  1580.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He 
was  the  author  of  An  Alvearie  or  Triple  Dic- 
tionaric  in  Englischc,  Latin  and  French  ;  Very 
projitable  for  all  such  as  be  desirous  of  any  of 
those  three  languages.  Also  by  the  two  Tables 
in  the  cnde  of  this  booke,  they  may  contrari- 
wise find  the  most  necessary  Latin  or  French 
wordes,  placed  after  the  order  of  an  alphabet, 
whatsoever  are  to  be  found  in  any  other  Dic- 
tionarie:  And  so  to  turn  them  backwards  again 
into  Englische  xrhen  thry  read  any  Latin  or  French 
authors,  and  doubt  of  any  hard  vorde  therein, 
1573.  The  title  Alvearie  (or  beehive)  is  a  ref- 
erence to  the  cooperation  in  the  work  of  his 
pupils  at  Cambridge.  The  work  is  based  on 
the  Bibliolhcca  ( Librarie)  of  Sir  Tliomas  Elyot 
{q.v.).  The  preface  contains  among  others  a 
Latin  poem  in  praise  of  the  author  by  Richard 
Mulcaster  ((/.!!.).  A  second  edition  appeared  in 
1580,  in  the  preface  of  which  reference  is  made 
to  the  recent  death  of  the  author. 

References:  — 

Dictioniiry  of  National  Biofirnpli]/. 

Watson,    Foster.     TJw  English  Grammar  Schools  tip 
to  1660.     (Cambridge,  1908.) 

BARNARD'S  AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF 
EDUCATION. —  Sec  EDr(  ational  Journal- 
ism IN  America. 

BARNARD  COLLEGE.  —  The  first  result 
of  the  movement  for  the  higher  education  of 
women  in  New  York  City,  in  which  President 


322 


James  G.  Cartir. 


Cliarlfs  Brooks, 


Henrj-  Barnard.  Frederick  A.  P.  Barnard. 

A  Group  of  Ameritax  Educ.\tors. 


BARNARD  COLLEGE 


BARNARD 


Barnard  of  Columbia  College  took  a  leading 
part,  was  the  adoption  of  a  resolution  by  the 
trustees  of  that  college  in  1883,  offering  de- 
grees to  women  able  to  pass  the  appropriate 
examinations  without,  however,  providing  in- 
struction for  women  leading  to  these  exami- 
nations. It  was  naturally  found  that  this  failed 
to  solve  the  problem,  and  in  1889  an  actual 
college  for  women  was  founded,  and  began  its 
work  in  a  private  house,  the  instruction  being 
given  almost  wholly  as  additional  work  by 
members  of  the  Columbia  College  Staff.  The 
movement  had  warm  supporters,  the  Barnard 
Club,  for  example,  having  been  organized  in 
behalf  of  the  young  college  by  some  of  the 
most  influential  people  in  New  York,  and  in 
1897  sufficient  funds  had  been  raised  to  enable 
Barnard  College  to  move  into  three  beautiful 
and  well-equipped  buildings  of  its  own,  on 
ground  adjacent  to  that  of  Columbia  University. 
The  money  had  largely  been  provided  by 
generous  memlaers  of  the  Board  of  Trustees, 
and  in  190.3  one  of  the  board  presented  the 
three  blocks  of  land  lying  south  of  the  original 
property,  so  that  the  college  has  now  ample 
room  for  growth.  A  dormitory  building  has 
already  been  erected  on  this  property.  The 
original  Chairman  of  the  Trustees'  Academic 
Committee,  Miss  Ella  Weed,  was  practically 
head  of  the  college  until  her  death  in  1894. 
She  was  followed  by  Miss  Emily  James  Smith 
(Mrs.  George  Haven  Putnam)  as  Dean,  and 
she  in  1900  by  Miss  Laura  Drake  Gill.  Since 
Miss  Gill's  resignation  in  1907,  the  college  has 
been  under  the  direction  of  Professor  William 
T.    Brewster,  elected  Provost  in  1910. 

The  faculty  now  numbers  33,  and  there  are 
in  addition  .38  officers  of  instruction  and  adminis- 
tration. Tlu'ough  the  exchange  of  courses  by 
officers  of  the  Barnard  Foundation  for  those  by 
other  university  officers,  it  is  possible  to  extend 
a  wide  tender  to  the  students  of  the  college. 
Three  programs  of  study  are  offered,  one  leading 
to  A.B.;  another,  which  makes  particular  pro- 
vision for  intensive  work  in  the  natural  sciences, 
leading  to  B.S.;  and  a  2-year  course  not 
leading  to  a  degree,  but  designed  to  afford  pre- 
liminary training  for  professional  stud.v  in 
Teachers  College  and  elsewhere.  The  graduate 
work  formerly  undertaken  by  Barnard  College 
was  turned  over  to  the  university  in  1900. 

The  college  owns  and  occupies  for  educational 
purposes  buildings  and  grounds  of  an  assessed 
valuation  of  more  than  $2,000,000,  and  has  in 
addition  more  than  $1,000,000  held  for  invest- 
ment. The  annual  budget  is  something  over 
$1.57,000,  of  which  two  thirds  conies  from  stu- 
dents' fees,  and  practically  all  of  the  remainder 
from  investments.  The  buildings  provide  more 
than  1200  sittings,  the  total  floor  area,  including 
the  dormitory,  being  about  150,000  square  feet. 
The  present  student  registration  is  513;  the 
total  undergraduate  registration  since  the 
founding  of  the  college,  3882;  and  the  total 
number  of  degrees  granted,  over  800. 


In  1900  the  relations  of  Barnard  College 
to  Columbia  University  were  defined  in  a  for- 
mal agreement,  which  makes  provision  that  in 
every  way  Barnard  College,  while  retaining  its 
independent  corporate  existence,  bears,  as  an 
undergraduate  institution  for  women,  the  same 
relation  to  the  university  as  a  whole  as  does 
Columbia  College  for  men.  In  other  words,  its 
position  is  unique  among  women's  colleges  in 
that,  while  independent  and  interested  in  its 
own  welfare,  it  shares  the  resources  and  ideals 
of  a  great  university.  F.  P.  K. 

BARNARD,  FREDERICK  AUGUSTUS 
PORTER  (1809-1889).  —  The  tenth  president  of 
Columbia  University,  and  the  author  of  numer- 
ous textbooks  and  works  on  education ;  was  born 
at  Sheffield,  Mass.,  May  5,  1809,  and  was 
graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1828.  He 
was  2  years  a  tutor  at  Yale,  and  6  years  in- 
structor in  the  school  for  the  deaf  at  Hartford 
and  master  of  the  grammar  school  in  that 
city.  In  1837  he  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  University  of  Alabama,  and  11 
years  later  was  appointed  to  a  similar  post  in 
the  University  of  Mississippi.  From  1856  to 
1861  he  was  president  of  the  University  of 
Mississippi,  and  in  1860  he  accompanied  a 
scientific  expedition  to  Labrador  to  study  the 
total  eclipse  of  the  sun.  He  became  president 
of  Columbia  in  1864,  and  was  at  the  head  of  that 
institution  until  his  death.  He  was  one  of  the 
incorporators  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science  (g.v.)  (its  president 
in  1860) ,  and  of  the  National  Academy  of  Science 
(q.v.)  (its  foreign  secretary  from  1874  to  1880). 
He  was  also  active  in  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Education  (q.v.) 
(its  president  in  1855),  and  made  notable  con- 
tributions to  the  educational  journals  of  his 
day.  He  represented  the  United  States  at  in- 
ternational expositions  at  Paris  in  1867,  and 
again  in  1878.  His  reports  to  the  tru.stees 
of  the  University  of  Mississippi  and  Colum- 
bia University  have  been  characterized  as 
"  of  the  highest  practical  importance  in  the 
history  of  American  education."  Besides  nu- 
merous contributions  on  education  and  science 
to  the  North  American  Revieiv  and  the  Amer- 
ican Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  and  Jolm- 
son's  Encyclopedia  (of  which  he  was  editor- 
in-chief),  his  published  works  include  Treatise  on 
Arithmetic  (1830),  Analytic  Grammar  ipith  Sym- 
bolic Illustrations  (1836),  Letters  on  College  Gov- 
ernment (1854),  Collegiate  Education  (1854),  Art 
Culture  (1854),  History  of  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey  (1857),  University  Education  (1858), 
Academic  Degrees,  and  scientific  works  on  the 
undulatory  theory  of  light,  machinery,  and  pro- 
cesses of  the  industrial  arts,  and  the  metric 
system  of  weights  and  measures.  He  died  at 
New  York  City,  April  27,  1889.  W.  S.  M. 

References:  — 
\\N  Amrince,  J.  H.    a  History  of  Columbia  University, 
(New  York,   1904.) 


323 


BARNARD 


BARNARD 


Barnard.  H.     America/i  Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  V, 

pp.  753-780. 
Sherwood.  S.      Columbia  University,  in  U.S.  Circulars 

of  Information,  lUOO,  No.  3. 
WIN3HIP,  A.  E.     Great  American  Educators.     (Chicago, 

1900.) 

BARNARD,  HENRY  (1811-1900).  —  Edu- 
cator and  author,  activity  in  so  many  fickls  of 
education  place  liim  easily  with  Horace  Mann 
among  the  foremost  American  educators. 
He  was  born  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  Jan.  24, 
1811.  He  received  his  elementary  and  sec- 
ondary education  in  the  Hopkins  Grammar 
School  at  Hartford  and  the  Monson  Academy, 
and  his  collegiate  education  at  Yale,  graduating 
in  the  class  of  1S30,  and  began  the  study  of  law 
in  the  office  of  Willis  Hall,  afterwards  attorney- 
general  of  the  state  of  New  York.  Upon  the 
request  of  President  Day  of  Yale  he  took 
charge  of  an  academy  at  Wellsboro,  Pa.,  for  a 
year.  He  went  to  Europe  in  1S35  to  study  the 
social  and  educational  institutions,  and  his  work 
on  Reformatory  Education,  which  was  the  result  of 
this  tour,  was  not  only  one  of  the  earliest,  but  one 
of  the  most  important  American  contributions 
to  the  literature  of  the  care  and  treatment 
of  juvenile  delinquents.  He  visited  Hofwyl, 
and,  while  keenly  impressed  with  the  work 
of  Fellenberg  (q.v.),  was  much  more  in- 
fluenced by  the  labors  of  some  of  Pestalozzi's 
other  disciples,  whom  he  visited  in  Switzerland 
and  Germany.  Upon  his  return  to  America  in 
1837,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislature 
of  Connecticut,  and  formulated  the  measure 
which  created  the  State  Board  of  Education  and 
is  the  basis  of  the  present  Connecticut  school 
system.  A  board  of  education  for  the  super- 
vision of  the  schools  of  the  state  having  been 
created,  Mr.  Barnard  was  induced  to  accept  the 
post  of  secretary  for  one  year,  as  it  was  his  in- 
tention to  take  up  the  profession  of  law.  The 
reforms  in  Connecticut  during  the  four  years 
that  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  system  (1838- 
1842)  were  not  less  significant  than  the  better 
known  reforms  which  Horace  Mann  at  the 
same  time  was  carrying  out  in  Massachusetts. 
One  of  the  most  notable  measures  of  his  adminis- 
tration was  the  organization  in  1S39  of  the  first 
teachers'  institute.  E.xtensive  use  was  made 
of  the  institutes  in  the  training  of  teachers. 
Besides  the  instruction  which  he  himself  gave, 
Barnard  secured  the  services  of  professors  in 
Yale  College  and  other  institutions  for  series  of 
lessons  and  lectures  on  methods  of  teaching 
the  common  school  branches.  He  also  estab- 
lished the  Connecticut  Common  Sc)iool  .Journal 
for  the  dissemination  of  knowledge  among 
teachers,  boards  of  education,  and  friends  of 
the  common  schools.  Salutary  laws  were  en- 
acted, and,  to  quote  from  Horace  Mann,  "the 
cold  torpidity  of  the  state  soon  felt  the  sensa- 
tions of  returning  vitality."  The  next  six 
years  (1843-1849)  he  was  engaged  in  a  similar 
mission  in  Rhode  Island.  He  organized  in 
1845  the  Rhode  Island  Institute  of  Instruction, 


the  oldest  state  teachers'  association  in  the 
United  States.  He  was  active  in  the  organi- 
zation of  town  libraries  for  the  use  of  the 
schools,  and  at  the  termination  of  his  labors 
29  out  of  the  32  towns  of  the  state  had 
libraries  of  500  or  more  volumes.  He  was 
also  active  in  the  organization  of  popular  lec- 
ture courses  in  the  towns  for  the  teachers 
and  the  general  public.  For  his  teachers'  in- 
stitutes he  devised  a  traveling  model  school, 
which  he  placed  in  cliarge  of  William  S.  Baker. 
Teacher  and  children  were  taken  from  town  to 
town  in  a  wagon  fitted  out  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  practical  lessons  in  jiedagogy.  In  1851 
he  was  again  elected  secretary  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  of  C'onnectieut  and  ])rin- 
cipal  of  the  newly  organized  State  Normal 
School  at  New  Britain,  in  which  capacity  he 
served  the  State  for  four  years.  It  was  during 
this  period  that  he  published  his  book  on 
Normal  Schools  (Hartford,  1S51)  and  his  work 
on  School  Architecture,  the  first  American  book 
of  its  kind.  He  was  active  in  the  organization 
of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Education  (c/.v.),  and  was  its  president 
in  1855.  He  represented  the  United  States  at 
the  educational  congress  held  at  London  in 
1854,  and  saw  exhibited  for  the  first  time  the 
workings  of  Froebel's  system  of  Kindergarten,  of 
which  he  published  the  fir.st  American  account. 
In  1855  he  began  the  publication  of  his  monu- 
mental American  Journal  of  Education,  which 
is  unquestional)ly  his  greatest  contribution  to 
educational  literature.  He  continued  to  edit 
this  journal  for  26  years  in  the  face  of  heavy 
financial  difficulties,  publishing  in  all  32  vol- 
umes of  more  than  800  pages  each.  It  was  not 
an  educational  journal  in  the  accepted  u.sc  of 
that  term,  but,  as  Robert  Herbert  Quick  {q.v.) 
once  remarked,  "avast  encyclopedia  of  educa- 
tional literature."  (See  article  on  Educational 
Journalism.)  In  1858  Mr.  Barnard  was  chosen 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  and 
added  to  this  labor  the  organization  of  the  State 
Normal  School  and  the  conduct  of  the  teachers' 
institutes.  Overwork  and  failing  health  com- 
pelled him  to  resign  at  the  end  of  two  years. 
During  this  period  he  published  7  volumes  of 
Papers  for  Teachers,  which  included  accounts 
of  and  translations  from  Comenius,  Rousseau, 
Pestalozzi,  and  other  great  educational  reformers, 
together  with  papers  by  William  Russell,  James 
G.  Carter,  William  C.  Woodbridge,  and  other 
contemporary  educators  (see  articles  on  these). 
At  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  he  accejUed  the 
presidency  of  St.  John's  College  at  Annapolis, 
Md.,  but  resigned  a  year  later  to  accept  the 
post  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, which  Congress  had  created.  A  dozen 
years  before  he  had  advocated  before  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Education  {q.v.)  a  national  department  of 
education;  and  James  A.  Garfield,  who  had 
introduced  the  measure  in  Congress,  joined 
with  the  educators  of  America  in  recommending 


324 


BARNES 


BARRING  OUT  THE  TEACHER 


to  President  Johnson  the  appointment  of  Mr. 
Barnard.  He  organized  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation (q.v.),  and  outlined  the  pohcy  which  it 
has  since  followed  in  the  collection  of  educational 
statistics  and  in  attempts  at  the  unification  of 
the  educational  forces  of  the  country.  Besides 
the  reports  of  the  Bureau,  he  made  an  exhaus- 
tive study  of  the  conditions  of  schools  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  and  made  it  the  subject 
of  a  special  report.  While  not  a  partisan  in 
politics,  Mr.  Barnard  had  always  clung  to  the 
political  doctrines  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  and 
with  the  election  of  President  Grant  he  was 
superseded  by  General  John  Eaton.  This 
practically  closed  his  active  educational  career, 
although  he  did  editorial  work  on  his  journal, 
and  gave  many  educational  addresses  during 
the  30  j^ears  that  followed.  Besides  his  re- 
ports as  superintendent  of  schools  in  Con- 
necticut and  Rhode  Island,  and  as  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education,  and  the  4 
volumes  of  the  Connecticut  Common  School 
Journal,  the  3  volumes  of  the  Rhode  Island 
Institute  of  Instruction,  and  the  32  volumes 
of  the  American  Journal  of  Education  he  pub- 
lished 52  works  on  the  history  and  theory  of 
education  and  accounts  of  European  and 
American  school  systems.  Among  such  works 
are  his  Pcstalozzi  and  Pestalozzianism,  Kinder- 
garten and  Child  Culture,  German  Schools  and 
Teachers,  American  Pedagogy,  Ettglish  Peda- 
gogy, National  Education  in  Europe,  School 
Architecture,  and  Normal  Schools.  He  gave 
America  her  earliest  literature  of  education. 
He  touches  at  many  points  most  of  the  progres- 
sive educational  movements  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  He  died  at  Hartford  (in  the  house  in 
which  he  was  born)  on  July  6,  1900. 

W.  S.  M. 
References:  — 
Proceedings    of   National    Education  Association,    1901, 

pp.  390—4.38.      Memorial  Addresses. 
HncHES,  H.    B.,  The    Nestor  of   American  Education. 

New  England  Magazine,  July,   1S96. 
Monroe,     W.     S.     Bibliography    of    Henry    Barnard. 

(Boston,  1897.) 
Educational  Labors    of  Henry   Barnard.     (Syracuse, 

1893.) 
Philbrick.     Labors  of  Henry  Barnard  in  Connecticut 

and    Rhode   Island.      Barnard's  American   Journal 

of  Education,  1856,  Vol.  I,  pp.  659-738. 

BARNES,    MARY  SHELDON.  —  Daughter 

of  Edward  Austin  Sheldon,  who  originated  the 
Oswego  movement,  was  born  at  Oswego,  N.Y., 
Sept.  15,  1850.  She  received  her  elemen- 
tary and  secondary  training  in  the  schools 
of  Oswego  and  the  Oswego  Normal  School,  and 
her  collegiate  education  at  the  University  of 
Michigan,  graduating  in  the  first  class  that 
admitted  women  to  that  institution.  She 
subse<iucntly  studied  at  Xewnham  College, 
Cambridge,  England,  and  at  the  University  of 
Ziirich.  She  was  professor  of  history  at  Welles- 
ley  College  from  1876  to  1880,  at  the  Oswego 
normal  school  from  1882  to  1884,  and  at  Stan- 
ford University  from  1891  to  1896.    She  married 


Professor  Earl  Barnes  in  1884,  and  devoted 
the  next  7  years  to  study  and  travel.  Mrs. 
Barnes  had  been  trained  in  the  Pestalozzian 
method  at  Oswego,  and  she  was  the  first  in 
America  to  apply  the  Pestalozzian  method 
to  the  teaching  of  history.  She  applied  the 
inductive  method  to  the  development  of  local 
historic  concepts  and  the  gradual  upbuilding  of 
the  historic  sense  by  means  of  objective  mate- 
rials. Her  Studies  in  General  History  and 
American  History,  with  the  teachers'  manuals 
accompanj-ing  the  same,  together  with  her 
Studies  in  the  Historical  Method,  give  the 
pedagogic  basis  of  her  method.  As  the  first 
American  teacher  to  develop  the  source  method 
of  historic  instruction,  and  thus  bring  her 
students  into  thoughtful  relation  with  historical 
realities,  she  was  a  pioneer.  In  addition  to 
the  works  already  referred  to,  she  was  the  author 
of  numerous  papers  on  the  study  of  local  his- 
tory and  the  development  of  the  historic  sense 
in  primitive  man  and  the  child.  She  died 
at  London,  England,  Aug.  27,  1898. 

W.  S.  M. 
Reference:  — ■ 
Monroe.  W.  S.    History  of  the  Pestalozzian  Movement  in 
the  United  States.      (.Syracuse,  1905.) 

BARNES'  TEACHERS'  MONTHLY.  —  See 

Educational  Journalism  in  America. 

BARRING  OUT  THE  TEACHER. —  A 

custom  common  in  earlier  times  in  Great  Brit- 
ain and  America,  and  not  unknown  in  other 
countries.  The  barricading  of  the  schoolroom 
against  the  teacher  seems  originally  to  have 
been  connected  with  the  observance  of  some 
holiday,  as  Shrove  Tuesday,  and  was  usually 
employed  by  the  pupils  to  enforce  customary 
rights  as  to  hohdays.  Frequently  it  came  to 
be  used  to  enforce  any  demands  which  the 
pupils  might  have  to  make,  or  even  as  a  form 
of  disapproval  in  general.  This  type  of  disturb- 
ance frequently  occurred  in  Scotch  schools 
from  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
often  a.ssumed  a  very  serious  character,  as,  for 
example,  in  1587,  when  after  a  barring-out  at 
the  Edinburgh  High  School  it  was  found  that 
the  scholars  had  provided  themselves  with  all 
kinds  of  firearms.  At  the  same  school  occurred 
a  barring-out  in  1595  which  resulted  in  the  fatal 
shooting  by  a  boy  of  one  of  the  city  officials 
whose  assistance  had  been  summoned. 

Charles  Hoole  (q.v.)  in  his  work  on  Scholas- 
tic Discipline,  published  in  1659,  discusses  the 
custom  at  length.  "  I  should  here  add  some- 
thing touching  these  usual  customs  which  are 
yet  on  foot  in  most  places,  of  scholars  excluding 
or  shutting  out  the  master  once  a  year,  and 
capitulating  with  him  about  orders  to  be  ob- 
served, or  the  like;  but  forasmuch  as  I  see  they 
differ  very  much,  and  are  of  late  discontinued 
in  many  schools,  I  will  only  mention  how  they 
may  be  carried  on,  where  they  yet  remain, 
without  any  contest  or  disturbance,  till  at  last 
they  die  of  themselves." 


325 


BARTLETT 


BASEBALL 


Hoole  then  states  six  rules  to  be  followed  by 
the  students,  stipulating  (1)  that  there  should 
be  uo  barring-out  until  after  St.  Andrew's  Day 
iq.v.);  (2)  that  the  scholars  behave  civiUy 
though  merrily  and  use  no  weapons  nor  injure 
one  another;  (3)  that  the  demands  be  formu- 
lated by  the  heads  of  each  class  and  preserved 
in  writing  through  tlie  highest  scholar;  (4)  that 
the  master  keep  aloof  during  the  conference  of 
the  pupils;  (5)  that  exercises  or  examples  of 
work  be  exposed  by  each  scholar  for  the  teacher; 
(6)  that  tlie  teacher  should  be  notified  and 
be  accompanied  by  parents  or  friends.  Hoole 
adds:  "  In  London  and  most  other  places,  the 
usual  manner  remaineth  of  breaking  up  schools 
(for  a  time  of  intermi.ssion  of  studies  and  visit- 
ing of  friends)  about  a  week  before  Christmas, 
Easter,  and  Whitsuntide,  till  the  week  following 
those  holy  days  begin,  at  which  time  every 
scholar  bringeth  something  to  the  master  as  a 
token  of  his  own  and  his  parents'  gratitude  for 
his  care  and  love  towards  him." 

Thus  our  school  holidays  seem  to  have  been 
established.  But  Hoole  also  pro\-ides  rules  for 
the  teacher,  requiring  him  among  other  things 
to  make  small  gifts  to  each  pupil  or  a  modest 
collation  as  an  acknowledgment  of  the  "cour- 
tesies" of  the  pupils. 

In  America  the  "barring-out"  came  to  be 
definitely  connected  with  the  latter  custom 
as  well  as  with  the  holidays,  and  was  adopted 
by  the  pupils  to  enforce  both  privileges. 
A  Virginia  schoolmaster  (see  Fithians'  Journal 
and  Letters,  p.  04)  writes  in  1774,  "  Mr.  Goodlet 
was  barred  out  of  his  school  last  Monday  by 
his  scholars,  for  Christmas  Holidays,  which 
are  to  continue  till  twelfth  day:  but  my  scholars 
are  of  a  more  cjuiet  nature,  and  have  consented 
to  have  four  or  five  days  now  and  to  have  their 
full  hohday  in  May  next,  when  I  propose  by 
permission  of  Providence  to  go  home."  During 
the  early  nmeteenth  century  barring-out  became 
a  recognized  test  of  authority  or  power  between 
pupils  and  master,  and  was  frequently  re- 
sorted to  early  in  the  term.  In  the  frontier 
states  it  was  a  test  to  which  every  schoolmaster 
must  submit,  as  in  a  way  he  was  on  examination 
for  fitness.  With  the  introduction  of  the 
woman  teacher  and  a  modern  conception  of 
education,  the  practice  disappeared.  Recent 
instances  of  "strikes"  among  college  and  high 
school  pupils  are  no  doubt  but  a  sur\'ival. 

See  Boy  Bishop. 

References  :  — 
Barnard.  11.     American  Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  16, 

p.  121  ;  Vol.   17,  p.  .3US  ;    Vol.  22,  p.  47.3. 
CARLISLE.      English  Endowtd  Schools.     (London,  1S18.) 
Edgeworth,  Maria.      Moral   Tales:  The  Barring-Out. 
EoOLESTON,  Edward.     The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster. 

BARTLETT,  SAMUEL  COLCORD  (1817- 
189S).  —  Educator,  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1836,  and  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inarj-  in  1842;  principal  of  secondary  school  in 
Vermont    (1836-1838);    professor   in    Western 


Reserve  College  (1846-1852)  and  in  the  Chicago 
Theological  Seminary  (1858-1877);  president 
of  Dartmouth  College  (1877-1892);  author  of 
several  theological  works.  W.  S.  M. 

BARTLETT,  WILLIAM  HOLMES  CHAM- 
BERS (1S04-1S93).  — Educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  Pennsylvania  and  at  the  \\'est  Point 
Military  Academy;  instructor  in  the  latter  in- 
stitution (1S34-1S71);  author  of  Elements  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  Treatise  on  Astroiiomij, 
Anahjticnl  Mechanics,  and  of  numerous  works 
on  acoustics  and  optics.  W.  S.  M. 

BARZIZZA,  GASPARINO  DA  (GASPARI- 

NUS  BARZIZroS).— Bornat  Barzizza  near  Ber- 
gamo about  1370,  died  1431.  He  is  celebrated 
as  a  collaborator  with  Petrarch,  a  commentator 
upon  the  De  Oratore,  De  Officiis,  De  Senecttde, 
Letters  and  Philippics  of  Cicero,  a  collector  of 
manuscripts,  a  teacher  successively  at  Pavia, 
Venice,  Padua,  Ferrara,  and  Milan.  His  .style 
of  Latin  was  elegant,  correct,  and  graceful,  not 
a  slavish  imitation  of  the  Ciceronian  mode. 
His  Book  of  Letters  had  the  distinction  of  being 
printed  in  1470  in  Paris,  being  thus  the  first  book 
turned  out  by  the  French  printing  press.  The 
main  interest  of  Barzizza  was  in  scholarship, 
but  his  teaching,  which  was  essentially  an  en- 
deavor to  naturalize  the  content  of  the  classical 
civilization  in  the  Italy  of  his  day,  appears  to 
have  been  as  influential  as  his  learning. 

P.  R.  C. 
References  :  — 
Barzizu's.      Epislolarum      liber,     de      Orthographia      et 

Punclualionc,  etc. 
Sandys.     History     of    Classical    Scholarship.     (Cam- 
bridge, 1903-1908.) 

BASAL  READERS.  —  Reading  books  de- 
signed for  teaching  beginners  to  read  during 
the  first  school  year.  Basal  readers  are  some- 
times spoken  of  as  "foundation  readers,"  or  as 
"beginning  readers."  These  usually  include 
the  "primer"  and  the  "first  reader."  They 
maybe  of  two  types:  (1)  "Method  readers," 
where  the  material  is  primarily  selected  with 
reference  to  phonetic  chfficulties,  so  that  the 
child  will  more  readily  acquire  the  independ- 
ent power  to  pronounce  words  from  the 
printed  page,  and  (2)  "Xon-method  readers," 
where  phonetic  and  diacritical  factors  are  quite 
subordinated  to  the  thought  of  the  material 
presented.  H.  S. 

See  Reading,  Teaching  of. 

BASAL  READING.  —  The  preliminary  drill 
in  the  mechanics  of  reading,  designed  to  be  a 
foundation  for  later  reading  in  which  thought 
and  feeling  rather  than  pronunciation  are  the 
conscious  factors.  Basal  reading  covers  the 
first  and  second  school  years,  more  particularly 
the  first. 


BASEBALL.  —  There  is  no  definite  evidence 
concerning  the  origin  of  baseball.     The  Eng- 


326 


BASEBALL 


BASEDOW 


lish  game  of  "rounders"  and  the  New  Eng- 
land game  of  "one  old  cat"  or  "  two  old  cat  " 
both  contributed  something  to  the  earliest  form 
of  baseball. 

Rounders  was  played  on  a  ground  shaped 
like  a  regular  pentagon  with  the  home  base  at 
one  angle  and  four  others  at  the  other  angles, 
perhaps  45  or  60  feet  apart  as  compared 
to  the  90  feet  in  baseball.  The  server  or 
pitcher  stood  in  the  center  and  tossed  the 
ball  to  the  batter,  who  stood  at  home  plate. 
There  used  to  be,  as  at  baseball,  one  side  out  in 
the  field  and  the  other  in  at  the  bat,  not  less  than 
10  players  nor  more  than  30  in  all.  The  ball 
was  tossed  by  the  pitcher  to  the  catcher; 
the  batsman  had  a  limited  number  of  chances 
to  hit  the  ball  out  of  reach  of  the  players  and  thus 
secure  his  base;  the  batsman  was  put  out  by 
failing  to  hit  the  ball  or  Ijy  getting  caught  be- 
tween bases.  In  all  these  points  rounders 
was  much  like  modern  baseball. 

Rounders  was  played  by  schoolboys  in  the 
United  States  until  it  was  gradually  displaced 
by  the  new  game  of  baseball.  The  first  crude 
games  of  baseball  were  played  in  Philadelphia 
and  New  York  about  1S40.  A  national  asso- 
ciation of  players  was  organized  in  1858,  but  the 
Civil  War  checked  furtlier  progress.  In  1865 
the  game  began  to  be  played  again,  and  de- 
veloped rapidly. 

The  first  college  game  of  baseball  was  played 
on  July  1,  1859,  at  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts, 
between  Amherst  and  Williams,  and  was  won  by 
Amherst,  73-32.  Other  colleges  soon  had 
baseball  teams,  and  in  1879  the  Intercollegiate 
Baseball  Association  was  organized,  including 
Harvard,  Princeton,  Brown,  Amherst,  and 
Dartmouth.  Since  that  time  the  game  has 
developed  to  such  proportions  that  nearly  every 
college  and  secondarj'  school  in  the  country 
has  one  or  more  teams,  and  a  majority  of  the 
boys  in  the  elementary  schools  play  the  game. 
In  New  York  City,  Springfield,  Massachusetts, 
and  a  number  of  other  cities,  there  are  regularly 
organized  leagues  of  grammar  school  baseball 
teams. 

Baseball  is  recognized  as  the  national  game 
of  the  United  States;  it  is  played  by  more 
individuals  and  for  a  longer  time  each  year 
than  any  other  game.  Considered  from  the 
standpoint  of  its  educational  value,  baseball  is 
the  best  game  in  general  use  in  our  educational 
institutions.  It  can  be  played  by  students  of 
all  ages,  from  the  elementary  school  to  the 
university;  it  affords  general,  varied,  and 
wholesome  exercise;  it  is  intensely  interesting; 
it  serves  to  develop  agihty,  quick  perception, 
judgment,  and  accuracy  ;  it  inculcates  valuable 
moral  habits,  such  as  cooperation,  obedience 
to  the  captain  and  umpire,  and  loyalty  to  the 
team  and  school.  Of  course,  the  educational 
value  of  baseball  is  dependent  upon  proper  in- 
struction and  regulation  to  insure  that  the  game 
be  played  according  to  tiie  rules  and  with  due 
regard  to  the  ethics  of  sport.     Without  proper 


supervision,  baseball  often  degenerates  into  a 
rough  game,  physically  dangerous  and  morally 
injurious  to  the  plaj'ers. 

The  regulation  ground  requires  a  smooth 
field,  at  least  350  feet  square  exclusive  of  the 
space  for  grand  stands.  The  home  base  is 
located  90  feet  from  the  back  stop  at  the  end 
of  the  field,  and  constitutes  one  corner  of  the 
"diamond";  the  sides  of  the  "diamond"  are 
90  feet  long  and  serve  as  base  lines.  The 
distance  from  home  base  along  the  base  lines 
and  through  the  center  of  the  diamond  to  the 
nearest  fence  should  be  at  least  235  feet. 

When  a  baseball  field  is  to  be  used  by  boys 
under  16  years,  the  length  of  the  base  lines 
should  be  reduced  from  the  regulation  90  feet 
to  about  75  feet. 

The  difficulty  of  finding  vacant  land  large 
enough  for  baseball  grounds  in  cities  has  led  to 
modification  of  the  game  on  city  playgrounds. 
The  modified  game  is  called  playground  ball,  and 
is  played  successfully  on  small  areas,  so  that 
three  or  four  games  may  be  carried  on  simulta- 
neously on  a  ground  barely  large  enough  for  one 
game  of  regular  baseball.  The  essential  modi- 
fication is  in  the  ball,  which  is  made  larger  and 
softer  than  the  regular  baseball,  thus  greatly 
lessening  the  distance  that  it  can  be  batted  and 
thrown.  The  base  lines  are  decreased  in  propor- 
tion. 

A  similar  modification  of  baseball  has  been 
made  to  adapt  the  game  to  gj'mnasium  floors  in- 
doors. The  use  of  a  large  soft  ball  and  a  small 
bat,  and  a  rule  requiring  that  the  ball  be  tossed 
instead  of  thrown,  alter  the  game  sufficiently  to 
make  it  perfectly  safe  in  the  gymnasium,  while 
retaining  the  essential  features  of  baseball. 
This  modification  of  baseball  has  made  it  a 
most  valuable  and  fascinating  game  for  girls. 
It  is  played  by  girls  in  the  gymnasium  and  out  of 
doors  in  many  schools  and  colleges,  and  is  grow- 
ing in  popularity  every  year.  G.  L.  M. 

References  :  — 

Baseball  Rules,  published  annually.  (American  Sports 
Pub.  Co.,  New  York.) 

Chadwick,  Henry.  Baseball  in  the  Colleges.  Outing, 
August,    188S. 

Church,   S.   R.     Baseball.     (San  Francisco,   1902.) 

Eckel,  .John  C,  and  Connelly,  Frank.  The  Univer- 
sal Baseball  Guide.     (New  York,  IJSOO.) 

McGiLLicuDDY,  C.  How  to  Play  Baseball.  (New  York, 
1902.) 

Ward,  John  M.  Origin  and  History  of  Baseball. 
(Athletic  Pub.  Co.,  Philadelphia,  18S9.) 

BASEDOW,  JOHANN  HEINRICH  (1724- 
1790).  —  Prominent,  educational  reformer.  He 
was  born  in  Hamburg,  the  son  of  a  wigmaker. 
Both  parents  were  of  a  gloomy  temperament; 
the  mother  died  in  a  fit  of  insanity.  At  the  age 
of  18  he  ran  away  from  home  and  found  refuge 
in  the  house  of  a  physician.  After  about  a 
year  he  returned  to  Hamburg  and  continued 
"his  education  at  the  gymnasium  (1743-1746). 
He  then  spent  two  years  at  the  University  of 
Leipzig,  after  which  he  accepted  a  position  as 
tutor.     He  entered  upon  this  work  with  great 


327 


BASEDOW 


BASEL 


enthusiasm,  and  his  methods,  which  were  based 
on  the  principles  of  Locke  and  Comenius,  were 
very  successful.  He  discarded  memorizing, 
made  much  use  of  common  objects,  and  taught 
Latin  in  an  easy  conversational  way.  In  1753 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  ethics  and  litera- 
ture at  the  Danish  Academy  in  Soroe.  His 
unorthodox  religious  opinions  caused  his  trans- 
fer to  the  gymnasium  in  Altona  (1761).  There 
he  i.ssucil  a  number  of  theological  pamphlets, 
wliich  still  further  drew  upon  him  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  orthodox  party. 

Stimulated  by  the  interest  in  education 
which  had  byen  excited  by  the  appearance  of 
Rousseau's  Emile,  he  resolved  to  become  an 
educational  reformer,  and,  in  1768,  i.ssued  his 
Vorslellung  an  Menschenfreunde  und  vermogende 
Manner  ilber  Schulen,  Studien  und  ihren  Ein- 
fluss  in  die  offcntliche  Wohlfahrt  (Appeal 
to  the  Friends  of  Humanity  and  Men  of  Mea7is, 
on  Schools,  on  Siudics,  and  their  Influence  on 
Public  Welfare).  In  this  he  developed  the 
plan  of  a  national  school  system  with  reformed 
methods  of  instruction.  As  he  considered  the 
preparation  of  appropriate  textbooks,  which  did 
not  yet  exist,  to  be  the  first  ^ep  toward  a  really 
efficient  reform  of  education,  he  projjosed  the 
publication  of  an  Elementary  Book,  which 
should  contain  the  whole  subject  matter  to  be 
used  in  the  instruction  of  children.  The  cost  of 
publication  of  this  work  was  to  be  defrayed  by 
popular  subscription.  The  success  of  this  appeal 
was  phenomenal;  nothing  since  the  time  of 
Luther's  address  to  the  German  cities  had 
stirred  up  the  nation  to  such  an  active  interest 
in  education.  Money  poured  in  from  all  sides, 
and  the  work  appeared  in  1770,  preceded  by  a 
Methodenbuch  fur  Vater  und  Mutter  der 
Familien  und  Volker  (Book  of  Methods  for 
Fathers  and  Mothers  of  Families  and  Nations). 
The  Elementarwerk  was  afterwards  (1774) 
revised  and  enlarged  to  4  volumes,  illustrated 
by  100  plates,  thus  forming  a  work  analogous 
to  the  Orbis  Pictus  of  Comenius.  At  the  same 
time  Basedow  was  given  the  opportunity 
to  put  his  reform  ideas  into  operation.  At 
Dessau,  where  he  had  been  called  by  Prince 
Leopold  of  Anhalt-Dessau,  he  established  an 
institution  for  the  education  of  boys  of  wealthy 
families  and  for  the  training  of  teachers.  The 
institution,  which  he  called  the  Philanthropi- 
num,  was  opened  in  1774.  It  was  not  successful. 
Basedow,  although  splendid  as  a  pedagogic 
writer  and  agitator,  not  only  lacked  teach- 
ing experience  and  organizing  ability,  but  his 
irascible  temper  made  it  impossible  for  him 
to  work  with  others.  In  177S  he  withdrew 
from  the  management,  and,  for  a  time,  turned 
again  to  theological  writing.  The  last  five  years 
of  his  life  he  spent  partly  in  Dessau  and  partly 
in  Magdeburg,  where  he  taught  in  a  small 
school  in  order  to  test  a  new  method  of  teaching 
reading  which  he  had  invented. 

Basedow's  character  has  often  been  harshly 
judged,  especially  by  the  opponents  of  his  reli- 


gious and  educational  \'iews.  Suffering  from  a 
hereditary  taint  and  from  the  vulgar  associations 
of  his  youth,  he  totally  lacked  tact  and  social 
grace.  At  times,  especially  when  under  nervous 
strain  caused  by  his  erratic  methods  of  work, 
he  was  intemperate.  It  is  also  true  that  much 
of  his  writing  reads  hke  that  of  a  charlatan. 
Nevertheless  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  his  zeal 
for  the  cause  of  education  was  sincere,  although 
he  was  often  carried  away  by  his  own  enthu- 
siasm. Had  he  been  an  imposter,  he  could  never 
have  earned  the  approbation  of  such  men  as 
Kant,  jMendelssohn,  and  even  Goethe.  Among 
the  reforms  of  education  which  are  more  or  less 
directly  due  to  Philanthropinism,  the  movement 
headed  by  Basedow,  the  following  may  be 
mentioned:  the  emphasis  on  jileasuralile  in- 
terest in  teaching;  on  realistic  instruction;  on 
object  teaching,  and  nature  study;  on  physical 
education;  the  improvenent  of  textbooks;  the 
creation  of  a  new  htcrature  designed  for  chil- 
dren; and  the  conversational  method  in  the 
teaching  of  foreign  languages.  F.  M. 

See  Philanthropinism. 

References:  — 

B.iRN.vRn,   H.     German  Educational  Reformers.     (New 

York.  1863.) 
Basedow,  J.   B.     Avsgewahlte  Schriften  mil  Basedow's 

Biographie,    Einleitungen     iuid    Anmcrkungcn,     in 

Bihlioihek  PSdagogischcr  Klassikcr.     (Lungeusalza, 

KSSO.) 
DiESTELMANN.     Boscdow,  in  Grosse  Erzieher.     (Leipzig, 

1S97.) 
Garboviciantj,    p.     Die    Didaktik  Basedows   im    Ver- 

glciche   zur   Didaktik  des   Comenius.     (Bucharest, 

1S87.) 
GiJRiNG,  H.     Johann  Bemhard  Basedows  Pddngogische 

Schriften,   in    Bihliothek    Padagogischer  Klassiker. 

(Langensalza,    18S0.) 
L.\NG.    O.    H.     Basedow,  His  Life    and  Work.     (New 

York,  1891.) 
PiNLOCHE,  A.     La  Reforme  de  V Education  en  Allemagne 

au  IS^me   Siecle.     Basedow  et  le  Phitantfiropinism. 

(Paris,   1889  ;  Leipzig.   1896.) 
Quick,  R.  H.     Essays  on  Educational  Reformers.     (New 

York,  1890.) 
ScHMiD,  K.  A.      Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  1898  ;  Vol.  4, 

Pt.  2.      (Stuttgart,  1898.) 

BASEL,  SWITZERLAND,  THE  UNIVER- 
SITY OF.  —  Established  in  1400,  having 
been  authorized  by  a  papal  bull  in  the  previous 
year.  The  original  suggestion  for  its  founda- 
.tion  came  from  the  citizens  themselves,  whose 
wishes  were  fulfilled  by  Pope  Pius  II.  Among 
its  early  teachers  were  the  celebrated  preacher 
Johann  Geiler  von  Kaisersberg  and  Sebastian 
Brant,  author  of  the  famous  Ship  of  Fools. 
The  university  played  a  prominent  role  during 
and  immediately  after  the  Protestant  reforma- 
tion, Erasmus  (q.v.)  having  joined  the  theo- 
logical faculty  in  1520  and  CEcolampadius 
three  years  later,  the  second  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century  being  the  period  of  its  greatest 
renown.  During  the  second  half  of  the  follow- 
ing century  the  institution  entered  upon  a  period 
of  stagnation,  but  in  the  eighteenth  century 
it  received  a  new  lease  of  life,  largely  through 
the  work  of  the  mathematicians  Bernoulli  and 


328 


BASEMENT  IN   SCHOOLHOUSE 


BASIL 


Euler  (q.v.).  Basel  is  still  regarded  as  one 
of  the  main  bulwarks  of  Protestant  theology 
in  Switzerland.  The  university  comprises  the 
four  traditional  faculties  of  theology,  law, 
medicine,  and  philosophy,  the  last-mentioned 
containing  the  customary  philological-historical 
and  mathematical-scientific  groups.  The  Ger- 
man language  serves  as  the  medium  of  instruc- 
tion. The  hbrary  contains  over  250,000  vol- 
umes, as  well  as  1500  manuscripts.  The  canton 
appropriates  about  .SS5,000  to  the  university  an- 
nually, the  income-bearing  funds  of  the  institu- 
tion being  valued  at  approximately  .1300,000. 
Basel  attracted  782  students  in  the  winter  sem- 
ester of  1909-1910,  of  whom  more  than  half  were 
enrolled  in  the  faculty  of  philosophy.        R.  T. 

BASEMENT    IN    SCHOOLHOUSE.  —  See 

Architecture,  School. 

BASHFULNESS.  —  Sometimes  described  as 
an  instinct,  closely  related  in  character  to  fear. 
It  appears  especially  in  children,  sometimes 
passing  through  several  periods  of  varjdng 
intensity.  It  consists  in  an  inhibition  of  vol- 
untary acti^^ty,  a  heightening  of  the  general 
muscular  tension,  and  a  disposition  to  retreat 
from  social  notice.  It  is  opposed  in  character 
to  what  is  sometimes  called  the  social  instinct. 

See  Instinct  and  E.motional  Expression. 

BASIL,  THE  GREAT,  BISHOP  OF  C^S- 
AREA.  —  The  founder  of  monasticism,  who, 
with  Gregory  of  Nyssa  (q.v.),  his  brother,  and 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus  (q.v.),  his  intimate  friend 
and  schoolfellow,  make  up  the  group  of  theo- 
logians known  among  the  Fathers  as  the  "three 
great  Cappadocians."  Basil  was  probably 
born  in  the  year  329  at  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia, 
where  his  father,  Basil  the  elder,  was  a  success- 
ful teacher  of  rhetoric.  The  early  education 
of  Basil  was  intrusted  to  his  grandmother,  the 
saintly  Macrina,  one  of  the  women  of  the  Church 
to  be  grouped  with  Monica,  and  in  this  Macrina 
followed  the  educational  precepts  of  Gregory 
Thaumaturgus  (q.v.).  As  a  young  man  Basil 
studied  first  with  his  father  and  afterwards  at 
Athens,  where  his  companions  were  Gregorj'  of 
Nazianzus,  and  for  a  time  the  future  emperor 
Julian,  with  whom  he  was  for  some  years  on  terms 
of  friendship.  After  spending  several  years  at 
Athens,  Basil  returned  to  Csesarea,  where  he  prac- 
ticed the  profession  of  an  instructor  in  rhetoric 
with  .success,  and  also  undertook  the  education 
of  boys.  In  all  this  his  experience  was  strik- 
ingly unlike  that  of  St.  Augustine.  Throughout 
this  trying  period  in  his  hfe  he  remained  a  pure 
and  upright  man.  When,  therefore,  he  under- 
went his  "conversion,"  whereby,  encouraged  by 
his  mother  and  sister,  he  gave  up  the  life  of  a 
rhetorician,  with  its  temptations  of  pride  and 
vanity,  to  embrace  the  monastic  hfe,  he  never 
adopted  the  pessimistic  position  of  Augustine. 
As  yet,  however,  the  monastic  hfe  was  hardly 


organized  in  the  Church,  though  ascetism  was 
in  high  esteem  as  a  means  of  attaining  Christian 
perfection.  The  solitary  monks  of  Egypt  had, 
indeed,  gradually  gathered  in  communities,  but 
the  hermit  life  was  the  only  form  of  asceticism 
then  known  in  Asia  Minor.  Basil  saw  the  de- 
fect of  a  system  which  aimed  at  Christian  per- 
fection and  yet  by  isolation  rendered  impossible 
the  highest  virtues,  which  were  social  in  their 
nature.  The  community  life  was  therefore  his 
ideal.  In  the  developed  form  of  his  rule,  which 
remains  as  the  general  rule  throughout  the 
East,  the  monasteries  were  organized  as  self- 
supporting  societies,  in  many  respects  similar  to 
the  Benedictine  monasteries  of  a  later  period  in 
the  West.  Basil  did  not  remain  a  monk  many 
years,  for  he  was  ordained  presbyter  in  364,  and 
served  as  the  coadjutor  to  Eusebius,  Bishop 
of  Caesarea.  He  succeeded  to  that  see  in 
370,  and  remained  there  for  the  rest  of  his  life, 
and  in  this  position  became  the  leading  cham- 
pion of  the  Nicene  party.  He  died  in  379  at 
the  early  age  of  50,  worn  out  by  his  labors 
and  his  austerities,  which  had  early  undermined 
his  health. 

Basil's  place  in  the  history  of  pedagogy  is 
assured  not  only  by  his  very  extensive  institu- 
tional work,  but  still  more  by  two  works,  his  rules 
for  monks  and  his  homily  on  the  use  of  pagan 
literature  (Oratio  ad  Adolescentes,  Horn.  XXII). 
The  first  were  notable  not  merely  for  wise  in- 
sight into  the  conditions  of  moral  training,  for 
the  monastic  system  in  the  Church  has  always 
been  a  system  of  higher  moral  training  to 
which  those  who  aimed  at  Christian  perfection 
submitted  themselves,  but  also  the  place  in 
that  system  of  the  education  of  the  young 
children  given  by  parents  to  the  monasteries  or 
received  as  orphans.  The  monastery  school 
arose  as  a  pro^dsion  for  these  children  in  the 
East,  and  became,  as  in  the  West,  a  part  of  the 
monastic  establishment.  The  point  of  most 
interest  in  these  rules  concerning  education  of 
children  in  the  monasteries  is  the  conception  of 
the  method  and  purpose  of  punishment.  There 
should  be  some  rational  connection  between  an 
offense  and  its  punishment,  which  should  be 
more  than  suffering  inflicted  for  wrong-doing. 
It  should  be  an  exercise  in  the  opposite  virtue. 
The  child  that  injured  another  should  seek 
the  forgiveness  of  the  child  wronged  and  seek 
to  perform  acts  of  kindness  for  him ;  the  greedy 
child  should  be  punished  by  being  deprived  of 
a  portion  of  his  food;  the  evil  speaker  should 
be  sentenced  to  a  period  of  silence.  In  his 
attitude  toward  heathen  literature  Basil  took 
the  position  that  there  was  benefit  to  be  gained 
from  the  study  of  all  kinds  of  writings.  There 
was  much  in  the  heathen  writers  offensive  to 
believers  in  Christianity,  and  much  that  was 
bad  morally.  But  we  must  not  take  things  in- 
discriminately, but  rather  only  what  is  profit- 
able. It  would  be  shameful  for  us  who  in  the 
case  of  food  reject  the  injurious,  to  take,  in  the 
case  of  studies,  no  account  of  what  keeps  the 


329 


BASKERVILLE 


BASKETBALL 


soul  alive,  but  like  mountain  streams  to  sweep 
in  everything  that  happens  to  be  in  our  way. 
With  this  spirit  Basil  could  find  much  moral 
instruction  even  in  myths,  which  to  a  mind  less 
liberally  trained  or  of  a  more  literal  turn  of 
thought  were  offensive.  This  position,  which  is 
to-day  self-evident,  was  liy  no  means  so  at  a  time 
when  Christianity  was  still  standing  opposed  to 
a  heathenism  which,  in  sjiite  of  the  existence  of 
many  heathen  of  high  character  and  noble  lives, 
was  not  unjustly  associated  with  what  was 
most  corrupt  in  the  life  of  the  times. 

J.  C.  A.  Jr. 
References:  — 
Allari),  p.      si.  Basile.      (Paris,  1899.) 
BoHRiNGER.     Die  Kirche  Christi  und  ilire  Zctigeii  oder 

die  Kirehengeschichte    in  Biographieen,  1   Aut\.  Hd. 

VII.      Die      drei     Kappadoeier.      1.   Basilius     von 

Caeaarea.     (Stuttgart,   1875.) 
F.\RRAR.     Lires  of  Ihe  Fathers,  Vol.   II,   1SS9,   and   tlie 

various  Lives  of  ,Saint.«. 
Garnier    and    Maran.      Basilii   Opera,    3    vols,    folio. 

(Paris,1721-1730;     and    1N39.) 
MiRNE.     Palrologia  Grarn.  Voh.  29-32.      (Paris,  IS.")?.) 
ScHAFF   and   Wace.     Niccne   and   Post-Nicene   Fathers, 

Vol.   8,   with    Prolegomena  by  Bloomfield   Jackson; 

the  best  work  in  Ens^lish.      (New  York,  1895.) 
Smith,  R.  T.      .S^  i?asi7  ^/jc  Grro/,  in  the  series  of  Fathers 

for  English  Readers,  S.  P.  C.  K. 
Venables.     Dictionary    of    Christian    Biography,    art. 

"  Basilius  of  Ca3sarea. " 
Sec  also  the  various  Church    Histories  of    Neander, 

Schrockh.  Dupin,  and  others,  and  various  Lives  of 

Saints. 

BASKERVILLE,       WILLIAM        MALONE 

(1850-1S99). —  Educator  ami  author;  educated 
at  Randolph-Macon  College  and  the  Univcnsity 
of  Leipzig;  professor  in  Wofford  College  and 
Vanderbilt  University;  author  ol  Higher  Educa- 
tion of  Women  and  of  numerous  English  texts. 

W.  S.  M. 

BASKETBALL.  —  The  history  of  the  origin 
and  development  of  basketball  is  radically  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  other  games.  Most  of  our 
popular  games,  like  basketball,  footliall,  and 
cricket,  were  developed  gradually  over  periods 
of  scores  or  hundreds  of  years.  Not  so  with 
basketball,  which  was  invented  in  1891  and  in 
less  than  three  years  had  become  the  national 
indoor  game  of  America.  The  circumstances  at- 
tending the  invention  of  this  game  explain  to 
some  extent  its  remarkable  success.  Dr.  Luther 
Halsey  Gulick  told  liis  class  in  philosophy  of 
physical  training  at  the  Springfield  Y.M.C.A. 
Training  School  that  a  real  need  existed  for  an 
indoor  game  having  the  following  characteris- 
tics: (1)  Vigorous  enough  to  develop  general 
organic  vigor.  (2)  Suitable  for  gymnasiums 
of  different  size  and  proportions.  (,3)  One  that 
should  not  necessitate  elaborate  and  expen- 
sive equipment  for  the  game  or  players.  (4) 
Simple  enough  to  be  played  by  individuals 
not  endowed  with  unusual  size,  strength,  and 
skill.  (5)  It  should  be  interesting.  Dr.  Gulick 
requested  his  students  to  submit  games  em- 
bodying these  characteristics.  Mr.  (now  Dr.) 
James  Naismith  submitted  the  game  of  basket- 


ball. The  game  was  tried  by  the  students  in 
the  Training  School  with  very  satisfactory 
results. 

The  main  features  of  basketliall  as  first  worked 
out  by  Mr.  Naismith  have  been  retained,  al- 
though many  changes  and  additions  in  minor 
details  have  been  introduced  from  time  to  time. 
In  the  beginning  the  game  was  plaj'cd  with 
9  on  a  side;  a  little  later  the  nundjer 
was  reduced  to  7,  and  later  to  5.  The 
growth  of  interest  in  basketball  has  been  phe- 
nomenal. For  two  or  three  years,  the  game  was 
played  almost  exclusively  in  the  gymnasiums 
of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association;  it 
■was  then  taken  up  by  the  colleges,  schools, 
and  athletic  clubs,  and  before  1900  was  played 
in  nearly  every  gymnasium  in  the  country. 

There  are  many  good  indoor  games  in  use  in 
connection  with  the  ])hysical  activities  of  our 
schools  and  colleges,  but  basketball  is  played 
more  than  all  other  indoor  games  together,  and 
is  by  far  the  most  popular.  This  great  jiopular- 
ity  is  justified  because  basketball  combines 
many  important  educational  advantages.  As 
an  exercise  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  for 
developing  organic  vigor  of  heart  and  lungs, 
agility,  bodily  control,  and  endurance;  as  a  game 
it  affords  admirable  training  in  self-control, 
judgment,  cooperation,  obedience,  and  loyalty; 
as  a  means  of  recreation  it  is  fascinating. 
Besides  all  these  positive  advantages  of  the 
game  itself,  basketball  is  a  most  valuable 
game  because  it  is  adapted  to  boys  and  girls  of 
all  ages;  it  is  so  simjile  that  players  enjoy  it 
from  the  beginning;  it  may  be  played  in  a  gym- 
nasium of  any  size  or  shape,  and  is  also  a  good 
outdoor  game;  and  it  rccjuires  less  parapher- 
nalia for  the  game  and  the  players  than  any 
other  game. 

There  are  dangers  in  basketball  when  the 
game  is  not  properly  regulated.  The  game  is  so 
fascinating  that  players  are  tempted  to  play 
until  overfatigued;  students  whose  hearts  are 
weak  or  who  are  untrained  should  be  cautioned 
and  supervised  most  carefully  if  allowed  to  play 
at  all.  RLany  cases  of  heart  strain  and  impaired 
health  have  resulted  from  unregulated  basket- 
ball. The  game  is  so  exciting  that  it  easily 
degenerates  into  a  rough  and  tumble  fight  for 
the  ball,  if  not  carefully  regulated.  Students 
should  never  be  permitted  to  play  basketball 
without  an  umpire  to  direct  the  game  and  en- 
force the  rules. 

College  men  play  basketball  -with  5  players 
on  a  side,  and  the  players  are  allowed  to  run  all 
over  the  court.  Many  of  the  leading  directors 
of  physical  education  consider  this  game  too 
violent  for  girls  and  women.  In  order  to  meet 
this  objection,  Dr.  Dudley  Allen  Sargent  modi- 
fied the  game  by  dividing  the  court  into  three 
eciual  parts  and  limiting  the  activity  of  each 
player  to  one  third  of  the  court.  The  modi- 
fied game  is  usually  played  with  9  on  a  side 
though  it  may  be  played  with  7  or  even 
5  on  a  side.     The  rules  are  the  same  as  in  the 


330 


BASKETRY 


BATES  COLLEGE 


men's  game,  except  that  the  players  are  re- 
quired to  remain  in  one  section  of  the  court,  and 
the  rules  governing  rough  playing  are  more 
severe.  The  result  of  these  modifications  is  a 
less  strenuous  game,  much  better  adapted  to  girls 
and  women  than  the  regular  game  as  played 
by  men.  G.  L.  M. 

References:  — 

Basketball  Rules.    Published  Annually,  American  Sports 

Co.,  New  York. 
Browne,   T.  J.      History  and  Philosophy  of  Basketball. 

Spalding's  Athletic  Lilirary,  Vol.  VIII.  ISnS. 
GuLiCK,  L.   H.     Basketball.     Physical  Education,  Vol. 

4,  p.  120. 
Hepbdkn,  G.  T.     How  to  Play  Basketball.     American 

Sports  Co.     (New  York,  1904.) 

BASKETRY.  —  See      Textiles,      in     the 

Schools. 

BAT  A  VIA  SYSTEM.  —A  name  for  an  idea 
worked  out,  within  recent  years,  by  Superin- 
tendent John  Kennedy,  of  Batavda,  N.Y., 
and  having  for  its  purpose  the  improvement 
of  instruction  in  the  public  schools.  In  Ba- 
tavia  it  has  been  put  into  practice  in  both  the 
elementary  schools  and  the  high  school.  The 
idea  has  awakened  much  interest;  hundreds 
of  superintendents,  principals,  and  teachers 
have  visited  Batavia  to  inspect  the  schools  and 
to  examine  into  the  workings  of  the  system ;  and 
the  idea  or  plan  has  been  adopted  by  a  number 
of  cities  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States, 
from  Maine  to  California.  The  essential  fea- 
tures of  the  plan  are  based  on  the  behef  that  too 
much  time  has  heretofore  been  given  to  whole- 
sale recitation  work;  that  both  the  brighter 
and  the  poorer  children  in  the  class  have  been 
unnecessarily  sacrificed  to  the  class  system ;  and 
that  the  strain  on  teachers  has  been  too  great.  In 
the  working  out  of  this  idea  the  remedy  adopted 
has  been  to  have  but  one  class  to  the  room,  un- 
less there  are  more  than  50  children,  in  which 
case  there  are  two  classes  and  two  teachers;  to 
give  each  teacher  half  of  her  time  each  day  free 
from  recitation  work,  to  use  in  watching  the 
pupils  in  their  studies,  and  helping  where  help 
is  needed;  and  in  case  a  second  teacher  is  added 
to  a  room,  such  teacher  is  not  an  inexperienced 
beginner,  but  an  old  and  a  successful  teacher. 
A  decrease  in  the  amount  of  class  recitation  work 
and  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  individual 
study  and  individual  assistance  are  the  central 
features  of  the  plan.  It  is  claimed  for  the  plan 
that  pupils  working  under  it  become  more  in- 
dependent workers  and  make  better  individual 
progre.ss.  The  idea  is  much  like  the  "  Pueblo 
Plan,"  inaugurated  some  fifteen  years  ago 
at  Pueblo,  Col.  On  the  other  hand,  cer- 
tain olijections  to  the  plan  are  found  by  some 
teachers,  on  the  ground  that  the  pupils  miss 
the  helpful  stimulus  that  comes  from  group 
work  under  a  strong,  sympathetic  teacher;  that 
bright  pupils  are  neglected  under  this  system 
for  dull  pupils;  ami  that  the  plan  tends  to- 
ward average  results  even  more  than  the  grade 


system.  Advocates  of  the  Batavia  plan  con- 
tend that,  on  the  contrary,  the  exact  opposite 
of  these  contentions  is  a  marked  feature  of  the 
plan.  The  success  of  the  Batavia  idea,  where 
tried,  would  indicate  a  wide  field  of  usefulness 
for  it,  despite  certam  obvious  limitations. 

Batavia  is  a  city  of  9180  inhabitants,  ac- 
cording to  the  census  of  1900,  and  an  estimated 
population  in  1908  of  10,774.  The  city  em- 
ployed 52  regular  teachers  and  3  supervisors  in 
1907-1908,  maintained  187  days  of  school,  and 
had  a  total  enrollment  of  1624  pupils  in  all  of 
its  schools.  E.  P.  C. 

BATEMAN,  NEWTON.  —  Educator,  born 
at  Fairton,  N.J.,  July  27,  1822;  educated  in 
the  public  schools  of  New  Jersey  and  at  Illi- 
nois College  and  Lane  Theological  Seminary; 
principal  of  school  at  St.  Louis  (1845-1846); 
professor  in  St.  Charles  College,  Missouri, 
from  1847  to  1851;  principal  of  Female  College 
at  Jacksonville,  111.  (1851-1857);  state  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  in  Illinois  from 
1858  to  1870;  president  of  Knox  College 
(1875-1893);  active  in  the  educational  organ- 
izations of  lUinois;  died  at  Galesburg,  111., 
Oct.  21,  1897.  W.  S.  M. 

BATES  COLLEGE,  LEWISTON,   MAINE. 

—  A  uonsectarian,  coeducational  institution, 
chartered  in  1864,  as  the  result  of  a  petition  in 
1862  of  16  students  in  the  Maine  State  Semi- 
nary, who  wished  collegiate  instruction  from  that 
institution.  The  Maine  State  Seminary  was 
established  in  1855  to  replace  the  Parsonsfield 
Seminary,  destroyed  by  fire.  Through  the 
efforts  of  Oren  B.  Cheney  and  Ebenezer 
Knoulton,  Baptist  clergymen,  it  was  granted 
aid  by  the  state  legislature.  At  its  beginning, 
the  seminary  was  independent  of  church  con- 
trol and  without  denominational  restrictions. 
In  1862,  Benjamin  E.  Bates,  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  city  of  Lewiston,  gave  $25,000  to  establish 
the  college  petitioned  for,  with  a  further  gift 
of  §75,000  in  1863.  The  charter  organized  a 
governing  board  consisting  of  a  Board  of  Fel- 
lows and  a  Board  of  Overseers,  with  several  seats 
in  the  latter  board  to  be  filled  upon  nomination 
of  the  alumni;  this  bicameral  arrangement 
closely  follows  that  of  Bowdoin  College,  which, 
in  turn,  was  modeled  upon  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. In  1891,  at  the  request  of  President 
Cheney,  the  legislature  amended  the  charter  by 
prescribing  that  the  president  and  a  majority  of 
both  boards  should  be  members  of  the  Free 
Baptist  denomination;  in  1907,  again  at  the 
request  of  the  college,  this  amendment  was  re- 
pealed and  Bates  College  was  accepted  by 
the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Teaching  (q.v.)  as  a  nonsectarian 
institution  participating  in  its  system  of  re- 
tiring allowances  to  professors.  From  its  in- 
ception, the  college  has  accepted  women  stu- 
dents, thus  (as  it  claims)  beginning  on  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  the  movement  for  the  higher 


331 


BATES 


BATHS 


education  of  woinon.  Bates  College  has  kept 
characteristics  due  to  its  history  and  the  cir- 
cumstances of  its  founding;  fraternities  are 
prohibited;  no  one  "can  be  a  member  of  the 
college  without  taking  and  keeping  a  pledge  to 
abstain  from  alcoholic  drinks;"  the  necessary 
expenses  are  low  (S206  a  year),  and  many  of 
the  students  are  self-supporting.  The  old 
New  England  custom  is  kept  of  encourag- 
ing needy  students  to  teach  during  part  of  the 
year.  There  are  many  scholarships.  Degrees 
given  are  A.B.,  and  M.A.  to  graduates  of  at  least 
three  years'  standing.  The  Cobb  Divinity 
School,  after  38  years  of  existence  as  a  depart- 
ment, was  discontinued  in  1908.  There  are 
11  buildings  valued,  with  grounds  and 
equipment,  at  $425,000.  The  resources  have 
doubled  within  the  past  four  years,  largely 
through  the  benefactions  of  Mr.  Andrew 
Carnegie  and  of  Mr.  Bartlett  Doe,  late  of  San 
Francisco.  The  net  income  for  the  fiscid  year 
1908  was  .'547,525;  gifts  from  private  sources 
amounted  to  866,982.  The  average  salary  of 
a  professor  is  $1480.  There  are  (1910)  461 
students,  and  22  members  on  the  instructing 
staff,  of  whom  16  are  full  professors.  George 
C.  Chase,  D.D.,  LL.D.  is  president.         C.  G. 

BATES,  JOSHUA  (1776-1854).  —  Gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1800;  instructor 
in  Phillips  Academy  at  Andover  (1800-1803), 
and  president  of  Middlebury  (Vt.)  College 
(1818-1839). 

BATES,  JOSHUA,  (1810-1888).  —  Edu- 
cated at  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  and 
Middlebury  (Vt.)  College;  principal  of  the 
schools  at  Charlestown,  Mass.  (1833-1844), 
and  of  the  Brimmer  School  in  Boston  (1844- 
1876). 

BATES,  SAMUEL  PENNIMAN  (1827- 
1902).  —  Educator  and  author,  educated  in 
the  public  schools  of  Massachusetts,  at  the 
Worcester  Academy,  and  at  Brown  University; 
principal  of  Academy  at  Mead\nlle  (1851-1857); 
superintendent  of  schools  in  Crawford  County, 
Pa.  (1857-1860);  deputy  state  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction  in  Pennsvlvania 
(1860-1866);  author  of  Liheral  Education, 
Methods  of  Teachers'  Instilides,  History  of 
Colleges  in  Pennsylvania,  and  of  numerous  his- 
torical works.  W.  S.  M. 

BATHS.  —  For  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury baths  have  been  a  regular  part  of  the  equip- 
ment of  modern  .school  buildings  in  Europe, 
and  they  have  long  since  passed  the  experi- 
mental stage  in  some  American  cities.  But 
their  general  introduction  into  schools  has  been 
delayed  longer  than  could  have  been  antici- 
pated. This  tardy  recognition  is  due  partly 
to  the  fact  that  home  facilities  for  baths 
are  better  and  more  generally  found  here  than 
in   Europe,   and   partly  to  the  fact  that   our 


general  governmental  attitude  is  less  paternal. 
But  in  the  crowded  centers  of  large  cities  con- 
ditions have  rapidly  become  so  bad  that  school 
and  general  municipal  baths  have  become  ne- 
cessities for  the  sake  of  the  pul)lic  welfare.  Out- 
side the  large  cities  comparatively  little  progress 
has  been  made  in  supplying  bathing  facilities 
in  grammar  schools.  But  the  larger  and  better 
buildings  for  high  schools  are  now  being  gen- 
erally equipped  with  baths.  The  demand, 
however,  has  come  in  connection  with  the  de- 
velopment of  athletics,  and  physical  training 
in  gymnastics.  Football,  track  work,  tennis, 
and  such  vigorous  sports,  together  with  more 
systematic  gymnastic  work,  have  made  bathing 
facilities  necessary  in  buildings  for  the  larger 
high  schools,  and  it  seems  probable  that  similar 
demands  will  eventually  have  to  be  met  in  all 
larger  and  better  grammar  schools.  Be  that 
as  it  may,  there  is  now  comparatively  little 
demand  in  smaller  cities  in  connection  with  pub- 
lic school  buildings  to  supply  bathing  facilities 
for  all  of  the  pupils  in  attendance,  and  the  neces- 
sity of  publicly  supervising  the  bathing  of  all 
school  children  has  not  yet  been  reached.  In 
making  this  statement  there  is  no  desire  to 
minimize  the  need  of  school  baths.  Public 
health  and  public  morals,  it  may  safely  be  said, 
would  in  many  parts  of  the  country  profit  much 
by  the  introduction  and  discreet  use  of  school 
baths,  especially  in  village  and  country  schools. 
The  greatest  need  for  school  baths  is  at  present 
in  the  congested  districts  of  large  cities,  and  in 
the  villages  and  country  districts  where  bathtubs 
in  homes  are  comparatively  rare. 

Disregarding  all  questions  of  comparative 
need  and  matters  of  local  policy  and  local  pride, 
if  a  school  is  to  be  equipped  with  baths,  what 
are  the  requirements?  Naturally,  the  first 
requisite  is  a  satisfactory  water  supply.  This 
has  been  the  chief  drawback  in  village  and 
country  schools  both  for  the  high  school  and 
elementary  grades.  In  cities  with  public 
waterworks  and  sewer  systems  it  is  a  matter  of 
small  expense  to  equip  a  school  with  baths. 
But  it  is  now  possible  to  have  regular  and 
adequate  water  supply  in  village  and  country 
schools  by  the  introduction  of  the  air  pressure 
tank  system;  windmills  and  water  tanks  above 
ground  are  impracticable  in  cold  climates  and 
are  unreliable  anywhere.  (See  further  discus- 
sion of  this  method  under  Katrines  and 
Urinals.) 

Bathtubs  have  no  place  in  public  school 
buildings,  simply  because  they  are  too  expen- 
sive to  install  and  operate,  offer  too  much  op- 
portunity for  contagion,  require  too  much  at- 
tention to  keep  clean,  and  take  up  too  much 
room.  Besides,  a  rain  or  shower  bath  is  more 
invigorating  and  more  cleansing  than  a  tub 
bath,  and  requires  less  time.  Swimming 
tanks  introduce  an  element  of  wholesome  exer- 
cise and  sport  not  connected  with  other  forms 
of  baths,  and  are  worthy  attractions  for  boys; 
but  they  are  not  practicable  in  most  schools, 


332 


'•■'"''-■-...  mPu 


Wif  School.  Dre«len 


tJennanv. 


BATTERSEA  TRAINING  COLLEGE 


BAURIEGEL 


because  of  the  lack  of  space,  the  cost  of  con- 
struction, and  the  great  amount  of  water  re- 
quired. This  form  of  bath  has  gradually  been 
taken  over  and  developed  by  clubs  of  various 
sorts  and  by  Y.M.C.A.  workers.  Compara- 
tively few  even  of  the  best  high  school  buildings 
have  swimming  pools  worthy  of  note.  In 
England  this  form  of  bath  is  much  more  in 
evidence  in  the  schools  than  it  is  here.  The 
problem,  then,  of  supplying  baths  in  schools  nar- 
rows itself  almost  exclusively  to  shower  or  rain 
baths. 

In  planning  to  ecjuip  a  school  building  with 
shower  baths,  the  first  question  to  arise  is  this: 
where  shall  they  be  placed?  In  small  or  me- 
dium-sized buildings,  the  best  and  most  con- 
venient place  is  the  basement,  if  it  is  well  lighted, 
well  ventilated,  and  safely  drained.  This  lo- 
cation insures  privacy,  requires  less  e.xpense 
for  plumbing,  introduces  less  danger  to  a  build- 
ing, prevents  disturbance  when  baths  are 
taken  during  school  hours,  and  can  be  super- 
vised more  easily.  In  large  buildings  designed 
for  the  use  of  both  sexes,  it  is  often  better  to 
locate  a  few  on  each  main  floor,  and  in  proxim- 
ity with  the  toilets.  But,  especially  for  the 
boys,  the  basement  or  some  place  adjacent  to 
the  gymnasium  is  the  most  convenient  place. 
In  grammar  schools,  where  the  younger  children 
take  their  baths  at  stated  times  and  according 
to  program,  a  common  open  bathroom  with  a 
series  of  showers  conveniently  placed  above 
shallow  but  wide  basins  has  proved  satis- 
factory. But  where  such  a  common  room  is 
used,  individual  dressing  rooms  in  close  proximity 
are  necessary,  where  the  clothing  can  be  left, 
where  a  thin  bathing  trunk  can  be  put  on  be- 
fore the  bath,  and  where  each  pupil  can  retire 
to  dry  his  body  and  put  on  his  clothing.  Natur- 
ally, for  pupils  in  the  upper  grades  and  high 
schools,  separate  double  stalls  are  necessary, 
one  with  shower  attachments,  and  the  other 
for  a  dressing  room.  These  can  all  be  located 
in  a  common  room  with  common  drainage  and 
common  heating  and  ventilation.  The  floors 
should  be  waterproof  and  laid  with  white 
tiles,  and  the  walls  covered  with  the  same 
material  to  the  height  of  5  or  6  feet.  All  other 
exposed  surfaces  of  the  room  should  be  plas- 
tered with  damp-proof  cement  plaster.  Every 
bathroom  demands  as  much  sunlight  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  drainage  should  be  safely  trapped 
into  a. sewer,  or  better  still  into  a  separate  drain. 
A  separate  and  special  system  for  heating  bath 
water  is  necessary,  for  it  is  neither  safe  nor 
sanitary  to  use  water  from  either  a  steam  or  a 
hot  water  boiler  which  is  used  to  heat  the  school- 
rooms by  either  direct  or  indirect  radiation. 

P.  B.  D. 

BATTERSEA  TRAINING  COLLEGE,  ENG- 
LAND. —  An  institution  for  the  training  of 
teachers  for  pauper  schools  established  in  1S40 
by  James  Phillips  Kay  (afterwards  Sir  James 
P.    Kay-Shuttleworth)  and    Edward  Carleton 


Tuffnell  at  their  own  expense.  These  phi- 
lanthropists had  been  at  considerable  pains  to 
learn  what  was  done  in  the  same  field  on  the 
Continent,  and  had  spent  some  time  in  visiting 
the  institutions  of  Fellenberg  and  Vehrli  (q.v.). 
Becoming  particularly  impressed  with  the 
simplicity  of  life  at  Kruitzlingen,  Vehrli's 
school,  and  the  high  intellectual  attainments 
of  the  pupils,  they  decided  to  model  their  insti- 
tution on  it.  Sir  James  himself  for  a  time  acted 
as  superintendent.  Thus  Battersea  is  the  first 
attempt  to  found  a  normal  school  on  a  Conti- 
nental model,  as  opposed  to  the  monitorial 
system  which  then  prevailed  in  England. 
Orphan  boys  were  selected  and  apprenticed 
from  the  ages  of  14  to  21  to  become  teachers. 
Others  were,  however,  also  received  on  recom- 
mendation for  periods  of  at  least  one  year.  The 
founders  hoped  that  in  time  public  attention 
and  support  would  be  attracted  to  their  work, 
but  although  grants  were  given  by  the  govern- 
ment, the  burden  and  the  responsibility  became 
too  great  for  two  men  alone,  with  the  result  that 
the  college  was  transferred  to  the  National 
Society  (^.f.)  in  1843,  and  has  since  remained 
under  its  control  as  a  denominational  training 
college  for  teachers.  As  to  the  general  relation 
of  the  college  to  the  English  system  of  training 
teachers,  see  the  article  on  the  Training  of 
Teachers,   in  England. 

Reference:  — 

Kay-Shuttleworth,     Sir    James.     Four  Periods    in 
Public  Education.     (London,   1862.) 

BAUER,  KARL  LUDWIG  (1730-1799). —A 
distinguished  German  philologist  and  school- 
man. He  was  born  and  received  his  education 
in  Leipzig.  In  1766,  he  became  rector  of  the 
classical  high  school  (Lyceum)  of  Hirschberg 
in  Silesia.  The  graduation  examination  which 
he  introduced  there  in  1776  {Abilurienten- 
examen)  later  on  (1788)  was  made  obligatory 
for  all  Prussian  gj-mnasia  and  up  to  the 
present  time  forms  a  characteristic  feature  of 
all  the  higher  schools  in  Germany.  He  made 
numerous  contributions  to  classical  philology, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  his  standard 
Latin  Dictionary. 

BAURIEGEL,  JOHANN  CHRISTIAN  (1773- 
1850).  —  An  excellent  German  schoolmaster. 
Born  in  Saxony  of  very  poor  parents,  he  started 
as  a  servant  in  the  house  of  Professor  Erncsti  in 
Leipzig,  but  in  1796  came  under  the  instruction 
of  Dinter,  who  was  then  privately  training 
young  men  to  become  teachers.  After  receiv- 
ing an  appointment  in  a  country  school,  he 
himself  started  a  teachers'  seminary  which  he 
conducted  in  addition  to  his  school  work,  giv- 
ing from  65  to  70  hours  of  instruction  per 
week.  Besides  this,  he  found  time  to  advance 
elementary  education  by  a  number  of  valuable 
writings.  He  has  left  an  autobiography,  Mein 
Leben  und  Wirken  {My  Life  and  Work), 
Neustadt,  a.d.,  Orla,  1847. 


333 


BAVARIA 


BAYLOR  UNIVERSITY 


BAVARIA,    KINDOM    OF,    EDUCATION 

IN.  —  See  (.'lEHMAN  Kaipire,  Education  in. 

BAXTER,  RICHARD  (1613-1691).  —  The 
connection  of  this  eminent  dissenting  divine 
(who  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  effective 
writers  of  what  may  be  called  Christian  litera- 
ture for  the  people) ,  with  the  history  of  elemen- 
tary education  in  England,  is  interesting  and 
important.  Born  in  Shropshire,  he  was  educated 
at  Wroxeter  school,  and  took  orders  in  the 
Estabhshed  Church,  and  was  curate  at  Kidder- 
minster from  1641  till  the  Restoration,  when  he 
was  ejected.  He  was  one  of  the  many  clergy 
who  were  tried  by  .Jeffre.vs  (May  30,  16S5). 
He  was  imprisoned,  but  secured  his  freedom 
in  16S6.  At  that  date  he  had  long  been  one  of 
the  most  popular  theological  writers  in  England, 
and  it  is  interesting  to  recall  the  fact  that  his 
books  were  to  be  found  in  New  College,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.  (Harvard),  and  are  mentioned  in 
Edward  Randolph's  Report  on  the  College 
dated  Oct.  12,  1676.  (See  Calendar  of 
Stale  Papers,  Colonial  Series,  America  and 
West  Indies,  1675-1676,  p.  467.)  The  Act  of 
Uniformity  of  1662  operated  with  great  severity 
on  dissenting  schoolmasters,  and  Baxter,  who, 
though  a  dissenter,  was  in  close  touch  with  the 
leading  Churchmen,  made  great  efforts  to  secure 
better  terms  for  the  nonconformist  teachers. 
In  1674  Baxter  and  Dean  Tillotson  (afterwards 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury)  drew  up  a  "Healing 
Act"  for  a  union  between  conformists  and  non- 
conformists, and  these  proposals  included  free- 
dom for  nonconformists  under  certain  conditions 
to  act  as  schoolmasters.  (For  another  "Healing 
Act"  of  the  same  type  see  Lord  Somer's  Collec- 
tion of  Tracts.)  The  moment  that  this  proposed 
compromise  appeared  was  important,  since  all 
parties  recognized  that  efficient  elementary 
schools  for  the  poor  were  a  necessity.  The 
Courts  of  Justice  had  already  (1670)  in  William 
Bate's  case  (Ventris's  Reports,  Vol.  I,  p.  41) 
held  that  the  schoolmaster  nominee  of  a 
founder  or  lay  patron  of  a  school  could  not 
be  ejected  for  nonconformity  by  the  Bishops,  and 
further  cases  in  favor  of  dissenters  were 
about  to  be  decided.  Moreover  Gouge's  (f/.f.) 
schools  were  already  making  way  in  Wales. 
Baxter's  agreement  with  Tillotson  was  approved 
by  the  leading  nonconformists,  but  it  was,  un- 
fortunately, not  accepted  by  the  Bishops. 
Nevertheless,  it  had  its  effect.  The  Church 
gradually  from  this  time  onward  ceased  to  in- 
si.st  on  its  legal  rights,  and  no  opposition  to  the 
establishment  of  nonconformist  charity  schools 
was  made  when  they  began  to  appear  some  ten 
years  later  (1685).  But  Baxter's  efforts  at  this 
time  on  behalf  of  education  were  not  limited 
to  his  weighty  intervention  in  the  general 
struggle  between  conformists  and  noncon- 
formists. Thomas  Gouge  {q.v.)  in  1672  had 
begun  (with  the  permission  of  the  Bishops)  his 
evangelical  work  in  Wales,  and  Baxter  took 
close  interest  in    this    work    and   brought   to- 


gether both  Church  and  nonconformist  forces 
for  the  purposes  of  helping  forward  this  Welsh 
work.  Within  a  month  or  two  of  the  compact 
with  Tillotson,  in  midsummer  1674,  a  Trust 
was  formed  to  found  schools  and  distribute 
Bibles  and  religious  books  in  Wales.  It  is  pretty 
clear  that  the  Trust  was  associated  with  Gouge's 
schools.  The  printed  report  of  the  Trust,  dated 
Lady  Day,  1675,  was  signed  by  Tillotson,  Which- 
cot,  Ford,  Durham,  Stillingflcct,  Meriton,  Gouge, 
Poole,  and  Firmin;  while  Bates,  Owtram,  Pat- 
rick, Burton,  Baxter,  Fowler,  Griffith,  and  others 
also  aided  the  Trust.  The  fact  tliat  the  Trust 
was  formed  at  the  same  time  as  the  agreement 
with  Tillotson  shows  that  that  agreement  was 
intended  to  help  Gouge's  schools.  Whether 
this  agreement  can  be  connected  with  the 
charity  schools  (q.v.)  may  be  doubted,  but 
these  various  elementary  school  revivals  are 
clearly  all  part  of  one  movement. 

J.  E.  G.  DE  M. 
References:  — 
BiKCH.     Life    of    Tillotson.      (London.    1752.) 
Montmorency,  J.    E.    G.    de.     Slate    I ntervenlion    in 

English    Educatioyi.      (Cambridge,    1902.) 
Reliquicc  BazUriancE.     (London,  169G.) 

BAYLOR  COLLEGE,  BELTON,  TEX. — 

Founded  in  1845,  for  the  education  of  girls  and 
young  women,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Bap- 
tist Convention  of  Texas.  The  admission  re- 
quirements are  not  definitely  stated,  but  gradu- 
ates of  approved  high  schools  receive  advanced 
standing  in  the  college.  Preparatory,  collegiate, 
commercial,  and  fine  arts  courses  are  given. 
There  are  21  professors  and  3  assistants. 
W.  A.   Wilson,   A.M.,   D.D.,  is  the  president. 

BAYLOR  UNIVERSITY,  WACO,  TEXAS.— 

A  coeducational  institution,  owing  its  founda- 
tion to  a  movement  begun  by  the  Texas  Union 
Baptist  Association,  which,  in  1842,  resolved  to 
establish  in  Texas  a  Baptist  university.  The 
charter  was  obtained  Feb.  1,  1845,  from 
the  Republic  of  Texas;  in  the  same  year,  the 
preparatory  department  was  opened  at  the 
town  of  Independence.  Other  departments 
were  opened  later  at  the  same  place.  In  1868, 
Waco  University,  founded  in  1861  by  Rufus  C. 
Burleson,  w'ho  had  resigned  the  presidency  of 
Baylor  University,  passed  into  the  control  of 
the  newly  organized  Baptist  General  Associa- 
tion. The  two  universities  were  united  in  1868 
under  the  name  of  "Baylor  University  at  Waco," 
and  the  two  organizations  of  the  denomination 
having  been  consolidated  under  the  name  of 
"  The  Baptist  General  Convention  of  Texas," 
Baylor  University  was  placed  under  the  control 
of  this  body,  which  elects  the  13  members  of  the 
Board  of  trustees.  In  1897  the  Baptist  Edu- 
cational Commission,  inaugurated  at  a  meet- 
ing of  the  Baptist  General  Convention  of  Texas, 
put  into  effect  a  scheme  of  correlation  for  the 
educational  institutions  of  the  denomination 
in  Texas,  by  the  terms  of  which  Baylor  Univer- 
sity was  made  the  head  of  the  system,  and  the 


334 


BEALE 


BEATING   THE   BOUNDS 


following  colleges  and  academies  were  per- 
manently correlated  with  the  universit)':  Bay- 
lor Female  College,  Beltou  (an  institution  which 
confers  the  bachelor's  and  master's  degrees) ; 
Howard  Payne  College,  Brown  wood;  Decatur 
College,  Decatur;  Burselor  College,  Green- 
ville; Goodnight  Academy,  Goodnight;  and 
Canadian  Academy,  Canadian.  Baylor  Univer- 
sity maintains  an  undergraduate  college,  ad- 
mission to  which  is  by  examination  or  certificate 
from  an  accredited  high  school;  a  preparatory 
school  known  as  Baylor  Academy;  a  depart- 
ment of  Fine  Arts,  including  music  and  oratory, 
a  Department  of  Medicine  and  Pharmacy,  at 
Dallas,  Texas;  and  since  1SS9  a  two  months' 
summer  session,  which  is  a  regular  term  of 
university  work  and  includes  a  Teachers' 
Summer  Normal  School.  A  department  of 
law  was  established  in  1S51,  but  abandoned 
after  a  few  years.  In  general,  the  present  or- 
ganization of  the  university  seems  to  be  pat- 
terned after  that  of  the  University  of  Chicago. 
There  are  no  college  fraternities,  but  Phi 
Gamma  Delta  maintained  a  chapter  from  1856 
to  1SS8,  and  Sigma  Alpha  Epsilon  from  1858 
to  1861.  There  are  9  buildings,  valued, 
with  grounds  and  equipment,  at  $800,000, 
the  annual  income  (1906)  was  $75,500.  The 
average  salary  of  a  professor  is  SI 500.  There 
are  (1909)  53  members  on  the  instructing  staff, 
8  of  whom  are  full  professors.  The  students 
number  1296,  distributed  as  follows:  College, 
271;  Academy,  343;  Medicine  and  Pharmacy, 
80;  Summer  Session,  314;  606  are  women. 
Samuel  Palmer  Brooks,  A.]\I.,  is  president. 

C.  G. 

BEALE,  DOROTHEA  (1831-1906).  —  An 
English  schoohnistress  who  made  one  of  the 
greatest  contributions  to  the  movement  for  the 
higher  education  of  girls  and  women  in  Eng- 
land. After  attending  a  school  in  England  up 
to  the  age  of  13,  she  was  kept  at  home,  where 
she  entered  on  a  course  of  wide  reading.  At  the 
age  of  16  she  was  sent  for  a  year  to  a  school 
for  English  girls  at  Paris.  In  1848,  she  entered 
(Jueen's  College,  London,  where  she  showed  a 
strong  interest  in  mathematics,  and  was  for  a 
time  tutor  in  that  subject.  In  1857,  she  was 
appointed  head  teacher  at  the  Clergy  Daughters 
School  at  Castcrton  in  Westmoreland,  where 
she  taught  a  remarkable  arraj'  of  subjects. 
From  this  school  she  resigned  at  the  end  of  a 
year,  owing  largely  to  a  conflict  of  religious 
opinions.  For  a  time  she  remained  without 
an  appointment,  and  spent  the  interval  in  writ- 
ing a  history,  in  social  work,  in  a  visit  to  Ger- 
many, where  she  visited  the  Deaconesses' 
Institute  at  Kaiserwerth,  which  she  described 
in  a  small  book,  and  in  teaching  in  a  private 
school.  In  1858  an  opportunity  which  she  long 
desired  offered  itself  in  the  vacancy  for  a  lady 
principal  at  the  Ladies'  College,  Cheltenham, 
which  had  been  founded  a  few  years  previously. 
She   was  aj)pointcd,  and  entered  on  a   career 


which  has  served  to  make  the  education  of 
girls  what  it  is  at  present.  From  a  school  with 
rapidly  dwindling  numbers  under  a  local 
board,  she  succeeded  in  making  one  of  the 
most  important  girls'  schools  in  England,  with 
beautiful  and  admirably  equipped  buildings. 
In  place  of  the  numerous  girls'  schools  which 
devoted  their  time  to  the  teaching  of  accom- 
plishments, she  was  instrumental  in  leading  the 
way  to  the  foundation  of  day  schools  offering 
what  is  recognized  as  a  complete  secondary 
education.  Several  times  the  Educational 
Commissions  turned  to  Miss  Beale  for  guidance 
on  the  question  of  the  education  of  girls.  Her 
aim  was  to  secure  for  girls  and  women  an  edu- 
cation for  life  in  the  widest  sense.  To  a  keen 
intellect  were  added  a  deeply  religious  spirit  and 
great  teaching  ability.  To  her  powers  as  an 
organizer  the  large  school,  St.  Hilda's  College 
for  the  training  of  secondary  teachers  (opened 
in  1885),  St.  Hilda's  Hall,  a  residence  for  women 
students  at  Oxford,  and  St.  Hilda's  East,  a 
settlement  in  London,  bear  testimony,  for  they 
are  all  the  work  of  her  untiring  energy.  But 
her  interests  were  not  limited  to  her  school; 
she  was  ready  to  advise  on  the  foundation  of 
other  girls'  schools  and  to  assist  headmistresses 
of  other  schools.  She  was  for  a  time  President 
of  the  Association  for  Headmistresses.  In 
1898,  she  was  elected  corresponding  member 
of  the  N.E.A.  In  1902,  the  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity conferred  on  her  the  honorary  degree  of 
LL.D.  Among  her  works  are  A  Student's 
History  of  English  and  General  History  (1858); 
a  Chart  (1863)  representing  historical  material 
in  tabular  form;  Work  and  Play  in  Girls' 
Schools  (1898);  and  a  History  of  the  Ladies' 
College.  Miss  Beale  remained  active  at  school 
up  to  within  three  weeks  of  her  death  on 
Nov.  9,  1906. 

References  :  — 

Journal  of  Education,  London,  1907,  p.  26. 
R.\IKES,   E.     Dorothea  Beale  of  Cheltenham.      (London, 
1908.) 

BEATING  THE  BOUNDS.  —  The  origin 
of  "Beating  the  Bounds"  of  a  parish  or  of  cer- 
tain other  areas  is  lost  in  the  mists  of  prehis- 
tory. We  know  that  curious  rites  including 
the  sacrifice  of  animals  and  even  human  beings 
on  the  boundary  stones  or  marks  at  one  time 
took  place  (see  Mrs.  Green's  Town  Life  in  the 
Fifteenth  Century,  Vol.  I.  p.  134).  From  medieval 
times  it  has  lieen  and  is  still  the  practice  for  the 
clergy,  the  church  wardens,  and  the  parishioners 
to  perambulate  the  parish  on  Ascension  Day  or 
the  three  Rogation  Days  preceding  it.  It  was  in 
this  procession  that  the  connection  with  schools 
arose,  for  it  was  the  practice  until  comparatively 
modern  times  to  take  the  school  children  on  the 
perambulation  and  beat  them  (the  beating 
probably  became  gradually  nominal  in  more 
recent  times)  at  the  boundaries  of  the  parish  in 
order  that  such  boundaries  might  be  fixed  in  the 
children's   minds.      The  fact  that   children    in 


335 


BEATS 


BEC 


Anglo-Saxon  times  were  forbidden  to  be  taught 
by  a  priest  of  another  parish  may  possibly  be 
associated  with  this  (see  Canons  of  960). 

J.  E.  G.  DE  M. 

BEATS.  —  A  resultant  rising  and  falling  of 
tonal  intensities  which  is  heard  when  two 
tones  of  similar  Init  not  identical  rates  of  \ibra- 
tion  are  sounded  together.  Thus  if  two  tones, 
one  of  200  and  another  of  201  vibrations  are 
sounded  together,  the  resultant  tone  will  be 
alternately  strong  and  weak  one  time  per  second. 
The  strong  pulsation,  or  beat,  is  produced  by 
coinciding  phases  of  the  two  sets  of  vibrations, 
whereas  the  weak  tone  or  interval  between 
the  beats  corresponds  to  the  opposition  in  phase. 
Beats  are  of  considerable  aid  in  tuning,  mea.s- 
urements  of  pitch,  etc.  In  the  production 
of  consonance  and  dissonance  they  play  a 
most  important  role.  C.  E.  S. 

BEATUS  RHENANUS,  BILD  VON  RHEI- 

NAU. — A  humanist  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Born  at  Schlettstadt  in  1485,  he  attended  the 
Latin  school  there,  which  had  been  brought  to 
a  high  standard  by  Ludwig  Dringenberg  (q.v.). 
From  1503  to  1507  he  studied  at  the  University 
of  Paris,  and  was  strongly  influenced  by  Le  Fevre 
(Jacob  Faber  Stapulensis),  who  lectured  on 
Aristotle's  Works.  He  made  an  attempt  to 
learn  Greek,  but  the  lecturer  on  that  language, 
though  a  Greek,  was  no  teacher.  In  1608,  he 
went  to  Strassburg,  where  he  was  employed  as 
a  proofreader.  Here  he  came  into  contact  with 
a  number  of  the  most  famous  of  the  German 
humanists.  Two  years  later  he  was  attracted 
to  Basel  by  an  opportunity  of  renewing  his 
study  of  Greek  under  Conon,  one  of  the  most 
famous  teachers  of  the  day.  Here  he  also  acted 
as  proofreader  in  the  printing  office  of  Frobin. 
In  1514  he  met  Erasmus,  and  a  lifelong  friend- 
ship began  between  the  two.  Erasmus  speaks 
very  highly  of  his  young  friend.  In  an  appeal 
to  Pope  Leo  for  support  of  the  edition  of  St. 
Jerome  he  speaks  of  Beatus  Rhenanus  as  "a 
young  man  whose  profound  learning  is  equaled 
only  by  his  exquisite  critical  taste."  In  1515, 
he  dedicated  a  commentary  on  Psalm  I  to  him. 
In  1520  he  left  his  letters  to  be  edited  by 
Rhenanus,  whom  he  calls  his  alter  ego.  In  ad- 
dition to  supervising  the  publications  of  Eras- 
mus' works  in  1540,  Rhenanus  was  himself  a 
prolific  editor  and  author.  Among  his  editions 
of  the  classics  are  Plini  Epistolae,  1514,  Tacitus, 
1519,  TertuUian,  1521,  Velleins  Paterculus,  1522, 
Livij,  1535.  He  also  wrote  a  history  of  Ger- 
many in  three  books  {Reritm  Germanicarum  lihri 
ires).  Rhenanus  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  the 
humanists  who  centered  round  Schlettstadt, 
Strassburg,  and  Basel.  He  died  at  Strassburg, 
in  1547.  In  connection  with  Rhenanus  it  is 
interesting  to  notice  that  his  library,  which 
he  bequeathed  to  the  Council  of  his  native  town, 
remains  treasured  almost  intact  in  tKe  library 
of  Schlettstadt.     An  added  interest  attaches  to 


the  collection  because  the  development  of  the 
interests  and  the  course  of  reading  pursued  by 
Rhenanus  can  be  traced  from  the  dates  which 
are  inscribed  on  his  books. 

References  :  — 

HoR.twiTZ.  A.  Beatus  Rhenanus,  Ein  hiographischer 
Versuch.  Sitzungsbpricht  dor  Pliilosophisch- 
Historisehen  ("lasse  dcr  Kaiscrlicheu  Akademie 
dor  Wisscnschaftcn.      (Vienna.   1N72.) 

Knod,  G.  Aus  dcr  Bibliothck  (les  Beatus  Rhenanus. 
(Leipzig,  1S89.) 

Nichols,  F.  M.  The  Epistles  of  Erasmus.  (London, 
1904.) 

BEAUMONT  COLLEGE,  HARRODS- 
BURG,  KY.  —  A  school  for  girls  and  young 
ladies,  known  from  1S56  to  1893  as  "Daughters 
College."  Students  are  admitted  by  certifi- 
cate from  creditable  institutions  or  by  exami- 
nation, the  requirements  for  the  college  being 
equivalent  to  about  4  or  5  points.  Primary, 
preparatory,  and  collegiate  departments  are 
maintained.  Four  literarj'  and  five  nui.^ical 
courses  are  offered,  on  completion  of  which  de- 
grees are  conferred. 

BEAUVOIR  COLLEGE,  WILMAR,  ARK.  — 

A  private  coeducational  institution,  founded  in 
1903.  Primary,  preparatory,  and  collegiate, 
fine  arts  and  commercial  departments  are 
maintained.  Students  may  enter  the  college 
after  8  years  of  primary  work.  The  majority 
of  the  pupils  are  in  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment.    There  are  16  instructors  on  the  faculty. 

BEAVER  COLLEGE,  BEAVER,  PA.  —  An 

institution  for  the  education  of  young  women, 
opened  in  1853  as  "Beaver  Seminary";  the 
majority  of  the  trustees  are  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  College  preparatory,  col- 
lege, and  fine  arts  departments  are  maintained. 
The  admi.ssionrequirements  would  be  equivalent 
to  about  12  points.  Certificates  from  approved 
schools  are  also  accepted.  Men  are  admitted 
only  as  special  students.  There  is  a  faculty 
of  is  members. 

BEC.  —  The  site  in  the  eleventh  century 
of  the  most  famous  abbey  and  school  in 
Europe,  the  seat  of  the  teachings  of  Lanfranc 
and  Anselm.  The  ruins  may  still  be  seen  near 
Brionne,  in  the  department  of  Eure.  Bee  was 
as  remarkable  a  monument  to  Norman  energy 
in  the  ecclesiastical  and  literary  sphere  as  the 
conquest  of  England  in  that  of  military,  po- 
litical, and  administrative  efficiency.  Greek 
had  been  almost  forgotten  in  the  west,  but 
Anselm  was  familiar  ^-ith  many  of  the  opinions 
of  the  Greeks,  inquired  for  Greek  writings,  and 
used  Greek  titles  for  some  of  his  works.  No 
Greek  book,  however,  is  mentioned  in  an  ex- 
tant catalogue  of  the  monastic  library  of  Bee 
of  about  1164.  It  is  probable  that  Bee  was 
one  of  the  few  seats  where  law  continued  to  be 
taught  during  the  Dark  Ages,  and  that  Lan- 
franc, for  example,  lectured  in  law.     Theobald, 


336 


BECHER 


BECKER 


who  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  is 
known  to  have  pursued  his  studies  at  Bee, 
and  was  instrumental  in  promoting  the  study  of 
the  Roman  law  among  his  personal  retinue  of 
clerics.  Bee  was  rather  liberally  di,sposed  to- 
ward the  classical  studies,  and  Etienno  of 
Rouen,  who  taught  at  the  abbey  toward  the 
close  of  the  twelfth  century,  defended  this  po- 
sition byan  appeal  to  thegxample  of  the  Fathers. 
The  abstract  made  by  Etienne  of  Quintilian's 
Institutes  of  Oratory  for  his  pupils  at  Bee  is  still 
preserved  in  the  Paris  Library  as  the  Codex 
Pratensis.  P.  R.  C. 

References  :  — 

Chronicon  Beccensis  ahhatiae  ah  ipsa  fundatione  ad  an. 

1407,  in  Lanfranc,  Opera,  Migne.      (Pat.  Lat.  Vol. 

150.) 
Sandy.s.   History  of  Classical  Scholarship.     (Cambridge, 

1903-190S.) 

BECHER,  JOHANN  JOACHIM  (1625- 
1682).  —  A  German  economist,  chemist,  and 
pedagogical  writer.  Born  in  Spe3^er,  the  son 
of  a  Lutheran  pastor,  he  early  lest  his  father, 
and  studied,  chiefly  in  an  autodidactic  way, 
theology,  mathematics,  medicine,  chemistry, 
and  politics.  Being  obliged  to  support  him- 
self by  tutoring,  he  also  gave  attention  to  the 
methods  of  teaching.  In  1660  the  Elector  of 
Mainz  appointed  him  court  physician  and 
teacher  of  medicine.  Subsequently  he  entered 
the  services  of  other  German  princes,  such  as 
the  Electors  of  the  Palatinate  and  of  Bavaria, 
and,  in  1666,  became  a  "Councilor  of  Com- 
merce" at  the  imperial  court  at  Vienna.  He 
traveled  extensively  in  Holland,  England, 
and  Scotland,  and  died  (1682)  as  a  poor  man  in 
London. 

Becher  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  Always  full  of  ideas, 
schemes,  and  projects,  he  combined  an  ency- 
clopedic knowledge  with  manj'-sided  practical 
interests.  In  the  history  of  chemistrj^,  he  stands 
as  the  originator  of  the  first  consistent,  although 
incorrect,  theory  of  chemical  action.  The 
processes  of  burning  and  of  the  calcination  of 
metals  were  explained  by  him  on  the  suppo- 
sition that  these  substances  contained  a  com- 
bustible element  of  which  they  became  deprived 
on  ignition.  These  doctrines,  further  devel- 
oped by  Stahl  (1660-1734),  constituted  the 
famous  phlogistic  theory,  which  dominated 
chemistry  until  toward  the  close  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century. 

As  an  economist,  Becher  was  imbued  with 
the  ideas  of  his  age,  which  were  represented 
by  the  policies  of  Colbert,  the  great  minister 
of  finance  of  Louis  XIV.  He  was  a  thorough 
believer  in  the  absolute  power  of  the  State,  the 
encouragement  of  home  industry,  and  the 
improvement  of  commerce. 

The  producing  cla.sses,  farmers,  artisans, 
merchants,  he  regarded  as  the  backbone  of  the 
State.  Like  Bacon,  he  considered  the  object 
of  science  to  be  the  improvement  of  the  state 


of  society.  He  himself  made  a  number  of 
useful  inventions,  such  as  an  improved  weav- 
ing loom,  a  knitting  machine,  and  others.  He 
also  imagined  to  have  discovered  a  method  of 
commuting  the  baser  metals  into  gold.  Among 
the  schemes  which  he  conceived  was  the  project 
of  a  German  West  India  company,  for  which 
he  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  the  Dutch 
government  a  grant  of  3000  stiuare  miles  of 
land  between  the  rivers  Orinoco  and  Amazon. 
In  accordance  with  his  economic  views  are 
his  educational  ideas,  which  strike  us  as  exceed- 
ingly modern.  They  are  contained  chiefly  in 
his  Methodus  Didactica,  a  short  treatise  written 
in  1667.  There  we  find  the  first  demand  for 
special  schools  for  the  preparation  of  manu- 
facturers and  merchants.  Becher  was  also  the 
first  to  separate  religious  education  from  general 
instruction  and  to  put  both  under  the  control 
of  the  State.  His  complete  plan  of  a  school 
organization  makes  provision  for  an  elementary 
school  as  a  common  foundation,  followed  by  a 
Latin  school  with  a  3  years'  course,  a  school  of 
mechanic  arts,  and  a  "  philosophical  "  school 
which  was  to  give  a  more  extended  scientific 
and  technical  training.  He  also  develops  the 
plan  of  a  theatrum  naturae  et  artis,  a  natural  and 
technological  museum. 

He  was  interested  in  female  education,  as 
well  as  in  the  education  of  neglected  children. 
On  the  model  of  workhouses  and  orphan 
asylums  which  he  had  observed  in  Holland,  he 
organized  such  an  institution  in  Vienna  in  1671. 

F.  M. 
References:  — 
Ekdberg-Krczenciewski,     Johann     Joachim    Becher. 

(Jena,  1896.) 
Heumann,  Alfred.    Becher,  in  Monatshefte  der  Come- 
nius  Gesellschaft,  Vol.  IX. 

BECKER.KARL  FERDINAND  (1775-1849). 

—  A  German  philologist,  the  chief  representa- 
tive of  the  philosophical  school  of  language 
teaching.  He  was  born  in  Liser,  Rhine  prov- 
ince, studied  for  2  years  at  the  priests'  semi- 
nary in  Hildesheim,  became  a  teacher  at  the 
age  of  19,  but  later  on  (1799)  took  up  the  study 
of  medicine  in  Gottingen,  and  began  to  practice 
in  1803.  In  1814  he  became  the  director  of 
several  military  hospitals  in  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  and  in  1815  he  settled  as  a  physician  in 
Offenbach,  where,  8  years  later,  he  opened  a 
small  private  school  which  he  directed  until  his 
death.  The  instruction  which  he  gave  led  him 
to  resume  the  linguistic  studies  which  had 
occupied  him  as  a  teacher  early  in  his  life.  He 
first  published  his  work  on  Dculsclic  Wortbild- 
vng  {German  Word-Formation),  1824,  which 
was  followed  by  his  Organismus  dcr  Sprache 
{Organism  of  Language) ,  1 827,  A  usfiilirliche  deut- 
sche  Grannnatik  {Complete  German  Grammar), 
1836-1839,  and  Der  deutsche  Stil  {German 
Style),  1848,  as  well  as  by  numerous  textbooks 
and  other  writings.  Although  he  was  at  the 
age  of  50  when  he  resumed  his  linguistic  re- 


VOL.  I  —  z 


337 


BECKINGTON 


BEDE 


searches,  his  work  showed  great  vigor  and 
originality.  He  looked  upon  hinguage  as  an  or- 
ganic product  of  the  human  mind,  and  thouglit 
that  its  hiws  could  be  studied  by  tlie  deductive- 
logical  method.  His  system,  which  was  skill- 
fully adapted  for  the  purposes  of  the  elementary 
school  by  Wurst  and  Honkamp,  for  a  time 
dominated  the  grammatical  instruction  in 
(".ermany,  both  with  regard  to  modern  and 
classical  languages.  It  commended  itself  by 
its  clearness  and  its  insistence  on  the  self- 
activity  of  the  pui)ils,  but  it  was  opposed,  by 
Diesterweg  among  others,  because  it  was  too 
rigid  and  formal,  and  made  too  great  demands 
on  the  logical  powers  of  the  young  mind. 
Scientifically,  Becker's  deductive  method  of 
language  study  has  been  superseded  by  the  far 
deeper  and  more  fertile  inductive  method  of  the 
historic  school,  represented  by  such  names  as 
Herder,  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  Bopp,  and 
Jakob  (Irimm;  nevertheless,  much  of  his  work, 
especially  on  the  syntax  and  style  of  modern 
High-C!erman,  is  still  of  very  great  value  to  the 
teacher.  F.  M. 

References:  — 
Helmsdorfeb.     Becker  der  Grammaliker.     (Frankfurt, 

1854.) 
ScHERER,  W.    Article  in  AUgemeine  Deutsche  Biographic. 

BECKINGTON,  THOS.  —  See  Eton. 

BEDALES.  —  A  private  experimental  board- 
ing school  of  the  "  new  school  "  {q.v.)  type, 
founded  in  1892  by  Mr.  Badley;  now  located 
near  Petersfield,  Hants.  Interest  to  the 
general  student  of  education  centers  in  the  ex- 
periment in  coeducation,  which  is  by  no  means 
considered  an  experiment  by  the  school  itself. 
About  a  third  of  the  150  students  arc  girls. 
The  general  rule  seems  to  be  to  bring  the  two 
sexes  together  in  schooling  and  other  relations 
where  this  seems  to  prove  an  advantage  to  both, 
but  also  to  provide  opportunity  for  separate 
activities  when  such  are  needed.  There  is  a 
definite  inclusion  of  household  and  farm  activ- 
ities among  the  educational  means,  and  the 
courses  in  biology,  chemistry,  and  physics  take 
account  of  these  interests.  The  modern  move- 
ment in  mathematics  seen  at  its  best  in  Eng- 
land has  had  its  influence,  and,  in  place  of  the 
material  still  so  commonly  found  in  American 
schools  during  early  adolescence,  students  are 
brought  naturally  and  profitably  into  higher 
mathematics  by  14  or  15  and  even  earlier. 
These  larger  inclusions  are  suggestive  of  the 
wide  range  of  activities.  Each  student  has  a 
course  well  within  his  powers,  but  has  the  ad- 
vantages of  (1)  a  choice  of  subjects  not  usually 
counted  as  associates  in  the  ordinary  curriculum, 
and  (2)  association  with  other  students  working 
in  other  lines  beyond  his  own.  Thus  a  student 
preparing  for  architecture  was  at  17  doing 
superior  work  in  the  excavation  of  near-by 
Roman  villas  and  baths  under  the  direction  of 
the  head  of  the  classics  department,  and  also 


had  charge  of  planning  and  building  the  stable 
erected  by  the  boys  for  the  horse  they  had 
bought  to  keep  their  grounds  for  sports  in 
order.  F.  A.  M. 

See  Abbotsholme  ;  Boarding  Schools  ; 
Deutsche  Landerziehungsheime  ;  L'Ecole 
DEs  Roches  ;  New  School. 

References:  — 

B.vDLEY,  J.  H.  Bedalcs  School,  Elem.  Sch.  Tr.,  Vol.  V, 
p.  2o7. 

The  Possibility  of  Coeducation  in  English  Preparatory 
and  Other  Secondary  Schools.  (In  Great  Britain. 
Speciul  Reports  on  Education .  \'ol.  \'I,  pjj.  500-515.) 

Bedalcs  Chronicle.  (A.  \V.  Childs,  High  St.,  Peters- 
field.) 

Bedalcs  Record.  (Annual.  Published  at  Bedales,  Peters- 
field,  Hants.  England.) 

Bedales  School,  Outline  of  its  Aims  and  Systems.  (Uni- 
versit.v  Press,  Cambridge.) 

HODSON,  F.  Ed.  Broad  Lines  in  Science  Teaching 
(Christophers,  London),  especially  chapters  by 
Badley.  Garstang.  Hodson,  and  Unwin. 

Jackjun,  W.  S.  Notes  on  Foreign  Schools.  Ed.  Ret., 
Vol.  XXI,  p.  2;  Vol.  XXII.p.  50. 

Manny,  F.  A.  A  Simple  Life,  Kindergarten  Maga- 
zine. Vol.  XIV,   p.  3S7. 

Meredith,  George.  Lord  Ormont  and  his  Aminta. 
(Coeducational  Boarding  School.) 

BEDE  (BAEDA).  —  The  famous  Bede,  known 
from  the  ninth  century  onward  as  the  \'enerable, 
was  almost  beyond  doubt  born  in  the  year  673, 
and  almost  as  certainly  died  on  the  26th  of  May, 
735,  though  Mayor  and  Lumby  give  some 
grounds  for  thinking  that  it  may  have  been  as 
late  as  May  9,  742.  He  was  born  on  the  land 
belonging  to  the  twin  monaster.v  of  Wearmouth 
and  Jarrow,  founded  in  674,  with  Jarrow  added 
in  681  or  682.  At  the  age  of  7  he  was  sent  to  the 
Monastery  of  Wearmouth,  to  be  brought  up  in 
religion  under  the  famous  Abbot  Benedict 
Biscop  {q.v.).  In  681  he  passed  to  Jarrow  with 
its  new  Abbot  Ceolfrid,  fellow-laborer  of 
Biscop,  and  at  Jarrow  his  whole  life  of  spiritual 
and  intellectual  activity  was  spent.  At  19 
he  became  deacon,  and  in  702  he  was  ordained 
priest  by  John,  Bishop  of  Hexham.  Bede's 
life  as  a  student  was  spent  in  the  most  favor- 
able surroundings  that  that  age  and  country 
offered.  Biscop  in  addition  to  pictures,  fur- 
niture, and  relics,  brought  to  the  monastery  in 
the  course  of  his  five  visits  to  Rome  a  vast  store 
of  books.  (See  Bede's  Vilae  Ahbaium.)  He 
also  brought  books  from  Vienne,  and  on  a  sixth 
visit  to  the  Continent  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  collection  of  books,  including  classical  works 
(Sandys, //i.s/or?/ of  Cla.sftical  ,SchuIar.'<hip,  Vol.  I, 
p.  468,  2ded.).  Bede  was  in  the  heart  of  culture, 
and  Alcuin  tells  us  of  his  diligence  as  a  student. 
He  became  an  excellent  scholar,  with  some 
knowledge,  at  any  rate,  of  Greek  and  possibly  of 
Hebrew,  and  showed  skill  in  Latin  verse.  He 
frequently  quotes  Cicero,  Virgil,  and  Horace 
and,  "  doubtless  at  second  hand,"  Lucilius  and 
Varro.  He  was  familiar  with  Jerome's  edition 
of  Eusebius,  with  Augustine  and  Isidore.  His 
training  at  Jarrow  made  him  not  only  a  scholar, 
but  a  historian  of  the  first  rank.  He  uses  his 
material  with  skill  and  judgment,  and  is  an 


338 


BEDE 


BEECHER 


authority  of  the  most  rchable  character.  His 
long,  happy,  and  arduous  life  of  teaching  and 
writing  at  Jarrow  was  apiiarontly  only  broken  by 
two  short  visits,  one  to  his  former  pupil,  Egbert, 
Archbishop  of  York,  and  founder  of  the  famous 
School  of  York,  which  through  its  most  dis- 
tinguished disciple  Alcuin  (q.v.)  gave  life  to  the 
culture  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  another  to 
Lindisfarne  for  the  purpose  of  gathering  mate- 
rial for  the  life  of  Cuthberth.  His  literary 
activity  lasted  from  the  age  of  30  till  his  death. 
On  his  deathbed  he  was  engaged  in  the  trans- 
lation into  Anglo-Saxon  of  the  Gospel  of  St. 
John,  and  one  of  the  most  striking  passages  in 
English  literature  is  the  famous  letter  of  Bede's 
disciple  and  pupil  Cuthberth  to  Cuthwine  de- 
scribing the  scene.  But  he  also  wrote  much 
on  particular  books  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
of  the  New  Testament;  the  lives  of  various 
saints;  the  Lives  of  the  Abbots  (Benedict, 
Ceolfrid,  and  Huaetberht)  of  Jarrow,  A  Marti/r- 
ologij,  and  his  immortal  Historia  Ecdeslastira 
gentis  Anglorum  (731),  in  five  books.  Nor  did  his 
restless  pen  cease  with  these  labors.  He  was 
at  heart  a  teacher,  and  from  him  sprang  in  a 
direct  line  the  later  scholarship  of  France  and 
England.  He  made  his  own  textbooks;  he 
wrote  in  addition  to  the  work  on  meter,  a  Book 
of  Hymns  in  varying  meters;  a  Book  of  Epi- 
grams in  heroic  or  elegiac  verse,  works  On  the 
Nature  of  Things  and  Of  the  Times  and  an  ele- 
mentary textbook  of  Orthography  arranged  in 
alphabetical  order.  His  is,  and  always  will 
remain,  one  of  the  greatest  names  in  the  history 
of  English  culture.  His  Ecclesiastical  History 
of  the  English  has  considerable  importance  to 
the  student  of  the  history  of  education.  A  large 
part  of  the  knowledge  of  the  history  of  educa- 
tion in  England  before  the  eighth  century  is 
obtained  from  this  work.  As  instances  may 
be  mentioned  the  following  significant  indica- 
tions of  the  state  of  education  in  early  England. 
In  E.  H.  Ill,  3,  Bede  gives  an  account  of 
Adrian's  school  founded  in  635  on  Lindisfarne 
for  English  children  as  weU  as  their  elders, 
which  shows  the  combined  influences  from 
Ireland,  Gaul,  and  Kent  before  the  arrival  of 
Augustine.  These  influences  were  exercised 
by  the  Irish  scholar  Fursa,  and  the  Kentish 
Bishop  Felix,  who  assi.sted  Sigbert,  King  of 
East  Anglia,  in  founding  a  school  for  boys, 
which  stood  in  almost  direct  relation  to  the 
Roman  Imperial  Education  referred  to  in 
Gratian's  Edict  of  376.  In  Book  IV,  S,  there 
is  a  reference,  the  only  one  on  the  subject 
before  the  canon  of  the  Council  of  Cloveshoo 
(q.v.),  to  the  education  of  young  boys  in  nun- 
neries, a  practice  wliich  continued  for  many 
years  (see  papers  on  the  Medieval  Education  of 
Women  in  England,  Journal  of  Education, 
June,  1909,  supplement).  The  importance  of 
Ireland  as  a  University  for  England  and  as  the 
training  college  of  Europe  about  the  middle  of 
the  seventh  century  is  noticed  by  Bede.  One 
other  reference  to  Bede's  information  on  the 


history  of  education  and  culture  must  suffice. 
He  tells  us  (IV  and  V)  that  Theodore  and 
Adrian  after  669  gathered  "  a  crowd  of  disciples  " 
and  taught  them  not  only  Holy  Scriptures  but 
also  the  metrical  art,  astronomy,  and  eccle- 
siastical arithmetic.  "  A  testimony  whereof  is, 
that  there  are  still  living  at  this  day  some  of 
their  scholars,  who  are  as  well  versed  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin  tongues  as  in  their  own,  in 
which  they  were  born,"  men  such  as  Tobias,  Tat- 
wine,  and  Albinus.  "  The  tradition  of  Greek," 
says  Dr.  Sandys,  "  descended  to  the  early  days 
of  Odo  (875-961),  Archbishop  of  Canterbury." 
As  part  of  the  church  service  it  lasted  still 
longer.  Bede  tells  us  also  something  of  the 
collection  and  circulation  of  books  in  his  time 
and  of  the  close  educational  touch  kept  with 
Rome.  This  ecclesiastical  history  is  a  neces- 
sary volume  to  the  student  of  the  history  of 
education  in  Europe.  J.  E.  G.  de  M. 

BEECHER,      CATHERINE      ELIZABETH 

(1800-1878). —  Daughter  of  Lyman  Beecher, 
and  a  pioneer  in  the  movement  for  the  higher 
education  of  women  in  the  United  States,  was 
born  at  East  Hampton,  Long  Island,  Sept.  6, 
1800.  She  was  educated  under  private  tu- 
tors and  at  the  Litchfield  Academy.  Her 
knowledge  of  domestic  science  and  its  educa- 
tional value  was  due  to  the  fact  that  she  was 
"  the  eldest  of  13  children,  all  but  two  trained 
to  maturity,  and  most  of  them  in  a  good 
degree  under  my  care  through  infancy  and 
childhood,"  as  she  tells  in  her  reminiscences. 
She  began  teaching  at  20,  and  soon  worked  out 
and  published  an  arithmetic  for  beginners.  In 
1828  she  founded  the  Hartford  Female  Semi- 
nary, which  for  many  years  was  the  leading 
institution  in  America  for  the  higher  education 
of  women,  and  the  prototype  of  many  similar 
institutions  of  a  later  date.  Mrs.  William  C. 
Woodbridge  and  her  sister  Harriet,  afterwards 
Mrs.  Calvin  E.  Stowe,  were  associate  teachers 
in  the  Hartford  Seminary.  At  a  later  date  she 
organized  a  similar  seminary  at  Cincinnati. 
For  many  years  she  traveled  through  the  South 
and  West  lecturing  upon  educational  subjects 
and  stimulating  interest  in  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  her  sex.  Because  of  her  wide  acquaint- 
ance with  the  educational  conditions  of  the 
country  she  was  called  upon  to  supply  many 
teachers  for  the  schools  of  the  West;  and  at  one 
time  she  contemplated  the  organization  of  a 
college  for  the  training  of  teachers  at  Cincin- 
nati. Her  books  on  domestic  science  were  the 
first  of  their  kind  published  in  America.  In 
1852  she  organized  the  Woman's  Education 
Association,  "  to  aid  in  securing  to  women  a 
liberal  education,  honorable  position,  and  re- 
munerative employment  in  their  appropriate 
professions  by  means  of  endowed  institutions 
on  the  college  plan  of  organization  —  these 
institutions  to  include  all  that  is  gained  by 
normal  schools  and  also  to  train  women  to  be 
healthful,    intelligent,    and    successful    wives, 


339 


BEECHER 


BEGGING  STUDENTS 


mothers,  and  housekeepers."  The  chief  proh- 
h'ln  in  tlie  education  of  women,  as  Miss  Beecher 
saw  it,  was  for  the  education  of  the  needs  of  the 
family,  hence  tiie  large  emphasis  wliicli  she 
placed  on  the  study  of  domestic  science.  She 
was  active  in  the  Western  Literary  Institute 
and  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Education  U/.v.),  and  was  ])rol)ably  the 
first  woman  who  participated  in  the  proceed- 
ings of  national  educational  associations.  She 
contributed  largely  to  tiie  best  educational 
literature  of  her  day.  Among  her  books, 
besides  textbooks  on  arithmetic  and  mental 
philosophy,  are  Suggestions  on  Education  (1S32), 
The  Moral  Instructor  (1838),  Physiology  and 
Calisthenics  (1856),  Religious  Training  of  Chil-- 
dren  (1864),  and  Woman's  Profession  as  Mother 
and  Educator  (1871).  She  died  at  Elmira, 
N.Y.,  on  May  12,   1878.  W.  S.  M. 

Reference:  — 
Beecheh.  C.  E.     Reminiscences  in  Barnard's  Ainerican 
Journal  of  Education.  1878,  Vol.  28,  pp.  65-96. 

BEECHER,  EDWARD  (1803-1895).  —  Son 
of  Lyman  Beecher  and  brother  of  Catherine  E.; 
educated  at  Yale  College  and  the  Andover 
Theological  Seminary;  for  several  years  he 
was  tutor  at  Yale,  and  for  14  years  president  of 
Illinois  College  (1830-1844);  subsequently  he 
was  professor  in  the  Chicago  Theological  Semi- 
nary. W.  S.  M. 

BEECHER,  LYMAN  (1775-1863).  —  Edu- 
cator, graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1797; 
he  was  active  in  the  improvement  of  the  rviral 
schools  of  Connecticut;  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Connecticut  Education  Society,  and 
for  20  vears  he  was  president  of  the  Lane 
Theological  Seminary  (1832-1852).  Four  of 
his  children  —  Catherine  E.,  Edward,  Harriet, 
and  Thomas  K., — -were  also  identified  with  the 
educational  work  of  their  day.         W.  S.  M. 

BEECHER,  THOMAS  KINNICUT  (1824- 
1900).  —  Schoolman,  son  of  Lyman  Beecher, 
was  graduated  from  Illinois  College  in  1845; 
engaged  in  secondary  school  work  in  Connec- 
ticut and  Pennsylvania  for  a  number  of  years, 
and  contributed  numerous  articles  to  the  educa- 
tional journals.  W.  S.  M. 

BEGGING  STUDENTS.  —  During  several 
of  the  latter  centuries  of  the  Middle  Ages  it  was 
permissible  and  even  cu.stomary  for  .students 
of  all  grades  to  support  themselves  by  begging,  or 
at  least  upon  the  gifts  of  food  or  money  given 
by  the  people  freely  or  upon  solicitation.  The 
sanction  of  the  Church  given  to  mendicancy,  as 
well  as  its  constant  approval  of  generosity  as 
the  chief  Christian  virtue,  had  much  to  do  with 
the  widespread  adoption  of  this  method  of  life  by 
the  student.  The  custom  of  begging  was  closely 
connected  with  the  migratory  customs  of  the 
students,  again  stimulated,  if  not  sanctioned,  by 
the  examples  set  by  the  Church.     Indeed,  all 


classes  in  society  were  influenced  by  these  same 
customs.  The  merchant  led  a  migratory  life 
in  pursuit  of  his  business;  the  craftsman  in  the 
completion  of  his  mastery  of  his  trade  as  a 
journeyman;  the  knight  went  in  constant  pur- 
suit of  adventure,  gain,  or  warfare;  the  pilgrim 
had  the  blessing  of  the  Church ,  the  monk  passed 
continuously  to  and  fro  on  official  journeys  or 
penances;  students  were  drawn  to  the  centers 
of  learning  from  most  remote  (|uarters,  and  went 
from  school  to  school  in  ((ucst  of  learning,  of  a 
more  renowned  teacher,  of  scholarships  or 
bursaries,  of  a  patron  or  a  more  generous 
community,  of  gain,  or  of  the  mere  love  of 
travel  or  the  knowledge  to  be  gained  by  it. 
The  wandering  ])riest  was  the  forerunner  of  the 
wandering  and  begging  scholar.  As  early  as 
the  fifth  century,  synods  and  bishops  attempted 
to  control  the  evil  of  the  immber  of  unattached 
priests  who  Uved  by  begging.  The  coming  of  the 
friars  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries 
gave  great  encouragement  to  these  customs, 
especially  among  students,  who  in  general 
shared  the  favors  of  Churchmen. 

In  the  medieval  universities  all  classes  were 
represented,  but  a  large  proportion  of  the  stu- 
dents were  very  poor.  In  some  universities  a 
special  hall  or  dormitory  (the  dotnus  pavp- 
erum)  {q.i<.)  was  provided  for  them.  At  the 
Oxford  halls  a  special  table  was  usually  pro- 
vided for  them,  as  they  must  first  wait  upon  the 
students  at  the  other  tables.  Street  begging 
was  permitted  at  Oxford  by  license  of  the 
Chancellor.  Frequently  university  or  college 
statutes  provide  regulations  for  this  custom. 

Such  a  life  came  to  be  adopted  by  many 
through  preference,  and  was  often  persisted  in 


.:ii>fl)rii;ni)  '.(Vcn(t>  kitrVuf .' 


Ci'mrta?  ntir  ird.^  oiiffn  r'l-.vru.u  tf  Vtuhn 


■r.-^vTv>- 


340 


Begging  Students  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

for  years.  A  secret  society  known  as  Goliards 
iq.v.)  was  developed.  The  general  character 
of  the  life  of  the  wandering  student  is  discussed 
under  these  titles. 

The  begging  customs  were  carried  down  into 
the  lower  schools  as  these  came  to  be  developed 
under  church  or  town  or  later  Renaissance  iur 
fluences.  Here  the  older  boys,  bacchants  (q.v.), 
adopted  little  boys,  shooters  (q.v.),  as  appren- 
tices, —  apprentices  not  only  to  learning,  but 
to  begging,  to  the  Wandcrlu.-:},  and  often  to  \nce. 
The    number,    importunities,    and    unhcensed 


BEGINNING   READING 


BELGIUM 


conduct  of  these  students  led  to  the  attempt  to 
regulate  them  by  city  ordinance  in  the  later 
medieval  centuries.  Schools  were  permitted 
to  send  out  students  or  solicitors  only  at  certain 
hours,  in  a  limited  number,  and  within  restricted 
districts  —  usually  the  parish  The  illustration 
given  is  that  of  the  Nuremberger  students  of  the 
sixteenth  century  each  carrying  a  huge  basket 
identified  bj^  the  picture  of  the  patron  saint  of 
the  school. 

The  development  of  state  systems  of  schools 
in  the  Germanic  countries,  where  these  customs 
were  most  prevalent,  tended  to  eliminate  this 
custom,  though  survivals  of  it  in  the  singing  of 
pupils  from  door  to  door  on  given  feast  or  holi- 
days yet  persist. 

See  Bacchants;  Goliards;  Wandeking 
Students. 

References:  — • 

BuTZBACH.   Ed.  by  Becker,  D.  I.    Chronica  eines  fahren- 

den    Schuters    oder     Waiiderbilchlein    des    Johannes 

Butzhach.      (Regensburg,    1869.) 
MoNnoE,   Paul.     Thomas  Platter  and  the  Educational 

Renaissance  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.      (New  York, 

1904.) 
Platter,     Thos.      Autobiography.     (Tr.     in    Monroe, 

above.) 
Stmonds.     Wine,  Women,  and  Song.     (Portland,  Me., 

1899.) 
Rashdall,    Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages, 

Vol.  II.  Pt.  2,  rh.  xiv.      (Oxford,  1895.) 
Reiche,    E.     Der  Lehrcr  in   der  deutschen    Vergangen- 

heit.      (Leipzig,  1901.) 

BEGINNING  READING.  —  A  term  applied 
to  the  group  of  special  methods  employed  in 
teaching  beginners  to  read,  duringthe  first  school 
year.  Sometimes  spoken  of  as  "first  year 
reading"  or  "  basal  reading."  See  Reading, 
Teaching  Beginners.  H.  S. 

BEHAVIOR.  —  In  its  broadest  sense  the 
term  is  applied  to  all  forms  of  animal  activity. 
There  is  a  tendency,  however,  to  restrict  the 
term  to  comjDlex  organized  forms  of  reaction. 
Thus  we  speak  of  the  behavior  of  an  animal  in 
stalking  its  prey  or  extricating  itself  from  a 
trap.  The  importance  of  the  reactive  side 
of  nervous  processes  has  been  reiterated  in  all 
recent  discussions  of  beha-\aor.  Professor  James 
goes  so  far  as  to  define  education  as  a  process 
of  training  behavior.  C.  H.  J. 

See  Reaction. 

References:  — 
James,  \V.     Talks  to  Teachers.     (New  York,  1899.) 
JuDD,   C.   H.     Genetic  Psychology  for  Teachers.     (New 

York,  1903.) 

BELFAST,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  Estab- 
lislied  in  1849  as  Queen's  College,  a  con- 
stituent body  of  the  Queen's  University, 
which  in  1879  became  the  Royal  University 
of  Ireland,  with,  power  to  grant  degrees 
to  students  not  educated  at  any  college. 
Queen's  College,  Belfast,  was  the  most  success- 
ful of  the  three  colleges.  But  an  agitation  was 
for  a  long  time  continued  for  the  establish- 
ment of  local  universities  in  Ireland,  resulting 


in  the  Irish  Univer.sities  Act  of  1908,  by  which 
Queen's  College,  Belfast,  was  converted  into  the 
Belfast  University.  Faculties  of  arts,  sciences, 
medicine,  and  law  are  maintained.  In  1907-1908 
there  was  an  enrollment  of  406  students,  of  whom 
the  majority  were  in  the  medical  school.  See 
Ireland,  Education  in. 

References:  — 

Balfodr,  G.      The  Educational  Systems  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland.      (London,     190.'3.) 
Journal  of  Education.      (London,  1908  and  1909.) 

BELGIUM,  EDUCATION  IN.  —  PoUtical 
Organization  of  the  Kingdom.  —  A  constitu- 
tional monarchy.  —  Area,  11,373  square -miles  ; 
population  (census  of  1900),  6,693,548;  esti- 
mated 1907,  7,331,756.  The  executive  and 
legislative  powers  vested  in  hereditary  King, 
Senate,  and  Chamber  of  Representatives. 

The  divisions  of  the  kingdom  for  local  gov- 
ernment are  provinces  (9)  and  communes 
(2629,  census  of  1900),  both  of  which  enjoy 
a  large  measure  of  autonomy.  The  affairs  of 
the  former  are  administered  by  a  governor 
appointed  by  the  King,  a  provincial  council 
(elected),  and  a  permanent  deputation  consist- 
ing of  the  governor  and  six  members  of  the 
council  chosen  by  that  body. 

Three  distinct  authorities  participate  also 
in  the  administration  of  the  commune;  an 
elected  council,  a  burgomaster  appointed  by 
the  King  from  the  members  of  the  council, 
and  a  body  of  aldermen  (college  echevinaJ), 
consisting  of  the  burgomaster  and  from  two 
to  five  members  of  the  council  chosen  by  that 
body.  The  council,  which  represents  the  people 
directly,  is  the  principal  source  of  authority 
in  communal  affairs  (law  regulating  provin- 
cial and  communal  organization,  March  30, 
1836,  and  modifying  laws,  1838,  1842,  1848, 
1860,  and  1865). 

In  three  provinces  lying  along  the  border 
of  France, — i.e.,  Hainault,  Luxembourg,  and 
Namur,  —  and  also  in  Liege,  a  central  province, 
French  or  Walloon  is  the  prevailing  language. 
In  Antwerp,  Brabant,  East  and  West  Flanders, 
and  Limbourg,  the  Flemish  or  Dutch  language 
prevails. 

Belgium  is  preeminently  a  Catholic  country. 
Protestants  and  Anglicans  number  only  about 
27,900  and  Jews  13,200.  The  census  "of  1900 
gives  37,905  (men  6237,  women  31,608)  mem- 
bers of  religious  orders.  As  regards  language, 
the  census  of  1900  shows  that  42  per  cent  of  the 
population  spoke  Flemish  only  and  38.2  per 
cent  French  only. 

Underlying  Principles  of  the  System. — 
The  history  of  Belgium  as  an  independent 
kingdom  dates  from  1830,  and  by  the  constitu- 
tion promulgated  the  following  year  "liberty 
of  teaching  "  was  adopted  as  a  fundamental 
principle  of  education  in  the  new  kingdom. 
"  Instruction,"  says  Article  17  of  the  consti- 
tution, "shall  be  free,  all  prohibitory  measures 
are  forbidden;    the   suppression    of    abuses   is 


341 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


regulated  solely  by  law.  Public  instruction 
given  at  the  cost  of  the  State  is  equally 
regulated  by  law." 

This  impartial  provision  sufficed  for  the  time 
to  prevent  conflict  between  the  two  opposite 
forces  that  sougiit  to  direct  the  educational 
interests  of  the  country.  Through  all  changes 
of  empire,  the  people  of  this  kingdom  had  been 
loyal  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  submitted, 
as  a  rule,  to  clerical  control  of  education. 
But  from  a  very  early  period,  individual 
communes  had  claimed  and  secured  the  right 
to  independent  action  in  this  matter.  Thus 
in  1192  the  citizens  of  (Uient  secured  the  sanc- 
tion of  their  count  for  full  liberty  in  the  matter 
of  instruction,  and  about  the  same  time  a 
similar  privilege  was  obtained  by  Ypres. 
In  1320,  the  request  of  the  citizens  of  Brussels 
for  more  schools  having  been  refused  by  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities,  the  citizens  proceeded 
without  their  authorization  to  open  schools 
and  appoint  teachers.  In  1426  the  magistrate 
of  Brussels  opposed  the  establishment  of  a 
university  in  the  city,  since  the  students  would 
not  be  subject  to  the  civil  authority,  and  the 
university  was  therefore  opened  at  Louvain. 
The  effects  of  this  freedom  were  seen  in  the 
diffused  intelligence  and  love  of  learning  on  the 
part  of  the  citizens  of  the  chief  towns,  and  even 
of  the  villages,  as  testified  by  many  authorities. 

The  writings  of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau  were 
published  at  Brussels  in  1774  and  freely  cir- 
culated in  Belgium,  and  the  Journal  Ency- 
clopedique,  founded  at  Liege  in  1756  and  pub- 
lished at  Brussels  in  1759,  had  made  these  cities 
centers  for  the  discussion  and  diffusion  of  the 
ideas  of  the  French  Encyclopedists  (q.v.).  By 
the  peace  of  Luneville,  ISOl,  the  province 
was  included  within  the  limits  of  France,  and, 
after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  it  was  united  with 
the  Northern  Netherlands.  Although  this 
union  was  hateful  to  the  southern  province, 
it  increased  therein  the  spirit  of  communal 
independence,  and  familiarized  the  leaders,  also, 
with  the  workings  of  the  admirable  education 
law  of  the  northern  province,  passed  a  few  years 
before  the  Union  (1806).  By  the  previous 
union  with  France,  Belgium  had  been  brought 
within  the  operations  of  Napoleon's  University, 
and  was  thus  supplied  with  the  machinery  of 
an  educational  system  which  was  modified  in 
important  particulars  from  the  relation  with 
Holland.  All  these  currents  of  influence  and 
authority  met  in  the  newly  formed  kingdom, 
and  have  played  their  part  in  the  development 
of  the  present  system  of  education.  Many  of 
the  administrative  features  of  the  system,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  French  system,  are  derived 
from  the  Imperial  University.  In  Belgium, 
however,  there  is  the  form  without  the  spirit  of 
centralization. 

Present  Administrative  Organization.  —  The 
Minister  of  the  Interior  was  formerly  charged 
with  the  interests  of  public  instruction,  but 
these  have   been  recently  transferred   to   the 


Minister  of  Science  and  Art.  The  chief  edu- 
cational officials  under  the  minister  are 
two  general  directors,  one  for  primary  instruc- 
tion, the  other  for  secondary  and  superior. 
A  corps  of  inspectors  is  attached  to  the 
central  administration  comprising,  for  second- 
ary in.struction  {cnseigncmenl  moyen),  one  gen- 
eral inspector  and  two  ordinary  inspectors, 
one  for  the  humanities,  the  other  for  mathe- 
matics and  the  sciences;  and  for  primary  in- 
struction, one  or  more  principal  inspectors  in 
each  of  the  nine  provinces  of  the  kingdom, 
under  whom  are  subordinate  cantonal  inspec- 
tors. The  deliberative  councils  {conseils  de 
ycrfcclionnemenl),  one  for  each  of  the  three 
departments  of  the  system,  are  formed  by 
apjiointment  from  the  official  and  professional 
bodies.  They  deliberate  upon  scholastic  affairs 
submitted  to  them  by  the  minister,  but  have 
not  the  judicial  functions  of  the  French  councils. 
The  minister  has  little  direct  authoritj'  over 
schools,  but  he  exercises  great  influence  through 
the  control  of  the  government  appropriations 
for  education,  the  regulation  of  programs, 
and  the  appointing  power  which  he  possesses. 
Under  present  conditions  this  influence  is 
naturally  used  to  strengthen  the  clerical  control 
of  education. 

Department  of  Primary  Education.  — 
Legidalive  Measures.  —  The  principle  of  com- 
munal independence  is  firmly  established 
in  school  administration;  but  on  account  of 
the  influence  of  the  Catholic  clergy  in  local 
affairs  and  the  spirit  of  ecclesiastical  sub- 
ordination, the  Church  has  actual  control 
of  primary  schools  in  the  majority  of  the  com- 
munes. Against  this  powerful  monopoly,  the 
Liberals  wage  incessant  warfare.  The  pro- 
longed and  bitter  contest  between  the  two 
parties  has  been  marked  by  a  succession  of 
laws  which  have  enlarged  or  restrained  clerical 
control  of  the  schools,  according  to  the  purposes 
of  the  party  in  power. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  Clerical  party  advo- 
cates a  high  degree  of  communal  independence 
in  respect  to  the  classes  of  schools  that  shall 
be  recognized,  and  their  administration  and 
conduct.  This  policy  shaped  the  law  of  1S42, 
the  first  law  pertaining  to  primary  education 
in  Belgium,  and  the  laws  of  18S4  and  1895,  by 
which  the  system  of  primary  education  is  at 
present  regulated;  the  Liberals,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  earnest  advocates  of  a  system  of 
free  secular  schools  under  state  supervision; 
the  abolition  of  ecclesiastical  inspection  of 
schools;  and  the  restriction  of  the  teaching 
service  to  native  Belgians  trained  in  state 
normal  schools  or  possessed  of  state  diplomas. 
These  were  the  principles  embodied  in  the  law 
of  1S79.  The  law  of  September  20,  1884, 
renewed  the  main  provisions  of  the  law  of 
1842.  Religious  instruction  was,  however, 
left  optional  with  the  communes;  but  the  teach- 
ing service  was  again  thrown  open  to  natural- 
ized foreigners,  thus  giving  large  opportunity 


342 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


for  the  employment  of  members  of  the  religious 
orders,  irrespective  of  nationality.  The  official 
program  of  primary  studies,  though  much 
abridged  from  that  recognized  by  the  law  of 
1879,  was  not  reduced  to  the  meager  limits 
of  the  earlier  law.  Finally  a  law  of  1805  made 
religious  instruction  once  more  obligatory.  It 
was  ordered  that  the  clergy  should  have  free 
access  to  the  primary  schools  and  to  the  normal 
schools,  to  give,  or  to  supervise,  the  religious 
lessons,  arrangements  being  made  for  the  with- 
drawal of  dissenting  children.  The  provision 
of  the  earlier  law  with  respect  to  the  adoption 
of  parochial  schools  was  continued,  and  a  third 
class  of  schools  was  recognized,  namel3%  private 
schools  not  giving  religious  instruction,  and 
not  subject  to  communal  inspection.  If  such 
schools  meet  the  government  requirements, 
they  may  share  in  the  state  appropriations. 

The  principle  of  state  obligation  for  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  upon  which  the  Liberals  had 
insisted  was  discarded  by  the  law  of  1884, 
which  authorized  the  State,  provinces,  and 
communes  to  establish  normal  schools  in  such 
numbers  as  circumstances  might  require,  and 
provided  that  private  normal  schools  might 
receive  grants  from  the  public  treasury  upon  the 
condition  of  submitting  to  official  inspection. 

This  extreme  measure  was  ojiposed,  not  alone 
by  the  Liberals,  but  by  moderate  Catholics, 
also,  on  the  ground  that  it  violated  the  religious 
neutrality  of  the  State  and  the  rights  of  con- 
science, guaranteed  by  the  constitution.  Fur- 
thermore, it  was  urged  that  the  powers  con- 
ferred upon  the  clergy  by  the  law  infringed 
upon  the  rights  reserved  to  the  communes 
by  law  of  March  30,  1836,  which  antedates  all 
school  legislation  in  Belgium.  This  law  ex- 
pressly declares  that  the  college  des  hourge- 
mestre  et  echet'ins  (mayor  and  aldermen)  in 
each  commune  shall  "administer,  direct,  and 
supervise  all  communal  institutions."  The 
influences  in  favor  of  the  law  were,  however, 
too  strong  to  be  overcome,  and  its  passage,  for 
the  time  being,  has  transferred  the  struggle 
for  the  control  of  schools  to  the  communes  in 
which  the  Liberals  are  powerful. 

The  pa.ssage  of  the  Liberal  law  of  1879  was 
followed  within  two  years  by  the  opening  of 
private  clerical  schools  in  1936  communes  and 
the  withdrawal  of  1500  teachers  from  the  public 
schools  to  take  positions  in  the  new  schools; 
the  law  of  1884  was  followed  by  the  suppression 
of  about  800  public  schools,  the  reduction  of 
the  teaching  force  in  others,  the  diminution  of 
many  salaries,  and  the  serious  crippling  of  the 
public  normal  schools.  The  danger  of  such  re- 
taliatory measures  under  a  change  of  political 
parties  has  been  somewhat  lessened  by  a  clause 
in  the  law  of  1895,  providing  that  no  communal 
school  or  teaching  position  shall  be  suppressed 
without  autliorization  from  the  central  au- 
thority, and,  further,  that  no  teacher's  salary 
shall  be  reduced  during  his  term  of  office  in  any 
one  commune. 


Supervision,  Central  and  Local. — The  central 
government  simply  maintains  inspection  of 
primary  schools  with  reference  to  the  condi- 
tions required  for  obtaining  the  annual  appro- 
priation, namely,  sufficient  acconunodation, 
approved  buildings,  and  the  maintenance  of 
the  obligatory  program. 

In  each  commune  of  the  kingdom  there  is 
an  education  board  composed  of  members  of 
the  communal  councU,  the  burgomaster,  and 
aldermen  (echevins).  The  board  establishes 
public  schools,  appoints  teachers,  determines 
their  salaries  subject  to  the  legal  requirement 
as  to  the  minimum,  and  practically  controls 
the  schools. 

The  commune  has  its  local  inspectors,  and 
a  committee  on  school  attendance  whose  duty 
it  is  to  ascertain  how  many  children  between 
the  ages  of  6  and  14  reside  within  the  district, 
and  to  take  measures  for  securing  their  attend- 
ance. There  is  no  compulsory  provision  in 
the  school  law. 

The  governing  bodies  of  the  ecoles  adoptees 
are  generally  formed  on  the  nomination  of  the 
chief  clergy  of  the  diocese  and  influential 
Catholic  laymen.  These  schools  preserve  their 
religious  character,  and  perfect  freedom  re- 
specting the  choice  of  books  and  methods  and 
the  api)ointment  of  teachers,  subject  only  to 
the  conditions  of  the  law  of  1884  and  1895,  and 
to  the  assent  of  the  commune,  which  may  at 
any  time  cease  to  recognize  the  adopted  school 
for  satisfactory  reasons.  A  special  class  of 
local  inspectors  is  appointed  by  the  ecclesias- 
tical authorities  to  supervise  the  religious  in- 
struction. These  inspectors  are  required  to 
join  the  other  officials  and  teachers  in  the  quar- 
terly reunions  for  interchange  of  experience 
and  the  discussion  of  methods  and  principles 
of  education. 

Obligatory  Studies.  —  In  addition  to  re- 
ligious and  moral  instruction,  the  program 
of  obligatory  studies  for  primary  schools 
includes  the  following  subjects:  reading,  writ- 
ing, elements  of  arithmetic,  the  legal  system 
of  weights  and  measures,  the  elements  of  the 
French  language,  of  the  Flemish  or  the 
German,  according  to  local  requirements, 
geography,  history  of  Belgium,  elements  of 
drawing,  singing,  and  gymnastics,  needlework 
for  girls,  and  for  boys,  in  the  rural  districts, 
elements  of  agriculture.  The  number  of  schools 
omitting  any  of  the  above  is  reported  each  year, 
and  the  statistics  indicate  a  steady  increase  in 
the  number  giving  the  full  course.  A  fair 
proportion  of  primary  schools  offer  in  addition 
one  or  more  optional  branches.  These  are 
designated  as  schools  with  developed  pro- 
grams (ecoles  primaires  a  programme  developpe) . 
The  ambition  of  pujjils  is  stimulated  by  the 
annual  public  examinations  (co7icours)  of  the 
higher  classes  of  primary  schools,  in  which 
both  communal  and  subsidized  primary  schools 
mu.st  participate.  The  enthusiasm  of  teachers 
is  also  excited  by  the  hope  of  the  decorations 


343 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


conferred  hy  the  government  for  special  merit. 
These  awards  are  the  civie  cross,  fir.st  and  second 
class,  and  civic  medal,  iirst  and  second  class. 

Text-Hooks.  —  The  communal  councils  gen- 
erally select  the  text-books  to  be  used  in  the 
schools  from  a  list  approved  by  the  official 
council  {conseil  de  perfectionnement) .  The  se- 
lection is  not,  however,  absolutely  limited  to 
the  list.  The  te.\t-books  for  religious  and  moral 
instruction  are  selected  solely  by  the  ecclesias- 
tical authorities. 

School  Fccx.  —  The  communes  arc  at  liberty 
to  charge  fees,  and  in  country  places  they  some- 
times do  so;  but  in  every  commune  provision 
must  be  made  by  which  the  ciiildren  of  indigent 
parents  may  be  taught  gratuitously.  There 
are  throughout  the  country  bureaux  de  bien- 
faisancc,  or  local  boards  for  the  administration 
of  charity,  and  the  law  requires  that  out  of  the 
funds  administered  by  these  bodies  the  fees 
of  jjoor  children,  wherever  fees  are  exacted  at 
all,  siiall  be  paid.  In  fact,  the  primary  schools 
are  generally  free;  in  Brussels  and  other  prin- 
cipal towns,  invarialily  so. 

Teachers.  —  The  cla.sses  of  teachers  recognized 
by  the  law,  and  the  minimum  salary  for  each 
class,  are  as  follows:  — 


SAL.\RIES 

CL.tSSE3  OF 

Teachers 

PnmciPALS 

Assistants 

Men 

Women 

Men 

Women 

Frs. 

f 

Frs. 

J 

Fra. 

$ 

Fra. 

f 

Fifth  daa.q.  com- 
munes of  1500 
inhabitants  or 
less        .     .     . 

Fourth        class, 

1200 

240 

1200 

240 

1000 

200 

1000 

200 

communes    of 

1.501  to  10.000 

inh.ibitants     . 

Third  class,  com- 

1400 

280 

1300 

260 

1100 

220 

1100 

220 

munes           of 
10.001           to 
40.000  inhab- 
itants   .     .     . 
Second        class. 

1000 

320 

1400 

280 

1200 

240 

1100 

220 

communes    of 
40.001           to 
100,000        in- 
habitants  .     . 
First  class,  com- 

1800 

360 

1600 

320 

1300 

260 

1200 

240 

munes           of 

more         than 
100.000         in- 
habitants   .     . 

2400 

480 

2200 

440 

1400 

280 

1200 

240 

The  commune  must  also  provide  a  residence 
for  the  teacher  or  an  indemnity  for  the  same 
ranging  from  $40  to  .§100  annually. 

Teachers  have  the  right  to  a  pension  upon 
the  same  terras  as  members  of  other  branches 
of  the  civil  service.  They  may  demand  the 
pension  at  55  years  of  age,  or  be  retired  with 
pension  at  60.  The  amount  of  the  pension 
is  calculated  for  each  year  of  actual  service  at 
the  rate  of  one  fifth  of  the  average  salary 
received  for  the  last  five  years  in  the  service. 

Sources  of  Support.  —  Primarily  the  com- 
mune must  bear  the  cost  of  elementary  edu- 
cation.     The   State    and  the   province    grant 


subsidies  only  when  the  commune  has  con- 
tributed a  sum  equal  at  least  to  the  proceeds 
of  four  centimes  additional  to  the  direct  tax. 
Since,  however,  the  poorest  communes  may 
receive  special  assistance,  the  government 
appropriation  is  seldom  forfeited. 

Stali.4ics  of  Primary  Education.  —  In  1907, 
the  latest  year  covered  by  an  official  report 
on  the  subject,  there  were  in  Belgium  7291 
primary  schools  under  state  inspection,  of 
which  4598  were  communal  and  2693  adopted. 
About  one  third  the  total  nund)er  of  scliools 
were  coeducational.  The  enrollment  in  all 
primary  schools  was  897,000  pupils,  distributed 
as  follows:  in  communal  schools,  509,418 
(1319,315  boys;  190,103  girls);  in  adopted 
schools,  218,464  (71,535  Isoys,  146.929  girls); 
in  private  (chiefly  parochial)  schools,  169,118 
(61,419  boys,  107,699  girls).  In  other  words, 
56.7  per  cent  of  the  pupils  were  in  schools 
maintained  and  managed  directly  by  the  com- 
munal authorities;  at  the  beginning  of  the 
decade  the  proportion  was  63  per  cent.  Of 
the  total  number  of  pupils  845,793,  or  94  per 
cent,  paid  no  fees. 

The  teaching  staff  of  the  public  primarv 
schools  numbered  19,786  (8904  men,  10,280 
women,  and  602  not  classified  by  sex).  Of 
the  total  number  nearly  one  third,  viz.,  6039 
(745  men;  5294  women)  were  members  of 
religious  orders. 

There  were  also  2918  school  gardens  (infant 
schools)  with  an  enrollment  of  266,365  children. 
The  continuation  classes  for  adults  were  at- 
tended by  213,045  persons,  including  118,904  in 
the  classes  for  young  men;  and  94,141  in  the 
cla.sscs  for  women.  Nearly  two  thirds  of  the 
adult  pupils  were  in  adopted  (i.e.  subsidized) 
schools  or  classes.  These,  as  a  rule,  are  under 
clerical  management. 

The  number  of  normal  schools  was  54.  Of 
these,  13  (7  for  men;  6  for  women)  were  state 
schools;  2  were  communal,  and  41  (12  for  men; 
29  for  women)  were  adopted  schools  under 
ecclesiastical  control.  The  number  of  students 
in  training  was  4806,  and  the  number  who 
received  diplomas  in  1907  was  1018. 

The  16  institutions  for  the  blind  and  the  deaf- 
mute  —  7  for  men,  7  for  women,  2  for  both  sexes, 
all  subsidized  by  the  State  —  had  an  enrollment 
of  1746  pupils  (869  men;  877  women);  the 
royal  institute  of  Messines  for  blind  women 
reported  185  students.  The  children  in  or- 
phanages, reform  schools,  and  asylums  increased 
the  number  of  pupils  under  primary  instruction 
by  5883  (3986  boys  and  1897  girls). 

The  expenditure  for  the  department  of  pri- 
mary education  in  1906  was  50,462,708  francs 
(.?ld,092,547).  Of  this  amount,  30,030,311 
francs  (86,006,062)  went  for  the  current  ex- 
penditures of  the  public  primary  schools,  com- 
munal and  adopted,  and  7,694,680  francs 
(.51,538,936)  for  school  buildings,  or  a  total 
exi)eiiditure  for  ordinary  primary  schools  of 
37,724,991    francs,    equivalent    to   $7,544,998. 


344 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


Private  subsidized  primary  schools  received  an 
additional  sum  of  2,385,119  francs  (§477,024), 
which  raises  the  total  for  primary  schools  to 
40,110,110  francs  (§8,022,022). 

The  expenditure  for  primary  normal  schools 
was  2,987,370  francs,  equivalent  to  S.597,474; 
expenditure  for  infant  schools,  4,000,983  francs 
(■SS00,196);  for  adult  schools  and  classes, 
2,049,906  francs  (8409,980),  for  prizes,  scholar- 
ships, etc.,  547,442  francs  (.§109,488);  and 
for  direction  and  inspection,  766,897  francs 
(•§153,179).  The  amount  expended  for  the 
ordinary  primary  schools  was  79  per  cent  of 
the  entire  expenditure  for  the  department, 
and  estimated  on  the  enrollment  was  eciuiva- 
lent  to  .S8.94  per  cajiita;  estimated  on  the 
population  to  81.09  per  capita. 

The  total  here  considered  (50,462,708  francs) 
was  met  as  follows:  Communal  appropriations, 
24,360,982  francs  (48.2  per  cent  of  the  total) ; 
provincial  appropriations,  2,484,738  francs 
(4.8  per  cent);  state  appropriation,  20,015,229 
francs  (41.4  per  cent);  fees,  1,754,731  francs 
(3.4  per  cent).  The  small  balance  was  derived 
from  private  bequests  and  ajjpropriations  from 
the  bureaux  de  bienfaisance  on  behalf  of  poor 
children. 

Characteristic  Features  of  Primary  Educa- 
tion. —  From  the  high  degree  of  local 
independence  in  school  affairs,  and  the 
absence  of  a  compulsory  school  law  and  a 
well-organized  system  of  state  inspection,  there 
follow  marked  differences  in  the  schools  of  the 
2629  communes  of  the  kingdom.  The  most 
efficient  schools  are  found  in  the  populous 
centers  where  Liberal  ideas  prevail;  but,  on 
the  whole,  primary  education  is  in  a  low  state, 
as  indicated  by  the  fact,  brought  out  in  the 
census  of  1909,  that  a  little  more  than  19  per 
cent  of  the  population  above  eight  years  of 
age  are  illiterate.  This  is  due  in  part  to  con- 
ditions that  retard  rural  schools  elsewhere, 
and  in  part  to  the  narrow  conception  of  popular 
education  maintained  by  the  authorities,  and 
the  prevalence  of  oral  and  dogmatic  methods 
of  instruction  in  parochial  schools. 

The  theory  of  popular  education,  however, 
has  been  admirably  worked  out  by  Belgian 
educators,  and  the  schools  offer  many  sug- 
gestions as  to  aims  and  methods  which  are  of 
general  interest.  In  certain  rural  schools  of 
Belgium  the  official  program  of  elementary 
agriculture  is  well  carried  out,  the  theoretical 
instruction  being  completed  at  every  stage  by 
work  in  the  garden  and  fields.  In  this  subject 
the  concentric  method  of  instruction  is  era- 
ployed  with  great  success.  An  important 
service  is  rendered  also  by  the  practical  methods 
of  moral  training  generally  employed.  The 
teaching  of  tlirift  is  illustrated  by  the  school 
savings  banks,  which,  in  1905,  numbered  8117, 
with  431,897  depositors  and  savings  amounting 
to  11,533,332  francs  (S2,306,666).  The  system 
extends  also  to  the  adult  schools,  which  were 
represented  the  same  year  by  27,719  depositors 


and  savings  amounting  to  one  and  a  quarter  mil- 
lion francs.  School  temperance  societies  formed 
in  2597  schools  enrolled  103,939  members. 

Brussels  as  a  Type.  —  The  communal  schools 
of  Brussels  have  been  brought  to  a  high 
degree  of  efficiency  through  the  progressive 
spirit  of  the  municipal  authorities  and  the 
direct  influence  of  the  Brussels  Normal  School, 
which  was  founded  in  1874,  and  under  Director 
Sluys  has  become  one  of  the  chief  centers  of 
educational  reform  in  Europe. 

The  public  school  provision  of  Brussels 
consists  of  14  communal  school  gardens,  or 
infant  schools,  conducted  on  Froebelian  prin- 
ciples, in  which  were  enrolled  in  1907-1908, 
2823  pupils  from  2  to  6  years  of  age;  21  com- 
munal primary  schools  with  an  enrollment 
of  13,679  pupils,  one  royal  athenee  with  486 
students;  2  communal  secondary  schools  for 
boys  with  1028  pupils,  and  one  school  of  the 
same  order  for  girls,  with  849  pupils.  Omit- 
ting the  school  gardens,  the  enrollment  in  the 
public  schools  of  Brussels  for  the  year  named 
was  16,042  pupils,  which  is  about  8  per  cent  of 
the  city  population  (196,882). 

In  the  regular  primary  schools  an  average 
attendance  was  maintained  ccfual  to  86.6  per 
cent  of  the  enrollment.  A  force  of  546  teachers 
was  employed,  comprising  22  head  teachers 
and  66  special  teachers  of  music,  gymnastics, 
languages,  household  arts,  etc.  The  remain- 
ing number,  438,  was  equivalent  to  one  teacher 
for  every  27  pupils  in  the  average  enrollment 
(11,845).  This  city  offers  very  interesting 
examples  of  the  adaptation  of  public  schools 
to  the  needs  of  particular  classes  of  children. 
Among  these  are:  the  special  classes  for  back- 
ward children,  courses  in  articulation  for  chil- 
dren having  defects  of  the  vocal  organs,  and 
the  establishment  of  extra  classes  termed 
primary  classes  of  the  fourth  degree,  that  is, 
a  stage  beyond  the  three  sections  into  which 
the  primary  schools  are  generally  divided. 
These  advanced  classes  are  conducted  on  the 
individual  principle,  with  the  purpose  of  incit- 
ing the  pupils  to  independent,  self-directed 
effort  in  the  subjects  upon  which  they  are 
engaged,  and  which  have  immediate  relation 
to  the  demands  of  commercial  and  industrial 
vocations.  The  experiment  was  begun  in 
1907  in  three  schools,  the  classes  enrolling 
that  year  261  boys.  The  number  of  classes 
has  since  been  increased  and  the  system  of 
instruction  more  full.y  organized.  Instruction 
in  foreign  languages,  following  the  methods 
employed  with  great  success  in  the  secondary 
schools,  is  a  feature  of  these  advanced  classes. 

Opportunities  for  the  continued  instruction 
of  young  people  above  the  school  age  are  af- 
forded (1)  bv  the  continuation  classes,  which 
in  1908  were  attended  by  2200  pupils  (1265 
young  men;  935  young  women);  (2)  by  art 
and  trades  schools,  which  are  maintained  by 
the  combined  action  of  the  state,  the  munici- 
pality, and  private  individuals  or  societies. 


345 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


The  service  of  medical  inspection  of  schools 
is  thorouRhly  organized,  and  the  city  affords, 
also,  notable  examples  of  various  forms  of 
social  service  through  the  instrumentality  of  the 
schools. 

Clothing  and  food  are  supplied  to  the 
children  of  the  ordinary  primary  schools  by 
private  societies  assisted  by  municipal  funds. 
For  the  daily  distribution  of  soup  and  bread, 
maintained  by  VCEuvre  cle  la  Buuchee  de  Pain, 
and  VCEuvre  de  la  Snupe,  the  municipality 
contributes  about  10,000  francs  (S2000)  a 
year.  An  additional  5000  francs  (.'SIOOO)  was 
allowed  in  1908  for  the  same  purpose,  in  the 
private  schools.  This  beneficent  care  is  ex- 
tended to  the  homes  of  the  poorest  children 
through  the  agency  of  a  society,  VCEuvre  de  la 
Feuille  d'Elain,  which  distributes  coal  to  the 
most  necessitous  families  whose  children  attend 
the  schools. 

Summer  colonies  for  school  children  are  also 
organized  by  the  combined  action  of  the  munic- 
ipality and  private  societies.  In  the  summer 
of  1908  the  number  of  children  sent  for  a  time  to 
one  or  other  of  these  country  resorts  was  1729, 
who  made  a  total  of  20,698  days  of  sojourn. 
About  one  hundred  and  eighty  creches,  con- 
ducted by  private  societies,  for  infants  whose 
mothers  are  at  work,  are  subsidized  by  the  city 
and  placed  under  its  medical  inspection. 

Liberty  of  instruction  in  Belgium  has  been 
favorable  to  individual  initiative  and  local 
activity  in  the  matter,  and  the  absence  of  official 
restraints  has  conduced  to  freedom  of  discus- 
sion and  to  the  vigorous  action  of  educational 
societies.  The  Federation  genhale  des  insti- 
tuteurs  beiges  maintains  a  vigorous  crusade  in 
behalf  of  progressive  methods  and  high  stand- 
ards in  elementary  education.  In  1907  the 
association  organized  a  committee  of  defense 
to  protect  the  body  of  pubhc  school  teachers 
in  their  rights,  to  expose  covert  attacks  directed 
against  them,  and  to  support  the  principles  of 
a  public  secular  school  system.  The  Journal 
des  Instituteurs  is  the  organ  of  the  Federation, 
which  maintains  also  an  International  Bureau 
of  teachers'  federations  at  Brussels.  The 
educational  policies  of  the  Clerical  party,  as 
unfolded  at  the  celebration  of  the  twenty-fifth 
anniversary  of  their  accession  to  power,  which 
took  place  at  Mahnes  in  1909,  have  given  new 
impetus  to  the  activities  of  the  Teachers'  Fed- 
eration and  new  vigor  to  the  educational  efforts 
of  the  Liberal  party. 

Opposition  to  the  reactionary  policy  in  school 
matters  is  vigorously  maintained  by  the  Ligue 
de  Venseignement,  which  was  founded  in  1864 
to  promote  Uberal  and  progressive  policies 
in  popular  education.  In  1904  the  Ligue 
ceased  active  operations,  but  was  reorganized 
and  revived  in  1907  under  the  presidency  of 
M.  Charles  Buls,  one  of  the  most  ardent 
champions  of  free  and  liberal  education  for  the 
people. 

The  scientific  study  of  children  is  carried  on 


by  the  Algemein  paedogogisch  Gezehchajf, 
founded  at  Antwerp  in  1902,  and  at  the  labora- 
tory of  pedology  at  the  Brussels  Normal  School. 
The  SociHe  beige  de  Pedolechnic  is  composed  of 
doctors  and  educators  interested  in  the  ajipli- 
cation  of  the  results  of  scientific  researches  in 
the  school  processes. 

The  interest  of  the  government  in  this  class 
of  investigations  is  indicated  i)y  the  foundation 
of  the  I iistitut  national  beige  de  pidolugie  under 
official  patronage. 

Secondary  Education.  —  Secondary  educa- 
tion [enxeignemcnt  nioijen),  maintained  at  public 
expense,  is  based  upon  an  act  of  June  1,  1850, 
modified  bv  acts  of  June  15,  1881,  June  15, 
1883,  and  February  6,  1887.  These  acts  deter- 
mine the  organization  and  scope  of  the  two 
classes  of  schools  included  in  the  deixartment. 
Local  hoards  consisting  of  the  mayor  and 
aldermen  of  the  city  or  town  in  which  the  re- 
spective schools  are  situated,  with  additional 
members  appointed  by  the  central  autiiority, 
have  direct  charge  of  the  schools.  Tiie  iuiild- 
ings  and  equipments  for  the  state  schools  are 
provided  by  the  local  authorities;  the  current 
expenditures,  including  salaries,  material,  etc., 
are  borne  by  state  appropriations  and  tuition 
fees;  the  latter  are  low  and  form  a  very  small 
part  of  the  income. 

The  Royal  Athenees.  —  The  higher  order  of 
secondary  schools  include  the  athenees,  the 
modern  representatives  of  the  colleges  that 
formed  around  the  ancient  universities,  and  a 
few  establishments  which  retain  the  old  name 
of  college.  The  athenees  are  day  schools  and 
for  boys  only.  The  teaching  staff  consists 
of  a  prefect  of  studies  (head-master),  profes- 
sors, and  assistants  (surveillants).  The  prefect 
and  professors  are  appointed  by  the  King,  and 
must  be  university  men  who  have  secured 
the  doctor's  degree;  the  assistants,  who  must 
have  a  university  diploma,  are  appointed  by 
the    minister.     The    salaries    are    as    follows: 


Sa 

LARIE8 

Positions 

Minimum 

Maximum 

Alhfnies 

Pra. 

t 

Pre. 

t 

Inapector  of  studies  ijorifet  des 

dudes) 

4200 

840 

4600 

920 

Professor  of  third  class       ,     .     . 

2600 

.520 

2000 

580 

Professor  of  senond  class    .     .     . 

3200 

640 

3400 

680 

Professor  of  first  class         .     .     . 

3700 

740 

4100 

820 

Master    (surveillant)     of    second 

2200 

440 

2400 

480 

Master  (surveiliant)  of  first  class 

2600 

520 

2S00 

500 

The  salary  of  the  professor  of  religion,  which 
does  not  vary,  is  fixed  at  2500  francs,  equiva- 
lent to  .?500. 

In  Belgium,  as  in  other  countries,  the  ques- 
tion of  cla.ssical  versus  scientific  training  has 
been  earnestly  discussed  ever  since  the  organ- 
ization of  secondary  instruction  (law  of  1850). 


346 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


The  movement,  however,  in  favor  of  science 
and  modern  languages  has  had  less  opposition 
than  in  adjoining  countries.  The  demand  for 
a  course  of  modern  subjects  of  recognized  equiv- 
alence with  the  estabhshed  classical  course 
has  been  met  by  organizing  parallel  courses  in 
the  athenees  after  the  French  precedent,  instead 
of  by  separate  establishments  as  in  Germany. 
After  repeated  experiments  the  present  organi- 
zation of  the  athenees  was  ordered  by  royal  de- 
cree of  August  5,  ISSS.  In  accordance  with 
this  decree,  the  course  of  study  is  arranged  in 
three  parallel  sections  as  follows:  Latin  and 
Greek  humanities;  Latin  humanities;  Modern 
humanities.  Each  section  comprises  seven 
classes  or  years  of  study.  The  subjects  and 
the  relative  weight  given  to  each  in  the  Latin 
and  Greek  section,  are  shown  by  the  following 
scheme  for  the  athenees  of  the  Walloon  dis- 
tricts : 


[Figures  in  parentheses  indicate  number  of  hours  for 
optional  studies.] 


Classes 

Studies 

g 

> 

J3 

1 

a 
o 

1 

2 

ToT.iL 

Religion      .     .     . 

Latin      .... 

Greek     .... 

French  .... 

Flemish   or   Ger- 
man      (obliga- 
tory)       .      .      . 

German  or  Flem- 
ish   (optional) . 

English 

History       .      .      . 

Geography       .     . 

Mathematics 

Natural    sciences 

Drawing     .     .     . 

Music   (optional) 

Gymnastics  (two 
hours    during 
recreation)  .     . 

2 
6 

7 

2 

1 
3 

2 

(1) 

2 

7 

6 
5 

2 
1 
3 

2 
(1) 

2 
8 
5 
3 

3 

2 
1 
3 

2 

(1) 

2 
8 
5 
3 

3 

(2) 
(2) 
2 
1 
3 
2 

(2) 
(1) 

2 
8 
5 
3 

3 

(2) 
(2) 

2 

1 

3 

2 

(2) 
(1) 

2 
8 
5 
3 

3 

(2) 
(2) 

2 

1 

3 

2 

(2) 
(1) 

2 
8 
5 
3 

3 

(8) 
(2) 

2 

1 

3 

2 

(2) 
(1) 

14 
53 
25 
28 

20 

(8) 
(8) 
14 

7 
21 

8 

6 +(8) 

(7) 

Total    hours 
of  obligatory 
lessons     .     . 

23 

28 

29 

29 

29 

29 

29 

In  the  section  of  Latin  humanities  the  time 
given  to  Greek  in  the  above  scheme  is  divided 
between  mathematics  and  natural  sciences. 

The  course  in  modern  humanities  is  also  the 
same,  with  the  exception  of  Latin  and  Greek 
and  the  addition  of  commercial  sciences.  This 
section  consists  of  a  lower  division,  comprising 
four  years,  and  of  two  higher  divisions,  the 
scientific  and  the  commercial  and  industrial, 
each  covering  three  years.  The  section  of 
modern  humanities  is  correlated  to  the  course 
of  the  lower  secondary  schools,  which  form  in 
fact  a  preparatory  stage  to  the  former,  leading 
up  from  the  primary  school.  It  is  also  per- 
mitted to  introduce  Latin  into  the  lower 
secondaries,  and  where  this  is  done  they  prepare 
for  the  Latin  section  of  the  athenies. 


Students  who  complete  any  one  of  the 
athenee  courses  of  instruction  and  pass  the  final 
examination  receive  a  diploma  [diplome  de 
sortie)  which  admits  them  to  the  universities. 
This  is  the  goal  for  which  the  majority  of  the 
students  are  aiming.  The  diplomas  of  the 
different  sections  have  not,  however,  the  same 
scholastic  values.  Graduates  from  the  classical 
section  are  admitted  to  any  one  of  the  univer- 
sit}'  faculties;  graduates  from  the  Latin  scien- 
tific section  to  the  higher  schools  of  engineer- 
ing, mining,  arts,  and  manufactures;  graduates 
from  the  industrial  and  commercial  section  to 
the  commercial  and  consular  sections  of  the 
universities  of  Ghent  and  Liege. 

In  1847  the  government  created  special  ped- 
agogical courses  to  prepare  professors  for  the 
athenees,  i.e.  courses  of  humanities  at  Liege, 
and  of  science  at  Ghent.  In  1852  these  courses 
were  organized  as  special  normal  schools, 
and  so  continued  until  1890,  when  they  were 
merged  into  the  universities  —  the  former  into 
the  faculty  of  philosophy  and  letters.  Univer- 
sity of  Liege;  the  latter  into  the  faculty  of 
science.  University  of  Ghent. 

The  state  secondary  schools  of  the  lower 
order  {ecoles  moyennes)  form  a  characteristic 
feature  of  public  education  in  Belgium.  They 
were  created  by  the  government  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  higher  artisan  and  commercial 
classes,  and  consequently  in  their  programs 
emphasis  is  placed  upon  studies  of  immediate 
utility.  They  include  schools  for  boys,  dating 
from  the  law  of  June  1,  18S0,  which  authorized 
the  government  to  organize  fifty  secondary 
schools  for  boys,  and  schools  for  girls  authorized 
to  the  number  of  fifty,  by  the  law  of  June  15, 
1881.  This  law  also  increased  the  number  of 
the  corresponding  schools  for  boys  to  one 
hundred.  Every  effort  is  made  by  the  govern- 
ment to  maintain  the  schools  of  this  class  at  a 
high  standard  of  efficiency.  The  directors  and 
professors  are  chosen  upon  the  results  of  special 
examination,  and  so  far  as  possible  the  service 
is  placed  on  an  eciual  footing  with  that  of  the 
athenees. 

The  salaries  in  the  secondary  schools  consist 
of  a  fixed  amount  and  occasional  extra  allow- 
ance for  special  merit.  The  fixed  salaries  in 
the  schools  for  boys  and  for  the  corresponding 
positions  in  the  schools  for  girls  are  as  follows 
(Art.  8,  law  of  August  4,  1881): 


Positions 

Sa 

LARIES 

Minimum 

Maximum 

Director 

Master  (regent)  of  second  class    . 
Master  (regf-nt)  of  first  class    .     . 
Teacher    (.inatituteur)    of   second 

Frs. 

2sno 

2000 
2300 

1600 
2000 

S 
560 
400 
460 

320 
400 

Fts. 

3300 
2200 
2500 

1800 
2200 

» 
660 
440 
500 

360 

Teacher  (ins(i(u(cur)  of  first  class 

440 

347 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


The  professors  of  religion  receive  the  fixed 
salary  of  1300  francs  (S260).  The  professors 
of  drawing,  music,  and  gymnastics  in  the 
secondary  schools  for  girls  have  a  miiiinuim 
salarv  of  900  francs  (S180),  and  a  maxinuun  of 
llOO'francs  (S220).  Like  the  professors  of  the 
alhenies,  those  of  the  lower  secondary  schools 
are  borne  on  the  civil  pension  list. 

The  tuition  fees  are  low,  ranging  from  IS 
francs  (S3. (JO)  to  7'2  francs  (S14..50)  per  annum. 
They  are  remitted  in  special  ca.scs,  and  there  are 
state  bourses  (scholarsiiijis),  open  to  competi- 
tive examination,  wliicii  enable  poor  but  [)romis- 
ing  pu])ils  to  meet  tlieir  expenses.  The  schools 
are  for  day  students  only,  but  the  authorities 
of  tlie  towns  in  which  the  schools  are  located 
may  arrange  with  private  persons  to  board 
students  from  a  distance. 

The  course  of  the  secondary  schools  covers 
three  years,  so  that  pupils  entering  at  the 
normal  age  of  12  years  are  ready  for  the 
final  examination  at  15  years  of  age.  The 
diploma  of  this  order  of  secondary  education 
has  value  in  business  life,  and  also  admits 
the  student  to  the  modern  section  of  the 
athenees.  The  subjects  of  instruction  and  the 
time  assigned  to  each  in  the  schools  for  boys 
and  for  girls,  respectively,  are  as  follows: 

PROGR.\iM  OF  THE  THREE  YE.\RS'  GENER.\L 
COURSE 


SCBJECTS 


Religion        

Mother  tongue 

Flemish  (obiicatory  in  Flemish  districts)  . 

Flemish  or  German  (obliRatorj'  in  Wal- 
loon districts)    

First  optional  language,  Flemish  (Flemish 
districts)  ;  Flemish  or  German  (Walloon 
districts)  ;  second  optional  language. 
English 

Historj'         

Geography 

Natural  sciences  and  hygiene       .... 

Bookkeeping  and  writing         

Mathematics 

Domestic  econom.v 

Needlework 

Drawing 

Music 

Gymnastics 

Total  number  of  hours  for  obligatory 
lessons 


Schools 
for  Boys 


Hours  a 

Week 

2 
6 


(13) 

2 

1 
62 
cl 
di 


1 


f29H 


Schools 
for  Girls 


Hours  a 

Week 


(«3) 

2 

1 

62 
cl 

3 
el 

3 

2 

1 
2J4 


/29M 


cialized  programs  are  adopted  the  number  of 
hours  a  week  for  recitation  is  increased  to 
31  or  32,  and  modifications  of  the  prescribed 
programs  are  made  according  to  the  require- 
ments. So  far,  as  is  shown  by  the  statis- 
tics, only  a  limited  number  of  the  schools 
have  availed  themselves  of  the  privilege. 

In  the  theory  of  public  education  as  it  has 
developed  in  Belgium  great  stress  is  placed 
upon  training  in  habits  that  make  for  the  gen- 
eral good  of  society.  Thrift,  temperance, 
mutual  assistance,  civic  obligations,  kindness 
to  animals  are  taught  in  practical  ways  in  the 
primary  schools;  in  the  secondary  schools  these 
methods  arc  reenforccd  by  .systematic  lessons 
following  excellent  official  programs.  The  im- 
mediate results  of  this  instruction  arc  seen  in 
the  numerous  societies  of  pupils  formed  to 
promote  the  social  and  moral  ends  to  which 
the  instruction  is  directed.  Such  are  the  chilis 
of  "Little  Protectors"  for  the  preservation 
of  birds  and  animals;  societies  for  the  pro- 
tection of  trees  and  plants;  temperance  socie- 
ties, etc. 

Seco7idary  Schools  vnder  Local  Authorities.  — 
The  law  of  18.50  authorized  the  establishment 
of  secondary  schools  by  local  authorities,  a  pro- 
vision confirmed  by  subsequent  laws  relative 
to  the  service  ;  if  subsidized  by  the  general 
government  these  schools  must  conform  to  the 
official  regulations  as  to  program,  textbooks, 
and  the  qualifications  of  professors.  Under 
present  conditions  the  greater  numbers  of  these 
local  institutions  are  controlled  by  the  Church 
or  by  religious  orders. 

Secondarij  Xormal  Schools.  —  For  the  training 
of  professors  for  the  lower  secondary  schools 
for  boys,  the  State  maintains  two  normal 
schools,  one  at  Ghent,  the  other  at  Xivelles; 
and  for  the  schools  for  girls,  two  similar  in- 
stitutions, situated  respectively  at  Brussels  and 
Liege. 

Statistics  of  Sccondnry  Schools.  — The  number 
of  secondary  schools  and  the  enrollment  in  each 
class  in  1908  was  as  follows: 

HIGHER   SECOND.\RY   SCHOOLS 


a  Optional.  6  Not  including  field  and  laboratory  exercises, 
r  Two  hours  tlie  second  year,  d  Five  hours  the  third  year, 
e  Two  hours  the  third  year.  /30J^  hours  the  second  and  third 
years.. 

The  mo.st  important  modification  introduced 
into  the  lower  order  of  secondary  schools  since 
their  establishment  was  effected  by  a  regula- 
tion of  September  10,  1897,  which  authorizes 
the  schools  to  specialize  after  the  first  year 
of  the  course  by  the  provision  of  parallel  sec- 
tions, commercial,  industrial,  or  agricultural, 
as  suits  the  local  demands.     Where  the  spe- 

348 


Schools 

STtn>ENT8 

Clasa 

Num- 
ber 

Total 

Number  in  each  Section 

Higher       secondary 
schools:  — 

Alhinles  .     .     . 
Communal    col- 
leges     .     .     . 
Private  colleges 

20 

7 
8 

5890 

727 
1156 

Latin 
and 
Greek 

1441 

245 
1034 

Latin 
Human- 
ities 

490 
40 

Modern 
Human- 
ities 

3959 

442 
122 

Total  .... 

35 

7773 

2720 

530 

4523 

Percent  of  total 

35 

7 

58 

The  number  of  other  schools  which  are  doing 
work  of  a  secondary  character,  and  the  student 
enrollment  in  each,  is  given  in  the  following  table: 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


INFERIOR  ORDER  OF  SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 


Schools 

Stddenis 

Class 

Number 

Total 

Number  in  Eaclt  Section 

Schools     for 
boys 

State 
Com- 
munal 
Private  . 

78 

5 
5 

15,037 

2,460 
660 

Prepar- 
atory 

9,306 

1,202 
375 

Middle 

5,499 

1,258 
285 

Com- 
mercial 

213 

Indus- 
trial 

19 

Total  . 

88 

18,137 

10,883 

7,042 

213 

19 

Percent 
of  total 

60 

38.6 

1.1 

.3 

Schools    for 
girls 

State       . 
Com- 
munal 

34 

6 

6,256 
1,983 

4,023 
990 

1,926 
891 

174 
85 

97 
17 

Total  . 

40 

8,239 

5,013 

2,853 

259 

114 

Percent 
of  total 

60.8 

34.6 

3.1 

1.5 

The    public    appropriations    for    secondary 
education  in  1907  were  as  follows:  — 


Athenees  and  Royal 
College 

Francs 

United  States 
Equivalent 

From  the  State    .     .     . 

From  the  communes     . 
State  secondary  schools. 

From  the  State    .     .     . 

From  the  communes     . 
Communal  schools. 

From  the  State    .     .     . 

From  the  provinces 

From  the  communes     . 

1,852,544 
735,349 

2,212,948 
826,225 

2,199,128 

59,028 

608,630 

$370,509 
147,069 

442,.589 
165,245 

439,826 

11,806 

121,726 

Total 

8,493,852 

$1,698,770 

The  secondary  schools  reach  a  much  smaller 
proportion  of  the  people  than  the  primary 
schools;  but  their  importance  as  formative 
centers  of  national  life  brings  them  also  within 
the  circle  of  political  disturbances.  Recently 
they  have  been  affected  by  the  racial  antago- 
nism between  the  Flemish  and  the  Walloons. 
Flemish  leaders  have  sought  to  eliminate  the 
French  language  from  schools  of  the  northern 
provinces  and  thus  oblige  the  bourgeois  as  well 
as  the  peasants  to  return  to  the  use  of  the 
Flemish.  Even  in  Antwerp,  only  one  hour  a 
week  has  been  allowed  for  French,  and  all  other 
instruction  has  been  given  in  Flemish,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  French  is  the  language 
of  all  cultivated  people  in  Belgium.  As  a 
consequence,  the  League  for  Freedom  of  Lan- 
guage has  been  founded  in  Antwerp  to  combat 
these  revolutionary  tendencies. 

Considered  in  its  broad  aspect,  the  scheme 
of  secondary  education  in  Belgium  illustrates 
in  a  striking  manner  conditions  peculiar  to  the 
nation.  There  is  no  marked  social  distinction 
between  the  secondary  and  the  primary  system, 


as  in  many  European  countries;  for  students 
of  ability  the  road  is  open  from  the  primary 
school  to  the  university.  At  the  same  time, 
there  is  a  very  distinct  recognition  of  different 
orders  of  ability  and  of  their  respective  relations 
to  different  activities  in  national  life.  In  the 
athenees  provision  is  made  for  the  training  of 
the  intellectual  leaders  of  the  nation;  never- 
theless, under  the  pressure  of  the  highly  de- 
veloped industrial  system,  utilitarian  studies 
have  been  raised  to  equal  dignity  without  the 
sacrifice  of  the  higher  scholastic  ideals. 

Higher  Education.  • —  The  Universities  and 
their  Origin.  —  The  establishments  for  higher 
education  in  Belgium  are  the  two  state  uni- 
versities, Ghent  in  the  Flemish  section,  and 
Liege  in  the  French;  the  Independent  Univer- 
sity of  Brussels,  and  the  Catholic  University 
of  Louvain.  The  last  named  is  the  oldest  seat 
of  learning  in  Belgium,  having  been  founded 
in  1426  by  Jean  IV,  Duke  of  Brabant,  with  the 
sanction  of  Pope  Martin  V.  It  was  famous 
in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  for  the 
teachings  of  Erasmus,  Justus-Lipsius,  Gerard 
Mercator,  Ortelius,  Vesale,  etc.  Like  the 
ancient  universities  of  France,  it  was  sup- 
pressed during  the  revolutionary  period  (Octo- 
ber 25,  1797).  It  was  temporarily  reorganized 
in  1816,  and  finally  in  1835. 

The  University  of  Brussels  was  definitely 
established  in  1834.  For  details  see  the  ar- 
ticle Brussels,  University  of.  In  1816,  the 
year  following  the  union  with  the  Nether- 
lands, universities  were  founded  at  Ghent 
and  Liege. 

The  government  organized  in  1830  recog- 
nized, provisionally,  the  three  universities 
existing  at  the  time,  i.e.  Ghent,  Liege,  and 
Louvain.  By  a  law  of  September  27,  1835, 
the  two  former  were  constituted  state  univer- 
sities. The  same  law  instituted  examining 
juries,  to  be  appointed  by  the  King  and  the 
two  chambers,  for  conferring  academic  degrees. 
From  that  time  until  1876  the  degree  confer- 
ring function  remained  detached  from  the  uni- 
versities. 

Constitution  of  State  Universities.  —  As  con- 
stituted by  the  law  of  1835  and  amending  law 
of  March  22,  1849,  each  of  the  state  univer- 
sities comprises  four  faculties,  i.e.  of  philoso- 
phy and  letters,  of  science  (mathematics, 
physics,  and  natural  sciences),  of  law,  and  of 
medicine.  In  pursuance  of  the  provision  that 
the  faculty  of  sciences  at  Ghent  should  offer 
the  instruction  necessary  for  the  arts  and 
manufactures,  civil  architecture,  construction 
of  roads  and  bridges;  and  the  same  faculty  at 
Liege  the  instruction  required  for  the  arts  and 
manufactures  and  mining  industries,  a  school 
of  civil  engineers  was  attached  to  the  former 
and  a  mining  school  to  the  latter.  (Regulation 
of  September  27,  1836.) 

Subsequent  laws,  especially  the  law  of  May 
20,  1876,  and  that  of  April'lO,  1890,  have  in- 
creased  the   authority   of  the   universities   by 


349 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


according  them  a  roprcscntation  in  the  examin- 
ing juries,  but  their  constitution  and  scholastic 
functions  remain  substantially  as  determined 
by  the  law  of  1849. 

Professors.  —  The  teaching  corps  com- 
prises professors,  ordinary  and  extraordinary, 
appointed  by  the  King.  They  must  have  a 
doctor's  degree  and  must  devote  themselves 
exclusively  to  their  university  duties.  These 
duties,  as  also  the  privileges  which  professors 
enjoy,  and  the  penalties  to  which  they  arc 
subject,  are  prescribed  by  the  law  or  by  royal 
decrees.  The  annual  salaries  are  7000  francs 
($1400)  for  e.xtraorilinary  professors  and  5000 
francs  (SIOOO)  for  ordinary,  with  a  possible 
augmentation  of  from  1000  to  3000  francs 
(S200  to  S600).  Professors  are  retired  as 
emeriti  with  an  annual  pension  equal  to  the 
average  salary  of  the  last  five  years  of  service, 
when  they  reach  their  seventieth  year,  or  if 
disabled  by  serious  and  permanent  infirmity. 

Special  professors,  called  agreges,  are  assigned 
to  each  university  in  such  numbers  and  for 
such  courses  as  circumstances  may  demand. 
The  conditions  of  the  service  have  been  the 
subject  of  many  decrees.  At  present,  aspirants 
must  have  a  doctor's  degree  and  also  a  special 
diploma  indicating  high  attainments  in  some 
distinct  de])artment  of  knowledge. 

The  courses  which  the  agreges  give  are  ad- 
ditional to  the  regular  courses;  they  have  no 
salaries,  but  may  receive  fees,  and  may  be 
engaged  in  other  pursuits,  as  law,  medicine, 
etc.  The  agreges,  naturally,  become  candi- 
dates for  vacant  chairs,  so  that  the  service  is 
in  a  sense  a  preparation  for  full  professorships. 
There  are  also  assistants  for  laboratory  exer- 
cises and  clinics. 

Officers  of  Administration. — The  official  au- 
thorities of  each  university  are  the  rector, 
the  secretary,  the  deans  of  faculties,  the 
academic  council,  and  the  college  d'asscsseurs. 
The  rector  is  appointed  by  the  King  for  a  term 
of  three  years.  He  is  the  executive  head  of  the 
university  and  has  general  charge  of  all  its 
affairs.  He  may  at  his  will  convoke  the 
colUge  d'asscsseurs  for  ad\nce.  This  body 
consists  of  the  secretary  of  the  academic  council 
and  the  deans  of  faculties.  The  latter,  as  also 
the  secretaries,  are  chosen  by  the  professors 
themselves  and  are  thus  their  direct  represent- 
atives. The  academic  council  consists  of  all 
the  professors  of  a  university  who,  in  their 
collective  capacity,  determine  the  conduct  of 
the  scholastic  affairs,  as  the  management  of 
courses,  time-tables,  etc.  Through  t-hese  ad- 
visory functions  the  professors  have  really 
a  voice  in  the  administration  of  the  universities. 
Their  chief  importance  in  this  respect,  however, 
lies  in  the  fact  that  they  are  represented  in  the 
conseil  de  perfectionnement  of  superior  instruc- 
tion, which  the  minister  must  convoke  at  least 
once  a  month.  The  constitution  of  this  coun- 
cil is  as  follows:  eight  professors  (representing 
the  faculties  and  special  schools  of  the  univer- 


sities), the  two  rectors,  the  two  government 
inspectors  {administrateur.^->nspeclertrs),  and 
other  members  of  the  teaching  i)rofession  chosen 
by  the  minister.  This  council  gives  advice 
upon  all  matters  pertaining  to  superior  instruc- 
tion. It  should  be  added  that,  while  the 
rectors  have  general  charge  of  students,  the 
professors  exercise  disciplinary  authority  over 
those  of  their  respective  classes,  and  may  even 
suspend  a  disorderly  student. 

Fees  for  Students.  —  .Students  arc  received 
and  enrolled  by  the  rector,  the  fee  for  enroll- 
ment being  15  francs  (83).  After  this  for- 
mality is  completed,  the  student  takes  out  a 
ticket  for  the  studies  of  the  courses  he  i)roposcs 
to  follow.  The  fee  for  the  ticket  is  250  francs 
(S50)  in  philoso|)hy,  literature,  and  law,  and  200 
francs  (840)  in  the  other  faculties.  There  are 
also  fees  for  the  use  of  laboratories,  for  clinics, 
etc.,  and  extra  fees  for  special  lessons  or 
courses. 

Les.-ions  and  Courses.  —  Instruction  is  given 
in  the  French  language,  except  by  special  dis- 
pensation from  the  minister.  A  lesson  occupies 
at  least  an  hour.  Courses  must  be  so  arranged 
that  the  student  has  not  less  than  three  hours 
of  lessons  each  day,  besides  clinics  and  labora- 
tory exercises.  The  minimum  duration  of  the 
various  courses  is  determined  by  the  require- 
ments for  degrees,  which  will  be  considered 
hereafter.  Attendance  upon  the  lessons  is 
obligatory,  and  every  three  months  the  pro- 
fessors rejDort  to  the  rector  students  who  fail 
in  this  obligation. 

Scholar.'ihips  and  Prizes.  —  Students  of  ability 
who  cannot  afford  the  expenses  of  university 
education  may  be  assisted  by  scholarships 
(bourses),  of  which  the  State  maintains  one 
hundred  and  twenty,  of  the  annual  value  of 
SSO  each.  Study  in  foreign  countries  is 
promoted  by  traveling  scholarships,  21  in 
number,  of  the  annual  value  of  .?400  each  and 
available  for  two  years.  Competitive  exami- 
nation for  the  latter  is  open  only  to  persons  who 
have  received  the  degree  of  doctor,  of  pharma- 
cist, or  of  engineer.  Annual  competitive  ex- 
aminations (conco^irs  iinivcrsitairc)  are  held, 
at  which  the  successful  contestants  receive 
medals,  accompanied  with  prizes  of  books  or 
money  amounting  to  880  each. 

Recent  University  Developments.  — The  most 
impressive  fact  in  the  recent  history  of  the 
Belgian  universities  is  the  increase  in  their 
equipment  for  scientifie  instruction  and  re- 
search. The  growth  in  these  respects  is 
illustrated  by  the  numerous  institutes  that 
have  developed  as  adjuncts  to  the  faculties. 
Although  originally  the  task  of  furnishing 
suitable  buildings  for  the  state  universities 
was  left  to  the  cities  in  which  they  were  located, 
since  the  passage  of  the  law  of  1875,  which 
expressly  prox-ided  for  the  extension  of  the 
scientific  work  of  the  universities,  the  central 
government  has  made  large  appropriations  for 
new   buildings   and   equipments.     Among   im- 


350 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


portant  recent  structures  are  the  Institute  of 
Sciences  for  the  University  of  Ghent,  completed 
in  1889,  and  the  Institute  of  Chemistry,  Uni- 
versity of  Liege.  For  its  magnificent  electro- 
technical  institute  Liege  is  indebted  to  the 
munificence  of  a  citizen,  Mr.  Montefiore,  whose 
name  it  bears.  The  Institute  of  Hygiene,  Bac- 
teriology, and  Medical  Jurisprudence  of  the 
University  of  Ghent  is  a  model  of  structural 
adaptations  to  definite  purposes. 

In  these  modern  developments  the  State  is 
really  following  the  lead  of  the  independent 
universities.  The  Catholic  LTniversity  of  Lou- 
vain  was  the  first  to  open  a  school  of  political 
and  social  sciences,  which  is  only  one  of  a  group 
of  special  schools,  institutes,  and  laboratories, 
well-equipped  for  research  in  the  physical  and 
economic  sciences. 

University  Diplomas.  —  As  defined  in  a 
regulation  of  October  12,  1838,  the  university 
diplomas  are  of  two  orders  —  an  honorary 
diploma  delivered  to  persons  (native  or  foreign) 
possessed  of  a  doctor's  degree,  and  who  shall 
have  given  proof  of  superior  abilitv,  and  a  scien- 
tific diploma  conferred  upon  examination.  In 
1853  a  special  scientific  diploma  carrying  the 
degree  of  doctor  was  created,  in  the  interest  of 
persons  who,  after  having  obtained  the  legal 
diploma  of  doctor,  should  apply  themselves 
successfully  to  some  scientific  specialty. 

Until  a  recent  date  the  universities  were  not 
authorized  to  confer  degrees  and  had  no  repre- 
sentation in  the  examining  boards.  By  an  act 
of  February  27,  1890,  this  limitation  was  re- 
moved. Henceforth  the  degree-conferring  au- 
thorities are  the  four  universities  and  a  central 
jury  in  which  the  state  universities  and  the  free 
universities  have  equal  representation.  The 
degrees  specified  in  the  law  are  of  two  orders, 
called,  respectively,  candidate  and  doctor. 

The  degree  of  candidate  in  philosophy  and 
letters,  corresponding  very  nearly  to  the  bach- 
elor's degree  in  this  country,  is  a  prerequisite 
for  the  degree  of  candidate  in  law;  and  the 
degree  of  candidate  in  natural  sciences,  for 
that  of  candidate  in  medicine,  surgery,  and 
midwifery.  Moreover,  no  one  can  be  admitted 
to  the  examinations  for  the  lower  degree  in 
philosoph}'  and  letters  or  in  natural  sciences 
unless  he  produces  the  certificate  of  inter- 
mediate studies,  showing  that  he  has  pursued, 
in  the  one  case,  a  course  of  classical  study  for 
at  least  six  years;  in  the  other  case,  the  modern 
secondary  course  for  at  least  five  years.  In  the 
absence  of  such  certificates  the  aspirant  must 
submit  to  a  preliminary  examination.  In 
general,  the  degree  of  candidate  is  a  prerequisite 
for  that  of  doctor  of  the  same  order. 

The  degrees  conferred  by  the  universities 
and  the  examining  board  have,  however,  no 
legal  value  until  they  have  been  registered  by  a 
special  commission  meeting  in  Brussels. 

The  requirements  for  the  regular  degrees  as 
regards  years  of  study  and  examinations  are  as 
follows:  — 


Debiqnation 


Candidate  in  philosophy 
and  letters      .... 

Doctor  of  philosophy  and 
letters         

Candidate  in  law    .     .     . 

Doctor  of  law     .... 

Candidate  notary 

Candidate  in  physical  sci- 
ences and  mathematics 

Doctor  of  physical  sci- 
ences and  mathematics 

Candidate  in  natural  sci- 
ences      

Doctor  of  natural  sciences 

Candidate  in  medicine, 
surgery,  and  midwifery 

Doctor  of  medicine,  sur- 
gery, and  midwifery 

Pharmacist     .... 

Candidate  engineer 

Civil  engineer  of  mines 

Civil  engineer     . 

Additional  technical  di' 
plomas 


Minimum 

Number 
OF  Years 

OF   STtlDY 


al  or  2 
2 


Number 
OF  Exami- 
nations 


1  or  2 

1 

2  or  3 

3 

1  or  2 

1  or  2 

1  or  2 
1  or  2 


Degrees, 
Number 

conferred 
IN  1907 


238 

22 

ISO 

139 

57 

13 

7 

187 
6 

158 

130 

47 

88 
94 

195 


a  For  candidates  who  propose  a  subsequent  course  in  medicine, 
one  year  of  study  required.  Aspirants  for  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  natural  sciences  or  degree  of  pharmacist  must  take  two  years' 
study. 

The  fees  for  each  examination  vary  from 
50  francs  to  100  francs  ($10  to  $20). 

The  number  of  students  in  the  universities, 
and  their  distribution  among  the  faculties  and 
special  schools  in  1907-1908,  was  as  follows:  — 


FACDLTIEa 

§ 

j^oo 

h  « 
=  5 

i-  g 

&  £  J 
ban 

Unitebsi- 

ED 

X 

S  S  K 

f-  9 

,  a  S 

O  <  ^ 

^ 

2 

u 

o 

h  «i  J 

< 

& 

s 

H&. 

■<  a 

Hho 

Ghent 

71 

147 

91 

110 

419 

_ 

631 

1050 

Liege    .     . 

176 

299 

856 

204 

1535 

— 

957 

2492 

Brussels    . 

128 

188 

224 

297 

837 

— 

353 

1190 

Louvain    . 

310 

482 

285 

471 

1548 

125 

565 

2238 

Total 

685 

1116 

1456 

1082 

4339 

125 

2506 

6970 

The  total  number  of  university  students  was 
equivalent  to  95  for  every  100,000  inhabitants. 

The  appropriations  from  the  state  treasury 
for  higher  education  for  the  triennial  period 
covered  by  the  last  official  report  were  as 
follows:  — 


Amount 

Yeah 

Francs 

Unieed  States 
Equivalent 

1904                       

3,342,790 
3,221,337 
3,192,483 

$668,558 

1905 

1906                

644.267 
638,497 

Total 

9,756,610 

$1,951,322 

For  the  same  period,  the  provincial  and  com- 
munal appropriations  were  as  follows:  — 


351 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


AuoDNT  OP  Appropriations 

t'NIVEBSITT 

Provin- 
cial 

Commu- 
nal 

Total 

United 
States 
Equiva- 
lent 

Ghent 

LiJ>ge 

Brussels      .     .     ,     . 
Louvain      .... 

Fr,. 

26,600 
100,000 

Fr,. 

57.340 

36.367 

399,842 

47,197 

Fr,. 

57,.340 

62,967 

499,842 

47,197 

S 

11,468 

12,593 

99,968 

9,439 

Total  .... 

126.600 

540,746 

667.346 

133,468 

The  income  of  the  schools  included  in  the 
above  table  iu  1907  was  as  follows: 


The  University  of  Brussels  also  received 
subsidies  from  neighboring  communes  as  fol- 
lows: 1904.  9525  francs;  1905,  9325  francs; 
1906,  9125  francs,  or  a  total  for  the  three  j-ears 
of  27,975  francs  (§5595). 

ProviKion  for  Industrinl,  Technical,  and  Com- 
mercial Education.  —  Belgium  has  made  large 
provision  for  industrial,  technical,  and  com- 
mercial education  by  the  combined  action  of 
the  State,  municipalities,  and  private  bodies 
such  as  trade  unions,  syndicates,  manufac- 
turers, etc.  The  action  of  the  government  is 
generally  limited  to  granting  subsidies  to  the 
schools,  and  maintaining  the  service  of  super- 
vision and  expert  direction,  leaving  to  the  pro- 
moters of  the  enterprises  all  the  details  with 
respect  to  programs,  conditions  of  admission,  etc. 

The  schools  receiving  state  grants  must 
present  their  accounts,  regulations,  and  reports 
of  operations  to  the  Minister  of  Industry  and 
Labor,  receive  his  approval  for  the  teachers 
appointed,  and  submit  to  official  inspection. 
The  State  on  its  part  contributes  two  fifths 
of  the  total  current  expenditures  for  the  schools 
and  allows  a  grant  equal  to  one  half  the  cost 
of  material  required  for  the  instruction. 

The  extent  and  importance  of  the  system  of 
industrial  and  technical  education  are  indicated 
by  the  following  statistics: 

INDUSTRIAL,  TECHNICAL.   AND  HOUSEWIFERY 
SCHOOLS,   1907-1908 


iNSTITtmONS 

PtTPILS 

Class 

Niun- 
ber 

Boys 

Girls 

Total 

Apprenticeship  schools  (ate- 

liers d'apprentissage).   and 

schools  of  weaving  (icotes 

pro/eitsionneUes  de  tiAifage)  . 

34 

Ml 

58 

699 

Technical    and    commercial 

schools  and  classes  {icole-.t 

el  fours  pToff,sioneh  et  com- 

merciaux)  : 

Communal        .... 

55 

2048 

2520 

4568 

Private          

162 

13,183 

4871 

18,054 

Industrial  schools : 

Communal        .... 

84 

21,467 

1002 

22,469 

Private         

8 

1499 

1499 

Schools  and  classes  of  house- 

wifer>-     iecole,    et    dosses 

minagh-es)  : 

Communal        .... 

99 

3329 

3329 

Private         

167 

6204 

6204 

AcruoriiiATio.xs 

Privnte 
ftourcrt) 

ToUl 

U.S. 

State 

i'rovinccB 

CoiiiniuncH 

alt'Dtfl 

Fr». 

Fr,. 

rr,. 

Fr: 

Fit. 

1 

Apprrnticetthip 

BchooU  and 
Bchoots  for 

weaving      .    . 

30,449 

8,801! 

u.rn 

lil.35!l 

7.1.348 

14,669 

luduetrial, 
technical  and 
cotiiniercial 
t^chooU  and 

clii**f!*  : 

Coiiiiiiunal  . 
Pnvatv    .    . 

K«,1B4 

,'5ir..VM 
Ul.Uli 

IW1.8a7 
lis,3»l 

189.13.1 
738.672 

1,'5).1..V» 
158,322 

379,107 
31,664 

Housewifely 
Bchoold  : 

Communal . 
Private    .    . 

SS.iSC, 
i«l,I33 

21.-12 

55.875 
JI)JiS2 

2..'.ai 

112.15(1 

146.5en 

1111,252 

29,312 
23.850 

Totol     .    . 

1,380,115 

ise,eB7 

007.77! 

l.«;i.8«l 

2,3!l1.rai 

478.002 

The  accompanying  map  of  Belgium  shows  the 
distribution,  by  provinces,  of  the  technical, 
commercial,  and  industrial  schools  included  in 
the  tables. 

In  addition  to  the  schools  included  in  the 
foregoing  tables  there  are  higher  grade  com- 
mercial and  technical  schools  in  nearly  all  the 
chief  places  of  Belgium,  which  derive  a  large 
part  of  their  support  from  public  appropria- 
tions, state,  provincial,  and  nnuiiciijal:  such  are 
the  commercial  institute  at  Antwerp,  the  tech- 
nical school  for  brewers  at  Ghent,  the  provincial 
school  of  industry'  and  of  mines  at  iSIons,  Hai- 
naut.  Thirteen  technical  schools  of  this  higher 
order  reported  in  1908  a  total  income  of  90S, 778 
francs  ($181,755).  Of  this  amount  the  State 
furnished  28  per  cent,  the  several  provinces 
13  per  cent,  and  the  cities  11  per  cent. 

The  In.stitut  Siiperiettr  de  Commerce  at  Ant- 
werp, founded  in  1852,  was  one  of  the  earliest 
in  Europe  devoted  to  the  interests  of  commerce, 
and  has  alwaj's  been  regarded  as  a  model  in 
respect  both  to  organization  and  equipment. 
It  ranks  with  the  universities,  having  been 
authorized  in  1877  to  confer  the  diploma  of 
licentiate  in  commercial  and  consular  sciences. 
The  same  year  the  course  of  study  was  extended 
from  two  to  three  years.  The  third  year  is 
divided  into  four  sections,  viz.:  consular,  co- 
lonial, maritime,  and  special  commercial  science; 
the  section  taken  by  the  graduate  is  indicated 
on  the  diploma.  In  1905  the  government 
created  the  degree  of  doctor  of  commercial 
sciences,  available  for  graduates  of  the  third- 
year  course,  who  have  completed  two  years' 
practical  service,  after  receiving  the  diploma 
of  licentiate. 

The  general  government  defrays  three 
fourths  of  the  annual  expenses  of  the  school, 
while  the  cit.y  of  Antwerp  bears  the  remaining 
one  fourth,  and  supplies  the  necessary  buildings. 
In  1898  the  school  moved  into  its  present 
imposing  edifice  opposite  the  Royal  Art  Gal- 
lery. It  is  thoroughly  equipped  with  library, 
museum,  laboratories,  etc. 


352 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


The  management  is  in  the  hands  of  a  board 
of  directors  in  which  the  ministry  of  labor  and 
industry  and  the  city  of  Antwerp  have  equal 
representation.  The  liberal  spirit  of  the  ad- 
ministration is  indicated  by  the  low  tuition 
fees,  which  include  a  matriculation  fee  of  25 
francs  (So)  and  tuition  fees  amounting  to  200 
francs  ($40)  for  the  first  year,  and  250  francs 
($50)  for  each  succeechng  year,  and  by  the  as- 
sistance afforded  students  by  means  of  scholar- 
ships awarded  upon  the  results  of  competitive 


been  created  under  the  direction  of  a  principal 
inspector,  who  must  be  a  university  graduate 
and  provided  with  a  diploma  of  agricultural 
engineer.  In  addition  to  a  lecture  sj'stem 
maintained  in  the  interests  of  the  farmers  of 
the  country,  and  numerous  secondary  schools 
of  agriculture,  there  is  a  high-grade  state  agri- 
cultural school  at  Gembloux,  and  a  state  school 
of  veterinary  medicine  at  Cureghem. 

In  1898  the  state  appropriation  for  agricul- 
tural education  was  470,500  francs  ($94,100); 


^^T --^      %^ 

>=^,         N    E     T    H    E    R 

■    ■     ~^^^                                                ^                                   1\^                      \~~?^^ 

X      --^                           ^-^                              -A. 

f^~y         ^y:^^ 

^J  .^'U/j^n 

1   ■             '    =^\^~^-'—- -^=^                   /                            S^-^^:'^^ 

y^                                                           \ 

^^^— >-'        V-'^N.^  ^ 

^y      \    A    N    V    E    R     S        ;"-'""'    '\ 

3                   5              V. 

< 

F         _,  -        VVEST              /                EAST 

y      T      y    .    "■? 

U 

^^  V          FLANDERS           \         FLANDERS        S~.                  T---'— ^-.                ^"*            f 

)                        10                    {                  U 

/'                                       /      LIMBOURG    / 

ra 

(                        1,417                    C               2,658 

i                           15                      \                 24 
*— V                  905                       \            4,707 

--I              '•           / 
,'      B     R     A     B     A     N     T     ,'              •'■'-        (^ 

tD 

4,994                         )     [       , _^ --'■ 

-^ 

40                        (       -- 

(^            P 

{      ""  - 

•                        S,402                  .  ' 

"''    \            LIEGE 

\                    67,       '       /V 

'--      ,''                    '.                          20, 

•^       .      13,;)38 

\        1.301 
I 

■^                          ^    \                          '~^                          1,6% 

y 

O                       /                                 ~\                                  22 

/ 

4m                    1 

{             ^ 

^                     N          ,-'       N      A      M      U      R       J              ';    \ 
MAP  OF                                                      "^     C                             fl            ,'-''                   "'"' 

J 

BELGIUM 

/          /               /-^                 r->         3, 

4^\  )     J  i   ry    ''"     s 

5"           ;           J     I          \     LUXEMBOURG    J 

GRAND 

PROVINCES.POPULATION,  1907 

DUCHY 

Anvers,                     944,350 

\.^■^A•^.^         V           ■.                                   /             OP 

1              ,                                           '    LDXEMBOUEG 

Brabant,                 1,434,360 

O           i        /                  If 

East  Flanders,      1,103,930 

Hainaut,                1,224,082 

N. 

Liege,                      886,847 

A 

Limbourg,                265,304 

4>    ^\                 ) 

Luxembourg,           230,794 

Namur,                     362,566 

>^- — •■ 

West  Flanders,       865,328 

The   Kingdom,    7,317,561 

1 

Figures  in  Konian  tlius:  497.  show  nuinbei-  uf   Public  Industrial,  Prufessiunal,  and  Commercial  Schools  iu  the  Frovince  and 
eurollinent.in  same.    Figores  in  Italic  thus:  yoj,  corresponding  items  for  Private  Schools. 


examination.  A  number  of  traveling  scholar- 
ships are  allowed  each  year  for  advanced  stu- 
dents, who  are  thus  enabled  to  pass  the  long 
vacation  in  England  or  Germany  ^ith  a  view 
to  perfecting  themselves  in  the  foreign  language. 
Agricultural  Education.  —  Provision  for  teach- 
ing agriculture  is  made  both  in  the  ordi- 
nary schools  and  in  special  schools.  The 
latter  pertain  to  the  ministry  of  agriculture 
in  which  a  special  department  of  education  has 

VOL.  I  —  2  a  353 


in  1908  it  was  755,500  francs  ($151,100).  _  This 
was  an  increase  of  60  per  cent;  but  in  the 
same  time  the  appropriation  for  industrial  edu- 
cation tripled,  rising  from  650,000  francs 
($130,000)  to  2,150,000  francs  ($430,000).  The 
disparity  between  the  two  is  emphasized  by 
the  fact  that  the  number  of  people  engaged  in 
agricultural  pursuits  is  equal  to  the  number 
in  the  industrial  vocations. 

Instruction  in  the  Fine  Arts.  —  The  acade- 


BELGIUM 


BELGIUM 


mics  of  fine  arts  subsidized  by  the  State  and 
the  provinces  exercise  an  influence  over  in- 
dustrial art  by  tiie  ideals  which  they  enibotiy 
and  by  the  teachers  who  come  under  their 
direct  instruction. 

The  Royal  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Antwerp 
had  947  students  in  1907,  of  whom  a  large 
proportion  were  artisans.  The  eighty-five 
l)rovincial  academies  of  art  enrolled  15,886 
students. 

Tiie  enrollment  of  students  in  the  four  royal 
conservatories  of  music  the  same  year  (1907) 
was  as  follows: 


Men 

Women 

Totals 

Antwerp    .... 
Rrussels     .... 

Cilient 

Lidgc    

800 
464 

.il7 
754 

896 
425 
563 
474 

1696 

8R9 
lOSO 
1228 

Total      .     .     . 

2535 

2358 

4893 

Libraries  and  Learned  Societies.  —  Bel- 
gium is  distinguished  by  the  number  and 
importance  of  its  libraries,  which  as  a  rule 
are  of  private  origin  and  derive  their  support 
from  private  sources.  The  government,  how- 
ever, contributes  in  various  ways  to  their 
activities.  The  communal  libraries,  which 
owe  their  diffusion  to  the  efforts  of  the  Ligue 
de  r  Enseigneinent,  numbered  819  in  1907, 
distributed  in  624  communes,  and  reported  a 
total  of  2,068,333  volumes  with  a  yearly  cir- 
culation of  one  and  a  half  million. 

The  Royal  Library  at  Brussels  is  celebrated 
alike  for  its  collections  and  their  admirable 
classification.  The  high  development  of  li- 
brary science  in  Belgium  is  illustrated  by  the 
work  of  the  Internntional  Office  of  Bibliography. 
which  has  for  its  object  the  establishment  and 
publication  of  a  Universal  Bibliographical 
Index,  the  supply  of  this  index  to  institutions 
and  societies  requesting  the  same,  and  the  study 
of  all  questions  relating  to  bibliographical  pur- 
suits. 

Among  the  many  learned  societies  which 
offer  incentives  to  literary  activity  and  scien- 
tific research,  the  most  noted  are.  The  Royal 
Academy  of  Science,  Letters,  and  Fine  Arts  of 
Belgium,  which  publishes  important  memorials 
by  Belgian  and  foreign  scholars  and  maintains 
prizes  open  to  general  competition;  The  Flem- 
ish Royal  Academy,  which  concerns  itself  par- 
ticularly with  the  study  and  culture  of  the 
language,  literature,  and  history  of  the  Nether- 
lands; The  Royal  Academy  of  Medicine,  whose 
objects  are  to  consider  questions  submitted 
by  the  government  and  to  maintain  investiga- 
tions looking  to  the  prevention  and  scientific 
treatment  of  disease.  The  Royal  Museum  of 
Natural  History  at  Brussels  and  the  Zoological 
Garden  of  Antwerp  are  notable  institutions. 

To  the  administration  of  higher  education 
pertains   the   charge   of   public   appropriations 


for  science  and  letters.  These  funds  are  used 
in  the  annual  maintenance  of  two  Belgian  schol- 
ars liolding  the  doctor's  diploma  at  the  French 
school  at  Athens;  for  the  support  of  a  table  at 
the  Zoological  Station  of  Naples,  and  a  second 
at  the  Laboratory  of  Leopoldville  (Congo); 
for  the  maintenance  of  a  certain  number  of 
triennial,  quinquennial,  and  decennial  prizes 
awarded  for  achievements  in  dramatic  litera- 
ture (French  and  Flemish);  and  for  historic, 
scientific,  and  philosophical  researches. 

The  government  also  maintains  commissions 
charged  with  historic  and  scientific  investiga- 
tions, such  as  The  Belgian  Royal  Cojnmission 
of  International  Interchanges  and  The  Central 
Commission  of  Statistics.  The  latter  among 
other  duties  directs  the  statistical  publications 
of  the  various  executive  departments. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bauwens,  Leon.      Code  general  ric  Venseignement  pri- 
jnaire.    Ed.  4.     (Frameries,  Belgium,  1908.)     1157 

p.     8°. 
Conscil  Buptrieur  de  I'industrie  et  du  commerce.     Ensei- 

gnevicni  commercial.      (Bruxcllcs,  1904.)     4°. 
D.^WEs,    Thomas    R.      Bilingual    teaching    in    Belgian 

schook.      (Cambridge,    1902.)      63  p.      12°. 
DES.VGHER.     Macrice.     L' cnscigncmenl    des     aveuglea. 

(Bruxellcs.  1909.)      2S  p.     S". 
Direotion  do  I'cnscigncnicnt  industriel  et    professionel. 

Rapport.  1897-1901.      (Bru.xellcs,  190.S.)      2  v.     8°. 
DUCPETIA0X,   Edward.      Dc  I'etat  dc  I'instmction  pri- 

maire  et  populairc  en  Belgique.     (Bruxelles,  1838.) 

3  V.      16°. 
Greyson,   Emile.     Venseignement  public  en  Belgique; 

aperfu  hislorique  et  expose  dc  la  Ugislation.      (Brux- 
elles, 1893-1896.)     3  v.      12°. 
Levoz,    a.     La    protection    de    I'enfance    en    Belgique. 

(Bruxelles.) 
Ministdre   de   I'instruction    publique.     Rapports    trien- 

naux  sur  la   situation   de  Venseignement   supirieur, 

dix-neuvihne    periode   triennale,    1904,    1905,    1906; 

Venseignement  moyen  dix-huitiime  periode  triennale, 

1903,    1904,   1905;    Vinstruction   primaire   vingtihne 

periode  triennale.  1900,  1901,  1902.      (Bruxelles.) 
Minist^re  de  I'instruetion  publique.     Recucil  des  his  et 

arrctes  relatifs  ()  V cnseigtiemenl  superieur. 
Ministere   de   Venseignement   des   sciences   et   des   lettres. 

13    vols,    in    1.     8°.     Prepared    for  the   Universal 

Exposition  of  Saint  Louis. 
Ministfre  de  I'interieur  et    de   I'agriculture.     Annuaire 

stalistiqxie  de  la  Belgique.     (Trente-Neuvi^me  Ann6e, 

1908.)     (Bruxelles.) 
Ministi^re  des  sciences  et  des  arts.     Le  mouvement  scien- 

tifique  en  Belgique.  1830,  1905.     Par  Dr.  Van  Over- 

bergh  et  eoUaborateurs.     2  v. 
Rapports  presentis  au  conseil  communal  par  le  eollige  des 

bourgme.Htre  et  echevins.    (Bruxelles.)    (The  latest  for 

the  year  1909.) 
Stasse,    a.     Code  administratif  dc   Venseignement   pri- 
maire;   lois  et  rkglements.     Ed.  3.     (Liige,   1884.) 

240  p.     8°. 
Universit6  catholique  dc  Louvain.    Annuaires.    Louvain. 
VuYST.  Paul    de.      L'en.'ieigncment    agrieolc   et   ses    me- 

thodes.      (Bruxelles.)      354  pp.     8°. 
Files  of    educational  journals,  in  particular,  Le  journal 

des  instituteurs  d'enseignement  moi/en  (Bulletin  de  la 

f6d6ration  de  I'enseignement  moyen) ;     L'iducation 

familiale;  La  remte  pedagogique  beige  (discontinued 

since  1895). 


354 


BELGRADE 


BELIEF 


BELGRADE,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  See  Ser- 
viA,  Education  in. 

BELHAVEN  COLLEGE,  JACKSON,  MISS. 

—  An  institution  for  the  education  of  girls. 
English,  scientific,  and  classical  courses  are 
offered.  Music  and  commercial  departments 
are  also  maintained.  The  requirements  for 
admission  are  indefinite.  Degrees  are  con- 
ferred in  the  classical  course.  Twelve  instruc- 
tors are  on  the  faculty. 

BELIEF.  —  1.  The  act  of  affirming  (a)  the 
reality  of  an  object,  or  (b)  the  nece.ssary  con- 
nection JDetween  ideas,  or  (c)  the  worth  of  an 
object  or  idea.  2.  An  idea  or  body  of  ideas 
whose  reality  or  worth  is  thus  affirmed. 

To  what  it  attaches :  Belief  may  be  experienced 
in  connection  with  perceptions,  illusions,  hal- 
lucinations, memories,  anticipations,  judg- 
ments of  fact  (as,  that  water  quenches  fire),  or 
with  abstract  relations  apart  from  actual  fact 
{e.g.  postulating  that  parallels  meet,  I  believe 
it  follows  that,  etc.).  From  these  instances  it 
would  appear  that  belief  attaches  either  to 
isolated  objects  or  to  the  relations  between 
them.  But  it  would  hardly  be  doing  %'iolence 
to  the  truth  were  we  to  say,  rather,  that  belief  in 
relations  is  the  normal  and,  indeed,  sole  form 
of  befief.  When  all  feeling  of  relation  is  either 
absent  or  neglected,  as  in  the  case  of  a  sensation 
of  yellow  that  is  merely  yellow  and  nothing 
more,  we  do  not  believe  in  it  or  disbeUeve,  we 
simply  Aai'c  it.  I  may  beUeve  that  "gold  is  yel- 
low" or  that  "  gold  is  real,"  but  I  can  hardly  be- 
lieve "gold"  by  itself,  or  "yellow,"  or  "real"  by 
itself.  When,  however,  we  declare  that  we  be- 
lieve in  "  honesty  "  or  in  "the  people,"  belief  seems 
to  attach  to  an  isolated  object  rather  than  to  a 
relation.  Yet  even  here,  where  we  are  deahng 
not  so  much  with  fact  as  with  value  or  worth, 
the  connection  or  relationship  of  the  object  may 
be  noticed,  though  it  is  in  the  background. 

In  any  event,  there  seems  no  sufficient 
ground  for  holding  that  befief  is  always  equiva- 
lent to  an  affirmation  of  "  reality,"  at  least  in  the 
sense  of  actual  existence  in  nature.  Logical  con- 
sistency with  certain  postulates,  the  question  as 
to  their  exact  relation  to  reality  being  left  unde- 
cided, may  be  the  basis  of  belief.  Likewise  re- 
ligious, ethical,  and  icsthetic  behefs,  while 
often  involving  questions  of  existence,  yet  in  an 
unexpectedly  large  measure  have  reference  to 
this  other  dimension  of  belief;  namely,  our  sense 
of  the  value  of  certain  ideas  and  ideals. 

Its  relation  to  Judgment  and  to  other  forms 
of  connection  :  Belief  would  thus  seem  to  be 
identical  with  judgment:  v/henever  we  believe, 
we  judge ;  whenever  we  judge,  we  believe.  Yet  all 
forms  of  mental  connection  are  not  hereby  in- 
cluded in  befief.  For  relations  are  thought  of, 
which  wc  do  not  ado])t;  as  when  I  consider 
whether  women's  voting  would  be  advantageous 
to  society  or  not,  antl  drop  the  question  un- 
decided.    Here  the  mental  relation  between  the 


ideas  has  not  as  yet  attained  that  pecufiar  quality 
we  caU  judgment,  or  belief.  Similarly,  with  a 
mere  sequence  of  associated  ideas  in  reverie,  we 
may  feel  a  connection  among  the  successive  ideas, 
but  the  connection  is  markedly  different  from 
what  we  experience  when  judging,  or  believing. 

Its  presence  in  other  processes :  Besides  enter- 
ing into  aU  those  intellectual  processes  where 
judgment  enters,  belief  is  also  present  in 
emotion  and  will.  One  can  hardly  purpose  to 
do  anji^hing  without  having,  mingled  with  his 
purpose,  belief  of  several  varieties  and  degrees. 
Nor  can  one  hate  or  love  unless  the  emotional 
state  have  some  admixture  of  belief.  Thus 
purpose  and  emotion  tend  to  create  belief; 
and,  again,  befief  tends  to  enlarge  itself  into 
purpose  or  emotion.  And  consequently  it  is  only 
by  a  scientific  abstraction  and  artifice  that  be- 
lief can  be  separated  from  the  total  fife  of  mind. 

Causes  of  belief  and  of  its  variations:  While 
for  the  logician  befief  always  presupposes  as  its 
justification  an  antecedent  judgment  or  system 
of  judgments,  yet  this  is  not  true  psychologi- 
cally. In  actual  fife,  befief  often  comes  out  of  a 
clear  sky,  and  without  any  logical  antecedents. 
Or  if  there  be  antecedents,  they  may  logicaUy 
require  a  befief  precisely  the  opposite  to  that 
which  actually  appears.  Psychologically,  the 
most  potent  forces  in  originating  and  molding 
befief  are:  1.  The  beliefs  of  other  persons. 
2.  The  innate  organization,  in  the  individual, 
of  instinct,  impulse,  and  desire,  which  seems 
almost  to  ordain  that  special  types  of  persons 
shall  be  attracted  by  certain  ideas  and  doctrines 
and  repelled  by  others,  while  opposite  types 
show  opposite  affinities.  The  irreconcilable 
differences  of  belief  shown  by  opposing  schools 
of  philosophy,  of  pofitics,  and  of  religion  seem 
often  to  spring  from  such  a  contrast  in  mental 
constitution.  3.  Mood  or  emotional  state, 
often  not  innate,  and  destined  to  pass  away. 
Thus  a  profound  depression  may  lead  one  to 
the  belief  that  he  is  persecuted;  or  joy,  to 
the  belief  in  boundless  power  and  wealth.  The 
delusions  of  the  insane  frecjuently  thus  rest 
upon  emotion,  and  the  befief  often  clears  as 
soon  as  the  emotion  becomes  normal.  Yet 
among  the  sane,  too,  befief  often  waits  upon 
emotion.  4.  Personal  observation  of  fact. 
5.  The  observations  of  others,  communicated 
as  testimony,  —  a  factor  closely  connected  with 
No.  1,  but  distinguishable.  6.  Voluntary  ad- 
herence to  some  plan  or  program.  The 
defiberate  practice  of  set  forms  of  thought, 
e.g.  certain  "  meditations  ";  joining  an  organiza- 
tion that  has  some  special  aim;  pubficly  testify- 
ing one's  adherence  to  a  cause,  perhaps  by 
verbal  expression  or  by  wearing  a  badge  or  other 
symbol;  the  attempt  to  express  one's  faith  by 
actual  conduct,  —  the  well-known  effect  of 
those  upon  belief  will  illustrate  what  is  here 
meant. 

The  statement  of  the  factors  that  cause  or 
influence  belief  also  indicates  the  means  of 
training  belief.     Educational  efforts  make  fre- 


355 


BELL 


BELL 


quent  use  of  the  factors  1,  4,  and  5  to  influence 
belief;  and  in  the  attempt  to  arouse,  control,  or 
suppress  certain  emotions — loyalty,  disgust,  love, 
fear,  and  the  like  —  in  the  presence  of  definite 
objects  or  situations,  Xo.  3  becomes  important 
to  check  or  reenforce  the  effects  of  \o.  2.  It  is 
also  possible  to  strengthen  belief  by  "  expres- 
sing" it  in  some  way  (Xo.  5),  —  a  method 
already  employed  in  education,  but  capable  of 
far  greater  use. 

The  readiness  to  act  upon  a  belief  has  been 
regarded  as  the  only  sure  sign  that  the  belief 
is  real.  Yet  strong  emotional  expression,  or 
the  endurance  of  excessive  pain  for  the  belief's 
sake,  are  often  as  convincing  signs.  These, 
therefore,  may  be  regarded  as  tests,  or  criteria, 
in  distinction  from  causes,  of  belief. 

Disbelief  is  a  special  —  a  negative  —  form 
of  behef ;  and  both  of  these  find  their  opposite  in 
doubt.     (See  Doubt.)  G.  M.  S. 

References:  — 

Bain'.  .v.     Emotions  and  the  IF i«,  4th  ed.,  pp.  505-538. 

(London,    1875.) 
Bos,  C.     Psychologic de  la  croyancc.      (Paris,  1901.) 
J.4MES,  W.     Principles  of  Psychology,  Vol.  II.  pp.  283- 

234,  and  the  refs.  there  given.    (New  York,  1890.) 
Stout,  G.  M.     Analytic  Psychology.  Vol.  I.  pp.  99  ff.  ; 

Vol.  II,  pp.  234  £f.     (London,  1896.) 

BELL,  ANDREW  (1753-18.32).  —  The  "in- 
ventor" of  the  monitorial  system  of  instruction 
(q.v.).  Born  at  St.  Andrew's,  he  attended  the 
University  of  his  native  town,  showing  ability 
in  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy.  After 
graduation  he  accepted  a  tutorship  in  Virginia, 
where  he  remained  for  seven  years.  On  his  re- 
turn to  England  he  received  the  degree  of  M.D. 
at  St.  Andrew's  and  took  orders  in  the  Church 
of  England,  and  through  patronage  was  sent  to 
India.  On  his  way  to  Calcutta  he  was  pre- 
vailed upon  to  stay  at  Madras  as  military  chap- 
lain and  superintended  the  Military  Male  Orphan 
Asylum.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  the 
school,  which  was  badly  in  need  of  teachers. 
He  was  here  driven  to  invent  what  came  to  be 
known  as  the  "Madras  system."  This  was 
nothing  less  than  mutual  instruction  among 
the  pupils.  From  a  native  .school  he  adopted 
the  practice  of  using  sand  tables  for  writing. 
As  the  teachers  of  his  school  refused  to  carry  out 
this  plan  he  appointed  a  few  boys  as  head-super- 
intendents and  assistant  teachers.  Thus  in  1791 
the  "system"  came  into  existence.  On  his  re- 
turn to  England  he  began  to  di.sseminate  the 
plan  which  he  had  "  invented."  In  1798  he  pub- 
lished An  Experiment  in  Education,  made  at 
the  Male  Asylum  at  Madras,  suggesting  a 
System  by  which  a  School  or  Family  may  teach 
itself  under  the  Superintendence  of  the  Master 
or  Parent.  The  system  was  adopted  in  a 
Protestant  parochial  school  in  London.  As 
rector  of  Swanage  in  Dorsetshire  he  contributed 
to  the  estabhshment  of  thirteen  schools  on  his 
plan.  In  1805  he  met  Lancaster  (q.v.),  whom 
he  treated  patronizingly,  and  later  conceived  a 


356 


violent  hatred  against  him.  In  1807  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  was  interested  in  the 
system  and  it  l)egan  to  be  introduced  in  many 
schools.  In  1805  he  had  pubhshed  ,4  Sketch  of 
a  Xational  Institution  for  Training  up  the 
Children  of  the  Poor  in  Moral  and  Religious 
Principles,  and  in  Habits  of  Useful  Indu.<itry. 
But  it  was  not  until  181 1  that  the  Natio7ial 
Society  for  Promoting  the  Education  of  the  Poor  in 
the  Principles  of  the  Established  Ch  urch  throughout 
England  and  Wales  was  established.  (See  article 
on  X.\TioxAL  Society.)  A  central  school  was 
estabUshed  in  Westminster  to  carry  out  the 
system  on  a  large  scale.  In  the  same  year 
he  had  a  press  controversy  with  Lancaster  which 
only  strengthened  the  supporters  of  the  Na- 
tional Society.  Bell  did  not  confine  his  atten- 
tion to  primary  education  alone.  His  system 
w^as  adopted  in  Charterhouse  and  Christ's 
Hospital,  and  in  1815  he  wrote  Elements  of 
Tuition  or  Ludus  Literarius,  a  classical  gram- 
mar. In  1816  he  met  Pestalozzi,  without  de- 
riving any  benefit  from  the  meeting.  He  was 
too  full  of  what  he  now  called  "  the  new  organ." 
In  1818  he  preached  a  sermon  on  his  system 
at  Hereford.  In  1819  he  was  promoted  to  a 
stall  in  Westminster  Abbey.  In  1827  he  pub- 
lished the  Manual  of  Instruction  for  the  schools 
using  his  system.  He  died  in  1832,  devoted 
to  the  last  to  his  sj'stcm.  He  left  his  wealth, 
which  was  extensive,  to  be  distributed  in  grants 
to  small  schools  in  Scotland.  In  1872  this 
money  was  converted  to  the  estabhshment  of 
Bell  Chairs  of  the  Theory,  History,  and  Art  of 
Education  in  the  Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrew's 
L'niversities.  While  Bell's  influence  on  EngUsh 
education  was  great,  for  he  was  influential  in 
reducing  the  teaching  in  elementary  schools 
in  England  to  an  art,  his  personality  was  not  cal- 
culated to  attract  many  admirers.  To  the  last 
he  was  blind  to  any  defects  in  his  system,  hold- 
ing that  for  it  alone  he  would  have  waited  six 
thousand  years.  Bell  was  more  uniformly 
successful  than  Lancaster,  although  Lancaster 
probably  had  a  much  better  grasp  of  the  prob- 
lem. But  the  work  of  both  was  marred  by 
remarkable  vanity  and  conceit.  For  the  time, 
however,  they  exercised  some  influence  on  edu- 
cation in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Bell  in  Ireland 
and  Canada;  Lancaster  on  the  continent  and  the 
L'nited  States.  But  it  soon  became  apparent 
that  the  systems  of  the  two  men  were  nothing 
more  than  classroom  devices  and  did  not  con- 
tain the  whole  truth  of  education.  But  if  the 
actual  work  of  the  two  men  did  not  live,  they 
were  instrumental  in  calling  into  existence  tW'O 
societies  which  laid  the  foundations  of  English 
elementary  education. 

See  England,  Education  in;  Lancaster, 
Joseph;  Monitorial  System;  National 
Society. 

References:  — 

FiTcn,   Sin   Joshua.     Educational  Aims  and  Methods. 

(New  York,   1900.) 
Leitch.     Practical  Educationists.     (Glasgow,    1876.J 


BELLEVUE  COLLEGE 


BEMBO 


Meiklejohn,  J.  M.  D.  An  Old  Educational  Reformer, 
Dr.  Andrew  Bell.     (Edinburgh  and  London,  1881.) 

SouTHEY,  Robert  and  C.  C.  Lijfc  of  Rev.  Andrew  Bell. 
{London,  1S44.) 

BELLEVUE  COLLEGE,  BELLEVUE,  NEB. 

■ —  Incorporated  in  1880  by  the  Presbyterian 
Synod  of  Nebraska  and  opened  in  1883.  It 
constitutes  part  of  the  University  of  Omaha. 
The  institution,  which  is  coeducational,  provides 
academic,  collegiate,  normal,  and  musical 
courses.  Students  are  admitted  into  the 
college  by  certificate  from  accredited  schools 
and  by  an  examination  requiring  14  units  of 
high  school  work.  Classical,  scientific,  and 
philosophical  courses  leading  to  their  respec- 
tive degrees  are  offered.  The  college  may 
issue  the  first  grade  state  certificate  of  the  State 
of  Nebraska  to  all  graduates  who  fulfill  the 
necessary  requirements,  which  is  valid  for  3 
years  and  may  then  be  converted  by  the  State 
Superintendent  into  a  life  certificate.  Lower 
grade  certificates  are  granted  in  the  normal 
department,  to  which  an  eight-grade  training 
school  is  attached.  There  are  12  professors 
and  6  instructors  and  assistants.  Stephen  W. 
Stookey,  M.S.,  LL.D.,  is  the  president. 

BELMONT  COLLEGE,  NASHVILLE, 
TENN.  —  A  non-sectarian  institution  for  the 
education  of  young  women.  College  prepara- 
torj',  collegiate,  and  musical  departments  are 
maintained.  There  is  no  definite  statement  of 
the  requirements  of  adnii.ssion.  Diplomas  and 
degrees  are  conferred.  There  are  IS  instructors 
on  the  faculty. 

BELOIT  COLLEGE,  BELOIT,  WISCON- 
SIN.—  A  non-sectarian,  coeducational  institu- 
tion, owing  its  foundation  to  the  propaganda  of 
the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Collegiate  and 
Theological  Education  in  the  West,  organized 
in  New  York  (1843),  and  united  in  1874  with 
a  Boston  society  in  what  later  (1894)  became 
the  Congregational  Educational  Society.  Beloit 
is  one  of  the  23  colleges  fostered  or  aided 
by  this  latter  organization.  The  founders 
and  most  of  the  friends  of  the  college  have 
been  Congregationalists  and  Presbyterians; 
but  it  has  been  warmly  supported  by  other 
denominations,  and  has  always  placed  a 
thorough  education  on  an  evangelical  and  un- 
sectarian  basis  above  any  other  considerations. 
As  early  as  1843  the  need  of  a  college  for  the 
region  opened  to  settlement  by  the  Black 
Hawk  war  in  the  Northwest  Territory  was 
discussed.  In  June,  1844,  a  general  conven- 
tion of  Congregational  and  Presbyterian 
churches  in  the  Northwest  was  held  at  Cleve- 
land, Ohio.  One  evening  at  this  convention 
was  occupied  by  addresses  in  behalf  of  the 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Collegiate  and 
Theological  Iviucation  in  the  West;  as  a  result, 
returning  delegates  decided  to  call  a  convention 
at  Beloit  in  August,  1844,  to  plan  for  the  loca- 
tion of  institutions  for  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  and 


Iowa.  Three  more  conventions  were  held  m 
Beloit,  and  that  town  was  selected  as  the  site 
of  a  college  for  Wisconsin  and  Illinois,  largely 
because  of  its  position  on  the  border  of  these 
two  states.  The  first  Board  of  Trustees  met 
October  23,  1845;  a  majority  of  its  8  ministerial 
members  were  graduates  of  Yale,  a  college 
whose  influence  appears  often  in  the  subsequent 
history  of  Beloit.  The  charter  was  approved 
February  2,  1846.  The  present  Board  of 
Trustees  has  30  members,  serving  3  years, 
divided  into  3  equal  classes,  one  of  which 
retires  each  year,  the  successors  being  elected 
by  the  remaining  trustees.  The  alumni  nomi- 
nate 1  member  annually.  The  first  class  of 
4  students  began  work  November  4,  1847, 
reciting  in  the  basement  of  the  old  Congrega- 
tional Church.  The  college  had  only  a  classical 
course  until  1874,  when  a  philosophical  course 
was  added;  the  science  course  was  established 
in  1892.  Women  were  admitted  in  September, 
1895,  but  the  enrollment  of  women  students  is 
limited  by  the  number  which  can  be  accommo- 
dated in  the  women's  dormitories.  The  Art 
Department  has  a  small  but  valuable  and  well 
chosen  collection,  opened  to  the  public  for  the 
first  time  in  1908.  Fraternities  have  been  estab- 
lished as  follows:  Beta  Theta  Pi,  Phi  Kappa 
Psi,  and  Sigma  Chi.  The  degrees  given  are 
A.B.,  B.S.,  and,  for  resident  graduate  studj', 
M.A.;  the  undergraduate  course  of  4  years 
may  also  be  completed  in  3  or  3J  years. 
Beloit  College  is  one  of  the  institutions  on  the 
original  list  of  those  accepted  by  the  Carnegie 
Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teach- 
ing {q.v.)  as  participating  in  its  system  of 
retiring  allowances  to  professors.  The  build- 
ings, grounds,  and  equipment  are  valued 
(Jan.  1,  1909)  at  $592,500;  real  estate  held  in 
Beloit,  Chicago,  and  elsewhere,  at  $14,825. 
The  total  productive  endowment  is  $1,06(5,667. 
The  average  salary  of  a  professor  is  .SI 600. 
Of  the  43  members  of  the  instructing  staff,  16 
are  full  professors.  There  are  386  undergrad- 
uate and  5  graduate  students.  Edward 
Dwight  Eaton,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  is  president. 

C.  G. 

BEMBO,  PIETRO  (1470-1547).  —  Born  in 
Florence,  the  son  of  a  nobleman,  he  received 
his  education  in  his  native  town.  He  later 
studied  Greek  at  Messina  and  philosophy  under 
Pomponazzi  at  Padua.  In  1498  he  joined  his 
father  at  the  court  of  Ferrara,  where  by  his 
polished  manners  and  graceful  wit  he  soon 
became  noticed.  Here  he  met  Lucrezia  Borgia, 
to  whom  he  dedicated  a  dialogue  in  the  ver- 
nacular on  Platonic  love  {Gli  Asolani).  After 
living  for  some  time  at  the  Court  at  Urbino,  he 
went  to  Rome  in  1512  and  was  appointed  one 
of  the  secretaries  to  Pope  Leo  X.  His  col- 
league in  office  was  Sadoleto  {q.v.).  In  1520 
he  retired  to  Padua,  where  he  lived  for  19  years, 
spent  in  classical  study  and  an  attempt  to  repro- 
duce the  life  of  the  time  of  Cicero.     His  home 


357 


BENEDICT  COLLEGE 


BENEDICTINES 


became  the  center  of  the  culture  of  that  period. 
In  1539  he  was  created  Cardinal  and  died  in 
1547.  A  typical  [jroduct  of  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance, Henibo  oarly  won  a  foremost  position 
among  the  Latin  scholars  of  the  day.  His 
writings  are  marked  by  attention  to  purity  of 
style  rather  than  by  depth  of  thought.  In 
prose  an  imitator  of  Cicero  to  the  extent  that 
he  was  pilloried  by  Erasmus  in  the  Cicero- 
nianuf!,  in  verse  he  showed  equal  facility  in 
reproducing  the  qualities  of  the  elegiacs  of 
Propertius  and  TibuUus  or  the  hexameters  and 
hendcca-syllabics  of  Catullus.  Among  his  i)oems 
are  the  elegiacs  Galatea  and  De  Galcso  et 
Maximo,  and  the  hexameter  poem,  Benacus. 
For  his  polished  Ciceronian  style  he  found 
scope   in   his  correspondence.      See  Ciceuoni- 

ANISM. 

References:  — 

Symonds,  J.  A.     Renaissance  in  Italy,  Part  II.     (New 

York,  1S88.) 
Sandys,  J.  E.     A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  ch.  v. 

vol.  II.    (Cambridge,  1908.) 

BENEDICT  COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA,  S.C. 

—  Foundetl  as  a  coeducational  institution  for 
negroes  by  tiie  American  Bapti-st  Home  Mission 
Society  in  1871,  and  chartered  in  1894.  Pre- 
I)aratory,  collegiate,  normal,  college,  divinity, 
and  music  departments  are  maintained.  The 
students  engage  somewhat  in  industrial  work 
required  in  the  care  of  the  campus  and  build- 
ings. The  admission  requirements  for  the 
college  course  are  not  definite.  Degrees  are 
conferred.  The  faculty  consists  of  7  professors 
and  20  instructors  and  assistants.  Rev.  A.  C. 
Osborn,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  is  the  president. 

BENEDICTINES,  EDUCATIONAL  AC- 
TIVITY OF.  —  The  order  of  Benedictines  was 
established  by  St.  Benedict,  the  Patriarch  of 
monasticism  in  the  West,  who  was  born  at 
Nursia  in  Umbria  about  the  year  480.  At  an 
early  age  (according  to  some,  when  he  was  only 
16  years  old)  he  fled  the  corrupt  life  of  Rome 
and  took  refuge  in  a  remote  spot  on  the  hills 
of  Subiaco,  above  the  Anio,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  prayer  and  penance.  He  organized 
into  a  "  family  "  those  who,  like  himself,  had 
left  the  world  the  better  to  love  and  serve  God, 
and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Subiaco  he  founded 
twelve  such  communities.  In  529  he  estab- 
lished the  celebrated  monastery  of  Monte 
Cassino,  which  thenceforth  became  the  center 
from  which  the  influence  of  his  Rule  spread 
throughout  Europe.  The  Rule  {Regula  $ancti 
Benedicti),  which  was  written  about  the  year 
530,  did  not  contemplate  the  establishment  of 
an  Order,  as  the  term  is  understood  nowadays. 
It  was  intended  merely  for  the  communities 
founded  by  Benedict  himself,  each  of  which 
was  to  be  a  separate  family,  owing  allegiance 
to  the  Pope  alone. 

Spread  of  the  Be7iedictine  Rule.  During  the 
sixth   and  seventh  centuries  the   Rule  of  St. 


Benedict  gradually  replaced  the  stricter  Celtic 
rule  established  by  St.  Columban  (q.v.)  and 
other  Irish  monks  in  parts  of  France  and 
Switzerland.  It  was  carried  to  England  by 
St.  Augustine  of  Canterbury  ((j-v.),  who  founded 
tiie  first  English  Benedictine  congregation  in 
597.  Thence  its  influence  was  extend(Hl  during 
the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  to  Germany, 
through  the  missionary  activity  of  St.  Boniface 
(q.v.).  It  was  introduced  into  Spain  i)robably 
about  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  In 
the  ninth  century  the  Benedictine  Rule  had 
extended  to  all  the  monastic  institutions  of 
Western  Europe  with  the  exception  of  the 
British  Isles,  where  for  a  century  or  two  longer 
the  Celtic  rule  was  still  maintained  in  some 
monasteries.  By  the  beginning  of  the  four- 
teenth century  there  were  as  many  as  37,000 
monasteries  extending  as  far  south  as  Sicily 
and  as  far  north  as  Iceland,  all  following  the 
Rule  of  St.  Benedict  or  some  modification 
of  it. 

The  reforms  of  the  Benedictine  rule  begin 
with  the  attempts  of  Benedict  of  Aniane  in  the 
ninth  century  to  bring  all  the  congregations 
under  one  authoritj'.  A  similar  attempt  was 
made  by  St.  Berno  of  Cluny  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, and  is  known  as  the  Cluniac  reform.  The 
first  reform  which  resulted  in  the  foundation  of 
a  sejiarate  order  was  that  of  the  Camaldoli  in 
1009.  This  was  followed  by  the  formation  of 
the  Cistercians   (1098),   Cclestines  (1254),  etc. 

The  story  of  the  influence  of  the  Benedictines 
during  the  Middle  Ages  belongs  to  the  general 
history  of  Europe,  in  which  they  played  a  very 
important  part.  Their  educational  activity 
is  described  farther  on.  Special  mention 
should,  however,  be  made  of  the  Congregation 
of  St.  RIaur,  which  flourished  in  France  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  and  to 
which  belonged  D'Achery,  Mabillon,  Mont- 
faucon,  Ruinart,  and  Martene,  whose  names  are 
associated  with  the  beginnings  of  the  scientific 
study  of  history  and  the  science  of  paleography 
in  modern  times. 

The  Benedictines  in  the  United  Stales.— 
Among  the  first  Catholic  missionaries  who 
came  with  the  Spanish  explorers  were  several 
members  of  the  Benedictine  Order.  Even  as 
early  as  1493,  a  Benedictine  companion  of 
Columbus  in  his  second  voyage  is  said  to  have 
labored  for  a  short  time  among  the  Indians. 
The  educational  work  of  the  Benedictines  in 
this  country  is,  however,  of  much  later  founda- 
tion. In  1846  the  Bavarian  Congregation 
founded  a  mission  at  Beatty,  Pa.,  out  of  which 
grew  the  Abbey  of  St.  Vincent,  formally  estab- 
lished in  1855.  Then  in  succession  were 
founded:  St.  John's,  Collegeville,  Minn. 
(185(5);  St.  Benedict's,  Atchison,  Kans.  (1857); 
St.  Mary's,  Newark,  N.J.  (1857);  Maryhelp, 
Belmont,  N.C.  (1885);  St.  Procopius,  Chicago 
(1887);  St.  Leo's,  Pasco  Co.,  Fla.  (1889);  St. 
Bernard's,  CuUman  Co.,  Ala.  (1891);  St. 
Mary's  Priory,  Lacey,  Wash.   (1895).     These 


358 


BENEDICTINES 


BENEDICTINES 


foundations  have  3  seminaries,  14  schools  and 
colleges,  and  educate  about  2000  students. 
The  Swiss  Congregation  has  also  several  abbeys 
and  priories  in  the  United  States:  St.  Meinrad's, 
Ind.  (founded  as  a  mission  in  1854,  made  an 
abbey  in  1870);  Conception,  Mo.  (1873); 
New  Subiaco,  Spielerville,  Ark.  (1878);  St. 
Benedict's,  Mt.  Angel,  Ore.  (1882) ;  St.  Joseph's, 
St.  Benedict,  La.  (1889);  St.  Mary's,  Richard- 
ton,  N.D.  (1899);  St.  Gall's  Priorv,  Devil's 
Lake,  N.D.  (1893).  St.  Meinrad's  has  both 
a  seminary  and  a  college;  St.  Benedict's  and 
St.  Joseph's  have  colleges. 

St.  Benedict  and  Education. — A  cardinal 
principle  of  St.  Benedict's  Rule  was  that 
"  Idleness  is  the  enemy  of  the  soul."  Conse- 
quently, he  prescribes  that  the  monks  should 
occupy  themselves  both  "  in  the  labor  of  their 
hands  and  in  holy  reading."  Manual  labor 
had  already  been  adopted  as  a  means  of  spir- 
itual education  by  the  monks  of  the  East, 
and  in  some  of  the  Eastern  monastic  Rules, 
notably  in  that  of  St.  Basil  (q.v.),  stress  had 
been  laid  on  the  importance  of  reading  and 
study.  There  was,  therefore,  nothing  novel  in 
St.  Benedict's  ■  prescription.  When,  however, 
Cassiodorus,  the  former  minister  of  the  Gothic 
kings,  founded  the  monastery  of  Viviers,  in 
Calabria,  about  the  year  540,  he  gave  a  power- 
ful impetus  to  the  cultivation  of  learning,  and 
by  example  as  well  as  precept  strove  to  make 
the  monastery  a  veritable  academy  of  the  sacred 
and  profane  sciences.  After  his  time,  the  daily 
routine  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  included 
teaching,  the  study  of  Holy  Writ  and  the 
classics,  and  the  transcription  of  books. 

The  Benedictine  Schools. — The  educational  ' 
activity  of  the  Benedictines  included  in  the 
first  place  reading  and  study  on  the  part  of  the 
monks  themselves.  A  knowledge  of  the  Scrip- 
tures was  recognized  to  be  an  indispensable 
means  of  personal  sanctification,  and  for  an 
understanding  of  the  scriptures  it  was  con- 
sidered necessary  to  be  acquainted  with  profane 
literature.  In  the  second  place,  the  monastery 
received  within  its  walls  two  classes  of  boys: 
those  who  were  offered  by  their  parents  (oblati) 
for  the  monastic  life,  and  those  who  were  placed 
there  temporarily  to  be  educated  and  protected, 
the  monastery  being  the  only  place  where  the 
children  of  the  nobility  were  not  exposed  to 
seizure  for  ransom  whenever  their  fathers  were 
at  war  with  a  neighboring  baron  or  prince. 
This  led  to  the  distinction  between  the  internal 
and  external  school  of  the  monastery.  Finally, 
among  the  external  pupils  of  the  cloistral 
schools  were  admitted  the  children  of  the 
neighboring  village  or  countryside.  For  it  was 
part  of  the  beneficent  social  work  of  the  monas- 
teries to  extend  the  benefits  of  education  in 
letters  and  in  the  mechanical  arts.  These 
developments,  however,  did  not  take  place  at 
once.  They  were  due  to  the  influence  of  events 
which  affected  monasticism  in  the  course  of  the 
seventh,  eighth,  and  especially  the  ninth  cen- 


tury. See  articles  on  Cloister  Schools; 
Middle  Ages,  Education  in;  Monastic 
Schools. 

Curriculum  of  the  Schools.  —  For  the  monks 
themselves  the  principal  subject  of  study  was 
sacred  science;  that  is,  a  knowledge  of  the 
Scriptures  and  of  the  liturgy  of  the  Church. 
The  profane  sciences,  the  seven  hberal  arts 
and  the  classics,  were  studied  as  a  means  to 
the  understanding  and  exposition  of  Holy  Writ. 
This,  however,  did  not  prevent  men  like  Serva- 
tus  Lupus,  Rhabanus  Maurus  (q.p.),  Gerbert, 
etc.,  from  cultivating  an  ardent,  almost  a 
humanistic,  love  for  the  classics,  while  they 
acknowledged  the  principle  that  all  profane 
learning  should  be  made  to  subserve  spiritual 
interests. 

The  children  received  in  the  monastic  houses 
were  first  taught  the  Psalter,  which  they  were 
expected  to  be  able  to  recite,  in  Latin,  before 
their  seventh  year,  when  they  entered  the 
monastic  school.  There  the  course  of  .studies 
was  uniform  in  all  the  Benedictine  houses 
from  the  days  of  Cassiodorus  down  to  the 
foundation  of  the  Universities  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  It  consisted  of  the  seven  liberal  arts 
(9. v.),  which  included  the  Trivium,  Grammar, 
Rhetoric,  and  Dialectic,  and  the  Quadrivium, 
Arithmetic,  Geometry,  Astronomy,  and  Music. 
In  regard  to  the  former,  or  philological,  group, 
Latin  was,  of  course,  the  language  which  re- 
ceived most  attention.  During  the  period  of 
Benedictine  educational  supremacy,  Greek  was 
practically  an  unknown  tongue  in  Western 
Europe,  except  where,  as  at  Laon,  St.  Gall, 
etc.,  the  influence  of  the  Irish  teachers  pre- 
vailed. As  soon  as  the  vernacular  tongues 
began  to  develop,  attention  was  paid  to  them 
in  the  monasteries,  though  not  to  the  point  of 
substituting  them  for  Latin.  Rhabanus  Mau- 
rus at  Fulda,  Bede  and  Alfred  in  England,  and 
the  Notkers  and  Ekkehards  at  St.  Gall  are  not 
exceptions,  but  rather  distinguished  examples 
in  this  respect. 

The  method  of  teaching  was  conditioned  by 
the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  times.  Books 
were  scarce,  hence  the  custom  of  dictating  the 
te.xt  in  the  classroom.  The  unsettled  condi- 
tions incident  to  the  almost  continuous  inva- 
sions, the  need  of  converting  the  nations  to 
Christianity  before  trying  to  raise  them  to  a 
plane  of  intellectual  culture,  left  little  time  for 
original  constructive  work  in  literature,  science, 
and  philosophy.  Meantime,  it  was  a  matter 
of  paramount  ncccssit}'  to  preserve  the  heritage 
of  the  past.  Hence,  the  activity  of  teacher 
and  pupil  was  almost  without  exception  con- 
fined to  commenting  on  the  text,  glossing  the 
technical  words,  and,  in  general,  "  marking  time 
without  advancing  "  within  the  lines  laid  down 
by  the  writers  of  preceding  generations.  Vergil 
among  the  poets,  Cicero  among  the  orators, 
Boethius,  Aristotle,  and  St.  Augustine  among 
the  dialecticians  and  philosophers,  were  the 
favorite  authors  of  the  Benedictine  teachers. 


359 


BENEDICTINES 


BENEDICTINES 


and  their  works,  as  far  as  these  were  known, 
were  the  texts  in  the  schools. 

Famous  Benedictine  Schools.  —  Among  the 
English  schools  which  owed  their  foundation 
directly  or  indirectly  to  St.  Augustine  of  Canter- 
bury, the  best  known  were  those  of  Yarrow, 
York,  Glastonbury,  and  Westminster.  Yar- 
row was  the  scene  of  the  literary  activity  of  the 
Venerable  Bede  {q.v.),  and  it  was  at  York  that 
Alcuin  {q.v.)  acquired  the  educational  training 
whicii  he  placed  at  the  disposal  of  Charlemagne 
{q.v.)  for  the  revival  of  learning  in  the  Prank- 
ish Empire.  To  the  influence  of  the  Carolin- 
gian  revival  is  due  the  foundation  of  the  Bene- 
dictine schools  at  Fulda  (813),  Hirschau  (830), 
and  New  Corbie  (822),  where  the  traditions 
introduced  into  Germany  by  St.  Boniface  were 
given  now  life  and  vigor.  The  activity  of  the 
Irish  monks,  who  generally  adopted  the  Rule 
of  St.  Benedict,  at  least  after  the  CaroUngian 
revival,  was  noticeable  at  Laon,  St.  Gall, 
Reichcnau,  Bobbio  {q.v.),  Liege  and  elsewhere 
throughout  the  empire.  During  the  centuries 
imme(liately  following  Charlemagne's  time 
these  schools  underwent  various  fates.  Little 
by  little  they ,  were  thrown  into  the  shade 
by  the  prestige  of  the  schools  at  Paris,  out  of 
which  at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury grew  the  oldest  of  the  medieval  univer- 
sities, the  rise  of  which  is  coincident  with  the 
beginning  of  the  educational  activity  of  the 
Mendicant  Orders. 

Influence  of  the  Benedictine  Schools.  —  Apart 
from  their  work  in  the  schoolroom,  the  Bene- 
dictines exerted  an  influence  which  bore  di- 
rectly on  the  education  of  medieval  and 
modern  Europe.  The  preservation  of  the 
classics  is  due  to  their  zeal  and  industry  as 
transcribers  of  the  ancient  codices.  Placing 
as  they  did  the  spiritual  needs  of  man  above 
every  other  consideration,  they  were  not  always 
as  appreciative  of  the  beauties  of  the  classics  as 
a  humanist  or  a  modern  philologist  might  be. 
Nevertheless,  since  they  were  under  no  com- 
pulsion to  preserve  the  literature  of  antiquity, 
we  may  presume  that,  in  their  efforts  to  pre- 
serve it,  they  worked  in  an  appreciative  spirit. 
To  the  Benedictines  we  owe  almost  all  the  famous 
libraries  of  the  early  Middle  Ages,  some  of 
which  now  constitute  the  most  cherished 
treasures  of  the  British  Museum,  the  Bodleian, 
the  Ambrosian,  the  Vatican,  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale,  and  the  Stadt-Uni  versitats-Bibliothek 
of  Munich.  To  their  industry  as  chroniclers  we 
owe  almost  everything  that  we  know  about 
medieval  history,  secular  as  well  as  religious. 
To  them,  too,  the  modern  world  is  indebted  for 
much  in  the  department  of  the  liberal  and  me- 
chanical arts.  The  Benedictines  were,  it  is 
freely  admitted,  the  ci\'ilizcrs  of  the  barbarians. 
Not  only  did  they  in  principle  maintain  the 
nobility  and  sanctity  of  work,  but  they  put 
their  principle  into  practice,  and  set  the  ex- 
ample of  enterprise  and  thrift  in  their  agricul- 
tural   labors.      They     drained     the     marshes. 


rendered  fertile  the  sterile  plains,  built  roads 
and  bridges,  introduced  new  methods  of  farm- 
ing, and  e.xerted  in  the  social  economic  order 
an  influence  as  great  as  that  which  they  exerted 
in  the  spiritual  order.  In  the  useful  and  fine 
arts,  they  often  led  the  way.  It  was  at  the 
monastery  that  the  artisan  and  the  artist  could 
see  the  newest  contrivance  and  study  the  newest 
style  in  architecture,  painting,  or  nictal-work. 
And  these  traditions  have  not  entirely  died  out. 
The  Benedictines  are  doing  a  large  share,  to- 
day, of  the  educational  work  in  Catholic 
countries.  They  have  many  flourishing  col- 
leges in  England  and  in  the  United  States. 
Their  efforts  to  found  a  new  school  of  Christian 
art  at  Beuron  are  attracting  a  good  deal  of  at- 
tention, and  until  quite  recently  the  printing 
pres.ses  of  Solesme  and  Ligug6  were  renewing 
the  best  traditions  of  the  medieval  scriptorium 
in  the  finest  kind  of  bookmaking. 

Literary  Activity  of  the  Benedictines.  —  Since 
the  days  of  the  Venerable  Bede  {q.v.)  in  England, 
Rhabanus  Maurus  {q.v.)  in  Germany,  and  the 
Notkers  {q.v.)  in  Switzerland,  who  represent  the 
first  era  of  Bendictine  learning,  the  monks  of 
St.  Benedict  have  maintained  their  reputation 
for  high  scholarship  in  the  profane  sciences  as 
well  as  in  theology.  The  Congregation  of  St. 
Maur  has  already'  been  mentioned.  Its  mem- 
bers were  especially  distinguished  in  the  depart- 
ments of  history,  biblical  criticism,  and  pale- 
ography. In  the  same  line  of  work  Trithcmius, 
Abbot  of  Sponheim  {q.v.),  led  the  vanguard  of 
scholarship  in  Germany  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. In  the  recent  times  Ziegelbaucr  (d. 
1750),  Pez  (d.  1762),  Gams  (d.  1892),  To.sti  (d. 
1897)  and  Abbot  Gasquet,  have  attained  dis- 
tinction as  historians;  the  monks  of  Soles- 
nies,  especially  Dom  Gueranger  (d.  1875), 
Cardinal  Pitra  (d.  1889),  and  Dom  Pothier, 
devoted  special  attention  to  Church  music  and 
sacred  hturgy,  and  since  the  expulsion  from 
France  in  1901  the  same  congregation  continues 
its  work  at  Appuldurcombe  in  the  Isle  of  Wight; 
Dom  Cabrol  and  Dom  Leclerq  are  among  the 
foremost  scholars  of  the  day  in  the  department 
of  Christian  archaeology  and  history,  while  in 
Germany  Abbot  Wolter  (d.  1890)  has  emu- 
lated in  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  fame  which  the  Congregation  of  St.  Maur 
attained  in  France  two  centuries  ago.      W.  T. 

References:  — 

Az.iRiAS.  Bkotheh.  Essays  Educational.  (Chicago, 
1896.) 

Besse.     Le  moine  binidiclin.     (Ligugd,  1898.) 

Dr.ine,  a.  T.  Christian  Schools  and  Scholars.  (Lon- 
don. ISSl.) 

Helmbccher.  M.  Die  Orden  und  Kongregationen  der 
katholischen  Kirche.  (Paderborn,  1907.)  Vol.  I,  pp. 
205  ff. 

Mabillon.     Annates  0.  S.  B.     (Paris,  1703-1739.) 
Traite  des  etudes  monasliques.       (Pari.s.   1691.) 

Maitre,  Leon.  Les  icoles  ipiscopalcs  et  monasliques, 
A.D.  76S-1180.      (Paris,  1866.) 

Newman.  The  Mission  of  St.  Benedict,  in  Historical 
Sketches.  Vol.  IL     (London,   1872.) 

Montalambert.     Monies  of  the  West.    (London,  1896.) 


360 


BENEFACTIONS 


BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY 


Taunton.     English    Black    Monks    of    St.    Benedict. 

(London,  1898.) 
ZiEOELBAUER.     Hist.  Rci.  Liter.  O.  S.  B.     (Augsburg, 

1754.) 
See  also  Article  in  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  II  (New 

York,  1907),  and  in  Catholic  University  Bull.,  May, 

1909,  Vol.  XV,  pp.  441   ff.    The  latter  contains  a 

more  complete  bibliography. 


BENEFACTIONS. 

Educational. 


See     Philanthropy, 


BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY.  —  The  privilege 
known  in  England  and  America  as  the  "Benefit 
of  Clergy"  played  an  indirect  but  a  not  unimpor- 
tant part  in  the  evolution  of  English  education. 
It  had  indeed  its  counterparts  throughout 
Europe  under  the  spiritual  control  of  the 
Roman  Church.  During  very  early  times 
various  privileges  were  claimed  by  and  were 
willingly  or  unwillingly  granted  to  the  secular 
and  monastic  clergy.  From  the  date  of  the 
Kentish  Council  of  Cloveshoo  in  747  to  the 
date  of  the  Black  Death  (1.348-1349)  education 
was  almost  exclusively  under  the  control  of  the 
Church,  and  it  was  not  unnatural  that  those  who 
by  virtue  of  their  learning  trained  the  young  and 
nunistered  to  all  should  demand  and  secure 
certain  privileges.  It  was,  indeed,  an  outward 
and  visible  sign  of  the  theocratic  movement  that 
lasted  in  Europe  from  the  eleventh  to  the  thir- 
teenth century.  Our  earliest  record  on  the 
subject  seems  to  prove  wide  privileges,  for  it  is 
an  enactment  of  King  Alfred  that  in  the  case  of 
murder  by  a  priest  he  is  to  be  unfrocked  by  the 
bishop  and  delivered  up  from  the  Church  unless 
his  lord  will  compound  for  the  iccrgeld  {Ancient 
Laws  and  Institutes  of  England,  p.  34  (1840). 
It  is,  however,  in  the  time  of  King  Ethelstane 
(926)  that  we  obtain  the  first  English  specific 
legal  indication  of  a  privileged  position  of  the 
clergy  directly  related  to  education.  The  law 
of  the  King  runs  as  follows:  "  If  a  scholar  made 
such  proficiency  in  learning,  as  that  he  obtained 
orders,  and  ministered  to  Christ,  he  was  thought 
worthy  of  that  dignity  and  protection  that  be- 
longed thereto,  unless  he  incurred  a  forfeiture 
of  his  function,  and  might  not  exercise  it." 
The  latter  clause  seems  to  refer  to  the  exception 
created  by  King  Alfred.  By  the  time  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  and  William  the  Con- 
queror we  find  that  special  privileges  are 
granted  to  the  learned.  The  laws  of  Edward  and 
those  laws  as  confirmed  by  William  I  (Spelmanni, 
Concilia,  Vol.  I,  p.  619;  Wilkins,  Leges  Anglo- 
Sa.ronicae,  p.  197;  Chronicon  Henrici  Knighton, 
(Rolls  Ed.),  Vol.  I,  p.  78)  ordain  de  clcricis  et 
possessionibus  eorum:  "omnis  clcricus  et  etiam 
scholaris,  et  omnis  eorum  res  et  possessiones 
ubicunciue  f uerint,  pacem  Dei  et  sanctae  ecclesiae 
habeant."  It  has  probably  not  been  pointed  out 
before  that  the  general  rule  of  privilege  was  before 
the  Conquest  extended  to  non-clerical  scholars. 
But  in  fact,  to  acquire  scholarship  was  generally 
recognized,  as  late  as  1350,  as  a  step  taken  in 
view  of  orders,  and  the  very  numerous  manorial 
customs  by  which  no  villein's  cliild  (before  1406) 


could  go  to  school  except  by  consent  of  his  lord 
or  on  payment  of  a  fine  were  due  to  the  belief 
that  the  scholar  was  certain  to  become  a  priest 
or  monk  and  would  thus  pass  out  of  the  juris- 
diction of  his  lord.  The  Constitutions  of 
Clarendon  (xvi:  1164)  forbade  a  villein's 
child  to  be  ordained  without  the  consent  of  the 
lord  (see  also  Bracton,  De  legihiis  Angliae, 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  293).  After  the  Conquest  and  the 
separation  by  William  of  the  secular  and  spirit- 
ual courts  it  seems  clear  that  there  was  a  grad- 
ual approximation  of  the  status  of  the  priest  to 
that  of  the  layman.  It  is  true  that  the  clergy 
claimed  "that  all  persons  in  holy  orders  should 
be  exempt  from  secular  jurisdiction  in  all  liti- 
gation, civic  and  criminal."  In  criminal  cases 
the  exemption  was  largely  maintained  despite 
the  struggle  between  King  Henry  II  and 
Becket  over  the  third  chapter  of  the  Constitu- 
tions of  Clarendon  (1164).  That  clause  pro- 
■vided  that  a  clerk  should  be  charged  before  the 
temporal  court,  remitted  to  the  ecclesiastical 
court  for  trial,  and  if  found  guilty  degraded 
from  orders  and  remitted  to  the  temporal  court 
for  punishment.  This  doctrine  was  adopted 
by  Becket's  successor.  The  King  in  1 176  agreed 
that  no  clerk  should  be  brought  into  a  temporal 
court  except  with  respect  to  forest  offenses. 
But  in  the  case  of  misdeameanors  and  civil  pro- 
ceedings the  clergy  had  lost  their  special  pri\n- 
lege  before  the  year  1300.  By  the  year  1350, 
despite  repeated  protests  by  the  clergy,  they  were, 
says  Bracton,  sued  every  day  in  the  temporal 
courts,  and  before  the  end  of  the  century  even 
the  Pope  had  abandoned  the  claim  (see  Pollock 
and  Maitland's  History  of  English  Law,  Vol.  I, 
p.  424  et  seq.).  The  clergy  also  had  by  then 
lost  their  privolege  in  the  case  of  treason. 
From  some  time  about  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century  the  privilegium  clericale  was 
hmited  to  the  cases  of  felonies  committed  by 
the  clergy;  that  is  to  say,  to  all  capital  offenses 
(in  addition  to  cases  of  petty  treason)  other  than 
those  created  by  the  law  of  treason  and  the 
forest  law.  But  by  this  privilege  the  clergy 
were  saved  from  the  more  terrible  consequences 
of  a  vast  range  of  offenses,  and  this  was  no 
mean  privilege,  no  mean  inducement  to  letters 
and  orders  in  a  singularly  brutal  age.  It  must, 
however,  be  remembered  that  learned  persons 
not  in  orders  soon  lost  this  special  privilege 
which  they  possessed  at  the  date  and  after 
the  date  of  the  Conquest.  In  the  thirteenth 
century,  before  the  time  of  Edward  I,  the  privi- 
lege was  strictly  confined  to  the  secular  and 
monastic  clergy  and  nuns.  The  scholar  who 
was  none  of  these  was  in  the  power  of  the  secular 
arm,  since  the  clerical  status  in  each  case  had  to 
be  proved  to  the  justices.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  the  practice  grew  up  of  extending  the 
privilege  "to  all  persons  eligible  for  ordination, 
although  not  actually  ordained;  i.e.  to  all 
males  who  could  read,"  thus  restoring  the  prac- 
tice that  obtained  in  the  eleventh  century.  It 
will  be  noticed  how  important  an  influence  the 


361 


BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY 


BENEKE 


privik'RO  must  have  been  from  the  tenth  to  the 
fifteenth  century  in  education,  that  is,  during 
the  very  period  wlien  stimulus  to  educational 
movements  was  most  needed.  The  very  fact 
of  [jossessing  a  moderate  amount  of  learning 
was  for  a  long  period  sufficient  to  remove  a  man 
altogetiier  from  a  jurisdiction  that  was  inter- 
mittent and  dilatory  and  to  Ijring  him  within  a 
jurisdiction  that  was,  at  any  rate,  merciful  in 
the  great  majority  of  cases.  Even  when  the 
privilege  was  restricted  to  felony  the  sudden  ex- 
tension of  it  to  the  laity  gave  it  a  new  stimulus. 
It  was  now  worth  while  to  learn  to  read  merely 
to  escape  mortal  responsibilities  for  otTenses  that 
it  was  not  always  po-ssible  to  avoid.  We  may 
indeed  believe  that  until  the  middle  of  the 
fiftcei\th  century  the  privilcgium  clericnle  was  a 
valuable  influence  in  national  education.  It 
had  not  yet  become  a  formaUty;  it  was  not 
sufficient  to  know  by  heart  the  "  Neck- verse  " 
(Psalm  LI  V.  1.)  in  order  to  save  your  neck.  If 
man  is  to  plead  his  privilege  he  must  certainly  be 
a  scholar,  if  he  is  not  a  priest.  Professor  Kenny 
of  Cambridge  University  gives  us  {Outlines 
of  Criminal  Law,  p.  480,  n.  3)  an  instance  of 
modern  times  that  really  represents  the  attitude 
of  the  fourteenth  century  in  the  matter.  He 
says:  "By  a  singular  coincidence  even  the  Arabs 
of  modern  Algeria  have  recognized  learning  as  a 
ground  of  criminal  immunity.  Abd  el  Kadr 
said:  "'More  than  once  I  have  remitted 
sentence  of  death  on  a  criminal  from  tiie  mere 
fact  of  his  being  a  scholar.  It  requires  so  long 
a  time  in  Algeria  to  become  well  instructed, 
that  I  had  not  the  courage  to  destroy  in  one  day 
the  fruit  of  years  of  laborious  study.'  "  (Church- 
hill's  Life  of  Abd  el  Kadr,  p.  145.)  With  the 
coming  of  the  Renaissance  (q.v.)  the  pri\'ilege 
became  a  social  danger.  The  elements  of 
learning  were  at  last  more  widely  spread  and 
the  criminal  classes  found  shelter  in  a  privilege 
intended  for  a  holy  or  learned  class.  Bv  a 
statute  of  1488-1489  (4  and  5  Henry  VII,  c."l3) 
the  layman  could  claim  the  privilege  only 
once  and,  in  order  to  prevent  an  abuse  of  the 
privilege,  the  layman  claiming  it  was  branded  on 
the  brawn  of  the  left  thumb  with  an  "  M  " 
for  murderer  or  "  T "  for  any  other  felony. 
"  Divers  persons  learned  "  were  thus  discouraged 
from  the  "presumptuous  Ijoldness"  of  com- 
mitting crime  "  upon  trust  of  the  privilege  of 
the  Church."  In  1531-1532  (23  Henry  VIII, 
c.  1)  the  privilege  was  taken  by  statute  from  all 
persons  not  in  orders  or  under  the  order  of  sub- 
deacon  and  thus  once  more  the  learned  layman 
was  excluded  from  Benefit  of  Clergy. 

The  remainder  of  the  history  of  the  privilege 
is  strictly  limited  to  criminal  law.  The  Benefit 
was  revived  presumably  for  the  purpose  of 
mitigating  a  criminal  law  of  great  severity.  In 
1532  (23  Henry  VIII,  c.  1)  the  privilege  was 
removed  in  cases  of  deliberate  murder.  In 
Elizabeth's  reign  the  spiritual  courts  were  ousted 
altogether  and  the  privilege  given  to  all  per- 
sons who  could  read.     To  claim  it,  however, 


involved  one  year  in  jail.  In  the  reign  of 
William  III  it  was  extended  to  women,  literate 
and  illiterate  (we  must  remember  that  nuns  and 
perhaps  other  women  who  could  read  had  the 
privilege  in  the  Middle  Ages).  In  the  reign  of 
Anne  ilfiterate  men  were  allowed  to  claim 
the  privilege  but  at  the  same  time  the  practice 
grew  of  excluding  many  felonies  from  the  Benefit. 
At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  were 
160  felonies  without  Benefit  of  Clergy.  The 
privilege  was  abolished  in  England  in  1827 
(7  and  8  Geo.  IV,  c.  28)  and  in  Ireland  in  1828, 
nine  hundred  years  after  we  first  hear  of  it. 

It  nmst  finally  be  noticed  that  the  privilege 
to-day  is  not  absolutely  dead.  It  passed  with 
the  English  common  law  to  America,  and  Ameri- 
can law  books  mention  cases  in  which  Benefit  of 
Clergy  was  pleaded.  It  was  abolished  by  stat- 
ute in  Massachusetts  in  1784.  In  the  states  of 
Indiana  and  Mimiesota  the  courts  in  more  re- 
cent times  have  rejected  the  doctrine.  But  it 
apparently  still  survives  in  North  Carolina  and 
Houth  Carolina.  In  the  former  state  the  privi- 
lege was  conceded  to  women,  the  court  de- 
claring that  "  no  reason  can  at  this  day  exist, 
why  females  shall  not  be  entitled  to  the  Benefit 
of  Clergy,  as  well  as  males."  (See  the  case  of 
the  State  v.  Gray,  1  Murphey  147,  J.  P.  Bishop's 
New  Criminal  Law,  7th  ed.,  1892,  Vol.  I,  sec. 
938,  p.  5(34.)  In  the  same  state  "it  would 
seem  that  the  statutory  pardon,  which  is  an  inci- 
dent to  the  Benefit  of  Clergy,  does  not  take 
effect  until  the  party  is  burned  in  the  hand  and 
delivered  out  of  prison."  If  the  record  acci- 
dentally omits  to  set  out  such  execution  of  the 
sentence,  it  may  be  shown  by  a  witness. 
(Keith  V.  Goodwin,  fi  .lones,  N.C.  398.)  See  on 
the  practice  of  North  and  South  Carolina  the 
cases  of  the  State  v.  Bosse  (8  Rich.  276)  and  the 
State  V.  Sutcliffe  (4  Strob.  372).  It  may  possibly 
exist  in  some  other  states  but  it  has  generally 
been  abolished  by  statute.  Dr.  Kenny  suggests 
that  the  survival  in  the  Carolinas  "is  perhaps 
connected  with  the  educational  gulf  between 
the  white  and  the  colored  criminal."  If  so  the 
privilege  of  Benefit  of  Clergy  has  an  educational 
meaning  to-day,  a  thousand  years  after  its 
first  invention.  J.  E.  G.  de  M. 

BENEKE,  FRIEDRICH  EDUARD  (1798- 
1854).  —  A  German  philosopher  and  educational 
theorist.  He  was  born  in  Berlin  and  attended 
the  Friedrich-Werder  Gjunnasium,  which  was 
then  under  the  direction  of  the  excellent  peda- 
gogue Bernliardi  Graduating  at  the  early  age 
of  fifteen,  he  enlisted  in  the  German  war  of 
liberation,  after  which  he  studied  theology, 
first  at  Halle,  then  (1817)  in  Berlin.  There 
he  came  under  the  influence  of  Schleiermacher 
and,  having  turned  his  attention  from  theol- 
ogy to  philosophy,  began  to  lecture  in  1820. 
Two  years  later  his  lectures  were  stopped  by 
the  order  of  the  go\-ernment ;  this  was  probably 
due  to  the  influence  of  Hegel,  whose  "absolute" 
philosophy  Beneke  opposed.     For   three  years 


362 


BENEKE 


BENTHAM 


he  found  a  refuge  in  Gottingen,  but  at  length 
he  was  allowed  to  resume  his  lectures  in  Berlin. 
In  1832,  after  Hegel's  death,  he  was  finally 
appointed  assistant  professor,  but  not  until  nine 
years  later  did  he  receive  the  meager  salary  of 
200  thalers.  In  March,  1854,  when  for  some 
time  on  account  of  severe  mental  strain  his 
health  had  been  giving  way,  he  disappeared  from 
home,  and  it  was  thought  committed  suicide. 

Beiieke's  most  important  work,  from  a 
pedagogical  point  of  view,  is  his  Erziehungs- 
uiid  Unterrichtslehre  (Theory  of  Education  and 
Instruction,  2  vols.,  Berhn,  1835-1836).  His 
pedagogy,  however,  as  well  as  his  ethics,  logic, 
and  metaphysics,  is  founded  on  his  psychology, 
wMch  is  treated  in  his  Lehrhuch  der  Psychologie 
als  Naturivissenschaft  ( Textbook  of  Psychology 
as  a  Natural  Science,  1833). 

Beneke's  philosophy  takes  its  starting  point 
in  internal  sense  perception,  which  he  considers 
the  source  of  all  knowledge.  According  to  him, 
the  mind  is  a  concrete  psychological  organism, 
a  system  of  primitive  immaterial  forces,  which 
are  capable  of  development  under  the  stimu- 
lation of  the  outside  world.  These  primitive 
forces  [Urvernidgen)  differ  as  to  tenacity, 
energy,  and  recepti^^tJ^  The  psychical  prod- 
ucts caused  by  the  action  of  external  stimuli 
on  the  primitive  forces  persist  in  consciousness 
as  "traces"  (Spuren),  which  by  their  mani- 
fold combinations  in  groups  and  series  constitute 
the  mental  life  of  the  individual.  The  so-called 
faculties  of  the  older  psychology,  such  as  memory, 
imagination,  etc.,  Beneke,  like  Herbart,  con- 
sidered as  mere  abstractions.  Memory,  for 
instance,  has  no  real  existence  as  a  faculty  apart 
from  concepts,  but  is  simply  the  fundamental 
quahty  of  tenacity  inherent  in  the  primitive 
forces  of  the  soul.  Thus  the  old  idea  of  "  for- 
mal disciphne "  was  shown  to  be  no  longer 
tenal)le. 

The  genetic  character  of  Beneke's  psychology 
made  his  system  especially  applicable  to  peda- 
gogy, and  it  is  therefore  not  surprising  to  find 
that  his  influence  on  German  teachers  is  ranked 
second  only  to  that  of  Herbart.  Thus,  Diester- 
weg,  the  foremost  Prussian  educator  of  the 
last  century,  as  well  as  Dittes,  who  as  director 
of  the  Vienna  "  Paedagogium  "  did  a  great 
work  for  education  in  Austria,  were  both  ardent 
admirers  and  followers  of  Beneke. 

Beneke's  works  include,  besides  those  men- 
tioned above:  Erfahrungseelenlehre  als  Grund- 
lage  alles  Wissens  ( Empirical  Psychology  as  the 
Foundation  of  all  Knowledge,  Berlin,  1820). 

Grundlinien  des  natiirlichen  Systems  der  prak- 
lischen  Philosophic  (Principles  of  the  Natural 
System  of  Practical  Philosophy,  3  vols.  1837-1841), 
which  the  author  considered  as  his  most  success- 
ful work. 

Grumllegung  zur  Physik  der  Silten  (Foundation 
towards  a  Physics  of  Morals,  1882) ;  Psychologische 
Skizzen  (Psychologiad  Sketches,  2  vols.  1833); 
Grundlehren  der  Sittenlehre  (Foundation  of  Ethics, 
1836). 


System  der  Metaphysik  und  Religions-philoso- 
phic (1840);  System  der  Log ik  (2  vols.  1842);  and 
Pragmatische  Psychologie,  oder  Seelenlehre  in  der 
Anwendung  auf  das  Leben  (Psychology  Applied  to 
Life,  2  vols.  1850).  F.  M. 

References  :  — 
Baldwin.    Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology  con- 

taina  a  full  bibliography.     Vol.  Ill,  pt.  1.  p.  116. 
Brandt.  Beneke  the  Man  and  His  Philosophy,  New  York, 

1895. 
Hummel.    Die  Unterrichtslehre  Benekes  im  Vergleich  zur 

Didaktik  Herbarts.     (1885.) 
Raue,    G.      Dr.     F.     E.     Beneke's     Neue     Seelenlehre 

(Mainz,  1876.) 

BENNETT     COLLEGE,     GREENSBORO, 

N.C.  —  An  institution  founded  in  1873  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Freedman's  Aid  Society  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  and  supported 
by  that  society  and  the  North  Carolina  Annual 
Conference  for  the  education  of  negro  boys  and 
girls.  Pupils  may  enter  from  the  public 
schools.  Primary,  preparatory,  collegiate, 
normal,  and  music  departments  are  maintained. 
The  majority  of  the  pupils  are  in  the  primary 
and  preparatory  departments.  Degrees  are 
conferred.  There  is  a  faculty  of  12  instructors. 
Silas  A.  Perler,  A.M.,  D.D.,  is  the  president. 


BENT-IRON  -WORK. 

IN  THE  Schools. 


See  Metal  Work 


BENTHAM,  JEREMY  (1748-1832).  —  Pub- 
licist, utilitarian  philosopher,  and  reformer  of 
English  law  and  eclucational  administration ;  son 
of  a  wealthy  London  attorney ;  a  precocious  child ; 
educated  at  Westminster  and  Queen's  College, 
Oxford;  called  to  the  Bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  1817; 
devoted  himself  to  the  scientific  study  of 
jurisprudence;  published  in  1776  anonymously 
his  Fragment  on  Government,  an  attack  on  the 
point  of  view  of  Sir  William  Blackstone,  whose 
lectures  he  had  attended  at  the  Univ'crsity  of 
Oxford.  The  pubhcation  of  this  work  led  to 
his  intimacy  with  Lord  Shelburne,  which  intro- 
duced him  to  circles  of  influence  and  raised 
him  from  a  depressing  feeling  of  impotence 
and  humiliation.  In  1789  he  published  his 
Introduction  to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and 
Legislation,  in  which  he  expounded  the  prin- 
ciple of  utility  in  its  bearings  upon  conduct 
and  public  law.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a 
reformer  of  prison  discipline  and  as  an  acute 
critic  of  obsolete  fictions  and  erroneous  psy- 
chological presuppositions  in  English  law. 
Indirectly,  through  the  labors  of  his  followers, 
among  whom  should  be  mentioned  John  Mill 
(q.v.)  and  Francis  Place  (q.v.),  he  had  a  penetrat- 
ing influence  upon  English  politics  and  upon  the 
spirit  of  English  social  legislation,  including  that 
which  dealt  with  educational  questions.  Di- 
rectly, he  helped  in  achieving  three  educational 
changes  of  great  importance  in  English  history: 
(1)  He  led  the  opposition  to  religious  tests 
at  the  older  universities  by  a  pamphlet,  Swear 
not  at  all,   printed  in   1813,    published    1817. 


363 


BENTON  HARBOR  COLLEGE 


BERKELEY  DIVINITY  SCHOOL 


(2)  In  1816  he  publisliod  ChreMamalhia,  a  plan 
for  secondary  education  which  gave  physical 
science  a  prominent  place  and  attacked  the 
supremacy  of  the  classical  languages.  By  this 
work  he  turned  the  thoughts  of  many  liberal 
educational  reformers  towards  a  one-sided  and 
narrow    conception    of    secondary    education. 

(3)  In  1827  he  devised  a  detailed  plan  for 
requiring  every  candidate  for  an  official  posi- 
tion under  tJovernment  to  pass  a  competitive 
examination  in  certain  branches  of  knowledge 
bearing  upon  their  future  work.  This  plan 
(many  of  the  details  of  which  are  grotesque 
and  disregardful  of  many  important  conditions 
of  sound  education)  led  ultimately  to  the  appli- 
cation of  the  principle  of  oi)('n  competition  to 
the  selection  of  candidates  for  the  Indian  and 
Home  Civil  Services  under  the  British  Govern- 
ment. Bentham's  ideas  on  public  instruction 
were  to  some  extent  derived  from  his  study  of 
French  revolutionary  writers.  His  influence 
was  both  destructive  and  constructive,  and 
from  both  [loints  of  view  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance. He  and  his  followers  destroyed  the 
prestige  of  much  of  the  old  tradition  in  English 
education  and  government,  and  by  their  acute 
criticisms  and  administrative  industry  cleared 
the  ground  of  much  that  was  obsolete,  ineffec- 
tive, and  obstructively  incompetent.  On  the 
other  hand,  by  challenging  many  of  the  prin- 
ciples which  underlay  the  older  plan  of  English 
education  and  government,  they  forced  their 
opponents  to  reconsider  their  position  and  by 
internal  reform  to  renew  the  vitality  of  much 
which  Bentham  would  have  swept  away. 
Moreover,  the  inner  tendency  of  Bentham's 
doctrine  was  towards  a  great  strengthening  of 
the  bureaucratic  power  of  the  central  adminis- 
tration in  the  service  of  a  democratic  electorate. 
This  side  of  Bentham's  influence  was  especially 
marked  in  his  disciple,  Edwin  Chadwick. 

M.  E.  S. 
References  :  — 
Atkinsox,  C.  M.     Jeremy  Bcnthmn,  His  Life  and  Work, 

(London,    1905.) 
Be.vtha.m.  Jeremy.     Chrestomathia.     (1816  and  1817.) 
Constitutional  Code.     (1827.) 
Swear  not  at  all.      (1813  and  1817.) 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

Redlich.    Jo.seph,    and    Hirst.    F.    W.     Local  Govern- 
ment in  England,  esporially  Vol.  I.     (London,  1903.) 
Stephen,    Leslie.     The  English  Utilitarians.    Vol.    I. 
(London,   1900.) 

BENTON  HARBOR  COLLEGE,  BENTON 
HARBOR,  MICH.  ~-  Founded  in  lNS(i,  this 
institution  provides  educational  facilities  from 
the  kindergarten  to  the  college,  and  includes 
akso  normal,  fine  arts,  and  musical  depart- 
ments. Preparation  is  given  for  state  cer- 
tificate examination  and  for  the  universities. 
There  are  16  instructors  on  the  faculty. 


(1829-1848),  and  twice  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  in  Iowa  (1848-1854  and 
18.58-1861);  he  was  also  prominently  identified 
with  the  educational  associations  of  Iowa  and 
the  professional  journals  of  the  State. 

W.  S.  M. 

BEREA  COLLEGE,  BEREA,  KY.  —  A  co- 
educational institution  founded  in  1855  by 
antislavory  Kentuckians  wlio  favored  freedom 
regardless  of  sectarian  differences.  The  board 
of  trustees  includes  representatives  of  all 
denominations.  Model  school,  industrial, 
academic,  normal,  collegiate,  and  music  de- 
partments are  maintained.  The  academy 
course  gives  instruction  in  business,  farming, 
and  domestic  science  subjects  and  prepares 
for  college.  The  entrance  requirements  to  the 
college  vary  somewhat  with  the  course  to  be 
pursued,  but  about  15  units  are  necessary  to 
take  up  the  classical,  8  the  literary,  and  12  the 
scientific  courses.  Degrees  are  conferred  in 
the  college  and  normal  departments  which  also 
prepare  for  county  and  state  certificates  and 
diplomas.  The  institution  maintains  separate 
work,  as  required  by  state  law,  for  colored 
persons.  There  are  13  professors  and  a  large 
number  of  instructors  and  teachers.  Rev. 
Wm.  Goodell  Frost,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  is 
the  president. 

BERENGARIUS.  —  Born  at  Tours  c.  1000, 
a  pupil  of  Fulbert  of  Chartrcs,  who  had  in  turn 
been  the  pupil  of  Gerbert.  He  was  a  profound 
student  of  logic,  and  is  credited  with  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  study  of  the  ar^s■  of  gram- 
mar and  logic  and  the  mere  study  of  authors. 
Accordingly,  he  spurned  the  authority  of 
Donatus  {q.v.),  Priscian  [q.v.),  and  Boethius 
iq.v.).  He  entered  into  a  controversy  with 
Lanfranc,  Berengarius  attacking  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation,  and  Lanfranc  defending 
it.  In  this  controversy  the  position  of  Beren- 
garius was  founded  on  the  nominalistic  doctrine. 
Berengarius  became  a  canon  of  Tours,  and 
preceptor  of  the  School  of  St.  Martin;  and 
afterwards  would  ajipear  to  have  been  teaching 
at  the  cathedral  school  at  Angers  as  gramma- 
ticus  rather  than  .sr/io/o.sh'cM.s.  He  was  several 
times  compelled  to  retract  his  tenets  only  to 
return  to  them  again.  The  greater  number  of 
his  works  are  lost,  but  the  De  Sacra  Cocna  and 
others  mav  be  found  in  Migne.  Berengarius 
died  on  January  6,  1088.  P.  R.  C. 

References  :  ■■ — 
Migne.     Pat.  Lat.  CLXXVIII. 
R.\SHD.\LL,    Univer.-iities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

(Oxford,  1895.) 
S.iNDYs.     History     of     Classical    Scholarship.     (Cam- 
bridge,  1903-190S.) 


BENTON,    THOMAS    HART,  JR.    (1816-  BERKELEY    DIVINITY    SCHOOL,  MID- 

1879).  —  Schoolman,  educated  at  Huntington  DLETOWN,  CONN. —  An  iu.stitution  for 
Academy  and  at  Marion  (Mo.)  College;  he  tiic  training  of  ministers  for  the  Episcopalian 
was  principal  of  a  seminary  at  Dubuque,  Iowa      Church.     Chartered  and  located  in  its  present 

364 


BERKELEY 


BERKELEY 


position  in  1S54  to  continue  a  theological  de- 
partment organized  at  Trinity  College.  No 
student  is  admitted  unless  he  has  become  a 
candidate  for  holy  orders  according  to  the 
Canons  and  has  satisfied  the  requirements  for 
admission.  The  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity 
is  granted  on  the  completion  of  the  course  to 
students  who  fulfill  the  necessary  requirements. 
There  are  6  professors  and  4  instructors  on  the 
faculty.  The  Rt.  Rev.  Chauncey  Bruce  Brew- 
ster, D.D.,  is  the  president. 

BERKELEY,  GEORGE.  —  Born  at  Kil- 
erinin,  Ireland,  March  12,  1684,  a  man  who 
stood  alone  in  his  day  as  a  tj'pe  of  the  perfect 
philosophical  spirit  of  calm  reasonableness,  is  as 
interesting  for  his  sojourn  in  America  and  his 
efforts  for  the  betterment  of  colonial  education 
as  for  his  system  of  idealistic  philosophy. 
Educated  at  the  Ormond  School  in  Kilkenny, 
and  later  at  Trinity  College,  Dubhn,  he  became 
chaplain  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland  and 
afterwards  to  the  Earl  of  Peterborough  in  Italy. 
He  became  Dean  of  Derry  in  1724.  Seven  of 
the  best  years  of  his  life  and  the  greater  part 
of  his  private  fortune  were  devoted  to  the  cher- 
ished scheme  of  the  establishment  of  a  college 
in  America  for  the  education  of  the  Indian 
youth.  Berkeley's  proposals  were  published 
in  1725,  and  their  novel  and  philanthropic 
character  not  only  attracted  great  public 
interest  in  England  but  induced  3  Oxford 
fellows  to  accompany  him  on  the  necessary 
expedition.  A  charter  was  given  him  for 
"  Erecting  a  college,  by  name  St.  Paul's,  in 
Bermuda,  with  a  president  and  nine  fellows,  to 
maintain  and  educate  Indian  scholars,  at  the 
rate  of  ten  pounds  a  year,  George  Berkeley  to 
be  the  first  president,  and  his  companions 
from  Trinity  College  the  fellows."  At  this 
time  Swift  wrote  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land: "  I  do  humbly  entreat  your  excellency 
either  to  use  such  persuasions  as  will  keep  one 
of  the  first  men  of  the  kingdom  for  learning  and 
genius  at  home,  or  assist  him  by  your  credit  to 
compass  his  romantic  design."  The  death  of 
the  king  before  the  signature  of  the  charter, 
and  the  unwiUingness  of  Walpole  to  undertake 
the  proposed  expenditure  of  £20,000  on  behalf 
of  so  apparently  Utopian  a  venture,  at  length 
compelled  the  philosopher  to  return,  his  work 
unfulfilled.  In  fact  he  never  reached  Bermuda, 
but  the  vessel  which  carried  him  apparently 
made  Newport,  R.I.,  by  mistake.  Here  in 
1704  he  established  himself,  his  principal  duty 
for  two  months  being  to  attend  on  pirates  about 
to  be  executed.  He  became  connected  with 
one  of  the  Trustees  of  Yale  College,  to  which 
he  gave  generous  donations,  including  a  splen- 
did library  of  1000  volumes,  until  then  the  best 
America  had  known.  Berkeley  also  became 
interested  in  the  development  of  Harvard 
College,  and  the  project  of  the  foundation 
of  Columbia  College.  His  "  ideal  theory  " 
need  not  be  discussed  in  this  place;   but  is  best 


outlined  in  his  own  words.  "  The  behef  in  an 
exterior  material  world  is  false  and  inconsistent 
with  itself;  those  things  which  are  called  sensible, 
material  objects,  are  not  external,  but  exist  in 
the  mind  by  the  immediate  act  of  God,  accord- 
ing to  certain  rules,  termed  laws  of  nature, 
from  which  He  never  deviates;  and  the  steady 
adherence  of  the  Supreme  Spirit  to  these  rules 
is  what  constitutes  the  reality  of  things  to  his 
creatures;  and  so  effectually  distinguishes  the 
ideas  perceived  by  sense  from  such  as  are  the 
work  of  the  mind  itself,  or  of  dreams,  and  there 
is  no  more  danger  of  confounding  them  to- 
gether on  this  hypothesis  than  that  of  the  exist- 
ence of  matter."  P.  R.  C. 

References:  — 

Berkeley.  Works.  (London,  1820;  Oxford,  1871  ; 
London,  1S!:I7-1S98  ;  Oxford,  1901.)  Treatise  con- 
cerning the  Principles  of  Human  Knowledge.  (Phil. 
1890.) 

Fraser.     Berkeley.     (Edinburgh,  1881.) 

TUCKER.M.1NN.     Biographical  Essays,  p.  238-266,  1857. 

BERKELEY,  KATHARINE,  LADY  (c.  1320- 

1385).  —  As  the  first  woman  who  is  known  to 
have  founded  a  grammar  school,  "Katerin," 
Lady  Berkeley,  deserves  remembrance.  The 
daughter  of  Sir  John  Clyvedon,  Kt.,  and  the 
Lady  Emma,  his  wife,  who  was  first  married 
to  Sir  Peter  Veel,  a  Gloucestershire  knight,  who 
died  in  1343.  Four  years  afterwards.  May  31, 
1347,  she  married,  as  his  second  wife,  Thomas 
III,  Lord  Berkeley  of  Berkeley  Castle,  Glouces- 
tershire. "  She  was  fruitful  to  her  husband 
both  in  lands  and  children,"  bringing  him 
among  other  manors  one  called  Veelham,  alias 
Ham- Veel,  a  happy  conjunction.  In  less  than 
five  years  she  had  four  sons,  three  of  whom, 
however,  died  in  infancy,  but  the  youngest, 
John,  became  the  founder  of  a  new  family  of 


Berkelevs.     Lord  Berkelev  died  Oct. 


1361. 


His  widow  survived  him  24  years,  dying  March 
13,  1385.  She  founded  the  Chantry  and  Free 
Grammar  School  of  Wootton-under-Edge, 
where  she  mainly  lived,  on  July,  1  1384,  about 
two  years  after  the  foundation  of  Winchester 
College.  Almost  in  William  of  Wykeham's 
words  she  says  that  "  considering  the  intention 
and  desire  of  many  to  be  taught  and  to  study 
grammar,  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  rest 
of  the  liberal  arts,  is  too  often  prevented  by 
poverty,  therefore  for  the  exaltation  of  the 
Christian  faith,  which  is  in  no  small  measure 
increased  by  men  of  deep  learning  in  such 
sciences,"  she  founded  a  School-house  or  House 
of  Scholars  of  one  master  and  two  poor  "  schol- 
ars clerks,''  who  are  to  live  college- wise  together, 
and  incorporated  them  as  a  college.  Statutes 
annexed  provided  that  the  master  should  act 
as  chaplain  in  St.  Katharine's  Chapel  at  the 
manor-house  when  she  was  living  there,  and, 
otherwise,  celebrate  mass  in  the  parish  church 
for  her  and  her  two  husbands'  souls  and  the 
lords  of  Berkeley,  and  also  "  keep  school  faith- 
fully in  the  school  house,  and  receive  kindly  all 
scholars,   wherever  they  come  from  to  learn 


365 


BERLIN 


BERNE 


grammar,  without  exacting,  claiming;  or  taking 
any  advantage  or  gain  for  his  pains."  The 
two  "  sciiolars  eh-rks  "  were  to  be  admitted  at  10 
years  ohl  and  stay  for  6  years.  Liiieral  holi- 
days were  provided:  a  fortnight  at  Christmas, 
a  week  at  Easter  and  Whitsuntide,  anil  fi  weeks 
from  August  1  to  September  1.5.  At  tlio  disso- 
lution of  chantries  in  1547,  the  school  is  called 
the  "  Vele  Fre  Scole,"  after  the  founder's  first 
husband,  and  the  endowment  was  .stated  to 
be  £17.15.2,  of  which  the  master  got  £10.1.74, 
or  Is.  7\d.  more  than  the  headmasters  of 
Winchester  and  Eton.  The  school  escaped 
dissolution  by  the  influence  of  Lord  Berkeley, 
and  still  flourishes,  the  endowment  bringing  in 
£330  a  year.  In  1900  it  was,  very  ai)pro- 
priately,  made  a  mixed  grammar  and  science 
school,  for  girls  as  well  as  boys,  to  the  number 
of  70.  A.  F.  L. 

References:  — 

Smyth,  John.  Lives  of  IheBerkeleys,  Vol.1,  p.  346.  (10,39.) 
Victoria     Countv    History,     Gloucestershire     Schools, 

Vol.  II.  p.  .306. 
Worcestrr  Kpisr.   Register,   Wakofiold,   f.  4S. 

BERLIN,  THE  ROYAL  FREDERICK  WIL- 
HELM  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  The  prelimi- 
nary history  of  the  University  of  Berlin  goes 
back  to  the  closing  years  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  but  no  serious  steps  looking  toward 
the  establishment  of  an  institution  of  higher 
learning  were  taken  until  the  beginning  of  the 
following  century.  In  1807  a  delegation  was 
sent  by  the  faculty  of  the  University  of  Halle 
to  Berlin  and  requested  the  royal  sanction  for 
a  removal  of  their  institution  to  the  Prussian 
capital.  Their  petition  was  not  granted, 
however,  as  the  Prussian  authorities  preferred 
to  establish  a  new  and  independent  university 
in  the  capital.  This  latter  proposal  encoun- 
tered decided  opposition  at  the  University  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  which  feared  the  com- 
petition of  so  near  a  rival,  as  well  as,  in  certain 
quarters,  of  the  Academy  of  Science.  The 
opposition  was  ignored  by  the  authorities,  and 
a  series  of  lectures  was  inaugurated  in  the  winter 
of  1809,  this  being  the  reason  why  the  latter 
date  is  frequently  given  as  the  year  of  founda- 
tion. The  university  was  not  formally  opened 
until  the  following  year,  Wilhelm  von  Hum- 
boldt (q.v.),  at  that  time  Prussian  minister  of 
education,  being  primarily  responsible  for  its 
earliest  development.  It  was  named  the  Royal 
Frederick  William  University,  in  honor  of  its 
founder.  King  Frederick  William  III  of  Prussia, 
who  approved  the  statutes  of  the  institution  in 
1816.  Berlin  is,  therefore,  with  the  exception 
of  the  universities  of  Bonn  (1818)  and  of 
Munich  (1826),  the  youngest  university  in  the 
German  Empire.  During  the  first  year  it  had 
58  instructors  and  256  students;  to-day  it  is 
the  largest  and  most  prominent  institution  of 
higher  learning  in  Germany,  comprising  facul- 
ties of  theology,  law,  medicine,  and  philosophy, 
as  well  as  schools  of  agriculture,  pharmacy,  and 


dentistry.  The  Berlin  technological  school, 
located  at  Charlottenburg,  is  not  a  part  of  the 
university  proper.  Independent  of  the  uni- 
versity, but  closely  associated  with  it,  are  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Science,  established  in 
1700,  the  Institute  for  Contagious  Diseases, 
a  geodetic  institute,  an  astrophysical  observa- 
tory at  Potsdam,  a  meteorological  institute 
with  headquarters  in  Berlin,  a  meteorological- 
magnetic  observatory  in  Potsdam,  and  an 
aeronautic  observatory  at  Tegel.  Tlie  library 
of  the  university  is  comparatively  small, 
containing  only  about  200,000  volumes,  the 
chief  facilities  in  this  direction  being  fur- 
nished by  the  Royal  Library,  which  contains 
over  a  million  volumes  as  well  as  a  large  and 
valuable  collection  of  manuscripts.  No  other 
German  university  is  so  richly  endowed  with 
"  institutes,"  seminars,  clinics,  and  similar 
organizations,  among  which  the  seminar  for 
Oriental  languages  (leserves  special  mention. 
It  was  opened  in  1887,  and  performs  a  practical 
mission,  being  intended  for  the  traiinng  of 
young  men  in  preparation  for  foreign  service. 
The  course  of  study  includes  instruction  in 
Chinese,  Japanese,  Arabic,  Persian,  Turkish, 
various  African  dialects,  etc.  Of  special  inter- 
est and  of  practical  value  to  foreign  students 
is  the  bureau  of  information  {Akademische 
AuskunJlxatcUe)  under  the  direction  of  Professor 
Wilhelm  Paszkowski.  The  annual  expenditures 
amount  approximately  to  .§1,000,000.  In  spite 
of  the  fact  that  the  university  is  located  in  the 
metropolis  of  the  empire,  there  is  no  lack  of 
social  student  organizations,  a  considerable 
number  of  Corps  ((/.!'.),  Burschenschaflen  (q.v.), 
Landsnintinschaften  Uj.v.),  and  similar  societies 
being  represented.  Both  Harvard  University 
and  Columbia  University  support  exchange 
professorships  at  the  University  of  Berlin,  that 
of  the  latter  institution  being  known  as  the 
Theodore  Roosevelt  professorship  of  American 
history  and  institutions.  Among  the  promi- 
nent names  associated  with  the  university  are 
those  of  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  Jakob  and 
Wilhelm  Grimm,  Bopp,  Scherer,  Lachmann, 
Miillenhoff,  Hegel,  Fiehte,  Trendelenburg, 
Paulsen,  Ranke,  Mommsen,  Treitschke,  Droy- 
sen,  Niebuhr,  Gneist,  Virchow,  Ehrenberg, 
Helmholtz,  Kirchhoff,  Dubois-Reymond,  and  a 
host  of  others.  During  the  winter  semester  of 
1909-1910  the  enrollment  included  9242  ma- 
triculated students,  distributed  as  follows: 
theology  367,  law  2.512,  medicine  1646,  and 
philosophy  4717;  of  these  032  were  women. 
There  were  also  in  attendance  on  the  univer- 
sitv  proper  1077  auditors,  giving  a  total 
registration  of  10,319.  R.  T. 

Reference:  — 
W.\GNER,  A.   H.  G.     Die  Enlwickelung  der  Univcrsiliit 
Berlin  1810-1896.      (Berlin,  1896.) 

BERNE,  THE  CANTONAL  UNIVERSITY 
OF  SWITZERLAND.  —  Established  as  a  uni- 
versity in  1834,  although  an  institution  of  higher 


366 


BERYTUS 


BESANCON 


learning  had  been  in  existence  in  the  Swiss 
capital  for  over  three  centuries.  It  was  as 
early  as  1528  that,  through  the  influence  of  the 
Reformation,  the  Zwingli  school  in  Berne  was 
supplemented  by  a  gj'mnasium,  the  higher 
grades  of  which  constituted  a  sort  of  philo- 
sophical and  theological  academy.  During  the 
eighteenth  century  chairs  were  also  established 
for  law,  medicine,  and  the  natural  sciences. 
The  work  of  the  institution  naturally  suffered 
severe  interruptions  during  the  Revolution, 
but  in  1805  a  new,  albeit  modest,  start  was 
made  with  all  four  faculties,  resulting  ultimately, 
in  1834,  in  the  formal  establishment  of  the 
university.  During  the  years  from  1846  to 
1854  the  life  of  the  institution  again  hung  in  the 
balance,  but  it  issued  safely  from  its  period  of 
storm  and  stress,  and  has  since  experienced 
a  gradual  and  healthy  development.  As  at 
present  constituted,  the  university  includes 
faculties  of  Protestant  and  Catholic  theology, 
law,  medicine  and  veterinary  medicine,  and 
philosophy.  In  1905  the  library  of  the  univer- 
sity was  consolidated  with  that  of  the  muni- 
cipality, numbering  at  present  200,000  volumes 
and  a  number  of  valuable  manuscripts.  The 
Swiss  national  library  {Landesbibliothek), 
founded  in  1895  and  located  in  Berne,  contains 
a  valuable  collection  of  Helvetica  from  the  time 
of  the  foundation  of  the  new  confederation  in 
1848,  the  earlier  material  being  deposited  in 
Lucerne.  The  expenditures  of  the  university 
amount  to  about  $175,000  annually.  During 
the  winter  semester  of  1909-1910  there  were  in 
attendance  1626  men  and  345  women,  among 
whom  there  were  a  considerable  number  of 
Russians;  536  auditors  were  enrolled.       R  .T. 

BERYTUS,  THE  SCHOOL  OF.  —  "  Berytus, 
the  foster-mother  of  law,"  was  from  thethird  cen- 
tury A.D.,  if  not  earlier,  the  seat  of  a  celebrated 
school  of  law.  Originally  the  training  of  the 
orator  and  the  training  of  the  advocate  were  the 
same.  The  general  principles  of  argumentation 
and  the  power  of  effective  pleading  were  at  finst 
the  things  most  necessary  for  the  lawyer  to 
acquire.  These  were  provided  in  the  sophistic 
(i.e.  oratorical)  school,  in  which  the  prepara- 
tion of  fictitious  cases  based  on  those  of  actual 
occurrence  formed  an  important  part  of  the 
school  discipline.  For  the  rest,  for  the  actual 
citation  of  the  clauses  of  the  law,  the  orator 
depended  upon  the  services  of  one  versed  in  the 
law  books.  Gradually  the  technical  side  of  the 
suijjcct  came  to  the  fore,  and  then  schools  of 
law  arose.  The  fir.st  mention  of  Berytus  as  a 
law  school'  dates  from  the  fourth  decade  of  the 
third  century.  Until  well  into  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, however,  the  prospective  law  .student 
often  took  a  preliminary  course  in  sophistry. 
In  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  century  this 
practice  probalily  became  less  and  less  common. 

When  .Justinian,  in  529,  issued  his  rescript 
closing  the  schools  of  philosophy  and  law  at 
Athens,  he  restricted  the  study  of  jurisprudence 


in  the  East  to  Constantinople  and  Berytus. 
At  about  the  same  time  he  reorganized  the 
course  of  study  in  the  schools,  and,  apparently, 
changed  the  length  of  the  course  from  four  j'ears 
to  five.  Before  this  time  the  instruction  had 
been  in  considerable  confu.sion.  For  the  most 
part  selections  only  from  a  limited  number  of 
books  had  been  read,  and  these  often  with  little 
regard  for  the  proper  order  of  the  subjects 
studied.  The  instruction  had  been  based  in  the 
main  on  the  Institutes  of  Gains,  Hadrian's 
Perpetual  Edict,  the  Responsa  of  Papinian, 
and  the  Responsa  of  Paulus.  In  the  fourth 
year  the  student  had  attended  no  lectures,  but 
had  been  supposed  to  read  by  himself.  From 
the  time  of  Justinian,  the  new  codifications  of 
that  emperor  were  made  the  basis  of  study, 
while  much  more  was  read,  and  read  in  logical 
sequence.  In  the  first  year  the  Institutes  and 
the  so-called  Trpwra  (Bks.  I-IV)  of  the  Pan- 
dects were  read;  in  the  second,  third,  and 
fourth  years  the  Pandects  were  continued,  and 
in  the  third  year  the  Responsa  of  Papinian  were 
also  taken  up;  the  fifth  year  was  devoted  to  the 
Codex.  Each  of  the  5  classes  of  students  had 
a  distinctive  name:  the  Freshmen,  called  up  to 
this  time  Dupondii  ("  Two-Pounders  "),  now 
received  the  name  of  Justiniani  novi  (New 
Justinians) ;  second-year  men  were  Edictales 
(students  of  the  Edict);  third- year  men,  Papi- 
nianistae  (students  of  the  works  of  Papinian) ; 
fourth-year  men,  AvVat  (a  name  of  uncertain 
signification) ;  fifth-year  men,  Prolijtae.  The 
duty  of  seeing  that  the  new  regulations  of  the 
school  were  carried  out  was  assigned  to  the 
Governor  of  Phoenicia,  the  Bishop  of  Berytus, 
and  the  professors  of  the  school. 

According  to  a  regulation  of  Diocletian,  stu- 
dents were  not  allowed  to  attend  the  law  school 
at  Berytus  beyond  the  age  of  25.  The  hazing 
of  students,  especially  of  newcomers,  and 
the  playing  of  practical  jokes  upon  the  profes- 
sors, had  been  of  common  occurrence  up  to  the 
time  of  Justinian,  but  that  emperor  forbade  all 
such  practices  for  the  future.  The  number  of 
professors  at  Berytus  was  probably  4,  but 
there  were,  besides  these,  several  assistants. 
In  554  Berytus  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake, 
and  the  law  school  was  demohshed,  many 
students  perishing  in  the  ruins.  While  the 
city  was  being  rebuilt,  the  professors  lectured 
in  the  neighboring  town  of  Sidon. 

J.  W.  H.  W. 

See  L'xivERSiTiES. 

Reference:  — 

Walden,  J.  W.  H.     The  Universities  of  Ancient  Greece, 
(New  York,  1909.) 

BESANgON,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  This 
institution  had  a  chequered  history.  A  bull 
was  obtained  in  1450  for  the  erection  of  a 
stadium  generate  in  arts  only,  owing  to  the  exist- 
ence of  other  faculties  at  the  neighboring 
University  of  Dole.  The  bull  was,  however, 
not    carried    out.     In    1480    the    King    issued 


367 


BESANT 


BETHANY  COLLEGE 


letters  patent  transferring  the  University  of 
Dole  to  Besangon,  but  revoked  them  in  1483. 
The  University  of  Dole  was  revived,  and  another 
attempt  was  made  in  the  next  century  by 
Besan<;on  to  secure  the  privilege.  It  was  not 
until  1091  that  this  met  with  success.  In  1793 
the  University  of  Besangon  was  supjiresscd  and 
was  not  reestablished  until  1896.  The  univer- 
sity includes  faculties  of  sciences,  letters,  medi- 
cine, and  pharmacy.  In  1909  285  students 
were  enrolled  in  the  various  faculties. 
See  Fr.wce,  Education  in;  Uni\'eksities. 

BESANT,  SIR  WALTER  (1836-1901).— 
English  novelist  and  ])hilanthropist,  born  in 
1836  at  Portsea,  England.  He  attended  a 
small  private  school  at  Southsea,  on  leaving 
which  he  says,  "  I  had  less  Latin  and  Greek  than 
at  twelve,  but  I  suppose  I  knew  more  real  gram- 
mar." Mathematics  was  the  only  subject 
well  taught.  From  this  school  he  went  to 
King's  College.  During  this  time  he  took  great 
pleasure  in  walking  round  London.  His  chief 
impression  at  this  period  was  of  the  tempta- 
tions which  beset  the  lonely  students.  In  1855 
he  entered  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  which 
had  all  the  advantages  of  a  small  college  in 
offering  opportunities  for  forming  friendships, 
but  on  the  educational  side  was  subjected  to 
severe  criticism.  One  of  his  intimate  friends  was 
the  classical  scholar  and  wit,  C.  S.  Calverley. 
At  Cambridge  he  studied  mathematics,  and 
obtained  a  place  among  the  wranglers.  He  left 
the  university  with  the  intention  of  taking  or- 
ders, and  on  this  condition  accepted  an  appoint- 
ment to  teach  in  Leamington  College.  As  the 
period  of  ordination  came  near,  he  grew  restless, 
and  accepted  the  offer  of  a  professorship  in 
Mauritius,  where  he  remained  from  1861  to 
1867.  On  his  return  he  was  appointed  Secre- 
tary of  the  Society  for  the  Systematic  and 
Scientific  Exploration  of  Palestine.  He  now 
entered  on  that  career  which  has  given  him  a 
place  in  English  literature.  His  contribution 
to  education  and  philanthropic  causes  are  not 
so  well  known.  He  renewed  his  interest  in 
London  at  this  time,  and  particularly  with  the 
East  End.  Out  of  this  grew  his  book.  All  Sorts 
and  Conditions  of  Men  (1880-1881),  which 
led  to  the  foundation  of  the  People's  Palace 
(q.v.),  an  institution,  as  Besant  hoped,  where 
organized  recreation,  orderly  amusement,  and 
intellectual  and  artistic  culture  might  be 
offered  to  the  poor.  When  a  polytechnic  was 
added  and  the  original  objects  were  not  being 
carried  out  by  the  Draper's  Company,  who 
took  over  the  in.stitution,  Besant  resigned 
from  the  committee.  In  another  book,  the 
Children  of  Gibeon,  the  author  drew  attention 
to  the  widespread  evils  of  sweating,  and  may  in 
some  measure  have  contributed  to  ameliora- 
tion. He  further  took  a  strong  and  abiding 
interest  in  girls'  and  lads'  clubs  in  the  East 
End.  At  the  suggestion  of  Charles  G.  Leland 
(Hans   Breitmann)    (q.v.),   who  had  organized 


evening  manual  arts  schools  in  Philadelphia, 
Besant  formed  the  Home  Arts  Association, 
which  attracted  considerable  attention  and 
support.  Under  its  able  secretary,  Miss  Annie 
Dymes,  the  association  soon  had  500  schools 
at  work.  The  organization  of  employment 
bureaus  for  women,  ragged  schools,  and  con- 
tinuation schools  received  the  support  of 
Besant,  who  contributed  articles  on  the  last 
two  movements  to  the  Contemporary  Review.  In 
one  of  these  articles,  "  From  Fourteen  to 
Seventeen,"  he  strongly  advocated  the  estab- 
lishment of  evening  continuation  schools,  but 
deprecated  the  provision  of  free  education  in 
all  subjects  at  the  expense  of  the  ratepayers. 
In  that  great  educational  movement  which 
took  place  in  England  during  the  last  20  years 
of  the  nineteenth  century  Besant  took  his  part 
as  the  stanch  friend  of  the  poor  and  submerged 
classes. 

References:  — 

Besant,    Sir   Walter.     Autobiography.     (New  York, 

l'J02.) 
Forum.  Vol.  34,  p.  150. 
Nineteenth  Century,  27,  344. 

BESSIE  TIFT  COLLEGE,  FORSYTH,  GA. 

—  Founded  in  1847  as  Monroe  College,  an  insti- 
tution for  girls  and  young  women.  Prepara- 
tory, college,  musical,  and  industrial  depart- 
ments are  maintained.  About  three  years'  high 
school  work  is  required  from  those  who  enter 
by  examination;  certificates  of  accredited 
schools  arc  accepted.  Degrees  in  the  literary 
and  musical  courses  are  conferred.  There  are 
22  instructors  on  the  faculty. 

BETHANY  COLLEGE,  BETHANY,  WEST 
VIRGINIA.  —  A  coeducational  institution,  es- 
tablished in  1841  by  Alexander  Campbell,  the 
founder  of  the  sect  known  as  the  "  Disciples  of 
Christ,"  "  Christian  Church,"  or  "  Campbel- 
lites."  The  college  claims  to  be  the  parent  of 
the  other  educational  institutions  of  this  sect, 
including  Kentucky  University  (q.v.),  Lexing- 
ton, Kentucky.  The  catalogue  of  1907  urges 
Disciples  of  Christ  to  support  Bethany  Col- 
lege as  a  Disciples'  College;  but  that  of 
1909  omits  this  statement  and  describes  the 
institution  as  "  nonsectarian  but  broadly 
Christian."  Besides  the  usual  undergraduate 
courses,  the  college  maintains  a  preparatory 
school,  a  normal  school  giving  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Pedagogy,  a  commercial  depart- 
ment, departments  of  music  and  art,  and  a 
Department  of  Ministerial  Education,  giving 
degrees  of  M.A.,  and  Bachelor  of  Biblical 
Literature.  The  college  is  said  to  have  been  for 
a  long  time  the  only  one  in  the  United  States 
using  the  Bible  as  a  textbook.  The  Board  of 
Trustees,  of  33  members,  is  self-perpetuating; 
the  trustees  go  out  of  office  each  year,  the 
remaining  trustees  choosing  the  successors. 
Twenty-eight  of  the  trustees  were  (1906)  mem- 
bers of  the  Disciples  of  Christ.     There  are  6 


368 


iiHiiliiiiiiiiiliiiiiim:!:' 


liVIIIIIIII'TTTlii^riiiMl mm^iii ||ii||||i 


(/   :  luMi  .n:y,irLi>  ,.1,   ...i  .■...-.... 

E.^     I  .1/1.1    i-.ii  iittf-   t.-j   /'.-.niA-     ^.'f^itt.. 


''^^^^TIIIflTIg'' 


,ny 


ThoiiKis  Aciuitias  (c.  1225-1274J.     (.See  p.  102.) 


Autoiuo  .\ruuuld  (1012-1G94).     (.See  p.  21S.; 


Tbi-odurc  Beza  (1519-10U.5).     (,Seu  p.  iiU'J.)  Thomas  Campanella  (1508-1639).     (See  p.  512.) 

A  Group  of  Theologi.a.ns  — Leaders  in  Education. 


BETHANY  COLLEGE 


BHASKARA 


buildings,  valued  (1906),  with  grounds  and 
equipment,  at  $345,000.  The  total  annual 
income  was  $24,500.  The  average  salary  of  a 
professor  is  $975.  A  mine  on  the  campus  pro- 
vides coal.  There  are  (1909)  17  members  on 
the  instructing  staff,  of  whom  14  are  full  pro- 
fessors; the  college  has  296  students.  Thomas 
E.  Cramblet,  LL.D.,  is  president  of  both  College 
and  Board  of  Trustees.  C.  G. 

BETHANY  COLLEGE,  LINDSBORG, 
KA.NS.  —  A  coeducational  institution,  founded 
in  1881  and  placed  under  the  charge  of  the 
Kansas  Conference  of  the  Augustana  Synod  in 
the  following  year.  Beginning  as  an  academy 
and  passing  through  the  stage  of  a  normal 
institute,  the  present  title  was  adopted  a  few 
years  ago.  Graduate,  collegiate,  normal,  fine 
arts,  business,  law,  academic,  and  model  school 
departments  are  maintained.  Students  are 
admitted  to  the  college  cither  by  certificate 
from  an  accredited  high  school  or  by  examina- 
tion requiring  approximately  12  points.  The 
school  of  education  or  normal  department  is 
open  to  those  who  already  hold  a  state  certificate, 
or  by  an  examination  in  the  common  school 
subjects.  A  three  years'  state  certificate  is 
given  to  graduates  who  complete  the  4-year 
course  in  the  school  of  education.  Degrees 
are  conferred  in  the  collegiate  and  graduate 
departments.  There  are  10  professors,  27 
in.structors,  and  5  assistants  on  the  faculty. 

BETHEL  COLLEGE,  NEWTON,  KANS.  — 

Founded  in  1893  by  the  Meunonites  of  North 
America.  Students  of  good  character  are  ad- 
mitted and  graded  according  to  their  qualifica- 
tions. Academic,  collegiate,  fine  arts,  and 
commercial  departments  are  maintained.  Two 
years  of  college  work  are  given  at  present. 
There  are  8  professors  and  5  instructors  on  the 
faculty.     Rev.  David  Goerz  is  the  president. 

BETHEL      COLLEGE,      RUSSELLVILLE, 

KY.  —  Organized  as  the  Bethel  High  School  in 
1852  by  the  Baptists  Association  of  South- 
western Kentucky,  becoming  a  college  in  1854. 
It  is  now  part  of  the  Baptist  Education  Society 
of  Kentucky.  Preparatory  and  collegiate  work 
is  given.  Approximately  10  points  of  high 
school  work  are  necessary  for  admission  to  the 
college.  Courses  leading  to  the  degrees  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts  and  Bachelor  of  Science  are 
offered.  In  1908-1909  there  were  26  students  in 
the  college.  There  are  7  professors,  2  assist- 
ant professors,  and  1  instructor  on  the  faculty. 
Florian  David  Perkins,  A.B.,  is  the  president. 

BETHEL  FEMALE  COLLEGE,  HOPKINS- 

VILLE,  KY.  —  Founded  in  18.54  as  the  Bethel 
Female  High  School;  present  title  adopted 
in  1890.  The  majority  of  the  trustees  are 
members  of  the  regular  Baptist  Church.  Liter- 
ary, scientific,  and  music  courses  are  offered. 
Primary    and    preparatory    departments    are 


maintained.  Admission  requirements  to  the 
college  are  not  definitely  stated.  Degrees  are 
conferred.  There  is  a  faculty  of  9  in.structors. 
Edward  Harrison,  LL.D.,  is  the  president. 

BEVAN,  BRIDGET.  —  See  Circulating 
Charity  Schools  and  Charity  Schools. 

BEZA,  THEODORUS.  — A  reformer  who 
shared  with  Calvin  the  burden  of  the  Reforma- 
tion movement  in  Geneva.  Born  in  1519  at 
Vezclay,  in  Burgundy.  He  was  carefully  edu- 
cated by  his  uncle,  first  at  Paris,  and  afterwards 
under  Melchior  Wolmar  at  Orleans  and  Bourges. 
He  studied  law  at  Orleans,  and  took  his  degree 
as  licentiate,  although  his  own  tastes  were 
more  literary  than  legal.  A  subsequent  life 
in  Paris,  not  free  from  irregularities,  but  not 
marked  by  gro.ss  excesses,  was  terminated  by 
an  illness  which  recalled  the  teachings  of  his 
tutor,  who  had  been  a  member  of  the  Reformed 
Church.  Beza  then  departed  to  Geneva, 
married,  and  adopted  the  Reformed  faith.  He 
became  professor  of  Greek  at  Lausanne,  and 
attracted  a  large  following  by  his  lectures  on 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  and  the  Epistles  of 
Peter.  Beza  did  signal  service  to  the  cause  of 
reform  by  his  wonderfully  successful  transla- 
tions of  the  Psalms,  as  well  as  his  editions  and 
translations  of  the  New  Testament;  and  his 
noble  birth  caused  him  to  be  repeatedly  chosen 
as  an  ambassador  for  the  Reformed  Church. 
He  approved  of  the  punishment  of  heretics  as 
civil  offenders,  and  in  particular  of  the  mon- 
strous execution  of  Servetus,  which  was  engi- 
neered by  his  friend  and  ally  Calvin,  whose 
biographer  he  became.  On  Calvin's  death  in 
1564  the  conduct  of  the  church  at  Geneva 
devolved  principally  on  Beza,  who  retained  his 
full  energies  to  the  year  1600,  and  died  in  1605, 
at  the  age  of  86.  In  addition  to  his  purely 
theological  works,  Beza  may  have  been  the 
author  of  an  admirable  Ecclesiastical  History 
of  the  Reformed  Churches  of  France,  which 
appeared  at  Antwerp  in  1580.  He  presented 
an  uncial  manuscript  of  the  New  Testament 
known  as  the  Codex  Beza:  to  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  and  published  short  treatises 
on  the  correct  pronunciation  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  languages  in  1580  and  1587,  and  on  the 
pronunciation  of  French  in  1584.  P.  R.  C. 

See  Calvinism  and  Education. 

References:  — 

Baird,  H.   M.     Theodore  Beza.     (New  York,  1899.) 
Brieje.     In   Friedlander,    Comp.   Beitrdgc  zur  Reforma- 

lionsgeschichte.     pp.    125-203.      (18-37.) 
DouEN.      Clement  Marot  et  le  psautier  Huguenot,  Vol.  1. 

(1878-1879.) 
Sandys.     History  of  Classical  Scholarship,    (Cambridge, 

1903-19US.) 

BHASKARA  (often  called  BHASKARA 
ACARYAor  BHASKARACARYA,  i.e.  Bhaskara 
the  Wise).  —  The  fourth  and  best  known  of 
the  great  Hindu  teachers  of  mathematics.  He 
was  born  in  1114  a.d.,  at  Biddur,  or  Bidae,  a 


vol.  I  —  z  B 


369 


BIBELESWORTH 


BIBLE   IN   THE   SCHOOLS 


city  in  the  Decean,  probably  the  modern 
Bidar.  He  wrote  several  works  on  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy,  the  best  known  being 
the  Lilavali  on  arithmetic,  the  Rija  Ganita  on 
algel)ra,  and  the  Siromani  on  astronomy.  The 
Lilnmli  was  a  profound  work  for  its  time,  and 
is  still  used  in  the  East.  By  direction  of  Akbar 
it  was  translated  into  Persian  by  Faizi  in  1587, 
and  it  has  appeared  in  print  in  various  editions. 
It  was  translated  into  English  bv  Tavlor  in 
1816  and  by  Colebrooke  in  1817.     '    D.  E.  S. 

BIBELESWORTH,  WALTER  DE  (./?.  1270). 
—  We  know  little  of  this  writer,  who  appears 
to  have  been  a  Xorman  tutor  of  children  of 
noble  birth  in  England  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  His  name  is,  however, 
important  in  the  history  of  English  education, 
as  he  was  the  author  of  a  textbook  for  teaching 
Anglo-Xorman  to  children  of  the  nobility. 
This  work  was  composed  at  the  request  of 
Lady  Dionysia  de  Monchensy  of  Swanscombe 
in  Kent.  It  was  written  in  Anglo-Xorman, 
with  an  interUned  gloss  in  Latin  and  English. 
This  metrical  work  marks  a  stage  in  the  use  of 
Anglo-Xorman  in  English  schools.  The  use  of 
the  tongue  in  the  schools  had  begun  to  decay  at 
this  date,  as  is  known  from  the  Oxford  Univer- 
sity Statute  printed  by  Dr.  H.  Anstey  in  his 
Muniinenta  Acadcmica  Oxon.  (see  pp.  Ixx 
and  438).  The  te.xt  of  Bibelesworth's  book  is 
given  in  Mayer's  Library  of  National  Antiq- 
uities (volume  of  vocabularies  i,  142),  edited  by 
Thomas  Wright  in  1857.  There  is  a  manu- 
script of  the  work  in  the  librarv  of  All  Souls' 
College,  Oxford  (Ms.  182),  which  (see  Did. 
Nat.  Bing.)  differs  from  the  printed  text  both 
in  the  Anglo-Xorman  verse  and  in  the  accom- 
panying   English    gloss.  J.  E.  G.  de  M. 

See  Anglo-Xorm.\x  Dialects. 

BIBLE  IN  THE  SCHOOLS.  —  England.  — 

Miles  Coverdale's  Translation  of  the  Bible 
into  English  was  published  in  1535.  In  1536, 
King  Henry  ^'IH  was  made  Head  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church,  and  in  1.538  his  Injunctions  re- 
quired a  large  copy  of  the  Bible  to  be  placed  in 
every  church  and  exhorted  every  person  to  read 
it.  But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  Bible 
reading  reached  the  schools  till  much  later. 
There  are  the  two  instances  of  Winchester  and 
East  Retford.  In  the  Injunctions  of  the 
Commissioners  to  Winchester  College  in  1547, 
it  was  ordered  that  the  Bible  be  read  daily  in 
English  "distinctly  and  apertly  in  the  midst  of 
the  hall  after  dinner  every  Sunday  and  Holy 
Day"  —  for  the  space  of  one  hour.  Moreover, 
the  warden  and  schoolmasters  in  all  lectures 
and  readings  of  profane  authors  were  to  "  con- 
fute by  allegation  of  scriptures  "  all  "  sentences  " 
and  opinions  contrary  to  the  Word  of  God. 
The  Statutes  of  East  Retford  grammar  school 
(15.52)  require  in  the  .second  form  the  teaching 
of  the  Scriptures  old  and  new. 

In  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary  (1553-1558)  an 


Inhibition  prevailed  against  the  Scriptures, 
and  no  copies  of  an  English  Bible  were  allowed 
to  be  printed.  It  is  clear  that  the  English 
Bible  had  no  position  in  the  English  schools  till 
after  1559,  when  Queen  Elizabeth  revived  the 
Injunction  of  1547  authorizing  the  Bible  and  the 
Paraphrases  of  Erasmus  in  English  on  the  Gos- 
pels to  be  placed  in  every  church.  It  was  after 
the  return  of  the  exiles  from  Strassburg,  Frank- 
fort, and  Geneva,  that  the  veneration  forthe  Eng- 
lish Bible  set  in,  and  affected  the  English  schools. 
English  knowledge  was  brought  into  direct  con- 
tact with  the  Biblical  education  of  the  Continent, 
which  had  gone  on  continuously  from  the  pub- 
lication of  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  German,  the  Xew  Testament  in  1522,  and 
the  whole  Bible  in  1534.  Similarly  in  Switzer- 
land the  Bible  had  become  a  schoolbook.  The 
Colloquies  of  Sebastian  CasteUion  (1543-1551) 
were  entirely  devoted  to  a  literary  presentation 
of  Biblical  stories  for  the  schools,  and  the  Col- 
loquies of  Corderius  (q.v.)  (1564)  were  per- 
meated ii\ith  a  scriptural  atmosphere,  and  the 
introduction  of  both  these  Colloquies  (q.v.)  into 
English  schools  served  the  double  purpose  of 
teaching  Latin  and  familiarizing  pupils  with 
the  Holy  Scriptures. 

Direct  requirement  of  Bible  teaching  in  the 
schools  must  be  traced  in  school  orders  and 
statutes.  Thus  at  Hartlebury  (Worcestershire) 
grammar  school,  1565,  the  statutes  require  the 
master  and  usher  to  instruct  pupils  in  the 
knowledge  of  God  and  His  Holj-  Word.  At  Riv- 
ington  (Lancashire)  grammar  school  (1566),  the 
Bible  was  to  be  read  on  holidays  and  the  long 
winter  nights  and  other  idle  times  (the  school 
was  to  contain  boarders).  At  St.  Bees  (Cum- 
berland), 1583,  the  Xew  Testament  was  to 
be  taught.  At  Heath  (near  Halifax,  Yorkshire) 
grammar  school,  c.  1600,  the  statutes  require 
chapters  from  the  Bible  to  be  read  publicly, 
daily.  Thus  the  schools  were  directly  in  accord 
viith  the  national  consciousness,  and  as  Puritan- 
ism advanced  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
grammar  schools  were  at  their  best  as  pronoun- 
cedly religious  and  scriptural  in  aim  as  they  were 
classical.  These  two  aims  were  easily  com- 
bined by  the  usage  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  Tes- 
taments side  by  side  with  the  English  version. 
For  the  illustration  of  the  authoritative  re- 
quirements of  Bible  teaching,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  add  that  the  Church  Canons  (1604)  re- 
quired schoolmasters  should  take  the  boys  to 
church  on  Sunday  and  Holy  Days,  where  the 
Bible  was  read,  and  on  every  other  day  to  in.still 
"such  sentences  of  Holy  Scripture  as  shall  be 
most  expedient."  Since  every  schoolmaster, 
public  or  private,  had  to  possess  the  Bishop's 
license  before  he  was  allowed  to  teach,  the 
teaching  of  the  Bible  and  catechism  (q.v.)  and 
other  Biblical  instruction  was  officiallj'^  fully 
provided  for.  John  Brinsley  (q.v.)  in  the 
Ludus  Literarius  (1612)  (chap,  xxii)  describes 
the  method  of  teaching  Bible  history  in  schools, 
and     recommends     a     textbook,  —  Eusebius 


370 


BIBLE    IN   THE   SCHOOLS 


BIBLE   IN   THE   SCHOOLS 


Pagit's  History  of  the  Bible  (briefly  collected  by 
way  of  question  and  answer).  The  boys  were 
to  read  a  page  every  night  and  to  be  exercised  in 
it  in  the  manner  of  catechism  teaching,  and  he 
speaks  of  the  "delight"  children  took  in  it. 

Charles Hoole  (in  1 660) ,  inevery  form  through- 
out the  grammar  school,  prescribes  the  read- 
ing of  a  Latin  or  Greek  chapter  of  tJie  New 
Testament.  Every  boy  should  take  his  turn  in 
reading  in  English  a  chapter  before  the  whole 
school.  Questions  are  to  be  asked  on  what 
has  been  read,  and  the  boys  are  to  be  encouraged 
to  "pose  "  one  another  on  it.  The  boys  of  the 
whole  form  should  carry  a  Mcmoriale  Bihlicum 
in  their  pocket,  by  which  they  may  know  in 
what  chapters  to  find  any  passage. 

When  the  charity  schools  {q.v.)  were  estab- 
lished at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
a  textbook  was  designed  for  the  multitudi- 
nous schools  (said  to  have  reached  later  to 
2000)  by  Dr.  Talbot,  called  The  Christian 
Schoolmaster.  The  Bible  curriculum  included 
the  learning  by  heart  of  select  Psalms.  In- 
stead of  hymns  they  sang  Psalms  95,  100,  98, 
and  67.  From  the  Psalter  they  proceeded  to 
the  New  Testament.  Those  who  are  "  pretty 
perfect  "  in  reading  are  to  learn,  "  in  convenient 
portions,"  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  Some 
are  to  be  called  on  to  give  accounts  of  Christ's 
miracles  and  parables  (with  the  moral  appli- 
cations), and  the  "remarkable  stories  in  the 
historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  They 
may  read  the  Old  Testament  and  learn  by  heart 
select  chapters  of  the  Proverbs  or  Ecclesiastes 
and  other  historical  passages  as  chosen  by  their 
masters." 

In  the  nineteenth  century  the  elementary 
schools  of  England  and  Wales  were  chiefly 
under  the  influence  of  the  National  Society 
for  Promoting  the  Education  of  the  Poor  in  the 
Principles  of  the  Eistablished  Church  (q.v.) 
(incorporated  in  1817)  and  the  British  and 
Foreign  School  Society  (q.v.)  (founded  in  1813), 
which  was  nonsectarian,  but  religious.  Both 
types  of  schools  taught  the  Bible.  In  1870, 
the  "  School  Board  "  system  (q.v.),  consisting  of 
members  elected  by  the  ratepayers  ad  hoc, 
supplemented  the  previous  supply  of  schools  by 
requiring  schools  to  be  erected  by  public  author- 
ities wherever  the  accommodation  was  deficient. 
In  schools  established  by  "school  boards"  no 
denominational  religious  teaching  could  be 
given,  but  the  Bible  could  be  and  ordinarily  was 
taught,  though  a  child  could  claim  exemption. 
By  the  education  act  of  1902,  which  consolidated 
the  whole  system  of  voluntary  schools  with 
those  established  by  the  old  school  boards,  so 
as  to  bring  all  Public  Elementary  schools  under 
the  county  and  municipal  councils,  substan- 
tially the  general  teaching  of  the  Bible  in  all 
elementary  schools  is  left  untouched.  A  sec- 
tion of  the  population  is  in  favor  of  a  solely 
secular  system  (excluding  the  Bible  from  the 
curriculum),  whilst  another  section  favors  the 
teaching  of  the  Bible  as  a  literary  collection  of 


371 


books.  Meantime,  the  teachers  as  a  v/hole,  in 
the  English  secondary  and  elementary  schools, 
continue  Bible  instruction,  whilst  the  schools 
which  were  formerly  voluntary  schools  con- 
tinue their  denominational  teaching  (including 
the  Bible),  but  with  a  conscience  clause  in  opera- 
tion. 

Germany.  —  Although  religious  instruction 
formed  part  of  the  school  curriculum  in  Ger- 
many from  a  very  early  date,  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  the  use  of  the  Bible  was  included. 
The  Commandments,  the  Creed,  and  the  Pater- 
noster, with  a  catechism,  made  up  the  religious 
instruction.  To  this  was  added  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  essentials  of  the  church  service. 
In  fact,  it  is  very  probable  that  the  majority  of 
the  priests  had  little  knowledge  of  the  Bible. 
In  the  sixteenth  century  George  of  Anhalt 
(1507-1553)  was  able  to  say,  "So  far  as  the 
pastors  and  priests  are  concerned,  it  (the  Bible) 
would  have  been  extinguished."  At  a  later 
period  it  became  the  policy  of  the  Church  to 
restrict  the  Bible  only  to  the  priests.  (See 
fourth  rule  of  Councifof  Trent.)  The  Breth- 
ren of  the  Common  Life  (q.v.)  were  perhaps 
among  the  first  within  the  folds  of  the  Church 
who  attempted  to  bring  the  Bible  to  the  people. 
Gerhard  von  Ziitphen  (1367-1398),  a  friend  of 
Gerhard  Groote  and  himself  one  of  the  Brethren, 
says,  "  This  is  the  beginning  and  foundation  of 
Christian  public  education,  that  the  people 
read  the  Bible  in  the  vernacular."  In  the  schools 
with  which  the  Brethren  were  connected  the 
Scriptures  were  taught,  according  to  Sturm  (q.v.), 
in  the  following  order:  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew, 
Acts,  St  John,  Pauline  Epistles,  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments.  But  it  remained  for  the  Re- 
formed churches  to  extend  the  use  of  the  Bible. 
Long  before  Luther's  days  the  Hussites  had 
insisted  on  the  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  the 
Bible.  But  it  was  through  the  services  of 
Luther  and  his  collaborators  that  the  study  of 
the  Bible  ultimately  became  identified  with  pub- 
lic education.  The  essence  of  Luther's  ideas 
on  the  subject  is  contained  in  his  Letter  to 
the  Nobles,  "Above  all  in  schools  of  all  kinds  the 
chief  and  most  common  lesson  should  be  the 
Scriptures,  and  for  young  boys  the  Gospel.  .  .  . 
But  vyhere  the  Holy  Scrijjtures  are  not  the  rule, 
I  advise  no  one  to  send  his  child."  The  process 
of  introducing  the  Bible  was,  however,  slow, 
for  it  was  difficult  in  many  cases  to  secure 
copies,  and  in  most  instances  the  chief  emphasis 
continued  to  be  placed  on  the  Catechism.  The 
numerous  school  and  church  ordinances  of  the 
period  took  up  Luther's  call,  and  a  reference 
to  religious  instruction  and  the  teaching  of 
the  Scriptures  is  contained  in  nearly  aU.  The 
Brunswick  church  ordinance  (1528)  prescribes 
vernacular  schools  with  two  teachers  to  give 
religious  instruction;  according  to  the  Liibeck 
church  ordinances  (1531)  teachers  in  vernacular 
schools  must  teach  religion;  the  Pommeranian 
church  ordinances  (1538)  permit  the  councils  to 
approve  writing  schools,  provided  the  Psalms, 


BIBLE  IN  tHE  SCHOOLS 


BIBLE   IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


passages  from  the  Bilile,  and  the  Catechism 
are  taught.  The  Schh'swig-Hol.stein  churcli  ordi- 
nances (1542)  contain  the  following,  "Schools  arc 
places  where  children  should  be  taught  antl  their 
souls  he  converted  to  the  (lospel."  But  it  is 
rare  to  find  the  study  of  the  Bible  as  a  whole  in 
schools  of  any  type.  This  century  is  remark- 
able for  the  apjjearance  of  "  [)riniers "  and 
''selections  from  the  Bible."  Thus  Melanch- 
thon's  Handbook  for  Children  contained  the 
A,  B,  C,  the  Paternoster,  Ave  Maria,  IMatthew 
v.vii;  Romans  xii,  John  xiii,  and  Psalm  cxxvii. 
Trotzendorf  (q.v.)  issued  a  Rosarium  contcxlum 
ex  rosLS  deceplis  ex  Paradiso  Domini  pro])osituin 
pueris  calechumenis  in  schola  (loldhergenn  (a 
rose-garden  of  roses  culled  from  the  garden  of  the 
Lord  for  the  religious  instruction  of  boys  at  the 
Goldberg  School).  Neander  ((/.!'.)  also  issued  a 
similar  selection  of  Biblical  jiassagcs  —  Epi- 
tome Chronicorum.  In  1577  there  appeared  a 
Biblischer  Auszug  oder  Historien  mit  liildern 
{Biblical  selections  or  Histories  with  pictures) 
by  H.  Beyer  of  Frankfort,  a  type  of  book  which 
soon  gained  in  popular  favor.  Thus  the  schools 
rather  employed  the  selections  than  the  Bible 
itself,  except  in  the  upper  classes  of  Latin  schools, 
where,  however,  it  was  studied  in  Latin  rather 
as  a  medium  of  language  instruction  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  suggestions  of  Melanchthon. 
The  selections  most  frequently  made  included 
a  few  Psalms,  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  and 
parts  of  the  Gospels  which  would  lend  them- 
selves to  easy  memorization  and  would  serve 
to  inculcate  moral  lessons. 

If  the  sixteenth  century  saw  the  introduction 
of  biblical  selections,  the  next  two  centuries 
were  periods  in  which  biblical  histories  with- 
out number  flourished,  with  and  without  illus- 
trations. Duke  Ernst  of  Gotha  {(j.i>.)  had  a 
pictorial  biblical  historv  published,  and  the 
School  Method  provided  "that  "  If  the  Bible  or 
biblical  histories  can  be  had  in  schools,"  then 
the  older  children  should  read  in  them,  but 
only  those  chapters  which  are  read  in  church." 
Spener  (q.v.)  also  advocated  the  use  of  pictures, 
and  particularly  the  reading  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Francke  ( Kurzer  und  Einfaltiger 
Untcrricht)  would  teach  the  Bible  as  soon  as 
children  could  read,  while  Gomenius  (Great 
Didactic,  chap.  29)  regarded  "  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures as  the  alpha  and  omega  for  all  Christian 
schools."  Among  the  most  popular  biblical 
histories  were  those  of  Gesenius  (Biblische 
Historien  des  alien  und  neuen  Testaments, 
1658,  3d  ed.  1719),  and  Hiibner  (Zu-eimal  zwei 
nnd  fiinfzig  auserlcsene  biblische  Historien,  1714). 
The  Bible  itself  did  not  become  a  common 
reading  book  for  any  class  of  society  until  the 
foundation  at  Halle  of  the  Canstein  Institu- 
tion, 1712.  The  condition  of  things  at  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  is  illu- 
minated by  the  statement  in  the  Wiirttemberg 
School  Ordinance  of  1729  that  "  many  children 
never  see  a  Bible  in  their  lives  or  know  what 
it  is." 


The  period  of  enlightenment  saw  a  continu- 
ance of  the  issue  of  bil)lical  histories  but  of  a 
new  type.  While  the  okler  histories  had  aimed 
to  reproduce  the  tone  and  language  of  the  Bible, 
the  newer  jiublications  tended  to  be  either 
extremely  rationalistic  or  mere  theological 
disquisitions.  Dinter  (q.v.)  objected  to  both 
types,  and  insisted  on  the  personal  appeal  of 
the  Bible,  which  he  regarded  as  the  source  of 
Christian  faith,  moral  advice,  as  good  practice 
in  reading,  excellent  for  formation  of  taste, 
and  as  a  center  round  which  to  group  other 
subjects.  Edicts  were  not  wanting  to  intro- 
duce the  teaching  of  the  biblical  histories  in 
schools.  Thus  edicts  were  issued  in  Prussia 
in  1716,  Saxony  1724,  Brunswick  1733.  Bib- 
lical maps  and  pictures  were  used,  and  all  man- 
ner of  subjects  were  grouped  round  the  instruc- 
tion in  Scripture.  The  Prussian  Gencral- 
landschulrcglemcnt,  1763,  decreed  that  the 
teacher  should  tell  stories  from  the  Bible  and 
should  make  the  necessary  applications.  This 
measure  was  reinforced  in  1773,  and  the  New 
Testament  was  to  be  taught  in  the  lower  and 
the  Old  Testament  in  the  upjier  grades.  In 
1814  a  Prussian  Ordinance  put  a  check  to  the 
use  of  the  rationalistic  histories,  and  insisted 
that  all  children  in  elementary  schools  should 
know  the  New  and  the  Old  Testament  by  the 
time  of  confirmation.  The  histories,  however, 
continued  to  be  used  until  the  Regulations  of 
1854  put  an  end  to  the  use  of  anything  but  the 
Bible.  In  1872  the  decree  enforced  the  teach- 
ing of  stories  from  Genesis,  the  lives  of  Moses, 
David,  and  Jesus,  and  interesting  parts  of  the 
Bible  as  a  whole  in  biblical  language  in  the 
lower  grades,  and  of  the  Bible  itself  in  the  upper 
grades.  Similar  provisions  were  made  in 
Saxony  in  1874.  The  ability  with  which 
children  of  14  can  repeat  passages  from  the 
Bil)le,  and  quote  very  frequently  chapter  and 
verse,  is  adccjuate  testimony  to  the  care  and 
attention  which  are  now  paid  to  the  teaching 
of  the  "  only  and  peculiar  Book  "  of  Luther 
in  the  elementary  schools.  Four  hours  a 
week  are  given  to  religious  instruction  in  the 
elementary  schools  of  Prussia,  and  these  include 
Bible  teaching.  In  the  high  schools  a  similar 
distribution  of  the  work,  scriptural  stories  in 
the  lower  sections,  parts  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  in  the  middle,  and  an  intensive 
study  of  the  whole  Bible  in  the  upper  sections, 
is  made,  but  only  2  hours  a  week  are  devoted 
to  religious  instruction  as  a  whole  in  each 
class. 

France.  —  As  in  all  other  countries,  so  in 
France,  education  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  on  a 
religious  basis,  and  remained  under  clerical 
control  down  to  modern  times.  The  Statutes 
of  the  University  of  Paris  of  1598  contain  an 
article  to  the  effect  that  "  all  the  heads  of 
colleges  shall  see  to  it  that  the  children  and 
youth  be  instructed  in  religion  by  capable 
teachers  and  clergy,  and  that  on  each  day  at  the 
usual  hour  according  to  the  custom  established 


372 


BIBLE  IN  THE   SCHOOLS 


BIBLE   IN   THE   SCHOOLS 


by  our  ancestors  divine  service  be  performed 
and  the  scholars  assist  thereat  not  only  on 
Sundays  and  festival  days,  but  also  on  other 
days."  So  much  of  the  Bible  was  taught  as 
was  thought  proper  by  the  Catholic  hierarchy. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  began  the  discussions 
on  the  value  of  religious  instruction  for  moral 
training.  The  strongest  advocate  for  the 
retention  of  religious  instruction  was  Rollin 
in  Traite  des  Etudes  (1726),  who  originated 
the  expression,  representative  of  the  opinion 
of  the  university  at  that  time,  "  no  instruction 
without  education,  no  education  without 
religion."  In  1762,  at  the  time  of  the  agitation 
against  the  Jesuits,  the  Parliament  asked  the 
universities  to  frame  a  course  of  study  embody- 
ing religion,  morals,  and  sciences.  The  Revo- 
lution tended  to  exclude  religion  entirely  from 
the  schools  and  put  in  its  place  "  morals  and 
natural  law  "  (1792)  and  "  republican  morals  " 
(1794).  As  soon  as  public  opinion  could 
express  itself  freely,  it  appeared  that  many 
parents  refused  to  send  their  children  to  "  irre- 
ligious "  schools.  In  1816  a  royal  ordinance  re- 
introduced religion  into  the  school.  Biblical  in- 
struction was  included  under  the  term  "sacred 
history  "  (hixtoire  sainte).  In  another  decree  of 
1816  it  was  demanded  that  all  primary  teachers 
must  know  sacred  history,  including  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments.  In  1833  the  same 
provision  was  renewed,  and  the  importance 
attached  to  the  subject  may  be  realized  from 
the  following  statement,  "  geography  and  his- 
tory are  necessary  ideas  and  form  part  of 
religious  instruction  which  necessarily  supposes 
some  acquaintance  with  this  field "  (1834). 
In  1836  it  was  emphasized  in  an  ordinance  of 
June  23  that  religious  education  forms  part  of 
primary  instruction.  Similar  decrees  and  ordi- 
nances were  reported  in  1850  and  1851.  On 
Aug.  17,  1851,  religious  instruction  was  de- 
fined as  including  catechism  and  elements  of 
sacred  history  and  the  reading  of  the  gospel. 
By  the  secularizing  law  of  Mar.  28,  1882, 
moral  and  civic  instruction  replaced  religion. 
The  public  primary  schools  are  open  to  all,  and 
ought  to  be  independent  of  all  denominations. 
Thursday,  however,  was  to  be  free,  and  on  that 
day  children  could  be  sent  to  their  several  de- 
nominational institutions  for  religious  instruc- 
tion. Private  schools  were  still  permitted  to 
give  religious  instruction.  In  1887  teachers  be- 
longing to  religious  corporations  were  excluded 
from  the  pulilic  schools.  About  the  same  time 
the  references  to  God  were  eliminated  from  the 
programs  for  moral  instruction.  In  secondary 
schools  religious  instruction  was  removed  from 
the  class  time  in  1880,  but  by  a  decree  of  1881, 
the  wishes  of  i)arents  were  allowed  to  regulate 
the  system  by  which  the  clergy  were  admitted 
to  give  instruction  in  religion  outside  school 
hours. 

By  the  associations  law  of  July  1,  1901, 
religious  orders  had  to  apply  for  special  author- 
ization from  the  government  for  the  continuance 


of  their  existence  and  work,  and  the  govern- 
ment exercised  its  power  to  refuse  authorization. 
By  the  law  of  July  8,  1904,  all  teaching  orders 
were  to  be  suppressed  within  ten  years.  The 
result  is  that  the  State  now  has  a  monopolj^  in 
schools,  and  religious  instruction,  including  the 
Bible,  is  entirely  eliminated. 

United  States.  —  The  reading  of  the  Bible 
in  the  public  schools  either  by  the  teacher  or 
the  pupils,  usually  as  a  form  of  opening  or  clos- 
ing exercise,  has  long  been  a  common  feature 
of  American  public  education.  In  a  number 
of  the  colonies  the  ability  to  read  the  Bible 
was  the  standard  of  efficiency,  and  one  of  the 
evident  aims  of  public  instruction  as  expressed 
in  legislative  enactments.  (See  Colonial  Pe- 
riod IN  American  Education.)  Usually  the 
King  James  version  has  been  employed  for 
this  purpose,  and  frequently  in  addition  thereto 
or  in  lieu  thereof  specially  prepared  texts  con- 
taining extracts  therefrom  have  been  used. 

Since  about  1840  considerable  objection  has 
been  raised  to  this  practice,  especially  by  those 
who  have  not  belonged  to  the  dominant  religious 
faith  of  given  communities.  The  opposition  has 
been  strongest  in  our  larger  cities.  Frequently 
individual  communities  have  attempted  to 
settle  such  controversies  on  a  purely  political 
or  majority  basis.  Again,  various  forms  of 
compromises  have  been  resorted  to,  by  city, 
county,  and  district  boards  of  educational 
control.  From  the  local  communities  the  con- 
test has  been  carried  to  the  state  legislatures, 
to  the  voice  of  the  people  of  entire  states. 

Two  general  lines  of  policy  can  be  detected  in 
the  state  legislation  dealing  therewith.  One 
forbids  the  use  of  any  books  in  the  public 
schools  calculated  to  favor  the  religious  tenets 
of  any  particular  religious  sect,  leaving  it  to 
the  courts  to  determine  in  any  particular  case 
whether  or  not  a  book  was  sectarian.  To  this 
class  belong  the  enactments  as  noted  of  the 
following  states:  Alabama  (Act  Mar.  4,  1903), 
Arizona  (Se.ss.  Laws  1879,  No.  61,  sec.  38), 
Arkansas  (Act  Apr.  29,  1873,  sec.  52),  Califor- 
nia (Act  May  3,  1855),  Colorado  (Gen.  Stat. 
1883,  ch.  xc\Ti),  Idaho  (Sch.  Laws  1907, 
p.  82),  Indiana  (Acts  1880,  p.  74),  Kansas 
(Mar.  19,  1897,  ch.  179,  sec.  4),  Kentucky 
(Apr.  1,  1872),  Massachusetts  (Mar.  10, 
1827),  Mississippi  (Sch.  Laws  1906,  sec.  4595), 
Montana  (Act  Jan.  12,  1872),  Nevada  (Com- 
piled Laws  1900,  sec.  1323),  New  Hampshire 
(Rev.  Stat.  1842,  ch.  73,  sec.  12),  New  York 
(Apr.  18,  1843),  North  Carolina  (revisal  1873, 
ch.  68,  sec.  59),  North  Dakota  (Pol.  Code  1899, 
sec.  694),  Oklahoma  (Laws  1908,  No.  331), 
South  Carolina  (Revised  Stat.  1873,  ch.  xxxv, 
sec.  5),  Tennessee  (Act  Apr.  13,  1899),  Vir- 
ginia (certain  counties)  (Act  Mar.  20,  1847), 
Washington  lAct  Nov.  28,  1883),  Wisconsin 
(Act  Mar.  31,  1883). 

The  other  policy,  while  forbidding  the  use 
of  sectarian  books,  has  left  the  way  open  for  the 
use  of  the  Bible,  either  by  declaring  that  it 


373 


BIBLE   IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


BIBLE   L\   THE  SCHOOLS 


should  not  be  considered  a  sectarian  book  nor 
excluded,  or  by  leaving  its  use  to  the  oi)tion 
of  individual  communities.  Sometimes  it  has 
made  the  use  of  the  Bible  inamlatory,  but  has 
provided  that  the  reading;  tiicrcfrom  shall  not 
consume  more  than  a  s|)ecilied  number  of  min- 
utes daily,  and  shall  not  i)e  accompanied  by 
any  comments.  Sometimes  it  has  |)rovi(led 
tiiat  those  who  object  to  reading  the  jjarticular 
version  emi)loyed,  or  being  present  while  it  is 
being  read,  because  of  conscientious  scrui)les, 
shall  be  excused  therefrom.  No  law  has  ever 
been  passed  by  any  state  legislature,  si)ecifically 
excluding  tiie  Hible  by  name  from  use  in  the 
public  schools. 

The  following  states  have  declared  by  law 
that  the  Bible  should  not  be  excluded,  or  have 
made  its  use  mandatory  in  the  schools:  Florida 
(Act  Jan.  30,  1869)",  Georgia  (Code  1895, 
see.  1365,  Indiana  (Act  Mar.  6,  1865),  Iowa 
(Revised  Stat.  1873,  sec.  1764),  Louisiana 
(Revised  Stat.  1870,  sec.  1288),  Massachusetts 
(Gen.  Stat.  1859,  ch.  38,  sec.  27),  Mississippi 
(Act  July  4,  1870),  New  York  (city)  (Act  May 
7,  1844),  North  Dakota  (Pol.  Code  1899,  sec. 
754),  West  Virginia  (Act  Feb.  26,  1866). 

The  following  states  have  made  the  use  of  the 
Bible  optional  or  permissive,  according  to  the 
wishes  of  each  community:  Kansas  (Act 
Apr.  7,  1876),  New  Jersey  (Act  Apr.  30,  1844), 
North  Dakota  (Pol.  Code  1899,  sec.  754), 
Oklahoma  (Act  Feb.  19,  1895),  South  Dakota 
(Pol.  Code  1903,  sec.  2423). 

The  following  states  have  provided  by  law 
for  excusing  those  who  have  objections  on 
conscientious  grounds  from  attendance  on  the 
reading  of  the  Bible:  Florida  (Act  Jan.  30, 1869), 
Iowa  (Rev.  Stat.  1873,  sec.  1764),  Louisiana 
(Rev.  Stat.  1870,  sec.  1288),  Massachusetts 
(Act  Mar.  6,  1862),  North  Dakota  (Sess.  Laws 
1890,  ch.  62,  sec.  134). 

The  above  lists  of  citations  to  legislation  in 
various  states  are  given  to  illustrate  the  various 
ways  in  which  legislatures  have  sought  to  deal 
with  a  common  problem.  The  lists  are  typical, 
not  entirely  complete,  nor  do  the  citations 
represent  the  present  status  in  all  cases. 

Not  only  the  laws  but  the  constitutions  as 
well  of  a  large  majority  of  the  states  have  felt 
the  influence  and  show  the  effects  of  this  opposi- 
tion to  the  reading  of  the  Bible  in  the  public 
schools.  And  it  is  to  the  constitutions,  together 
with  the  judicial  decisions  interpretative  thereof, 
rather  than  to  the  laws,  that  we  must  look  in 
order  to  discover  the  final  attitude  of  the  Amer- 
ican states  upon  this  question.  For  questions 
involving,  as  this  one  does,  the  religious  element, 
individual  religious  rights,  are  so  fundamental 
in  their  nature  that  nothing  short  of  an  appeal  to 
the  fundamental  law  of  the  land  can  afford  a 
solution.  The  laws  represent  as  it  were  an  inter- 
mediate step,  an  attempt  to  deal  with  a  new 
problem.  The  culminating  stage  has  been  the 
incorporation  of  provisions  in  our  state  consti- 
tutions dealing  therewith. 


These  constitutional  provisions  are  much 
less  specific  than  are  those  contained  in  the  laws. 
Only  one  state,  Mississi|)pi,  mentions  the  Bible 
specifically  in  this  connection,  in  her  constitu- 
tion. The  constitution  of  1890,  Art.  3,  sec.  10, 
reads  as  follows:  "  No  religious  test  as  a  quali- 
fication for  office  shall  ever  be  required;  and  no 
preference  shall  be  given  by  law  to  any  reli- 
gious .sect  or  mode  of  worshii);  but  the  free 
enjoyment  of  all  religious  sentiments  and  the 
different  modes  of  worshi])  shall  be  held  sacred. 
The  rigiits  hereby  secured  shall  not  be  construed 
to  justify  acts  of  licentiousness  injurious  to 
morals  or  dangerous  to  the  peace  and  safety  of 
the  state,  or  to  exclude  the  Holy  Bible  from  use 
in  the  public  schools  of  this  state."  Only  one 
state  constitution,  that  of  Idaho,  specially  men- 
tions sectarian  textbooks.  In  the  constitution 
of  1899,  Art.  IX,  sec.  6,  states:  "No  religious 
test  or  qualification  shall  ever  be  required  of 
any  person  as  a  condition  of  admission  into 
any  public,  educational  institution  of  tlie  state, 
either  as  teacher  or  student;  and  no  teacher  or 
student  of  any  such  institution  shall  ever  be 
required  to  attend  or  participate  in  any  religious 
service  whatever.  No  sectarian  or  religious 
tenets  or  doctrines  shall  ever  be  taught  in  the 
public  schools,  nor  shall  any  distinction  or  clas- 
sification of  pupils  be  made  on  account  of  race 
or  color.  No  books,  papers,  tracts,  or  docu- 
ments of  a  political,  sectarian,  or  denomina- 
tional character  shall  be  used  or  introduced  in 
any  schools  established  under  the  provisions 
of  this  article,  nor  shall  any  teacher  in  any 
district  receive  any  of  the  public  school  moneys 
in  which  the  schools  have  not  been  taught  in 
accordance  with  this  article." 

All  of  our  state  constitutions,  however,  guar- 
antee religious  freedom;  11  directly  forbid 
sectarian  instruction  m  the  public  schools;  28 
forbid  the  appropriation  of  public  money 
to  religious  or  sectarian  schools.  So  the  ques- 
tion as  to  whether  the  Bible  shall  be  used  in 
or  excluded  from  the  public  school  becomes 
in  all  the  .states  but  Mississippi  a  question  for 
the  courts  to  determine,  on  constitutional 
grounds.  If  its  use  constitutes  sectarian  reli- 
gious instruction,  if  its  contents  favor  the  tenets 
of  any  particular  religious  faith,  or  if  its  use 
in  a  public  school  constitutes  such  school  a  place 
of  religious  worship,  or  a  religious  semmary, 
or  if  such  use  violates  the  principle  of  religious 
freedom,  then  under  the  e-xisting  constitutions 
the  Bible,  as  well  as  any  other  book  so  violating 
the  fundamental  law  of  the  land,  must  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  public  schools. 

The  court  decisions  in  this  matter  are  nu- 
merous and  conflicting.  The  most  important 
ones  upholding  the  reading  of  the  Bible  are  the 
following:  — 

In  the  case  of  McCormiek  v.  Burt  decided  in 
Illinois  in  1880,  a  Catholic  child  was  suspended 
from  school  for  non-observance  of  a  rule  of  the 
board  of  trustees  requiring  all  pupils  to  lay 
aside  their  books  and  remain  quiet  during  15 


374 


BIBLE   IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


BIBLE   IN   THE   SCHOOLS 


minutes  in  the  morning  while  the  teacher  read 
as  a  morning  exercise  from  the  King  James 
version  of  the  Bible.  Pupils  were  not  re- 
quired to  be  present  during  the  reading,  but 
if  present  must  observe  the  rule.  The  action 
of  the  board  in  suspending  the  child  was  upheld 
by  the  court.     (95  lU.  p.  263.) 

In  the  case  of  Moore  u.  Munroe  and  another 
it  was  held  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  Iowa  in  1SS4 
that  a  parent  having  two  children  in  a  public 
school,  where  the  Bible  was  read  by  the  teachers 
every  morning  along  with  other  religious  exer- 
cises, but  whose  children  were  not  required  to 
attend  such  reading  nor  take  part  therein,  was 
not  entitled  to  an  injunction  preventing  such 
reading  and  religious  exercises.  (N.  W.  Rep. 
20,  p.  475.) 

The  supreme  court  of  Kansas  decided  a  some- 
what similar  case  in  1904  in  the  case  of  Billard 
V.  Board  of  Education  (76  Kan.  p.  422).  In  1905 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Kentucky  held  in  the  case 
of  Hackett  c.  Brockville  Graded  School  District 
that  a  public  school  opened  with  prayer  and  the 
reading  without  comment  of  passages  from 
the  King  James  translation  of  the  Bible,  during 
which  pupils  were  not  required  to  attend,  was 
not  a  place  of  worship  nor  were  its  teachers 
ministers  of  religion  within  the  meaning  of  con- 
stitution. Par.  5,  providing  that  no  person 
should  be  compelled  to  attend  any  place  of 
worship  or  contribute  to  the  support  of  a  minis- 
ter of  religion. 

In  Donahue  v.  Richards  et  al.  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Maine  held  in  1S54  that  the  power  to 
select  books  and  require  them  to  be  read  was 
vested  by  law  in  the  school  committee.  That 
the  use  of  the  Bible  as  a  reading  book  was 
not  interference  with  rehgious  belief  any  more 
than  was  reading  the  mythology  of  Greece  or 
Rome.  Furthermore  the  requirement  of  uni- 
formity in  reading  books  was  a  reasonable 
request.  A  Catholic  child  therefore  who  was 
expelled  from  school  by  the  school  committee 
for  refusing  to  read  from  the  Protestant  version 
of  the  Scriptures,  alleging  conscientious  scruples 
as  the  grounds  of  refusal,  and  who  offered  to  read 
from  the  Douay  version,  was  not  entitled  to 
any  redress.     (Me.  38,  p.  379.) 

The  police  court  of  Boston  in  the  case  of 
Commonwealth  v.  Cook  decided  in  1859  that 
a  teacher  in  the  public  schools  of  Boston  had 
a  right  to  enforce  a  regulation  of  the  school 
committee  requiring  jjupils  in  the  pubhc  scliools 
to  learn  the  Ten  Commandments  and  repeat 
them  once  a  week,  and  was  justified  in  inflicting 
corporal  punishment  upon  a  child  who  refused 
to  repeat  the  Ten  Commandments,  even  though 
the  refusal  was  based  on  conscientious  objec- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  child  to  the  version  of 
the  Bible  used,  and  even  though  he  acted  under 
the  direction  and  with  the  authority  of  the 
father  in  making  such  refusal.  (7  Am.  L.  Reg. 
p.  417.) 

In  PfeifTer  v.  Board  of  Education  of  Detroit, 
1898,  it  was  held  that  the  use  in  the  public 


schools  for  15  minutes  at  the  close  of  each 
day's  session,  as  a  supplemental  textbook  on 
reading,  of  a  book  entitled  "  Readings  from  the 
Bible,"  emphasizing  the  moral  precepts  of  the 
Ten  Commandments,  when  the  teacher  is  for- 
bidden to  make  any  comment  upon  the  matter 
therein  contained,  and  is  required  to  excuse 
from  that  part  of  the  session  any  pupil  upon 
application  of  his  parent  or  guardian,  is  not  a 
violation  of  the  state  constitution.  (118  Mich. 
560.)  A  somewhat  similar  decision  was  given  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1885  in  Hart  v.  School  District 
of  Sharpsville;  and  in  Texas  in  1908  in  Church 
y.  Bullock.    (109  S.  W.  p.  115.) 

In  Nessle  r.  Hunn  el  al.  the  Mahaning  County 
Court  of  Common  Pleas  of  Ohio  decided  in  1894 
that,  as  the  legislature  had  placed  the  manage- 
ment of  the  public  schools  exclusively  in  the 
control  of  directors,  trustees,  and  boards  of 
education,  the  courts  had  no  authority  to  inter- 
fere against  a  regulation  duly  adopted  by  the 
board  of  education  requiring  portions  of  the 
Bible  to  be  read  in  the  schools  of  the  district 
as  an  opening  exercise.  It  was  not  in  violation 
of  the  constitution  of  Ohio  nor  of  the  United 
States.  {Nisi  Prius  Repts.  Vol.  1,  1894-1895, 
p.  140.) 

The  most  notable  decisions  opposing  the  read- 
ing of  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools  are  the 
following:  — 

In  Pfeiffer  v.  The  Board  of  Education  of 
Detroit,  a  decision  which  we  have  already 
referred  to  as  sustaining  the  right  of  the  Board 
of  Education  to  introduce  into  the  public 
schools  a  book  called  "  Readings  from  the  Bible," 
there  was  a  dissenting  opinion  filed  by  Judge 
Moore  which  reads  in  part  as  follows:  "The 
elements  of  our  population  are  so  diverse,  com- 
prising as  it  does  Protestants,  Roman  Catholics, 
Hebrews,  atheists,  orthodox  Christians,  heter- 
odox Christians,  and  all  shades  of  religious 
belief  —  that  no  system  of  religion  can  be  taught 
which  would  not  be  objectionable  to  many  of 
them.  It  is  said  that  the  school  board  has 
removed  all  objection  to  the  religious  exercises 
embraced  in  the  stated  reading  of  this  religious 
book  by  excusing  those  children,  whose  parents 
may  request  it,  from  joining  in  it.  If  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  schools  under  the  ordinance  of  1787 
to  teach  religion,  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  this 
duty  can  be  abdicated:  how  some  can  be  ex- 
cused from  it.  Cliildren  should  be  taught  to 
fear  God  and  to  love  their  fellow  men.  They 
should  be  made  familiar  with  the  truths  of  the 
Bible.  They  should  be  instructed  to  remember 
their  Creator  in  the  days  of  their  youth,  and  to 
observe  his  commandments.  But  this  is  a 
branch  of  education  which  is  not  within  the 
province  of  the  State.  It  belongs  to  the  parents, 
the  home,  the  Sundav  school,  the  mission,  and 
the  church."     (118  Mich.  p.  560.) 

In  State  ex  rel.  Freeman  v.  Scheve,  a  decision 

rendered  by  the  supreme  court  of  Nebraska  in 

1903  is  contained  the  following:  "  The  point  where 

the  courts  may  rightfully  interfere  to  prevent 

75 


BIBLE  IN   THE  SCHOOLS 


BIBLE  IN   THE  SCHOOLS 


the  use  of  the  Bible  in  a  puhhc  school  is  where 
legitimate  use  has  degenerated  into  alnise,  — 
where  a  teacher  employed  to  give  secular  instruc- 
tion has  violated  the  constitution  by  becoming 
a  sectarian  propagandist.  The  Bible  was  not 
read  as  mere  literature.  The  reading,  the 
prayers,  and  the  hymns  w'erc  intended  to  be 
devotional.  The  teacher  felt  it  was  not  right 
to  open  school  in  any  other  way.  It  was  a 
matter  of  conscience  with  her.  It  was  an  act 
of  worship.  The  court  holds  this  to  be  sec- 
tarian instruction.  E.xercises  by  a  teacher  in 
a  public  school,  in  a  school  building,  in  school 
hours,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  pupils,  con- 
sisting in  the  reading  of  passages  from  the  Bible, 
singing  of  songs  and  hymns,  and  offering  prayer 
to  the  Deity,  in  accordance  with  the  doctrines, 
beliefs,  customs,  or  usages  of  sectarian  churches 
or  religious  organizations  are  forbidden  by  the 
constitution  of  this  state.  The  law  does  not 
forbid  the  use  of  the  Bible  in  either  version  in 
the  schools.  Because  its  use  may  be  abused  is 
no  reason  for  shutting  it  out.  The  alleged 
violation  must  in  every  case  be  proved.  En- 
forced attendance  upon  religious  ser\-ice  is  for- 
bidden by  the  constitution,  and  pupils  in  a 
public  school  cannot  be  required  either  to 
attend  such  services  or  to  join  in  them.  A 
teacher  in  a  public  school  being  vested  during 
school  hours  with  a  general  authority  over  his 
pupils,  his  requests  are  practically  commands. 
The  right  of  the  relator  has  been  infringed. 
Without  his  consent  and  over  his  protest,  his 
children  have  been  compelled  to  attend  Divine 
worship,  and  to  participate  in  it."  (93  N.  W. 
p.  109.) 

In  Stevenson  v.  Hanyen,  a  Pennsylvania 
case  decided  in  1895,  objection  had  been  made 
to  the  alternate  reading  of  the  Bible  as  a  morn- 
ing exercise,  the  reciting  of  Bible  passages  and 
the  singing  of  Gospel  hymns,  on  the  grounds 
that  this  constituted  sectarian  instruction. 
The  objection  was  upheld  by  the  court.  (Penn. 
Co.   Court   Repts.,   Vol.    XVI,  p.   186.) 

A  lengthy  decision  rendered  by  a  Wisconsin 
court  in  1890  in  the  case  of  State  ex  rel. 
Weiss  and  Others  v.  The  District  Board  of 
Edgerton,  is  probably  the  most  important,  or  at 
least  the  most  quoted,  of  these  decisions.  The 
court  found  as  follows:  — 

The  use  of  any  version  of  the  Bible  as  a  textbook  in 
public  schools  and  the  stated  reading  thereof  in  such 
schools  by  the  teachers,  without  restriction,  though  un- 
accompanied by  any  comment,  has  a  tendency  to  in- 
culcate sectarian  ideas  within  the  meaning  of  Sec.  3, 
ch.  152.  of  the  Laws  of  1SS.3,  and  is  sectarian  instruc- 
tion within  the  meaning  of  Sec.  3,  Art  X,  of  the  consti- 
tution. The  fact  that  the  children  of  the  petitioners 
are  at  liberty  to  withdraw  from  the  schoolroom  dur- 
ing the  reading  of  the  Bilile  does  not  remove  the 
ground  of  complaint.  The  stated  reading  of  the  Bible 
as  a  textbook  in  the  public  schools  may  be  worship,  and 
the  schoolhouse  thereby  become,  for  the  time  being,  a 
place  of  worship  within  the  meaning  of  .Sec.  IS,  Art.  I, 
of  the  constitution,  and  to  such  use  of  the  schoolhouse 
the  taxpayers,  who  are  compelled  to  aid  in  its  erection 
and  in  the  maintenance  of  the  school,  have  a  legal  right 
to  object.  Children  of  poor  parents  who  are  by  law 
practically  obliged  to  attend  the  public  schools  would. 


if  such  reading  were  permitted,  be  compelled  to  attend 
a  plai'e  of  worship  contrary  to  Sec.  IS,  .\rt.  I,  of  the  con- 
stitution. Such  reading  being  religious  instruction, 
the  money  drawn  from  the  state  treasury  for  the  sup- 
port of  a  school  in  which  the  Bible  is  so  read  is  for  the 
benefit  of  a  religious  seminarj'  within  the  meaning  f>f  said 
section.  In  considering  whether  such  reading  of  the  Hilile 
is  sectarian  instniction.  the  book  will  be  ri'garded  as  a 
whole,  because  the  whole  Bible,  without  exception,  has 
Ijeen  designated  as  a  textbook  for  use  in  the  Edgerton 
schools,  and  the  claim  of  the  school  board  is,  substantiall.v. 
that  the  whole  contents  thereof  may  he  so  read  therein 
if  the  teachers  so  elect.  This  being  so.  it  is  quite  im- 
material if  the  portions  thereof  set  out  in  the  return  as 
the  only  portions  thus  far  read  are  not  sectarian.  The 
term  sectarian  instruction  in  the  constitution  mani- 
festly refers  exclusively  to  instniction  in  religious  doc- 
trines, and  the  prohibition  is  only  aimed  at  such  instruc- 
tion as  is  sectarian;  that  is  to  say,  instruction  in  reli- 
gious doctrines  which  are  believed  by  some  religious  sects 
and  rejected  by  others.  Hence  to  teach  the  existence 
of  a  Supreme  Being  of  infinite  wisdom,  power,  and  good- 
ness, and  that  it  is  the  highest  duty  of  all  men  to  adore, 
olie.v,  and  love  him,  is  not  sectarian,  because  all  reli- 
gious sects  so  belie\-e  and  teach.  The  instruction  be- 
comes sectarian  when  it  goes  further  and  inculcates 
doctrines  or  dogma  concerning  which  the  religious  sects 
are  in  conflict.  This  we  understand  to  be  the  mean- 
ing of  the  constitutional  pro\nsion.  Furthermore,  there 
is  much  in  the  Bible  which  cannot  be  characterized  as 
sectarian.  There  can  be  no  \'alid  objection  to  the  use 
of  such  matter  in  the  secular  instruction  of  pupils. 
Much  of  it  has  great  historical  and  Utcrar>'  value  which 
ma.v  be  thus  utilized  without  violating  the  constitutional 
prohibition.  It  may  also  be  used  to  inculcate  good 
morals  —  that  is,  our  duties  to  each  other  —  which  may 
and  ought  to  be  inculcated  by  the  district  schools.  No 
more  complete  code  of  morals  exists  than  is  contained 
in  the  New  Testament  which  reaffirms  and  emphasizes 
the  moral  obligations  laid  down  in  the  ten  conmiand- 
ments.  Concerning  the  fundamental  principles  of  moral 
ethics,  the  religious  sects  do  not  disagree.  (7G  Wis. 
p.    177.) 

The  most  recent  decision,  tliat  of  the  supreme 
court  of  Illinois  in  June,  1910,  in  granting  a  writ 
of  mandamus  to  the  Roman  Catholic  petitioners 
of  Winchester,  Scott  County,  the  Court  said,  in 
granting  the  WTit  denied  by  the  lower  court,  — 

The  exercises  mentioned  in  the  petition  constitute 
worship.  They  are  the  ordinarj'  forms  of  worship  usu- 
ally practised  by  Protestant  Christian  dcnomination.s. 
Their  compulsory  performance  would  he  a  violation  of 
the  constitutional  guaranty  of  the  free  exercise  and 
enjoyment  of  religious  profession  and  worship.  One 
does  not  enjoy  the  free  exercise  of  religious  worship 
who  is  compelled  to  join  in  any  form  of  religious  wor- 
ship. If  these  exercises  of  reading  the  Bible,  joining  in 
pra,\*er,  and  the  singing  of  h>'nuis  were  performed  in  a 
church,  there  would  be  no  doubt  of  their  religious  char- 
acter, and  that  character  is  not  changed  by  the  place 
of  their  performance.  If  the  petitioners'  children  are 
required  to  join  in  the  acts  of  worship,  as  alleged  in  the 
petition,  they  are  deprived  of  the  freedotn  of  religious 
worship  guaranteed  to  them  by  the  Constitution.  The 
wrong  arises  not  out  of  the  particular  version  of  the 
Bible  or  form  of  prayer  used,  but  out  of  the  compulsion 
to  join  in  any  form  of  worship.  The  free  cnjo.\'ment  of 
religious  worship  includes  freedom  not  to  worship. 

In  general  then  we  may  say  that  the  Bible  is 
read  in  the  public  schools  of  most  of  our  states, 
but  usually  only  as  an  opening  or  closing 
exercise,  in  which  no  comment  may  be  made 
by  the  teacher;  that  whether  it  shall  be  read 
or  not  is  largely  determined  by  the  local  au- 
thorities; that  those  children  who  object  to 
attendance  on  such  reading  are  excused  there- 
from;  that  in  some  states  the  court  decisions 


376 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INSTRUCTION  BIBLIOGRAPHIES  OF   EDUCATION 


prohibit  its  use  in  the  schools,  and  that  in  those 
where  the  decisions  allow  it,  the  purely  formal 
manner  in  which  it  is  compelled  to  be  used  has 
detracted  from  its  use  a  considerable  portion, 
if  not  all,  of  the  religious  and  moral  value  once 
commonly  attributed  thereto,  and  that  the 
tendency  is  to  reduce  it  more  and  more  to  a 
purely  literary  level. 

F.  W.,  I.  L.  K.,  AND  S.  W.  B. 
See   Moral  Education;  Religious  Educa- 
tion'; Reformation,  Education  and  the. 

References  :  — 

BnissoN,  F.  E.     Dictionnaire  de  Pedagogie  et  d'lnslTuc- 

tion  Primairc.     Vol.  I,  Pt.  I.      (Paris,   1887.) 
Dix,  Fr.     Geachichle  der   Schulhibel.     In   Padagogische 

Zcil-  und  Streitjragcn,  Vol.  4.      (Gotha,  1892.) 
Ddruy,    a.     L' I nstniction    Publique    cl    la  Revolution. 

(Paris,  1882.) 
Greard.     La   Legislation   de   V I nstruclion  Primairc  en 

France.      (Paris,  1900.) 
Journal   of  Education.      (London.)      April,    1910.     The 

French   Schools  Debate. 
Mertz,  G.     Das  Schulwesen  der  deutschcn  Reformation. 

(Heidelberg,   1902.) 
POINTER,   F.   V.   N.     Luther  on  Education.     (Philadel- 
phia, 1S89.) 
Report  of  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  1888-1889; 

1890-1891 ;     1905. 
Sadler,    M.  E.     Moral    Instruction    and    Training    in 

iichools:    Essay  on  the  Biljle  in  Elementary  Schools, 

Vol.  I.      (London,   1908.) 
Schumann,    G.     Geschiehte   des  Religionsunlerrichts   in 

Kehr,    C.     Geschiehte   der    Methodik   des  deutschen 

Volksschulunierrichts,    Vol.    VI.      (Gotha,    1890.) 
SiCARD,  L'Abbe.      V kdueation  Morale  et  Civique  avant 

et  pendant  la  Revolution.      (Paris,  1884.) 
W.^TSON,    Foster.      The   English  Grammar   Sehooh   up 

to  1660.      (Cambridge,  1908.) 
The  literature  concerning  the  American  experience  is 
chiefly  controversial  in  character,  and  is  found  widely 
scattered   in  periodicals   (see  Poole's  Index).      Among 
these  may   he   noted   the  following  :  — 
Atlantic  Monthly,  Vol.  25,  p.  638.     H.  James. 
Forum,  Vol.  7,  pp.  52-66.     H.  E.  Manning. 
Fomm,  Vol.  7,  pp.  119-133.     G.  P.  Fisher. 
N.  E.  A.  Proceedings:    1858,  p.  10  ;   1869,  p.  19  ;    1872, 

p.  20  ;    1875,  p.  122  ;    1886,  p.  141  ;    1888,  p.  67  ; 

1889.  p.  143  ;    1891,  p.  168. 
The  additional  references  of  legal  character  are  given 
in  the  text  of  the  article. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL      INSTRUCTION.  — 

The  history  of  systematic  bibliographical 
instruction  begins  with  the  recommendation 
made  in  1870  by  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  that 
professorshijjs  of  books  should  be  established  in 
colleges.  The  first  institution  to  act  upon  this 
suggestion  was  the  University  of  Michigan, 
where  a  cour.se  in  "  historical,  material,  ancl 
intellectual  bibliography  "  was  finst  offered 
one  hour  a  week  during  the  second  semester  iu 
.  1SS2. 

Instruction  in  this  subject  has  been  more 
fully  develojiod  at  Cornell  University  than 
elsewhere.  Tliere  the  following  three  courses 
are  offered  (1900-1910). 

L  I nlrodudiun  to  the  Use  of  Book-'i.  —  A 
systematic  study  of  bibliographies,  indexes, 
dictionaries,  cyclopedias,  etc.;  including  the 
principles  of  classification,  cataloguing,  index- 
ing and  preparing  manuscript  for  printing. 
Lectures  and  exercises.     First  term.     One  hour. 


2.  Laboratory  Work.  —  Covering  the  same 
subjects  as  course  1,  intended  for  students 
wishing  more  of  the  practical  work.  Open 
to  students  who  have  had  course  L  Second 
term.     One  hour. 

3.  General  Bibliography.  —  The  materials  and 
forms  of  books  in  ancient  times;  books  in 
the  Middle  Ages;  block  books,  early  printed 
books,  illustrated  by  examples  of  manuscripts 
and  incunabula;  book  illustration,  book 
bindings;  form  notation;  systems  of  classifi- 
cation and  cataloguing;  general  bibliographical 
aids.     Lectures.     Second  term.     One  hour. 

The  object  of  this  instruction  is  to  give 
(1)  elementary  instruction  regarding  the  use 
of  books,  —  reading,  reference  books,  library 
methods;  (2)  advanced  instruction  regarding 
the  history  of  books  and  libraries.  Professional 
and  technical  instruction  in  this  subject  relates 
specifically  to  hbrary  science  (q.v.),  printing,  etc. 

The  need  of  instruction  regarding  the  use  of 
books  in  secondary  schools,  especially  for  those 
pupils  who  will  not  enter  college,  has  been 
recognized  in  several  urban  schools.  The 
course  given  in  the  Detroit  Central  High 
School  since  1903  may  be  regarded  as  typical. 
This  provides  for  S  40-minute  lessons  during 
the  4  years'  course  upon  the  following  subjects: 
(1)  Simple  indexes.  (2)  More  complex  indexes. 
(3)  Dictionaries  and  simple  handbooks  of  refer- 
ence. (4)  Encyclopedias,  general  and  special, 
together  with  a  few  valuable  collections  of 
encyclopedic  arrangement.  (5)  Magazine  in- 
dexes. (6)  Annuals  and  a  few  special  indexes. 
(7)  A  very  few  reference  books  published  by  the 
United  States  Government.  (8)  A  review  of 
the  whole  subject,  with  carefully  selected 
reference  questions  for  practice.  W.  D.  J. 

References :  — 

Ames,  Anne  S.,and  Josephine  A.  Rathbone.  Instruc- 
tion in  the  use  of  reference  books  and  libraries,  in 
High  Schools.  Library  Journal,  Vol.  23;  C  86-91, 
Aug.,   1898. 

Davis,  R.  C.  Teaching  bibliograjihy  in  colleges.  Li- 
brary Journal,   11;     2S'.l-2ii4,   Aug. -Sept.,    1886. 

Hopkins,  Florence  M.  Methods  of  in.struction  in 
the  use  of  High  School  Libraries.  Proc.  N. 
E.  A.,  1905,  pp.  858-864.  The  place  of  the 
library  in  High  School  education.  Library  Journal, 
35  ;  55-60,  Feb.,   1910. 

KoopMAN,  H.  L.  College  instruction  in  bibliography. 
Library  Journal,  22  ;    C  165-166. 

BIBLIOGRAPHIES    OF    EDUCATION.  — 

In  addition  to  the  references  cited  at  the  end 
of  each  article  of  this  cyclopedia  on  which  there 
is  literature  of  importance,  a  few  general  bib- 
liographies of  education  should  be  mentioned. 
A  few  of  these  are  of  first  importance,  and  are 
very  useful  to  the  student.  Many  of  the  books 
and  articles  cited  at  the  end  of  the  general  arti- 
cles also  contain  special  bibliographies  of  impor- 
tance. Reference  to  such  special  bibliographies 
is  given  whenever  one  exists.  For  additional 
references,  some  of  the  following  general 
bibliographies,  and  in  particular  the  annual 
bibliographies,  will  prove  very  useful. 


377 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES  OF  EDUCATION 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES  OF   EDUCATION 


I.  General  Hidliographies  of  Education  : 

1.  Hall,    G.    Stanley.       Bibliographi/  of  Education, 

309  pp.  (Boston,  1886.)  A  elas.sified  list  of 
books  uud  articles,  in  English,  German,  and 
French. 

2.  Monroe,    Will   S.       Bibliography  of    Education, 

202  pp.  (New  York,  1897.)  International 
Educational  Series.  No.  42.  A  list  of  3200 
books  and  pamphlets  in  the  EnRlish  language 
only,  classified  under  about  125  topics  with 
author  and  subject  index. 

3.  Lawrence,  Isabel.       Classified  Reading,  405  pp. 

(St.  Cloud,  Minn.,  1898.)  Divided  into  SQven 
sections,  as  foUow.s  :  — 

A.  Pedagogy  and  Psychology,  36  pp. 

B.  ChUd  Study,  40  pp. 

C.  Geography,  88  pp. 

D.  History,  132  pp. 

E.  English.  50  pp. 

F.  Nature  Study,  55  pp. 

G.  Miscellany. 

Very  full  and  useful  on  some  subjects  ;  very  incom- 
plete on  others.  (Reviewed  at  length  in  School 
Review,  Oct.,  1899,  p.  478.) 

4.  BUIS.SON,     F.     Dictionnaire    de    pidagogie    el    d' 

instruction  primaire,  Pt.  I,  t.  1,  pp.  194-251. 
(Paris,  1886-1887.)  List  of  French  educational 
works,  1491-1878. 

5.  Arndt,     Otto.     Verzeichnis     der     padagogischen 

Zeitschriften,  Jahrbilcher,  und  Lehrcrkalender 
Deutschlands.      (Berlin,  1893.) 

6.  Loos.  Joseph.     Encyklopadischcs    Handbuch    der 

Erziehungskunde.    2  vols.     (Leipzig,  1906-1908.) 
Numerous  citations  to  books  follow  each  article. 

7.  Rein.  W.      Encyclop&disches  Handbuch  der  Pdda- 

gogik,  2d  Ed..  10  vols.    (Langensalza,  1903-1909.) 
Numerous  citations  to  German  literature  at  the 
close  of  each  article. 

II.  Special  Catalogues  op  Important  Educational 

Libraries: — • 

1.  Books  on  Education  in  the  Libraries  of  Columbia 

Uniivrsily.     435    pp.      (New    York,    1901.) 
A  classified  list  of  about  13,000  titles,  and  a  very 
useful  bibliography. 

2.  MacDowell.    Lillian   Ione.     Catalogue   of  the 

Pedagogical  Library  of  the  Board  of  Education 
of  Fhiladrlphia.  525  pp.  (Philadelphia,  1907.) 
An  analytical  dictionary  catalogue  of  a  library 
of  over  10,000  volumes  of  almost  entirely 
English  works. 

3.  MusEE    Pedagogique.     Catalogue    des    ouvrages 

et  documents.    2  vols.,  1886  ;  supplement,  1889. 
(Paris.) 

4.  Catalogue  de  la  bibliolhtque  centrale  du  minislire 

de  I'inli'rieur  et  de  rinstruclion  publigue,    t.   2, 
Enstigncmcnt,   1105   pp.  4to.      (Brussels,  1905.) 
A  list  of    6742   titles,   closely  classified,   with  a 
good  general  index. 

5.  CoMENius  Stiftung.     Katalog  der  padagogischen 

Centralbibliolhek.     List  of  60,000  titles,  mostly 
(5erman.      (Leipzig,  1S92.) 

6.  HuNziKER,  O.     Katalog  der  Bibliothek  des  Pesta- 

lozzianums  zu  Zurich.      (Zurich,   1894.) 

III.  Annual  Bibliographies  of  Educational  Litera- 

ture :  — 
1.  Das   gcsamte    Erziehungs-   und    Unterrichtswesen 
in  den  Ldndern  deutscher  Zunge.      (Berlin.) 
A  monumental  work  of  which  only  4  vols,  were 

issued. 
Everything  issued   in  German  included  ;    notes 
very  full. 

Lssued  in  1896.      113  +  1242  pp. 
Issued  in  1900.       47  +  1100  pp. 
Issued  in  1902.        35  +    799  pp. 
Issued  in  1903.       38  -I-    823  pp. 
Year  Book  and  Directory. 
Since    1900    this    has    become    the    mo.st    useful 
British  reference  book  on  educational  topics. 
The  bibliography  of  "  Books  of  the  Year  "  is 
a  useful  list. 
3.  Wyer,  J.    I.     Recent   Educational   Bibliography. 
An  annual  list  of  published  bibliographies,  1897- 
1907.     Published  as  follows  :  — 


Vol. 

I,       for  I.S96. 

Vol. 

II.    for  1S97. 

Vol. 

Ill,  for  1898. 

Vol. 

IV,  for  1899. 

2 

Schoolmasters 

For  Yeah 

Published  in 

Pages 

1897 

School  Review,  Oct. 

1898  .... 

4 

1898 

School  Review,  Oct. 

1899  .... 

5 

1899 

School  Review,  Oct. 

1900  .... 

10 

1900 

School  Review,  Oct. 

1901   .... 

9 

1901 

School  Review,  Oct. 

1902  .... 

10 

1902 

School  Review,  Oct. 

1903  .... 

8 

1903 

School  Re\'icw.  Oct. 

1904  .... 

9 

1904 

School  Re\'iew,  Oct. 

1905  .... 

6 

1905 

School  Review.  Oct. 

.  1900  .... 

7 

1906 

iSchool  Review,  Oct. 

1907  .... 

7 

1907 

Bull.  No.  3,    190.S, 

J.S.    Bureau   of 

Education     .     . 

2 

To  be  published  annually  hereafter  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  as  a  part  of  the  Bibliography 
of  Education  for  each  year.  Valuable  lists,  and  should 
be  consulted.  They  form  a  supplement  to  the  list  of 
300  bibliographies  of  educational  topics  in  the  report  of 
the  U.  S.  C<immissioner  of  Education,  1893-1894,  Vol.  2, 
pp.  1701-1722. 

4.  Wyer,  J.  I.,  assisted  by  Miss  I.  E.  Lord  the 
first  6  years  ;  by  Miss  M.  E.  Leonard  the 
seventh  year;  Miss  M.  G.  Brown  the  eighth 
year;  and  Miss  M.  L.  Phelps  the  ninth  year. 
Annual  Bibliography  of  Education,  for  each 
year  1899-1907.  To  be  continued  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  begin- 
ning with  1908.  The  most  valuable  annual 
list  published,  and  should  be  consulted  in  all 
cases.  Arranged  and  classified  according  to 
the  Dewey  decimal  system,  with  a  good  index. 
Published  as  follows  :  — 


For 
Year 

Published  m 

Size 

Titles 

1899 

Edue.  Review,  April,  1900     . 

69  pp. 

618 

1900 

Educ.  Review,  April,  1901      . 

40  pp. 

481 

1901 

Educ.  Review,  June,   1902      . 

25  pp. 

319 

1902 

Educ.  Re\-icw,  June,    1903      . 

42  pp. 

3()7 

1903 

Educ.  Ri'vicw,  June,    1904      . 

52  pp. 

423 

1904 

Educ.  Review,  June,    1905      . 

62  pp. 

406 

1905 

Educ.  Review,  Sept.  and  Oct., 

1906    ...     

89  pp. 

665 

1906 

Educ.  Review,  June,  1907      . 

46  pp. 

417 

1907 

Bulletin    No.    3,    1908,    U.S. 

Bu.  Educ 

65  pp. 

459 

1908 

Bulletin    No.    9,    1909.    U.S. 

Bu.  Educ 

134  pp. 

1209 

The  scope  of  these  annual  bibliographies  may  be 
shown  by  reference  to  the  classification  given  in  the 
article  on  Library  Classification   (q.v.). 

IV.  Special  Indexes  to  Important  Publications  :  — 

1.  Index  to  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Educa- 

tion. Published  bv  the  Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington.      (1892.) 

2.  Index  to  the  Proceedings  of  the  National  Educa- 

tional Association,  1S57'1906.  211pp.  (Win- 
ona, Minn..  1907.)  An  index  by  authors,  titles, 
and  sulijects.      Supersedes  the  Index  of  1897. 

3.  Nelson,    C.    A.      Analytical    Index   to    Volumes 

1-25  of  the  Educational  Review,  218  pp.     (New 
York,  1904.) 
A  valuable  subject  and  author  index. 

4.  Index  to  the  Reports  of  the  V.  S.  Commissioner  of 

Education,  1867-1907,  103  pp.  (Washington. 
1909.)  Bulletion  No.  7,  1909,  of  the  Bureau 
of  Education. 

5.  PooLE,   W.    F.,   and  Fletcher,  W.  I.     Annual 

Literary  Index.  Annual  since  1892.  Years 
before  1892  collected  in  the  Index  to  Periodi- 
cal Literature,  by  the  same  editors.  (Inde_x 
to  all  current  magazine  articles  since  1907. 
the  Annual  Library  Index  by  W.  I.  Fletcher.) 


378 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES   OF   EDUCATION 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES   OF   EDUCATION 


V.  A  Few  Special  Bibliographies  of  Importance  :  — 
(a)   Child  Study. 

1.  Wilson,     L.     N.     Antiual    Bibliography    of 
Child  Study. 
Very  full  and  complete  lists,  published  in  the 
Pedagogical  Seminary  each  year,  beginning 
with  1898,  as  follows  :  — 


Fob  Yeab 

Number  Published  in 

Titles 

1897 

April 

1898; 

V, 

pp.  541-589 

c.  600 

1898 

Sept. 

1899; 

VI, 

pp.  386-410 

333 

1899 

Dec, 

1900; 

VII, 

pp.  526-556 

441 

1900 

Dec, 

1901  ; 

VIII, 

pp.  515-537 

331 

1901 

Dec, 

1902; 

IX, 

pp.  521-542 

307 

1902 

Dec, 

1903  ; 

X, 

pp.  514-536 

344 

1903 

July, 

1904; 

XI, 

pp.     83-118 

486 

1904 

Sept. 

1905; 

XII, 

pp.  304-334 

429 

1905 

Sept. 

1906  ; 

XIII 

pp.  374-397 

305 

1906 

Sept. 

1907  ; 

XIV, 

pp.  329-351 

362 

1907 

Sept. 

1908; 

XV, 

pp.  400-429 

442 

2.  Rhoades,    Lillian    Ione.     Bibliography    of 

Child  Study.  128  pp.      (Philadelphia.  1901.) 
A  list  of  1 100  titles  in  English.       Arrangement 
very    good.      Selections    made    ^ath    care. 
A  very  useful   list. 

3.  Smith,  T.  L.     Bibliography  of  Articles  relat- 

ing to  the  Study  of  Childhood  mid  Adolescence 
which  have  been  published  i?}  the  Pedagogical 
Seminary  and  the  Anicricnn  Journal  of 
Psychology.  In  the  Pedagogical  Seminary 
for  Sept.,   1907,  Vol.  XIV,  203  titles. 

(b)  School  Hygiene. 

1.  BuRNHAM,    W.    H.     Bibliography   of   School 

Hygiene;  in  Proceedings  of  the  N.  E.  A. 
1898,  pp.  505-523.  (436  titles,  mostly 
foreign.) 

2.  Wehmer,     R.      Emyklopddisches    Handbuch 

der  Schulhygiene.      (Leipzig,   1904.) 

(c)  History  of  Education. 

1.  Cubberley,  Ellwood  p.  Syllabus  of  Lec- 
tures on  the  History  of  Education,  with 
Annotated  Bibliographies.  (2d  ed..  New 
York,  1904.) 
A  classified  and  annotated  bibliography  of 
the  history  of  education.  The  second  edi- 
tion contains  suggestions  as  to  reading  and 
the  use  of  the  books.  The  most  complete 
bibliography  of  the  history  of  education  in 
English. 

(d)  Industrial  Education. 

Richards,  C.  R.  Selected  Bibliography  on 
Industrial  Education.  Bull.  No.  2  of  the 
National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Indus- 
trial  Education.     32  pp.     (New  York,  1907.) 

(e)  State  School  Systems. 

Elliott,  Edward  C.     Slate  School  Systems. 

Vol.  I.  for  1904-1906,  Bull.  No.  3,  1906,  Bureau 
of  Educ. 

Vol.  II.  for  1906-1908,  Bull.  No.  7,  1908,  Bureau 
of  Efluc 

A  biennial  digest  of  all  legislation  and  judicial 
decisions    of    importance    ^ith    reference    to 
state    school    administration.      Published    by 
the    Bureau   of   Education,    Washington. 
(J)   Psychology. 

Psychological   Review,    Annual  Index  to   Current 
Litcrnture.      Published    annually.     Indexes  of 
all    current     psychological     Uterature.      (New 
York.) 
(g)   Secondary  Education. 

Lexis,  W.  Reform  des  Hoheren  Schulwesens 
in  Preussen.  (Halle,  1902.)  Literaturver- 
zeichniss,  pp.  424-436. 

Locke,  George  H.  A  Bibliography  of  Second- 
ary education  (a  classified  index  of  the 
School  Review,  Vols.  1-9).     (Chicago,  1903.) 


(Ji)  Philosophy  and  Psychology. 

Baldwin's  Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psy- 
chology, Vol.  Ill,  Pts.  1  and  2.  Contains  a 
very  complete  bibliographical  list  of  many  edu- 
cational topics,  and  especially  of  those  relat- 
ing to  educational  philosophers.  (New  York, 
1905.) 
(i)  Professional  Lists. 

The  Teachers'  Professional  Library.  A  classified 
list  of  one  hundred  titles.  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education,  Washington.  D.C.  Bull.  No.  8 
for  1909.  A  serviceable  selected  list  for 
teachers  who  have  not  access  to  large  libraries, 
(y)   Phj'sical   Education   and   Physical   Training. 

McCuRDY,  J.  H.      A    Bibliography    of    Physical 
Training,    a    verv    full    classified    list.      (New 
York,  1005.) 
Euler,      C.      Encyklopddisches     Handbuch     des 
gesamten  Turnwesens.      (Vienna,  1896.) 

VI.  Annual  Trade  Bibliogr.^phies  and  Publishers' 
Lists  Containing,  Cl.issified  or  Unclassified,  all 
Current  Books  on  Education. 

A.  American. 

(1)  Ajinual     American     Catalogue:      and     The 

Publishers'  Weekly.  Contains  annota- 
tions of  most  books  from  the  various  pub- 
lishers' announcements.  (Since  1886.) 
(New   York.) 

(2)  P)iblishers'     Weekly,    consisting    both    of    a 

weekly  edition  and  an  annual  summary. 
A  reference  list  of  all  new  publications 
under  author,  title,  and  subject.  (Since 
1872.)      (New    York.) 

(3)  The  Cumulative  Book  Index.     Both  annual 

and  monthly  issues.  Author,  title,  and 
subject  catalogue  in  one  alphabet.  (Since 
1900.)      (Wilson,    Minn.) 

(4)  Catalogue  of  Copyright  Entries,      U.  S.  Copy- 

right Office,  Wa.shington,  D.C.  Issues 
weekly  and  quarterly.  The  most  com- 
plete record  of  current  American  publica- 
tions.     (Since    1S91.) 

(5)  Publishers'   Trade  List  Annual.      The  pub- 

lishers' weekly.  This  gives  a  list  of  all 
books  carried  on  the  current  trade  lists 
as  well  as  the  latest  publications.  Ar- 
ranged by  publishers'  catalogue.  (Since 
1873.)  There  is  issued  each  summer  a 
special  educational  number. 

(6)  The   Readers'  Guide.      Periodical    literature. 

A  monthly  and  annual  index  to  all  peri- 
odical literature.  Educational  articles 
classified  and  also  listed  bv  title.  (Since 
1900.)      (Wilson,   Minn.) 

(7)  The  Book  Rcuicw  Dige.'it.     Monthly.     Con- 

tains brief  annotations  or  evaluations  of 
leading  current  book  publications.  (Since 
1904.) 

B.  English. 

(1)  English   Catalogue   of  Books.     Author,  title, 

and  subject  index  under  one  alphabet. 
(Since   1837.)      (Low,  London.) 

(2)  The  Bookseller.     Monthly.     Contains  a  list 

of  the  publications  each  month.  (.Since 
185S.)      (Whitaker,  London.) 

(3)  Publishers'    Circular    and    Booksellers'    Rec- 

ord of  British  ajid  Foreign  Literature. 
Contains  index  of  subject,  author,  and 
title  under  one  alphabet.  (Since  1837.) 
(Low,  London.) 

C.  French. 

(1)  LoRENZ,    O.    H.     Catalogue    general    de    la 

lihrairie  frangaisc.  Author  and  ,Subject 
index  of  French  publications  from  1840  to 
1908.  (Volumes  issued  every  five  or  ten 
years.) 

(2)  Bibliograph  ie  franQaise. 

Continuation  of  above.  Gives  author,  subject, 
and  title  classification  for  five-vear  peri- 
ods.    (1908.) 

(3)  Catalogue   niensuel  de  la    lihrairie  franqaise. 

The  annual  volume  of  the  following. 


379 


BIDDLE  UNIVERSITY 


BILLINGSLEY 


(4)  Monthly.     Catalogue  mensuel  de  la  librairie 

fraiifaise.  A  classified  list  of  nioutlily 
publications  by  authors,  titles,  and  sub- 
jects. 

(5)  Biblwgraphie   dc   la   France. 
The  weekly  journal  of  the  French  publica- 
tions.     From    1811    to    11)0^. 

(6)  Memorial  de  la  librairie  franfaisc. 
The  complement  of  the  above  annual. 

(7)  Hibllvyraiiliie  fran^aise. 
Tile  publishers'  eataloyue,  composed  of  trade 

lists  of  nearly  200  publications. 

D.  Gerniau. 

(1)  Heinsius,   Wilhelm.      Allgemeines  Bilclor- 

lexicon.  An  alphabetic  author  catalogue 
from  1700  to  1S'J2. 

(2)  K.^Y.SER,       Chkistun       Gottlob.        V'oll- 

stt'i  n(ti(jt's  Biicher'lexicon. 
.Similar  to  above,  covering  period  from  1750 
to  date.     Volumes  every  four  years. 

(3)  HiNKioHS,   J.  C.     Fiinfjahrs-katalog  der  im 

deutschen  Buchhandcl  erschienenen  Bilcher, 
Zeilsehriflen,  Lamlkarlen,  etc.  .Similar 
to  above,  covering  period  from  1851  to 
1905. 

(1)  Halhjahrs-katalog  der  im  deutschen  Biich- 

hamlrl  erschienenen  Bilcher,  Zeilsehriflen, 
Landkarlen,   etc. 

The  semi-annual  edition  of  the  above. 
Gives  ample  author  and  title  lists  and  an 
index  by  subject. 

(5)    WOchentliches    Verzeichnis    der   erschienenen 
urul  der  vorhereiteten  Ncuigkeiten  des  deut- 
schen Buchhandels. 
The  weekly  edition  of  the  above. 

E.  Belgian. 

(1)  Bibliographic     nationale,     dictionnaire     des 

ecrioains  beiges,  1830-1880.  (Brussels, 
1886.) 

(2)  Revue    bibliographique    beige.     A     monthly 

record,  with  author  index  to  each  yearly 
volume.     Since   1S89.     (Brussels.) 

F.  Danish. 
(1)   Dansk   hogfortegnelse.     From    1841  to    1900. 

Continued  by  lii-monthly  numbers  with 
an  annual  alphabetic  index. 

G.  Dutch. 
(1)   Brinkmun's     Catalogue    der    boeken.     From 

IS.jO  to  1891.    Continued  yearly  by  Brink- 
man's      Alphabclischc     lijst     va?i     boeken, 
landkaartcn,  and  by  the  monthly  Neder- 
landsche  bibliographic. 
H.  Italian. 

(1)   Bollillino      delta      pubblicazioni  italianc.     A 
classified     monthly    record    with    author 
index    published    by    the   Biblioteca    nazi- 
onale  centrale  di  Firenze. 
I.  Norwegian. 

(1)   .Vorsk   bogfortegnelse.     From    1814   to    1900. 
Continued     by   the   Norsk    bogfortegnelse 
annual^'. 
J.  Spanish. 

(1)  Bibliograjta  eapafiola.     Since  1900.     Bohlln 
de    la     libreria.     Since     1873.     Monthly 
records. 
K.  Swedish. 

(1)   Scensk     l,„kkatalog.     From     1866    to    1900. 

(Sto(klii>lni,        Svenska        bokforliiggare- 

foreningen.)     Continued     yearly     by    the 

Arskahdog  for  svenska  bokhandeln. 

VII.    Ge.veral     Biblioohaphical    Guide.     Kroeger, 

Alice    B.     Guirte  to    the  Study  and    Use    of   Reference 

Books.     (Boston,  1908.) 

See  En' CYCLOPEDIA ;  Official  St.\te  Publica- 
tions ON  Education;  Periodicals,  Educa- 
tional. 

BIDDLE  UNIVERSITY,  CHARLOTTE, 
N.C.  —  An  institution  for  the  education  of 
negroes,  founded  in  1S(J7.  Theological,  colle- 
giate, industrial,  and  preparatory  departments 

380 


are  maintained.  Approximately  6  or  7  points 
of  higii  scliool  work  are  re(|uircd  for  entrance 
into  the  college,  which  offers  classical  and 
scientific  courses  leading  to  the  degree  of  B.A. 
and  B.S.  Those  who  complete  the  2  years' 
preparatory  course  may  teach  in  the  jjublic 
schools  of  the  state.  AH  students  in  the  ])ie- 
paratory  school  must  take  work  in  the  industrial 
department,  where  a  choice  is  i)ermittcd. 
Carpentry,  i)rinting,  shocmaking,  and  tailoring 
are  among  the  chief  kinds  of  labor  provided. 
There  are  13  professors  on  the  faculty. 

BILLINGS  POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE, 
BILLINGS,  MONT. —  Opened  in  Sept.,  19(19, 
to  fit  the  boys  and  girls  for  the  jjractical 
duties  of  vocational  life  in  the  state;  indu.strial 
training  is  to  be  the  leading  feature  of  the 
institute.  Science  and  liberal  arts,  engineer- 
ing, commerce,  industrial  arts,  normal,  academic, 
and  music  courses  are  offered.  Candidates 
for  admission  to  the  first  two  of  these  covu'scs 
must  present  a  diploma  from  an  accredited 
high  school  or  its  equivalent.  Only  2  years  of 
regular  college  work  and  engineering  will  be  given 
for  the  present.  Lewis  T.  Eaton,  M.S.,  is  the 
educational  director  and  president  of  the  faculty. 

BILLINGSLEY,    SIR    HENRY. —  At    one 

time  Lord  Mayor  of  London.  He  entered  as 
a  scholar  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1.5,51,  and  is  said  to  have  studied  also  at  Oxford. 
Billingsley  had  been  an  apprentice  and  after- 
wards merchant  in  London,  was  Sheriff  in 
1584,  and  in  1596  Lord  Mayor,  and  in  1604 
Meml)er  of  Parliament  for  London.  In  1570  he 
published  the  first  tran.slation  into  English  of 
Euclid's  ElcmcnU.  John  Dee,  the  famous  astrol- 
ogist  and  mathematician  of  Queen  Elizabeth's 
reign,  contributed  notes  and  a  learned  preface  on 
mathematics.  It  has  been  suggested  that  John 
Dee  wrote  the  translation,  but  there  does  not 
seem  to  be  sufficient  ground  to  doubt  that 
Billingsley  is  the  tran.slator,  as  he  claims  to  be, 
and  has  been  traditionally  esteemed.  The 
title-page  is  as  follows:  The  Elements  of  Gcome- 
trie  of  the  mod  aiincicnl  Phihmrphcr  EucUde  of 
Megara,  Faithfully  {now  first)  translated  into 
the  Englishc  tonng,  by  H.  Billingsley,  Citizen 
of  London.  Whereunlo  are  annexed  certaine 
Schoiies,  Annotations,  and  Inventions  of  the 
bc-ft  Mathcmatieians,  both  of  lime  past,  a7id  in 
this  our  age,  with  a  very  fruitful  Prnefaee  made 
by  M.  J.  Dee,  specifying  the  chitf  Mathematicall 
Sciences,  what  they  are,  and  whereunto  commo- 
dious ;  where  also  are  disclosed  cerlaine  new 
Secrets  Mathematicall  and  Mechanicall,  vntill 
these  our  daies,  greatly  missed.  Imprinted  at 
London  by  John  Daye.  (Preface  dated  Feb. 
9,  1570.)  The  book  was  a  translation  from 
the  Oreek,  not  merely  a  translation  of  the  cur- 
rent Latin  text  of  Campanus  which  was  taken 
from  the  Arabic  version.  F.  W. 

Reference :  — 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 


BILLION 


BINOCULAR  VISION 


BILLION.  —  A  number  name  used  with 
two  meanings,  (1)  to  indicate  a  thousand 
million  (or  10'),  and  (2)  to  indicate  a  million 
million  (or  10'-).  The  former  is  the  usage  in 
the  United  States  and  France,  the  latter  in  Eng- 
land and  on  most  of  the  continent  of  Europe. 
The  word  is  found  in  Chuquet's  Tripariij  (1484) 
with  the  second  meaning  (10'^):  "On  qui 
veult  le  premier  point  peult  signiffier  million. 
Le  second  point  byllion."  Trenchant,  who 
wrote  at  Lyons  in  1566,  used  the  word  with 
the  first  meaning  (10').  It  was  not  a  common 
word  in  Italy  in  the  sixteenth  century,  but 
Cataldi  (1602)  uses  it  for  10°,  in  the  form  of 
bilioni,  with  didUoni  as  a  synonym.  The 
Dutch  arithmeticians  adopted  the  meaning  of 
10'-  at  an  early  date,  Vander  Schuere  (1600) 
gi\nng  the  word  in  the  form  of  bimillioen,  but  in 
a  later  edition  giving  himillion  and  billion. 
The  word  does  not  seem  to  have  been  used  by 
German  writers  before  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  The  American  usage  came 
from  the  influx  of  French  textbooks  early  in 
the  nineteenth  century.  The  double  meaning 
offers  few  practical  difficulties,  because  the  word 
is  rarely  used  in  speaking  or  writing. 

D.  E.  S. 

BINAURAL  HEARING. —  The  two  ears 
are  used  in  the  recognition  of  sounds  as  a  single 
complex  organ.  Each  ear  of  a  normal  indi- 
vidual sends  to  the  central  nervous  system  a 
series  of  sound  sensations,  whenever  a  sound  is 
produced  in  the  presence  of  such  an  individual. 
When  these  streams  of  sound  sensations  reach 
the  central  organs,  they  do  not  flow  together 
into  a  single  stream  of  sensory  excitation,  but 
are  utilized  in  some  complex  way  to  give  rise 
to  a  single  perceptual  process.  That  the  two 
streams  of  sensory  excitation  do  not  flow  to- 
gether is  shown  by  the  fact  that  important 
phases  of  our  auditory  perception  depend  upon 
the  slight  differences  that  may  exist  between 
the  intensities  and  qualities  of  the  two  streams 
of  sensor}'  excitation.  Thus  when  a  sound  is 
produced  on  the  right  side  of  an  individual  the 
right  ear  receives  a  somewhat  more  intense 
sensory  excitation,  and  the  individual  tends  to 
turn  his  ej^es  in  the  direction  of  this  more  intense 
stimulus.  The  result  is  that  the  sound  is 
perceived  as  lying  on  the  right  side,  although 
the  two  streams  of  sensations  are  so  combined 
that  only  one  sound  is  heard.  The  importance 
of  these  differences  between  the  impressions 
received  by  the  two  ears  is  clearly  recognized 
when  a  sound  is  produced  in  the  median  plane 
of  the  body.  A  sound  in  this  plane,  especially 
if  it  is  of  neutral  quality,  cannot  be  located 
with  accuracy,  sometimes  a  position  directly 
in  front  of  the  face  being  confused  with  a  posi- 
tion immediately  behind  the  head.  Such  con- 
fu.sions  of  sounds  from  in  front  and  behind  are 
less  likely  to  arise  when  the  sound  has  complex 
tonal  quality.  The  quality  of  a  sound  is 
somewhat  different  according  as  it  enters  the 

381 


ear  from  in  front  or  from  behind.  This  is  due 
to  the  form  of  the  external  ear  or  pinna  which 
cUrects  the  sound  into  the  ear.  The  fact  that 
such  slight  differences  in  quahty  affect  the  lo- 
calization of  sounds  indicates  the  complexity  of 
the  perceptual  process.  In  fact  the  distinc- 
tion and  relation  between  sensations  and  per- 
ceptions is  nowhere  better  illustrated  than  in 
the  complex  relation  between  the  two  ears. 

C.  H.  J. 
See    Sensation  ;    Perception  ;    Binocular 
Vision  ;  Space  ;  and  Fusion. 

References:  — 

Pierce.  A.  H,  Studies  in  Auditory  and  Visual  Space- 
Perceplion.     (New  York,  1901.) 

Starch.  Psychological  Review,  Monograph  Supple- 
ment No.  29. 

BINGHAM,  CALEB  (1757-1817).  —  The  au- 
thor of  several  of  the  earliest  American  school- 
books,  was  born  at  Salisbury,  Conn.,  Apr.  15, 
1757,  and  was  graduated  from  Dartmouth 
College  in  1782.  For  2  years  he  was  master 
of  Moor's  Indian  Charity  School  at  Dart- 
mouth, which  was  under  the  same  manage- 
ment as  the  college.  In  17S4  he  opened  a 
school  for  girls  in  Boston,  and  4  years  later  took 
charge  of  one  of  the  reading  schools  in  that 
city.  He  was  the  author  of  many  of  the 
earliest  American  textbooks,  including  Young 
Ladies'  Accidence  (a  grammar),  American 
Preceptor  and  Columbian  Orator  (a  reader). 
Child's  Companion  (a  speller),  a  set  of  copy 
slips  for  teaching  penmanship,  and  Juvenile 
Letters,  a  collection  of  familiar  epistles  between 
children,  calculated  to  introduce  them  to  the 
forms  of  letter  writing  and  English  composition. 
He  was  one  of  the  original  promoters  of  a  public 
library  in  Boston.  He  died  at  Boston  Apr.  6, 
1817.  W.  S.  M. 

BINOCULAR  VISION. —  The  images  re- 
ceived in  the  two  eyes  from  a  solid  object  differ 
slightly  from  each  other.  The  image  in  the 
right  eye  is  somewhat  more  complete  for  the 
right  side  of  the  object,  while  the  image  in  the 
left  eye  is  somewhat  more  complete  for  the  left 
side  of  the  object.  The  slight  differences 
between  the  two  images  do  not  under  ordinary 
circumstances  lead  up  to  a  double  perception  of 
the  objects.  There  are  cases  where  the  dif- 
ferences in  form  of  the  two  images  and  the 
differences  in  the  positions  which  they  occupy 
on  the  two  retinas  may  become  so  unusual 
that  the  observer  will  be  confused  by  the  double 
images.  (See  Double  I.mages.)  If  the  dif- 
ferences between  the  two  images  are  of  the 
usual  tj'pe,  they  are  fused  in  perception  in  a 
single,  undivided  recognition  of  a  solid  object. 
Sherrington  (I titegrative  Activity  of  the  Central 
Nervous  System)  has  shown  experimentally 
that  the  two  streams  of  retinal  excitations  do 
not  flow  together  in  the  central  nervous  system. 
The  process  of  fusing  these  two  streams  of 
sensory  excitations  is  a  complex  one  wherein 


BINOMIAL  THEOREM 


BIOGRAPHY 


the  two  streams  each  retain  their  independence 
and  make  a  definite  contribution  to  the  com- 
plex perceptuiil  process.  (See  Fusion;  Percep- 
tion.) The  problem  of  the  recognition  of 
solidity  through  tlic  fus  on  of  two  retinal  images 
wa.s  early  recognized  as  a  problem  of  large 
psychological  importance.  13crkeley,  in  his 
Est:(iy  Toward  a  Xeiv  Theory  of  Vision,  pub- 
lished in  1709,  pointed  out  the  difficulty  of 
giving  any  simple  explanation  of  perception  of 
solidity  and  depth.  Since  the  retinal  image  is 
on  a  surface,  all  three  dimensional  character- 
istics of  this  image  must  be  regarded  as  reduced 
if  not  entirely  eliminated,  llow  a  solid  object 
can  be  recognized  by  a  human  being  through 
a  flat  retinal  image  was  the  problem  which 
Berkeley  discussed.  He  answered  this  ques- 
tion by  calling  attention  to  the  sensations  of 
movement  that  are  always  present  in  visual 
perception.  These  sensations  of  movement  do 
not,  however,  comjiletely  explain  the  perception 
of  solidity,  and  the  whole  problem  has  been  one 
of  the  most  productive  subjects  of  experimental 
study. 

About  a  century  after  Berkeley,  Wheat- 
stone,  an  English  physici.st,  described  the 
stereoscope.  The  instrument  which  he  de- 
scribed was  modified  by  later  students  of  the 
problem  of  binocular  vision,  and  is  now  known 
as  a  popular  toy  and  as  a  means  of  instruction. 
The  stereoscope  is  an  instrument  which  throws 
into  each  eye  the  special  image  which  would 
naturally  come  into  that  eye,  if  the  observer 
were  looking  at  a  solid  object.  When  these 
two  images  are  presented  through  the  stereo- 
scope, they  fuse  into  a  single  percept  of  a  solid 
object. 

The  development  of  binocular  vision  is 
observed  in  young  children  through  a  study 
of  the  movements  of  their  eyes.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  life  the  two  eyes  do  not  coordinate 
exactly  in  their  movements.  In  later  life  the 
coordination  is  more  complete,  though  never 
absolute.  In  certain  cases  the  lack  of  coordi- 
nation is  so  marked  that  vision  is  not  fully 
developed  even  at  a  late  period.         C.  H.  J. 

References  :  — 

JuDD,   C.   H.     Laboratory  Equipment  for  Psychological 

Experimnitx. 
Le  Conte.     Sight. 
Wheatstone.     Philosophical  Transactions.     (1829.) 

BINOMIAL  THEOREM. —  A  theorem  in 
algebra  relating  to  the  powers  of  an  expression 
of   two   terms,    a   binomial.      It   asserts    that 

,  n(n~  l)(n  — 2)   n-^  t  , 
+    ^     1.23         ^      "^"■' 

for  all  values  of  n,  positive,  negative,  integral, 
fractional,  or  complex.  In  particular,  if  n  =  2, 
we  have 


a  fact  possibly  known  to  the  Babylonians,  and 
certainly  well  known  to  the  Greeks.  If  n  =  3 
we  have 

{x+ay  =  x''+3x-a+3xa'+a', 

a  fact  also  known  to  the  Greeks. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  coefficients  of  the 

various  powers  of  the  binomial  can  be  arranged 

thus:  — 

0  power  1 

1st  power  1     1 

2il  power  1     2     1 

3d  power  13    3     1 

4th  power  14    6    4    1 

and  so  on.  The  first  knowledge  of  this  arrange- 
ment of  these  coefficients  is  usually  attributed 
to  Stifel  (q.v.),  since  they  appear  in  his  Arith- 
metica  Integra  of  1544.  This  is  not  correct, 
however,  for  they  appear  in  triangular  array 
on  the  title-page  of  the  first  edition  of  Apianus 
(Bienewitz),  Eyn  Newe  Vnnd  'WolgegrUndte 
vnderu'cy.'^ung  niter  Kaiiffman.'^z  Rechnung,  1527, 
and  were  probably  known  even  earlier.  They 
were  afterwards  studied  in  this  form  by  Pascal 
(g.r.),  and  hence  the  triangular  array  has  long 
been  known  as  Pascal's  triangle. 

The  general,   or  )th,   term  of  the  binomial 
scries  has  for  its  coefficient 


n(w-l)(w-2)--(?i-r-|-l) 
r 


D.  E.  S. 


BIOGRAPHY,  USE  OF  IN  INSTRUCTION. 

—  The  ancient  Greeks  made  nmch  use  of 
biograjihy  as  a  means  of  education.  Yet  the 
Grecian  heroes  were  too  intimately  related  to 
the  gods  to  rank  fully  as  mortal  men  and  direct 
objects  of  imitation.  Odysseus  in  the  Ody.'tscy 
is  a  good  example.  The  Romans  made  far 
more  use  of  biography,  presenting  actual  his- 
torical characters.  Plutarch's  Lives,  for  in- 
stance, although  written  by  a  Greek,  seems  to 
have  formed  the  basis  for  much  of  Roman 
education.  At  the  present  time  biography 
plays  a  very  prominent  part  in  the  education 
of  youth,  both  in  our  own  country  and  at)road. 
In  many  of  our  schools  it  begins  in  the  lowest 
grades  in  the  form  of  stories  about  Washington, 
Lincoln,  and  other  eminent  men;  ami  while 
most  emphasized  in  the  middle  grades  of  our 
elementary  schools,  it  receives  much  attention 
in  our  more  advanced  study,  and  in  liti'rature 
for  adults. 

This  prominence  of  biography  is  probably 
due,  primarily,  to  the  strong  interest  in  person- 
ality. So  long  as  the  objects  about  a  child, 
for  example,  lack  human  characteristics,  they 
may  be  wanting  in  interest;  but  endow  them 
with  personality,  and  they  are  loved.  The 
little  girl  feels  affection  for  her  doll  to  the  extent 
that  it  is  imagined  to  see,  hear,  feel,  and  suffer. 
If  boys  and  girls  were  asked  to  tell  how  a  man 
might  live,  if  he  were  placed  on  an  island  by 
himself,  the  problem  might  arouse  little  interest. 


382 


BIOGRAPHY 


BIOLOGY 


But  when  the  situation  is  personified,  as  in  the 
story  of  Robinson  Crusoe,  it  becomes  thrilling. 
Boys  and  girls  regularly  weep  when  Crusoe 
suffers,  and  they  rejoice  when  he  meets  with 
good  fortune.  Thus  life  and  feeling  are  greatly 
dependent  upon  the  introduction  of  personality. 

Biography  possesses  other  merits,  also. 
With  some  person  as  the  center  of  interest, 
most  of  the  facts  narrated  must  be  concrete, 
since  they  happen  at  a  particular  time  and 
place,  or  at  least  are  given  a  particular  setting. 
Thus  the  great  advantage  of  concreteness  is 
gained. 

Further  than  that,  the  advantages  of  good 
organization  are  to  some  extent  assured;  for 
the  central  personality  tends  to  establish  a 
unity  among  the  ideas  presented  and  to  secure 
a  close  sequence  among  them.  These  merits 
help  to  explain  the  popularity  of  such  books  as 
The  Story  of  At)  —  often  used  in  the  study  of 
primitive  life  in  the  lower  primary  school;  of 
The  Sci'en  Little  Sisters  —  used  as  an  introduc- 
tion into  geography;  of  Pilgrim's  Progress; 
Uncle  Tom's  Cabin ;  Hiawatha ;  and  also 
Carlyle's  Heroes  and  Hero-Worship,  and  Emer- 
son's Representative  Men. 

There  are  serious  limitations  to  the  use  of 
biography,  however,  that  should  be  noted.  In 
centering  attention  upon  the  individual  hero, 
the  mass  of  humanity  is  in  danger  of  being 
neglected;  and  so  long  as  the  social  point  of 
view  is  accepted  as  one  of  the  great  aims  of 
instruction  in  history,  this  is  a  vital  defect. 
This  objection  does  not  fully  apply  to  the  study 
of  the  Hebrew  race  through  biography,  for  such 
men  as  Joseph,  Moses,  and  Joshua  lived  for 
their  people,  and  the  problems  of  these  individ- 
uals were  the  problems  of  their  race.  Nor, 
perhaps,  is  this  objection  so  serious,  if  one  be- 
lieves with  Carlyle  that  "  the  history  of  what 
man  has  accomplished  in  this  world  is  at  bottom 
the  history  of  the  great  men  who  have  worked 
here."  (See  Carlyle's  Heroes  and  Hero-Worship, 
Lecture  1.)  Yet  there  is  little  doubt  but  that 
most  biography  so  isolates  its  hero  that  the 
individualistic,  rather  than  the  social,  habit  of 
mind  is  thereby  inculcated. 

Furthermore,  while  biography  establishes 
a  certain  very  desirable  unity  among  a  large 
body  of  facts,  it  does  not  secure  the  highest  kind 
of  organization.  While  different  biographies 
may  constitute  individual  units,  taken  together 
they  may  not  form  a  unity.  An  organization 
based  on  the  growth  of  great  ideas,  rather  than 
that  of  great  men,  is  of  a  higher  kind,  although 
more  abstract.  In  the  minds  of  many  students, 
the  history  of  the  world,  if  presented  solely 
through  biographies,  would  be  wanting  in  many 
important  facts,  would  lack  organization,  and 
would  offer  a  wrong  viewpoint. 

Owing  to  such  objections  the  biographical 
method,  both  in  the  United  States  and  in  Ger- 
many, has  been  largely  confined  to  the  ele- 
mentary school  age,  and  even  there  it  has  been 
much  supplemented   by  other  history.     It  is 


at  least  a  question,  however,  whether  it  could  not 
be  advantageously  followed  to  a  greater  extent 
than  now  prevails,  both  in  religious  instruction 
in  our  Sunday  schools,  and  in  our  elementary 
schools  and  our  high  schools.  It  is  certainly 
superior,  both  in  interest  and  in  organization, 
to  much  so-called  history  that  consists  only  of 
facts  related  in  chronological  order. 

F.  M.  McM. 
See  History,  Methods  of  Teaching. 

References :  — 

C.iRLYLE.      Heroes   and    Hero-Worship. 

Emerson.     Representative  Men. 

Kehr.     Geschiehte   des   deutschen  Volksschulunterrichis. 

McMuRRY,  Frank  M.     A  Chapter  in  U.se  of  Biography 

in  Rehgious  Instruction,  in  Principles  of  Religious 

Instruction. 
Monroe,    P.iul.     Text-book   in  History  of    Education, 

p.  187,  et  seq. 

BIOLOGY  (/3('os,  life,  and  Aoyiu,  discours- 
ing). —  (1)  This  word  was  first  proposed  in- 
dependently by  Lamarck  {q.v.)  and  by  Tre- 
viranus  to  designate  in  a  broad  way  the  science 
of  life  or  of  living  things  in  general,  its  original 
significance  being  clearly  defined  in  the  title 
of  the  chief  work  of  Treviranus,  Biologie,  oder 
Philosophie  der  lehenden  Natiir,  published  in 
1S02.  With  this  primary  significance  the  word 
slowly  made  its  way  into  general  use  to  denote 
the  study  of  life  phenomena  in  the  widest 
sense,  that  is,  of  the  properties  of  living  as 
opposed  to  nonliving  things.  Biology  was 
thus  differentiated  from  the  much  older  term 
"natural  history,"  employed  in  the  seventeenth 
century  in  the  sense  of  "  natural  science," 
and  later  applied  in  a  rather  vague  way  to  the 
"observational  sciences,"  including  the  history 
of  plants  and  animals,  and  also  physical  geog- 
raphy, geology,  and  mineralogy.  Even  as  thus 
limited,  biology  covers  far  too  wide  a  field  for 
any  single  science.  Practically,  therefore,  the 
word  has  become  a  collective  term  for  a  large 
group  of  biological  sciences,  such  as  botany, 
zoology,  physiology,  and  their  many  subdivi- 
sions, each  of  which  deals  with  a  particular 
aspect  of  biological  phenomena. 

"  The  term  Bioloqy,  which  means  exactly  what  we 
wish  to  express,  the  Science  of  Life,  has  often  been  used, 
and  has  of  late  become  not  uncommon  among  good 
writers."  —  Whewell,  Philosophy  of  the  Inductive 
Sciences,  1847. 

"  That  is  how  it  has  come  abovit  that  all  clear  thinkers 
and  lovers  of  consistent  nomenclature  ha\'e  substituted 
for  the  old  confusing  name  of  '  Natural  History,'  which 
has  conveyed  so  many  meanings,  the  terra  'Biology,' 
which  denotes  the  whole  of  the  sciences  which  deal  with 
li\'ing  things,  whether  they  be  animals  or  whether  they 
be  plants."  —  Hu.xley,  On  the  Study  of  Biology,  1876. 

In  addition  to  its  original  significance,  the 
word  "biology"  has  acquired  a  number  of 
secondary  and  more  restricted  meanings,  as 
follows. 

(2)  In  technical  usage  it  is  often  employed 
to  denote  the  "  life  histories  "  of  plants  or 
animals  —  i.e.  their  modes  of  development, 
habits,  and  often  also  their  physiological  inter- 


383 


BIOLOGY 


BIRKBECK 


actions  with  one  another  and  with  their  environ- 
ment. This  usage  is  a  survival  of  an  earlier 
period,  especially  in  entomology,  when  it  was 
desired  to  contrast  the  living  external  activi- 
ties of  the  organism  with  its  mere  structural 
relations  and  position  in  the  system  of  classi- 
fication. By  a  later  extension  of  meaning  it 
was  made  to  apply  not  only  to  the  normal 
organism  as  a  whole,  but  sometimes  also  to  its 
constituent  parts,  and  even  in  some  eases  to 
diseases.  In  this  sense  we  speak  of  the  "  bi- 
ology "  of  plants,  of  fishes,  of  parasites,  of 
cells,  of  bacteria,  of  tumors,  etc.  A  distinction 
is  often  drawn,  accordingly,  between  "  bio- 
logical "  investigation  and  that  which  is  merely 
morphological  (anatomical,  liistological,  and 
the  like);  thougii  in  the  original  broader  sense 
both  are  alike  biological.  This  use  of  the  word 
is  perhaps  most  frequent  in  the  continental 
countries  of  Europe. 

(;})  In  academic  practice  the  term  "biology  " 
is  variously  and  not  very  consistently  employed. 
It  is  very  often  applied,  particularly  in  England 
and  the  United  States,  to  general  elementary 
courses  of  instruction  in  which  both  plants  and 
animals  are  considered  in  their  relation  to  each 
other,  as  illustrative  of  principles  that  hold 
true  for  living  things  generally.  Such  courses 
are  often  divided  into  a  botanical  and  a  zoo- 
logical part,  the  two  being  so  coordinated  as 
to  form  a  coherent  whole.  This  use  of  the  word 
is  largely  due  to  the  example  of  Huxley,  who 
was  one  of  the  first  to  put  such  courses  into 
effect  and  to  urge  their  educational  value  in 
themselves,  as  introductory  to  more  specialized 
courses  in  zoology,  botany,  or  physiology,  or  as 
preparatory  to  the  study  of  medicine.  Huxley 
and  Martin's  textbook  of  Practical  Biology, 
the  first  of  its  kind,  was  followed  by  many  others 
of  similar  type.  It  set  a  deep  and  lasting 
impress  on  biological  teaching  in  the  English- 
speaking  countries,  but  its  method  has  been 
less  generally  followed  elsewhere.  Courses  of 
this  type  in  "  elementary  biology  "  or  "  gen- 
eral biology"  are  now  offered  in  a  large  number 
of  the  educational  institutions  of  England  and 
America.  In  many  schools  and  academic 
institutions  departments  of  "  biology  "  are 
maintained,  in  which  instruction  is  often  given 
in  botany,  zoology,  and  physiology  as  well  as 
in  the  general  elementary  subject.  In  the 
larger  universities,  where  the  biological  sub- 
jects are  distributed  among  several  or  many 
instructors,  the  tendency  has  been  to  maintain 
separate  departments  of  zoology,  botany, 
physiology,  anatomy,  embryology,  paleontol- 
ogy, bacteriology,  etc.,  retaining  the  name 
"biology"  only  for  general  introductory  courses 
given  in  one  or  more  of  the  special  departments 
or  by  cooperation  between  them. 

There  are  indications,  however,  that  it  may 
be  found  desirable  in  the  academic  practice  of 
the  larger  universities  to  recognize  biology  as  an 
independent  subject.  The  rapid  extension  of 
experimental  and  analytical  methods  in  bio- 


logical inquiry  is  causing  zoology  and  botany  to 
converge  toward  the  study  of  many  general 
problems  that  are  common  to  both,  and  in 
which  the  traditional  line  of  separation  between 
these  sciences  is  of  little  or  no  significance. 
Such  problems  are  everywhere  encountered,  for 
instance,  in  the  study  of  growth,  development, 
heredity,  evolution,  and  cell  phenomena.  .  A 
large  and  influential  group  of  biologi-sts  are 
devoting  themselves  to  studies  of  this  ty])e,  and 
in  a  very  few  cases  {e.g.  at  the  University  of 
Cambridge)  separate  chairs  of  "  liiology  " 
have  been  established  for  the  promulgation  of 
such  studies  as  distinguished  from  those  in 
botany  or  zoology  in  the  narrower  sense.  It 
is  not  unlikely  that  this  usage  will  be  more 
widely  employed  in  future.  At  jiresent,  how- 
ever, the  most  representative  institutions  in 
Germany,  England,  and  the  United  States  have 
only  chairs  in  the  different  branches  which  go 
to  make  up  the  biological  studies.      K.  B.  W, 

For  selected  references  and  more  detailed 
information,  see  Bot.\ny,  Academic  Status  of; 
Physiology,  Academic  Status  of;  Zoology, 
Academic  Status  of. 

BIOMETRY.  —  The  science  which  deals 
with  the  methods  and  results  of  measurement 
of  animals  both  in  their  anatomical  parts  and  in 
their  functional  activities.  It  has  been  shown 
by  careful  measurement  that  certain  species  of 
animals  are  undergoing  changes  which  would 
have  escaped  ordinary  observation  unsupported 
by  accurate  measurement.  Again  it  has  been 
shown  that  variations  can  be  accurately  defined 
only  by  securing  some  standard  through  careful 
measurements  of  a  large  number  of  specimens. 
A  deviation  in  size  from  the  average  of  the 
species  may  be  significant  in  explaining  the 
preservation  or  destruction  of  a  given  animal 
in  the  struggle  for  existence.  Such  a  deviation 
can  very  frequently  be  detected  only  through 
accurate  measurements.  Measurements  of 
the  type  which  have  been  made  on  animals 
and  their  functions  can  be  carried  on  statisti- 
cally for  many  of  the  activities  of  the  school- 
room. (See  Statistics.)  Individual  varia- 
tions (q.v.)  appear  among  children,  and  are  of 
importance  in  determining  educational  activi- 
ties. These  can  be  measured  by  methods  simi- 
lar to  those  employed  in  general  biometry. 

C.  H.  J. 

BIRCH.  —  See  Punishment. 

BIRD  DAY.  —  See  Special  Days. 

BIRD  STUDY. —  See  Special  Days;  Hu- 
mane Education. 

BIRKBECK.  GEORGE,  M.D.  (177r>-1841). 
—  Founder  of  Mechanics'  Institutions;  born 
at  Settle,  Yorkshire  (1776);  son  of  a  merchant 
and  banker;  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh, 
where  among  his  fellow  students  were  Brougham 


384 


BIRMINGHAM  SEMINARY 


BISCOP 


(q.v.)  and  Jeffrey.  In  1799  Birkbeck  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy 
and  Chemistry  at  an  educational  institution  in 
Glasgow  called  Anderson's  Universit.y,  which 
had  been  founded  by  Dr.  John  Anderson  (q.v.), 
Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Glasgow.  Anderson,  for  some  years 
before  his  death  occurred  in  1796,  had  been  in 
the  habit  of  giving  a  course  of  lectures  on  e.xperi- 
mental  physics,  to  which  some  workingmen, 
among  others,  were  invited.  When  Birkbeck 
began  his  first  course  of  lectures  at  Anderson's 
University,  he  found  it  necessary  to  make  a 
good  deal  of  apparatus,  and  as  no  scientific 
instrument  maker  resided  at  that  time  in  the 
city,  he  was  obliged  to  apply  to  the  workshops 
which  were  best  able  to  meet  his  needs.  In  this 
way  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  a  number  of 
Glasgow  artisans.  He  found  them  so  anxious 
to  acquire  knowledge  and  so  full  of  intelligence, 
that  he  resolved  to  give  a  course  of  experimen- 
tal lectures  upon  mechanics,  "  solely  for  persons 
engaged  in  the  practical  exercise  of  the  mechani- 
cal arts,  men  whose  situation  in  early  hfe  has 
precluded  the  possibihty  of  acquiring  even  the 
smallest  portion  of  scientific  knowledge."  His 
lectures  to  workingmen  became  very  popular, 
and  were  continued  until  his  removal  from 
Glasgow  to  London  in  1804.  During  the  early 
years  of  his  residence  in  London,  Birkbeck  was 
absorbed  in  his  duties  as  a  physician,  but  the 
development  of  his  Glasgow  mechanics'  class 
in  1823  into  the  Glasgow  Mechanics'  Institu- 
tion led  him  once  more  to  occupy  himself  with 
the  questions  of  popular  education.  He  took 
the  lead  in  the  establishment  of  a  Mechanics' 
Institution  for  London,  lent  a  large  sum  for 
the  building  of  a  lecture  room,  and  was  elected 
the  first  president  of  the  society.  In  this 
work  he  was  associated  with  Lord  Brougham. 
Throughout  the  rest  of  his  life,  Birkbeck  was 
the  leading  figure  in  the  movement  for  the  exten- 
sion of  popular  scientific  instruction  for  working- 
men.  He  was  also  one  of  the  founders  of 
University  College,  London  (1827),  and  vigor- 
ou.sly  advocated  the  repeal  of  the  taxes  on 
newspapers  (1835-1836).  M.  E.  S. 

References:  — 
GoDDABD,  J.  D.     Life  of  Dr.  Birkbeck.     (1884.) 
Sadleu,   M.   E.     Continuation  Schools  in  England  and 

Elsewhere.     (Manchester.  1907.) 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

BIRMINGHAM  SEMINARY,  BIRMING- 
HAM, ALA.  —  Founded  in  1S97  for  the  educa- 
tion of  girls  and  young  women.  Primary, 
academic,  collegiate,  and  fine  arts  departments 
are  maintained.  The  college  courses  are  based 
on  about  2  years  of  high  school  work.  Degrees 
are  conferred.  The  faculty  consists  of  14 
instructors. 

BIRMINGHAM,       UNIVERSITY      OF.  — 

Founded  in  1S7()  as  the  Josiah  Mason's  College 
for  the  Study  of  Practical  Science,  changed  in 

VOL.  I  —  2  c  385 


1881  to  the  Mason  Science  College,  and  in  1897 
to  the  Mason  University  College.  The  insti- 
tution was  established  to  promote  the  practical 
mechanical  and  artistic  requirements  of  the 
Midlands  of  England.  In  1900  Mason  L'niver- 
sity  College  was  merged  by  the  Birmingham 
University  Act  in  the  university,  which  had 
received  a  Royal  Charter  in  the  same  year.  At 
that  time,  by  the  public-spirited  efforts  of  its 
citizens  who  raised  the  endowments,  the  future 
progress  of  the  university  was  assured.  Like 
all  the  northern  universities  of  England,  its 
success  depends  on  its  adaptation  to  local 
needs.  Since  receiving  the  Royal  Charter, 
considerable  additions  have  been  made  to  the 
buildings  and  equipments,  which  were  opened 
in  1909.  The  university  maintains  faculties  of 
science,  arts,  medicine,  and  commerce,  in  all  of 
which  degrees  are  given.  The  university  has 
power  to  inspect  schools  and  hold  school-leav- 
ing examinations  which  it  may  accept  in  lieu  of 
the  Matriculation  Examination.  Alany  local 
authorities  maintain  scholarships  at  the  uni- 
versity and  give  financial  support.  The  teach- 
ing staff  in  1908-1909  consisted  of  113  members, 
and  the  enrollment  of  students  was  910.  The 
Right  Hon.  Joseph  Chamberlain,  to  whose 
efforts  the  university  was  largely  due,  is  the 
first  Chancellor. 

References:  — 

Birmingham  University  Calendar. 

English  Board  of  Education.    Reports  from  Universities 
and  University  Colleges.     (Annual.) 

BISCOP,  BENEDICT  (628-689).  —  Biscop 
may  with  sound  reason  be  called  the  Father  of 
English  Culture.  He  was  of  noble  stock  (prob- 
ably bearing  the  patronymic  "  Baducing  "),  a 
theyn  of  Oswy,  King  of  Northumbria,  the 
seventh  Bretwalda.  Soon  after  the  year  650 
he  made  his  first  \dsit  to  Rome.  On  his  way 
he  stopped  at  Canterbury,  and  was  entertained 
by  the  Archbishop  Honorius,  the  companion 
and  successor  of  Augustine.  There  he  met 
Wilfrid,  afterwards  the  famous  Bishop  of  York, 
and  the  two  traveled  Romeward  together.  Wil- 
frid .stopped  for  a  time  at  Lyons  with  Bishop 
Dalfinus,  but  "  Biscop  hastened  on  to  Rome." 
Bede  tells  that  Biscop  visited  Rome  in  all  five 
times,  and  each  time  returned  with  a  great  store 
of  books  and  pictures.  We  know  that  he  was  in 
Rome  in  668,  because  in  that  year,  at  the  request 
of  Pope  Vitalian,  he  accompanied  Theodore  to 
Britain  as  guide  and  interpreter,  and  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Peter  and 
Paul  (St.  Augu.stine's)  at  Canterbury  unjfil  the 
Abbot  Adrian  arrived.  In  674  he  founded  the 
famous  Northumbrian  Monastery  of  Wear- 
mouth.  After  this  work  was  accomplished  he 
went  again  to  Rome,  this  time  with  his  fellow 
worker  Ceolfrid  (who  succeeded  him  as  Abbot 
of  Jarrow).  Bede  tells  us  {E.  H.  IV,  18)  with 
respect  to  the  visit  that  he  had  been  there 
"  several  times  before,"  so  presumably  he  had 
visited  Rome  once  at  least  between  the  visit  of 


BISCOP 


BISHOPS'   SCHOOLS 


650  and  that  of  668.  This  particular  visit  was 
to  find  a  teacher  in  music  and  sound  doctrine, 
and  Pope  Agatho  sent  back  with  him  John, 
Abbot  of  St.  Martin's  at  Rome,  that  he  miglit 
teach  in  his  monastery  the  system  of  singing 
throughout  tiie  year,  as  it  was  practiced  at  St. 
Peter's  in  Rome.  John's  educational  work  is 
rccorileil  in  tlie  same  chapter  (A'.  //.  IV,  IS). 
He  taught  "  the  singers  in  the  said  monastery 
the  order  and  manner  of  singing  and  reading 
aloud."  He  also  committed  to  writing  "  all 
that  was  requisite  throughout  the  whole  course 
of  the  year  for  the  celebration  of  festivals." 
His  fame  as  a  teacher  extended  through  the 
North:  "such  as  had  skill  in  singing  resorted 
from  almost  all  the  monasteries  of  the  same 
province  to  hear  him,  and  many  invited  him  to 
teach  in  other  places."  He  examined  into  the 
condition  of  the  faith  in  England,  and  reported 
it  sound.  But  John  died  on  his  homeward 
journey,  and  was  buried  in  St.  Martin's  Church 
at  Tours.  He  may  have  been  one  of  the 
teachers  of  the  boy  Bede,  who  tells  us  that  he 
(Bede)  was,  in  the  year  680,  "  given  by  the  care 
of  kinsmen,  at  seven  years  of  age,  to  be  educated 
by  the  most  renowned  abbot  Benedict,  and 
afterwards  by  Ceolfrid "  (E.H.V,  24).  The 
ne.xt  year  (681)  Benedict  founded  the  Monastery 
of  Jarrow  (which  forms  the  second  part  of  the 
twin  monastery  presided  over  by  Benedict), 
and  appointed  Ceolfrid  as  Abbot.  Bede  passed 
to  Jarrow  with  Ceolfrid,  and  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  there.  Of  Benedict's  fourth  journey  to 
Rome  we  are  told,  eum  innumerabilem  libro- 
rum  omnis  generis  copiam  apportasse.  He 
also  brought  books  from  Vienne.  Miss  Sellars 
tells  us  (in  her  edition  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
History,  p.  257)  that  he  enriched  his  twin 
monasteries,  "  with  furniture,  vestments,  relics, 
pictures,  and  a  library  of  valuable  books 
which  he  brought  from  the  Continent.  The 
rule  which  he  framed  for  his  monasteries  was 
Benedictine,  compiled  from  seventeen  different 
monasteries  which  he  had  visited."  His  fifth 
journey  to  Rome  must  have  been  between  681 
and  685,  when  he  made  a  sixth  visit  to  the  Con- 
tinent, "  almost  entirely  devoted  to  the  collec- 
tion of  books,  including  classical  books" 
(Sandys'  History  of  Classical  Scholarship, 
Vol.  I,  2d  ed.,  p.  468).  In  688  he  was  succeeded 
at  Wearmouth  by  Ceolfrid,  who  ruled  over  both 
monasteries  and  added  to  Benedict's  library. 
In  the  Codex  Amiatinus  of  the  Latin  Bible, 
written  at  Wearmouth  or  Jarrow,  and  now  at 
Florence,  we  have  extant  evidence  of  the  culture 
introduced  into  Northern  England  by  Biscop 
and  Ceolfrid.  Moreover,  some  remarkable  and 
beautiful  vestiges  of  both  abbeys  remain  as 
parts  of  the  parish  churches  of  North  Wear- 
mouth and  Jarrow.  Benedict  Biscop  died  on 
Jan.  10,  689,  while  his  fellow  worker  Ceolfrid 
survived  till  716,  in  which  year  he  resigned  his 
office  and  died  at  Langres  on  his  way  to  Rome. 
These  workers  are  definite  links  in  the  educa- 
tional line  connecting  Augustine  {q.v.)  through 


386 


Theodore  and  Adrian  with  Bede  {q.v.),  Egbert 
of  York,  and  Alcuin  {q.v.).  J.  E.  G.  de  M. 

References  :  — 

Bede.      Vitnv  Ahhatum  and  Ecclesiastical  History. 
Du.\NE,  .v.  T.     Christian  Hchools.     (London,  ISSl.) 

BISHOP,  NATHAN  ( 1  SOS- 1 880).  —  School- 
man, educated  at  Hamilton  Academy  and  at 
Brown  University;  tutor  in  Brown  University 
(1837-1838);  superintendent  of  the  schools  of 
Providence,  the  fir.st  city  supcrintendency 
established  in  the  United  States,  from  1838 
to  1854,  and  first  superintendent  of  the  schools 
of  Boston  (1854-1855).  W  S.  M. 

BISHOP,  ROBERT  HAMILTON  (1777- 
1855).  —  Educator  and  textbook  writer,  was 
educated  in  the  schools  of  Scotland  and  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh;  he  was  professor  at 
the  Transylvania  University  from  1S03  to  1824; 
at  Miami  University  from  1824  to  1845,  and 
president  of  Farmers  College,  near  Cincinnati, 
from  1845  to  1855;  author  of  a  series  of  text- 
books in  logic,  ci\ics,  etc.  W.  S.  M. 

BISHOPS'  COLLEGE,  UNIVERSITY  OF, 
LENNOXVILLE,  QUEBEC.  —  A  coeduca- 
tional institution  fountled  in  1845  and  admin- 
istered by  a  Corporation  consisting  of  the 
bishops  of  the  Anglican  Church  of  the  Province 
of  Quebec  and  the  tru.stees  and  college  council 
appointed  by  them.  Preparatory,  college,  and 
theological  courses  are  offered.  For  the  degrees 
3  years'  residence  is  required.  There  is  a 
faculty  of  3  professors  and  5  lecturers. 

BISHOPS'  SCHOOLS. —  The  importance 
of  the  part  played  by  bishops  in  the  history  of 
modern  education,  since  Christianity  became 
the  established  religion  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
can  hardly  be  exaggerated.  Whether  on  the 
whole  that  part  has  been  for  the  advancement 
of  education  or  the  reverse  may  perhaps  be 
questioned.  Indeed,  in  one  view  the  history  of 
education  may  be  considered  as  the  history  of 
the  elimination  of  episcopal  authority  from  a 
sphere  with  which  it  has  no  proper  concern. 
But  of  the  importance  of  the  influence  of  the 
bishop  on  the  school  there  can  be  no  question. 
When  the  history  of  modern  schools  begins, 
the  bishops  were  the  only,  and  they  remained 
for  many  centuries  by  themselves  or  their 
officials  the  chief,  educators  and  directors  of 
educators,  and  their  schools  the  chief  seats  of 
education  throughout  Western  Europe.  At 
what  exact  date  the  public  schools  of  grammar 
and  of  rhetoric,  maintained  either  by  the  central 
authority  of  the  Emperor  out  of  the  fiscus,  or  by 
the  local  authority,  the  municipium,  out  of 
local  funds,  died  out  and  were  superseded  bj'  the 
episcopal  schools  it  is  hard  to  say  with  cer- 
tainty. In  Gaul  the  public  schools  still  flour- 
ished in  the  fourth  century,  when  Auisonius  gives 
a  poetical  account  of  the  school  of  Bordeaux, 


BISHOPS'   SCHOOLS 


BISHOPS'   SCHOOLS 


while  St.  Sidonius  ApoUinaris,  consul  and  then 
bishop,  speaks  of  the  schools  of  Vienne,  P6ri- 
gueux,  and  Lyons  as  late  as  483. 

In  Italy  it  is  certain  that  they  flourished  in 
the  first  half  of  the  si-xth  century,  for  Ennodius, 
a  native  of  Gaul,  Bishop  of  Ticinum  (Pavia) 
from  513  to  521,  has  preserved  28  speeches  com- 
posed for  the  schools  of  rhetoric  at  Pavia  and 
for  Milan  school  when  a  nephew  was  admitted 
to  it.  Venantius  Fortunatus,  author  of  a 
poetical  life  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours  in  570,  a 
native  of  Italy  born  at  Treviso,  tells  how 
he  had  in  his  youth  licked  up  the  small 
stream  of  the  water  of  grammar  and  taken 
a  slight  drink  out  of  the  deep  pools  of  rhetoric. 
But  in  France  public  schools  had  apparently 
disappeared  by  the  sixth  century.  For  Greg- 
ory of  Tours  himself  is  recorded  to  have  been 
brought  up  at  Clermont,  not  in  the  public 
school,  but  by  bishops  Gallus  and  Avitus. 

The  identification  of  the  episcopal  office 
with  that  of  the  schoolmaster  was  not  effected 
without  opposition.  Pope  Gregory  the  Great 
(Ep.  XI,  54),  who  had  himself  been  in  595  so 
"  well-grounded  in  grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric 
that  no  one  in  Rome  was  even  second  to  him  " 
(Greg.  Tur.  Hist.  Franc.  X,  i),  rates  Dcsiderius 
Bishop  of  Vienne,  because,  "  as  we  cannot 
relate  without  shame  it  has  come  to  our  knowl- 
edge that  your  brotherhood  teaches  grammar 
to  certain  persons,  which  we  take  all  the  worse 
as  it  converts  what  we  formerly  said  in  your 
favour  to  lamentation  and  woe,  since  the  praise 
of  Christ  cannot  lie  in  one  mouth  with  the 
praise  of  Jupiter.  Consider  yourself  what  a 
crime  it  is  for  bishops  to  recite  what  would  be 
improper  for  religiously-minded  laymen."  This 
letter  is  doubly  interesting,  as  it  shows  not 
only  that  episcopal  education  was  an  innova- 
tion and  that  things  were  in  a  transitional 
stage,  passing  from  the  lay,  and  indeed 
heathen,  public  school  to  the  episcopal  school, 
but  also  that  the  episcopal  school  was  a 
grammar  school  in  which  the  "  heathen " 
classics,  and  we  may  infer  Vergil's  Eclogues, — 
A  Jove  principium  Musae,  Jovis  omnia  plena, — 
still  formed  the  principal  part  of  the  curriculum. 
Gregory  the  Great,  indeed,  wished  to  kick 
down  the  ladder  by  which  he  had  risen. 
Though  he  had  been  Nuncio  at  Constantinople 
for  6  years,  he  glories  that  he  knows  no  Greek 
and  has  written  nothing  in  Greek;  and  says  he 
despises  the  art  of  speaking  taught  by  the 
rhetoric  school  masters.  He  equally  con- 
temns the  art  of  grammar,  and  does  not  try  to 
avoid  the  confusion  of  cases,  "  because  I  am 
strongly  of  opinion  that  it  is  an  indignity  that 
the  words  of  the  oracle  of  Heaven  should  be 
restrained  by  the  rules  of  Donatus "  (q.v.), 
the  great  grammarian  who  was  St.  Jerome's 
schoolmaster,  whose  grammar  reigned  without 
a  rival  in  the  schools  till  1.540.  Isidore  of 
Seville,  some  30  years  Gregory's  junior,  who  had 
to  fight  for  the  Catholic  faith  with  an  Arian 
king,  though  he  forbade  the  monks  to  read  the 


387 


classics,  thought  grammar  schools  necessary  for 
clerks.  "  Better  grammar  than  heresy,"  and 
he  himself  taught  and  produced  his  Origines, 
which  was  the  chief  encyclopedia  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Gregory  himself,  in  the  very  letter  to 
Desiderius  above  mentioned,  commanded  the 
missionary  monk  Augustine  (q.v.)  on  his  way 
to  England  to  abandon  his  monkish  life  and 
live  with  his  clerks  as  other  bishops  did.  He 
had  to  teach  the  English  converts  Latin,  so 
that  they  might  understand  the  very  elements 
of  their  new  creed  and  be  able  to  read  its  sacred 
books.  It  did  not  apparently  occur  to  any  one 
to  do  what  the  modern  missionary  does  and 
translate  the  sacred  books  into  the  barbarian 
dialect.  For  its  very  words,  though  themselves 
only  a  translation,  had  accpiired  a  superstitious 
sanctity.  Hence,  Augustine  must  have  set  up 
a  school  soon  after  his  arrival  in  England.  For 
some  30  years  later,  in  631,  when  East  Anglia 
was  Christianized  under  King  Sigebert,  who  had 
been  baptized  while  in  exile  in  Gaul,  he,  "  wishing 
to  imitate  what  he  had  seen  well  done  in  Gaul, 
founded  a  grammar  school  (scholam  in  qua 
piieri  litleris  erudirentur)  with  the  assistance  of 
Bishop  Felix,  whom  he  had  received  from  Kent, 
also  provided  them  with  ushers  and  masters 
after  the  manner  of  Canterbury  "  {more  Can- 
tuariorum)  (Bede,  Eccl.  IX,  iii,  18).  This  is 
proof  positive  that  there  was  such  a  school  at 
Canterbury,  of  already  established  reputation 
such  that  Felix,  though  a  Burgundian  who  had 
been  some  three  or  four  years  only  in  Canterbury, 
thought  it  enough  to  staff  his  school  thence  and 
not  from  France  itself.  This  passage,  while  it 
demonstrates  the  existence  of  the  episcopal 
school  at  Canterbury  and  the  foundation  of  one 
at  Felix's  see  of  Dunwich,  also  conveniently 
annihilates  the  thesis  of  Dr.  Paul  Roger 
( L' Enseignement  d'Auso7ie  et  Alcuin,  1905), 
who  attempts  to  show  that  in  France  at  this 
time  there  was  no  real  learning,  and  only 
monastic  schools  where  the  inmates  were 
taught  to  hobble  through  their  grammar  so  as 
to  read  the  psalms  they  spent  their, time  in 
singing.  Clerval  has  shown  (Les  Ecoles  de 
Chartres  au  Moyen-Age,  1895)  that  St.  Bethaire, 
who  was  Bishop  of  Chartres  (c.  594-614),  had 
been  made  doctor  divinanim  litierarurn  et 
magister  totius  civitatis  when  a  clerk  under 
Bishop  Peppol,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the 
bishopric.  The  life  of  St.  Leufroy  (ASS.  21 
June,  IV,  04)  pictures  him  going  to  school 
first  at  St.  fivreux,  near  Chartres,  then  at 
Rouen. 

In  England,  we  find  in  635  the  first  Bishop  of 
York,  Paulinus,  had  introduced  a  song  school 
(which  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  was  in  addition 
to  a  grammar  school)  and  James  the  Deacon,  the 
teacher  of  this  school,  stayed  when  Paulinus 
fled  from  a  heathen  reaction.  When  Chris- 
tianity was  restored,  James  "  became  master  of 
ecclesiastical  singing  to  many,  after  the  fashion 
of  Rome  and  Canterbury."  At  Rome,  the  song 
school  {schola  cantorum)  had  been  instituted  by 


BISHOPS'  SCHOOLS 


BISHOPS'   SCHOOLS 


Pope  Gregory  himself.  So  that  besides  its  gram- 
mar school,  Canterbury  had  its  song  school,  and 
these  two  schools  are  found  in  every  secular 
cathedral  down  to  the  Reformation.  Canter- 
bury School  has  hitherto  been  wrongly  im])uted 
to  the  (Jreek  archbishop,  Theodore,  who  came  to 
Canterbury  in  069.  His  learning  and  that  of  his 
pupils  have  been  celebrated  by  15ede,  who  .says 
that  even  to  his  day  (735)  some  survived, 
"  who  knew  Latin  and  Greek  as  well  as  their 
own  language  in  which  they  were  born." 
Theodore  went  all  over  I'^ngland  preaching  and 
teaching.  His  pupil,  Tobias,  who  died  Bishop 
of  Rochester  in  726,  is  especially  said  to  know 
not  only  Latin  and  Greek  but  to  have  "  a 
knowledge  of  literature  ecclesiastical  and 
general."  The  celebrated  poem  of  Alcuin 
On  the  Bishops  and  Saints  of  the  Church  of 
York,  written  about  780,  says  that  Archbishop 
Egbert  (q.v.),  who  has  often,  but  wrongly, 
been  claimed  as  Bede's  pupil  and  Alcuin's  own 
master,  was  an  eminent  teacher  {egrcgius 
doctor)  there.  Of  his  successor,  Ethelbert,  or 
Albert  Uj-i'.),  Alcuin  records  how  he  was  him- 
self educated  in  York  Minster  and  was  made 
"  advocate  of  the  clergy  and  master  in  the  city 
of  York."  Here  he  taught  everything,  the 
whole  seven  liberal  arts,  grammar,  rhetoric, 
logic,  music,  astronomy,  geometry,  arithmetic, 
especially  how  to  find  Easter,  —  the  order  is 
probably  due  to  the  exigencies  of  meter  rather 
than  design,  —  and  law  and  theology  to  boot. 
When  he  became  archbishop,  he  did  not  cease 
to  teach,  "  being  made  both  a  wise  teacher  and 
a  pious  priest,  increasing  the  sense  of  his  pupils 
and  the  morals  of  his  clergy."  But  at  Albert's 
death,  the  offices  of  bishop  and  teacher  were 
separated.  Eanbald  became  archbishop,  "  but 
to  his  other  son,"  Alcuin  himself,  "  he  gave  the 
dearest  treasure  of  his  books.  To  the  one  the 
rule  of  the  church,  its  treasures,  its  lands,  its 
funds,  to  the  other,  the  search  for  wisdom,  the 
school,  the  master's  chair  and  the  library." 
When  Eanbald  H,  the  successor  of  Alcuin's 
fellow  pupil,  was  archbishop,  Alcuin  wrote  to 
him  to  suggest  a  further  division  of  labor,  and 
the  establishment  of  separate  masters  for  sing- 
ing and  writing. 

From  the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  then, 
here,  as  was  also  the  case  in  France,  the  bishop 
himself  ceased  to  teach,  at  all  events  in  the 
secular  cathedrals.  Where,  as  happened  in 
England  only  (except  for  a  few  sporadic  cases 
abroad  in  later  centuries),  the  bishop's  council 
of  clerks,  the  secular  canons,  was  turned  out  to 
make  way  for  monks,  it  would  appear  that  the 
bishop  himself  continued  to  teach.  Thus 
Aldhelm  of  Malmesbury  (rj.v.)  is  said  to  have 
been  taught  by  Bishop  Elphege  at  Winchester. 
But  the  monastic  lives  must  be  received  with  a 
great  deal  of  caution.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  in  the  secular  cathedrals  by  the  eleventh 
century,  the  duty,  not  only  of  teaching,  but  of 
supervising  schools  and  ap])ointing  masters,  had 
been  devolved  on  the   schoolmaster,  or,  as  he 


came  to  l)e  called,  chancellor  of  the  church,  and 
tlu^  cathedral  schools  {(/.v.)  became  more  or  less 
independent  of  the  bishops.  In  the  monastic 
cathedrals  the  bishop  retained  the  power  in  his 
own  hands,  the  monks,  as  unlearned  persons, 
(idiotae),  not  being  considered  capable  appar- 
ently of  exercising  the  duty  properly,  and 
the  masters  were  always  secular  clerks.  Thus 
at  Winchester  we  find  the  bishop  in  1155  being 
apijcaled  from  on  a  decision  as  to  the  right  to 
the  school  between  two  of  his  clerks;  at  Can- 
terbury we  find  a  rescript  of  Archbishop  Peck- 
ham  in  1289  as  to  the  powers  of  the  master  to 
determine  cases  between  his  scholars  and  out- 
siders; and  in  1295  we  find  the  same  archbishop 
appointing  a  master  of  the  school  of  the  city  of 
Norwich  on  behalf  of  the  bishop,  when  that  see 
was  vacant.  A  whole  series  of  appointments  of 
the  grammar  school  masters  of  Canterbury 
made  by  the  archbishop  are  preserved  in  the 
archiepiscopal  registers  at  Lambeth,  ranging 
from  one  of  Mar.  11,  1310,  to  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  when  the  prior  writes  to  tell  his 
"  gude  faderhood  "  that  he  has  found  a  master 
who  had  taught  grammar  at  Winchester  and 
St.  Anthony's,  London,  for  "  your  grammar 
scole  at  Caunterbury."  At  Worcester  in  1312 
the  bishop  appoints  a  master  to  the  school  of 
that  city,  "  whether  the  appointment  belongs  to 
my  episcopal  or  my  archidiaconal  authority.  " 
Similar  apiiointments  are  found  at  Ely  and 
Carlisle.  At  the  Reformation  these  schools 
were  made  part  of  the  new  cathedral  founda- 
tions, and  passed  from  the  bishops  to  the  new 
chapters. 

But  the  Reformation  brought  the  bishops 
again  into  direct  connection  with  all  the  schools. 
Henry  VIII,  Queen  Mary,  and  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, each  in  turn,  though  from  opposite  points 
of  view,  directed  the  bishops  to  examine  all 
schoolmasters,  and,  finding  them  suspect,  to  re- 
move them.  The  canons  of  the  Church  and  the 
orders  of  the  Privy  Council  on  successive  occa- 
sions in  1559,  1580,  and  1603  forbade  any 
schoolmaster  to  teach  without  the  license  of  the 
bishop,  while  it  was  made  the  duty  of  the 
liishop,  duly  carried  out  at  every  visitation,  to 
inquire  whether  any  schoolmaster  of  suspected 
religion  or  tenets  licensed  to  teach  by  him, 
doth  teach  in  any  public  or  private  place  within 
his  diocese.  This  extended  even  to  elementary 
schools.  After  the  eomnionw'calth  successive 
decisions  of  the  Courts  of  Law,  founded  on  bad 
history  and  law  but  good  policy,  gradually 
restricted  the  bishop's  jurisdiction  to  grammar 
or  classical  schools.  It  was  not  till  the  En- 
dowed Schools  Act,  1809.  directed  the  commis- 
sioners under  that  act,  afterwards  the  Charity 
Commissioners,  to  insert  in  all  schemes  a  clause 
abolishing  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary, 
that  the  bishops  ceased  to  have  the  right 
to  interfere  with  secondary  schools.  The  right 
still  prevails  theoretically  in  those  schools 
which  have  not  yet  been  made  the  subject  of 
schemes  under  the  act. 


388 


BLACK   AND   WHITE   WORK 


BLACK  DEATH 


Since,  however,  the  powers  under  the  act 
were  in  1902  transferred  to  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, and  that  Board  was  enabled  to  make 
grants  of  public  money  to  all  schools,  and  they 
have  made  it  a  condition  of  the  grant  that  no 
denominational  restrictions  shall  be  imposed, 
the  schools  have  become  free  from  even  this 
shadowy  right  of  episcopal   government. 

A.  F.  L. 

See  Church  Schools;  Cloister  Schools; 
Cathedral  Schools;  Refobmation  and 
Education;  etc. 

BLACK  AND  WHITE  WORK.  —  A  term 
usually  applied  to  illustrations,  and  refers  to 
sketches  and  drawings  made  in  ink,  charcoal, 
pencil,  or  black  and  white  oil  paint.  It  is 
significant  in  school  work  usually  in  connection 
with  drawing  and  design  (qq.v.). 

BLACK  DEATH  AND  ENGLISH  EDUCA- 
TION, THE.  — The  Black  Death  of  1348-1349 

—  known  in  chronicles  as  the  "  Great  Death  "  by 
reason  of  the  fearful  destruction  that  it  wrought 
among  man  and  beast,  and  also  called  the 
"  First  Death "  because  it  was  the  first  of  a 
series  of  outbreaks  that  lasted  into  the  sixteenth 
century  and  possibly  only  ended  with  the  out- 
break of  1665  —  was  a  turning  point  in  the 
history  of  English  education.  Indeed,  the 
economic  changes  that  it  brought  about  affected 
the  whole  counse  of  English  history.  Society 
was  disintegrated,  and  the  clergy  who  under- 
took the  bulk  of  the  educational  work  were 
either  destroj'cd  or  disorganized.  We  have 
direct  evidence  as  to  this.  In  a  letter  from 
Pope  Clement  V,  to  Archbishop  Zouche  of 
York,  dated  from  Avignon  Oct.  12,  1349, 
it  is  noted  that  "  in  consequence  of  the  Plague 
there  are  not  enough  priests  to  administer  the 
sacraments  "  in  the  province  of  York,  and  the 
archbishop  is  directed  to  have  additional  ordi- 
nations to  supply  the  need  ( Historical  Papers 
and  Letters  from  the  Northern  Registers,  Rolls 
cd.,  p.  401).  By  a  statute  of  1362  (36  Edw. 
Ill,  c.  8)  the  Commons  petitioned  for  relief 
since  the  "  priests  be  become  very  scant  after 
the  pestilence  to  the  great  grievance  and  oppres- 
sion of  the  people,"  and  the  King  promised  a 
remedy  by  fi.xing  the  wages  of  the  parish  priests. 
In  the  south  it  was  as  bad.  In  the  Constitu- 
tion of  1362,  issued  by  Simon  Islip,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  we  read  that  "  the  priests  that 
now  are,  not  considering  that  they  have  escaped 
the  danger  of  the  pestilence  by  divine  provi- 
dence, not  for  their  own  merits,  but  that  they 
might  exercise  the  ministry  committed  to  them 
.  .  .  have  no  regard  to  the  cure  of  souls  .  .  . 
so  that  .  .  .  many  churches,  prebends,  and 
chapels  of  our  and  your  diocese,  and  of  the 
whole  province,  will  lie  destitute  of  priests  to 
serve  them."  And  again  in  the  Prologue  to 
Piers  Plowman  [Passus  Primus,  11.  81-84)  we 
read :  — 


*'  Persones  and  parish   priestes  pleynede  to  the  bishop 
That  here  parishenes  weren  pore  sith  the  pestilence  tyme, 
To  have  a  licence  and  leve  at  London  to  dwell 
And  singe  there  for  simonye  while  silver  is  so  sweet." 

We  must  now  notice  another  phenomenon 
arising  from  the  Great  Death,  and  will  then  be 
in  a  position  to  estimate  the  influence  of  the 
plague  on  education.  This  phenomenon  is  the 
almost  total  disappearance  of  the  Anglo-Nor- 
man tongue.  It  is  true  that  the  tongue  was 
weakening  before  1348.  In  a  late  thirteenth- 
century  or  early  fourteenth  Oxford  University 
Statute  it  is  directed  that  boys  shall  be  taught 
to  construe  in  French  as  well  as  in  English  in 
order  that  the  former  tongue  might  not  be  for- 
gotten (see  Munimenta  Acadcmica  Oxon.,  pp. 
LXX,  438).  But  on  the  other  hand  we  know 
from  Higden's  Pohjchronicon  (Vol.  II,  pp.  159- 
160)  that  about  the  year  1327  "  children  in  scole 
agenst  the  usage  and  manere  of  alle  othere 
naciouns  beeth  compelled  for  to  leve  hire  owne 
langage,  and  for  to  construe  hir  lessouns  and 
here  thyngs  in  Frensche,  and  so  they  haueth 
seth  the  Normans  come  first  in  to  Engelond." 
That  was  the  rule  twenty  years  before  the  Great 
Death.  In  1362,  twelve  years  after  the  Great 
Death,  we  find  that  pleas  were  ordered  (36 
Edw.  Ill,  c.  15)  to  be  pleaded  in  the  English 
tongue,  defended,  answered,  debated,  and 
judged  in  Enghsh,  and  enrolled  in  Latin.  The 
same  statute  tells  us  the  reason  by  referring  to 
"  the  French  tongue,  which  is  much  unknowen 
in  the  said  realm."  As  we  shall  see  directly,  by 
1385  French  was  generally  excluded  from  Eng- 
lish schools.  The  sudden  birth  of  English  as 
an  educational  and  literary  fact  after  the  Great 
Death  proves  clearly  enough  that  the  school- 
masters of  the  country  had  ceased  to  be  French. 
We  know,  in  fact,  that  the  very  numerous  vacan- 
cies in  churches  caused  by  the  Black  Death 
were  not  filled  up  by  the  alien  priories  in  1349- 
1350,  because  of  the  war  with  France.  The 
temporalities  of  the  priories  were  in  the  hands 
of  the  King,  and  in  a  great  number  of  cases 
(see  Patent  Rolls  for  these  years)  we  find 
appointments  by  the  King  such  as  the  following: 
"  Translation  of  John  de  Clone  to  the  Church 
of  Bisshopcshowe  in  the  diocese  of  Salisbury, 
in  the  King's  gift  by  reason  of  the  Priory  of 
Farlej'e  being  in  his  hands  on  account  of  the 
war  with  France."  Moreover,  the  sudden  rush 
for  orders  that  followed  the  letter  of  Pope 
Clement  V  of  1350  was  made  not  by  foreigners 
but  by  Englishmen,  and  a  very  mixed  company 
of  Englishmen,  too.  The  chronicler  tells  us 
that  the  vacancies  caused  by  the  mortality 
and  flight  of  priests  were  filled  up  by  men  of  all 
kinds,  fit  and  unfit,  ignorant  and  learned, 
including  many  who  had  lost  their  wives 
through  the  pestilence.  This  was  a  new  Eng- 
lish influence  in  education,  and  it  is  therefore 
not  with  any  great  sur|)rise  that  we  read  what 
John  de  Trevisa  in  his  edition  (concluded  in  1387) 
of  Higden's  Polychronicon  has  to  sa}-  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  exclusion  of  French  from  the  schools. 


389 


BLACK   DEATH 


BLACKBOARDS 


After  the  passage  al)ovo,  Higdcn  dwells  on 
the  use  of  French  in  schools  and  good  society 
in  the  year  1327.  Trevisa  (writing  in  Eng- 
lish, be  it  noted)  adds  the  following  comment: 
"  This  manere  was  moche  i-used  to  for  firste 
dcth,  and  is  sith-the  sumdel  i-chaungcd;  for 
John  (Sir  Johan  Cornwaile,)  a  niaistcr  of  grani- 
mer,  chaunged  the  lore  in  granier  scole  and 
construccioun  of  Frenschc  in  to  Englisclie; 
and  Richard  Pencriciie  Icrned  the  manere  tech- 
yngc  of  hym  and  of  othere  men  of  Pencrich; 
so  tliat  now,  the  ycre  of  our  Lorde,  a  thowsand 
thre  hundred  and  foure  score  and  fyve,  and  of 
the  secounde  Richard  after  the  Conquest 
nyne,  in  alle  the  gramere  scoles  of  Eiigelond, 
children  leveth  Frenschc  and  construeth  and 
lerneth  an  Englische,  and  haucth  thereby 
auauntage  in  oon  side  and  disauauntage  in 
anotiier  side;  here  auauntage  is,  that  they  lerneth 
her  gramer  in  lasse  tyme  than  children  were 
i-woned  to  doo;  disauauntage  is  that  now  chil- 
dren of  gramer  scole  conncth  na  more  Frensche 
than  can  hir  lift  heele,  and  that  is  harme  for 
them  and  they  schulle  passe  the  see  and  trauaille 
in  straunge  landes  and  in  many  other  places. 
Also  gentil  men  haueth  now  moche  i-left  for 
to  teche  here  children  Frensche."  Here  we 
have  a  document  of  the  first  importance  in  the 
history  of  English  education.  It  tells  us 
definitely  that  French  was  used  in  the  schools 
up  to  the  date  of  the  Great  Death,  and  that 
within  12  years  the  use  was  abolished  from 
"  all  the  grammar  schools  of  England."  Such 
a  sudden  change  can  only  have  arisen  by  the 
death  or  departure  of  the  class  who  had  always 
taught  in  French.  The  educational  system 
may  have  been  affected  by  the  fact  that  the 
pestilence  particularly  attacked  old  men  and 
boys  {Chronicon  a  Monacho  Sancti  Alhani, 
Rolls  ed.,  p.  49).  We  are  especially  told  that 
the  disease  selected  males  {idem.,  p.  50).  But 
what  is  more  important  to  note  is  that  the 
new  departure  in  education  was  really  a 
Wiclifite  movement.  J\lr.  W.  H.  Stevenson 
appears  to  have  identified  the  priest  John 
Cornwaile,  the  author  of  the  movement,  as  a 
teacher  of  grammar  at  Oxford  in  connection 
with  Merton  College  in  1347.  Now  it  also 
appears  that  Cornwaile's  pupil  Richard  Pen- 
criche  was  a  student  at  Merton  in  1367,  a  con- 
temporary of  Wiclif  and  also  of  John  de 
Trevisa,  then  at  Exeter  College,  who  tells 
the  story  of  the  change.  It  is  pretty  clear 
that  Trevisa  obtained  his  information  direct 
from  the  old  fellow  students.  But  from 
Trevisa's  narrative  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  a 
change  in  one  school,  the  school  of  a  Collegiate 
Church  in  Staffordshire,  could  so  rapidly  have 
effected  the  change  throughout  the  country. 
But  when  we  realize  that  the  whole  movement 
was  an  Oxford  movement,  springing  from 
Merton  and  related  to  Wiclif,  it  can  be  uniler- 
stood  at  once.  The  rapidity  with  which  the 
Wiclif  movement  spread  is  in  itself  astonishing. 
A  statute  of  1382  (5  Ric.  II,  c.  5)  tells  us  that 


the  Wiclif  preachers  "  in  certain  habits  under 
dissimulation  of  great  holiness  "  preached 
daily  in  churches,  churchyards,  fairs  and  mar- 
kets," and  drew  va.st  crowds.  They  preached 
in  English,  their  Bible  was  in  English,  their 
action,  until  1382,  was  perfectly  legal.  From 
the  point  of  view  of  the  history  of  education  it  is 
necessary  to  couple  their  work  with  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Black  Death  in  accounting  for  the 
total  disappearance  of  the  French  tongue  from 
England.  Nor  must  we  forget  the  French 
war  and  the  import  duties  and  tolls  which 
(Patent  Rolls  1348-50,  p.  488)  in  1350  kept 
foreign  merchants  out  of  Oxford  and,  ijro- 
suinably,  out  of  other  places.  The  expulsion 
of  the  Alien  Priories  in  1415  gave  the  last 
blow  to  the  French  tongue.  That  the  Wiclif 
movement  was  definitely  related  to  the  move- 
ment that  ejected  P'rcnch  from  the  schools 
we  can  scarcely  douljt,  when  we  see  that  the 
originators  of  the  latter  movement  were  contem- 
poraries of  Wiclif  at  Merton.  But  apart  from 
this  the  rapid  change  of  teaching  in  the  gram- 
mar schools  must  also  be  attributed  to  the  uni- 
versity origin.  The  grammar  schools  in  the 
fourteenth  century  were  closely  related  to  the 
universities,  and  this  fact  combined  with  the 
Wiclif  movement  and  the  Great  Death  is 
responsible  for  the  extraordinary  rapidity  of 
the  change  and  the  Great  Plague  is  for  this 
reason  a  turning  point  in   English  education. 

J.  E.  G.  DE  M. 
References :  — 
JE.S.SUP.     Corning  of  the  Friars. 

Montmorency,    J.    E.    G.    dc.     Stale  Intervention    in 
English  Education.     (Cambridge,  1!)()2.) 

BLACKBOARDS.  —  Historical      Sketch.  — 

Blackboards  were  evidently  a  modification  of  the 
waxen  taljlets  of  the  Romans  and  the  hornbook 
(q.u.)  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Probably  the  earliest 
evidence  of  this  character  is  found  in  a  manu- 
script of  Sacrobosco  in  13th  century  where 
a  child  is  represented  as  holding  up  a  large 
blackboard  in  the  form  of  a  hornbook  hanng 
figures  written  upon  it.  Numerous  cuts  in 
early  printed  books  exhibit  boards  hung 
on  the  wall  of  a  schoolroom,  having  music 
notes,  catechism,  or  figures  written  upon 
them.  These  are  usually  modified  hornbooks 
in  shape,  hung  loosely  by  an  eye  in  the 
handle,  but  being  very  much  larger  than  any 
board  which  could  be  held  conveniently  in  the 
hand.  The  earliest  of  these  definitely  located 
is  in  the  title-page  illustration  of  a  schoolbook 
{Compendium  octo  partium  orationum)  pub- 
lished in  Basel  in  1499.  (Michael  Furtes.) 
A  similar  one  dated  1500  from  Nuremberg  is 
reproduced  in  the  accompanying  illustration. 
The  Nuremberg  school-regulation  of  about  this 
time  was  to  the  following  effect:  — 

"For  the  'intermediate'  boy  in  Nuremberg 
there  should  be  written  '  towards  night,'  that  is 
in  the  evening  before  leaving  school,  '  with  chalk 
on  the  board,'  —  which  board  was  then  found  in 


390 


BLACKBOARDS 


BLACKBOARDS 


every  schoolroom  —  'in  Latin,  a  Latin  verse  or 
a  maxim  from  a  complete  oration  or  from  the 
proverbs  of  Solomon,  Cato  or  others  like  them, 
and  with  it  two  German  verses,  rhymed  or  un- 
rhymed,  according  to  the  Latin  meaning'  —  the 
German   translation  was  thus  in  verses,  that 


they  might  better  stick  in  the  memory."  (See 
Monographien  zur  deutschen  Kulturgeschichle, 
Band  IX,  Der  Lehrer  in  der  deutschen  Vergang- 
enheil  p.  53.) 

In  the  first  edition  of  Comenius'  Orbis  Pictus, 
published  in  1658,  he  shows  a  schoolroom,  on 
the  wall  of  which  there  hangs  a  blackboard, 
and  in  the  tabulated  description  of  the  things 
in  the  room,  he  says  Quaedam  pracscribi(ntur 
illis  Creta  in  Tahclla.  (Certain  things  are 
written  down  before  them  with  chalk  on  a  little 
board.)  Hoole  translates  yaftfWfi  by  the  English 
word  "  table  "  and  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  figure  6  designating  this  object  is  placed 
alongside  of  the  board  hanging  on  the  wall. 
Besides,  the  primary  meaning  of  this  word  is  not 
table,  but  little  board  or  plank. 

From  this  it  is  entirely  safe  to  say  that  the 
blackboard  was,  if  not  a  customary  thing,  not 
an  unusual  thing  to  be  found  in  the  schoolroom 
in  the  days  of  Goinenius.  We  have  further 
evidence  in  Brin.slev's  Ludus  Liicrarius,  pub- 
lished in  1660. 

When  we  come  to  the  educational  literature 
of  our  own  country,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult 
to  find  much  information  about  the  kinds  of 
blackboards  used  in  the  schools  prior  to  1820. 
About  this  time,  if  we  niav  relv  on  .Joseph  B. 
Felt  in  his  Annuh  of  Salem  (see  p.  469),  Vol.  I, 
"  blackboards  were  used  in  our  common  schools, 
for  arithmetical  calculations.  Manuscripts  of 
sums,  set  for  [jujiils  by  their  masters,  which  had 
continued  for  a  long  period,  began  to  be  laid 
aside."     Blackboards  were  introduced  into  the 


Military  Academy  at  West  Point  in  1817  by  Mr. 
Claude"  C'rozel,  a  graduate  of  the  Polytechnic 
School  of  Paris.  A  blackboard  was  intro- 
duced into  Bowdoin  College  by  Instructor, 
afterward  Professor,  Smyth  in  1824.  The 
account  runs:  "  That  novelty,  let  me  say,  made 
a  sensation.  When  he  had  tested  the  experi- 
ment in  the  Sophomore  algebra,  and  with  great 
success,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Juniors 
requested  the  privilege  of  reviewing  the  algebra 
under  the  new  method  at  an  ex-tra  hour,  —  a 
wonder  in  college  experience;  and  that  black- 
board experiment,  I  am  sure,  led  to  his  appoint- 
ment as  assistant  professor  of  mathematics  a 
year  later.  .  .  .  The  blackboard  caused  an  im- 
portant change  in  the  manner  of  teaching  gen- 
erally, but  especially  in  mathematical  branches. 
In  arithmetic,  a  Freshman  study,  and  algebra,  to 
which  we  were  introduced  at  the  opening  of  the 
Sophomore  year,  each  student  had  his  slate, 
and  when  he  finished  his  work,  he  took  the  va- 
cant chair  next  the  teacher's  and  underwent 
examination  of  process  or  principle  involved. 
In  geometry  we  kept  a  manuscript  in  which 
we  drew  figures,  and  demonstrated  from  them." 
(  HiMorij  of  Bowdoin  College,  by  Cleveland  and 
Packard,  pp.  90-91.) 

In  the  Report  of  the  School  Committee  for 
Boston  in  1823  (p.  54),  the  following  reference 
to  the  use  of  a  blackboard  is  made:  "  In  learn- 
ing Geometry  the  diagrams  of  Euclid  are  taken 
off,  first  on  paper,  with  figures  instead  of  letters, 
that  nothing  may  be  committed  to  memory 
without  being  understood.  When  they  have 
been  demonstrated  from  the  paper,  they  are 
afterward  drawn  by  the  pupil  on  the  black- 
board, with  figures;  when  the  proposition  is 
demonstrated  without  a  book,  or  any  aid  to  the 
memory  whatever."  In  William  A.  Alcott's 
famous  prize  essay  presented  to  the  American 
Institute  of  Instruction  in  August,  1831,  he  gives 
a  floor  plan  of  an  ideal  school,  with  its  furniture 
in  place.  In  this  are  shown  two  large  black- 
boards on  movable  frames,  and  they  are  placed 
immediately  behind  the  rear  row  of  seats,  and 
serve  the  double  purpose  of  a  blackboard  and 
a  screen  from  the  front  door.  In  1839  Dr. 
Henry  Barnard  wrote  in  his  First  Annual  Re- 
port to  the  School  Commissioners  of  Connecticxd. 
"  Blackboards  are  not  uncommon,  but  are  but 
little  resorted  to  by  the  teacher." 

Construction  and  Hygiene  of.  —  When  we 
come  to  a  consideration  of  the  construction  of 
blackboards,  we  find  that  up  to  pretty  well 
toward  the  middle  of  last  century  they  were 
almost  invariably  of  wood  painted  or  stained 
black,  and  were  generally  on  movable  frames 
or  so  fashioned  as  to  be  hung  on  the  walls  where 
need  dictated. 

If  easy  vision  were  the  only  matter  for  con- 
sideration, blackboards  would  be  condemned 
outright,  and  in  their  places  would  be  substi- 
tuted some  form  of  unglazed  white  or  cream- 
colored  surface,  upon  which  black  crayons  would 
be  used;    for  investigation  has  made  it  clear 


391 


BLACKBOARDS 


BLACKBOARDS 


that  a,  black  letter  on  a  white  background  is 
much  more  easily  read  at  a  distance  than  white 
letters  upon  a  black  surface.  Cohn,  in  his 
Hygiene  of  the  Eye,  quotes  Horner  with  ap- 
proval, who  says:  "  The  hygiene  of  the  eye 
demands  the  banishment  of  slates  and  black- 
boards from  our  schools  and  the  use  of  pen  and 
ink  in  their  place.  Compliance  with  this  de- 
mand will  do  something  to  diminish  the  danger 
of  short  sight,  a  danger  which  becomes  more  and 
more  menacing  to  each  successive  generation." 
There  is  now  no  (juestion  in  our  country  con- 
cerning the  use  of  slates.  They  have  gone  from 
almost  all  the  schools,  even  in  the  mountain 
regions  of  the  South  and  West.  Cheap  clean 
paper  and  lead  pencils  have  displaced  the  slate, 
but  we  have  the  blackboard  still  with  us,  and 
undoubtedly  will  continue  to  have.  The  slate 
disappcareci  not  chiefly  because  of  eyestrain, 
but  because  it  was  so  dirty,  unhandy,  and  noisy. 
While  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  for  the  sake  of 
acuity  of  vision  words  written  in  black  on  a 
white  surface  have  the  advantage,  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  the  large  white  surface  ex- 
posed to  the  eye  is  likely  to  stimulate  the  retina 
unduly  over  a  large  field  or  else  to  fatigue  the 
ciliary  muscles  of  the  eye  in  its  efforts  to  accom- 
modate to  the  field  of  vision. 

Taking  it  all  in  all,  it  may  be  laid  down  that 
the  blackboard,  when  made  of  proper  material, 
properly  colored,  properly  placed  with  reference 
to  light  and  the  convenience  of  the  pupils,  and 
when  used  in  a  legitimate  way,  does  not  offer 
a  serious  menace  to  the  eyes  of  our  pupils. 

The  proper  material  for  blackboards.  —  (a) 
Reasonably  good  blackboards  can  be  made 
by  thoroughly  mixing  with  cement  plaster  a  dull 
black  coloring  matter  very  slightly  tinged  with 
dark  green,  and  then  spreading  the  mixture  on 
the  laths  carefully  so  as  to  get  a  level,  even  sur- 
face. In  constructing  this  form  of  black- 
board, which  is  one  of  the  cheapest,  the  best  of 
cement  ought  to  be  used,  and  so  thoroughly 
mixed  with  the  coloring  matter  that  it  would 
make  the  color  uniform  and  even.  It  is  best 
also  to  use  metal  lath  fastened  firmly  on  a 
solid  sheathing  of  lumber. 

Before  applying  the  cement  the  sheathing 
should  be  kept  slightly  damp  for  at  least  half  a 
day  in  order  that  the  dampness  from  the  wet 
plaster  would  not  cause  a  sudden  expansion  of 
the  boards,  and  hence  have  a  tendency  to  crack 
the  plaster  before  it  is  thoroughly  set.  By 
having  the  boards  of  the  sheathing  slightly 
expanded  before  the  plaster  is  applied,  the 
shrinkage  comes  slowly,  and  tends  to  prevent 
the  premature  setting  of  the  plaster,  and  also 
causes  the  pla.ster  to  cling  to  the  wood  as  well  as 
to  the  metal  lath.  Blackboards  so  constructed 
arc  more  solid,  firmer,  and  less  noisy  than  when 
laid  on  wooden  lath.  Care  will  be  needed, 
however,  to  make  sure  that  the  surface  of  the 
board  will  be  neither  too  smooth  nor  too  rough. 

The  advantages  of  this  kind  of  a  blackboard 
are  its  comparative  cheapness,  its  opportunity 


for  proper  coloring,  its  ready  adjustment  to  the 
building,  and  the  readiness  with  which  the 
material  may  be  obtained.  The  disadvantages 
are,  the  absorption  of  moisture  from  within  or 
without,  the  tendency  to  become  oily  from 
contact  with  the  hands  of  the  children,  the 
liability  to  crack  or  chip,  the  diffioilty  of  get- 
ting a  surface  which  will  take  the  chalk  readily, 
evenly,  but  not  wastefully,  and  the  more  or  less 
inevitable  alteration  in  the  color  of  the  board 
through  washings  and  uneven  use. 

(6)  Recent  years  have  seen  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  so-called  hyloplate  blackboards,  and 
these,  when  thoroughly  made,  serve  their  pur- 
pose for  a  time  satisfactorily.  In  general  this 
style  of  blackboard  is  constructed  of  several 
layers  of  heavy  speciallj'  jirepared  paper  so 
fastened  and  pressed  together  as  to  make  a 
solid  "  board  "  which  can  be  cut  to  suit  the 
needs  and  requirements  of  any  schoolroom. 
The  outside  layers,  or,  in  some  cases,  to  a  greater 
depth,  are  colored  thoroughly  and  evenly  to 
suit  requirements.  The  advantages  of  this 
style  of  blackboards  are  these:  there  are  no 
joints,  the  surface  is  even,  they  are  easily  ad- 
justed, they  are  temporarily  inexpensive,  are 
not  easily  broken,  and  take  the  chalk  fairly 
well.  The  disadvantages  in  general  are  these: 
they  are  likely  to  absorb  moisture  from  the 
walls,  especially  if  placed  close  to  brick  walls, 
and  therefore  to  buckle  or  warp  and  draw  away 
in  places  from  the  backing;  thej-  often  wear  un- 
evenly; they  are  most  frequently  noisy;  they 
absorb  oil  and  dirt  from  the  hands,  especially 
after  use  has  rendered  them  pervious;  they 
often  reflect  high  lights  when  clean,  and  are 
rather  easily  injured  by  washings  with  a  wet 
sponge  or  rag.  They  are  not  permanent,  and 
therefore  in  the  long  run  are  perhaps  more  ex- 
pensive than  most  forms  of  blackboards. 

(c)  Slate  blackboards,  as  indicated  above, 
have  been  used  in  this  country  since  the  early 
part  of  the  last  century,  but  expensiveness  and 
the  difficulty  of  getting  tablets  sufficiently 
large  and  properly  set  prevented  the  use  of  this 
material  from  becoming  at  all  common  until 
comparatively  recent  years. 

The  following  are  the  advantages  of  slate  for 
blackboards:  it  has  in  general  a  dull  black 
color,  reflects  no  high  lights,  or  at  least  not  to 
any  troublesome  degree,  will  last  indefinitely, 
takes  the  chalk  easily  and  yet  sparingly,  gives 
a  regular  and  clear  mark  from  the  crayon,  does 
not  absorb  moisture  readily,  can  be  set  solidly 
and  firmly,  is  not  injured  by  washings  or  scrub- 
bings,  and  is  not  noisy  when  properly  set.  The 
disadvantages  are  these:  it  is  expensive  when 
the  initial  cost  is  considered,  but  not  so  when 
its  permanency  is  taken  into  account;  on 
large  walls  there  are  often  troublesome  joints 
owing  to  the  impossibility  of  economically  ob- 
taining and  handling  slabs  of  the  required 
length  and  width;  hence  long  blackboarcls 
must  be  made  of  several  slabs  set  together;  it  is 
not  always  easy  to  get  slabs  of  identical  color. 


392 


BLACKBOARDS 


BLACKBOARDS 


owing  to  the  variations  in  the  different  layers 
and  even  in  different  parts  of  the  same  stratum; 
it  in  time  will  absorb  enough  oil  from  the  hands 
of  the  children  to  render  it  somewhat  variable 
in  its  reflection  of  the  light  and  the  readiness 
with  which  it  will  cut  the  crayon;  it  is  fre- 
quently a  very  difficult  matter  to  get  the  exact 
shade  of  coloring  in  slate  most  suitable  to  the 
hygienic  requirements  of  vision;  it  is  rather 
difficult  to  set  so  that  the  joints  will  fit  closely 
and  evenly,  and  remain  so,  as  the  building 
settles  and  shrinks  into  its  permanent  form. 

Still  it  is  for  general  conditions  one  of  the 
most  satisfactory  materials  to  use  in  the  con- 
struction of  blackboards,  and  school  boards 
rarely  made  a  mistake  when  supplying  it.  It  is 
doubtless  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  it  is  the 
best  material  now  generally  available,  and 
should  be  used  for  all  brick,  stone,  or  concrete 
buildings,  for  in  the  long  run  it  will  prove  least 
expensive  and  most  satisfactory. 

(d)  Glass  blackboards  were  introduced  into 
England  a  decade  or  two  ago,  and  on  the  whole 
are  proving;  very  satisfactory.  As  these  are  as 
yet  rarely  found  in  our  country,  it  seems  well 
to  explain  briefly  how  they  are  made,  as  well 
as  to  set  forth  their  advantages  and  defects. 
The  glass,  which  has  been  cut  into  sheets  to 
suit  the  specific  requirements  of  the  surface  set 
apart  for  the  blackboards,  is  ground  on  one 
side  evenly,  but  lightlj',  so  that  it  is  translucent, 
and  yet  as  smooth  as  possible.  It  is  necessary 
for  this  grinding  to  be  done  carefully,  otherwise 
the  surface  will  be  too  rough,  or  will  not  take 
the  chalk  evenly,  and  hence  render  the  writing 
variable  and  troublesome.  This  ground  surface 
when  correctly  prepared  gives  to  the  finger  tips 
when  passed  over  it  no  great  sense  of  roughness, 
but  a  sort  of  smooth,  hard,  velvety  feehng.  The 
opposite,  or  unground  side,  is  then  painted  a  dull 
dead  black  or  a  dull  black  slightly  tinged  with 
green.  When  this  color  is  dry  the  glass  is  then 
ready  to  set.  The  ground  side  is  the  outside, 
while  the  black  or  painted  side  is  set  into  the 
wall.  Because  of  the  fact  that  the  glass  is 
translucent,  the  color  shows  through  from  be- 
hind and  seems  to  be  a  part  of  the  glass.  The 
ground  surface  cuts  the  crayon  or  talc  suffi- 
ciently well  to  leave  a  clear  even  mark,  and 
yet,  if  correctly  ground,  does  not  release  an 
undue  amount  of  chalk  dust  in  the  room. 
If  the  plates  of  glass  are  unusually  large,  the 
expense  is  increased;  but  it  does  not  seem 
necessary  to  make  them  anj^  larger  than 
the  slabs  of  slate  ordinarily  used,  for,  with 
the  proper  care  in  setting,  the  joints  of  the 
glass  can  be  made  to  fit  so  closely  that  they  are 
scarcely  noticeable. 

Since  the  painted  side  is  wholly  out  of  con- 
tact with  dirty  hands,  crayons,  erasers,  and 
sponges,  the  color  of  the  board  remains  perma- 
nent, uniform,  and  undisturbed  in  any  way. 
Naturally  the  glass  ought  to  be  set  solidly  and 
evenly  against  a  well-prepared  back  of  wood  or 
cement   so   that   there  will    be   no  giving,  nor 


hollow  sound  when  the  chalk  is  used.  When  so 
prepared  they  give  forth  very  little  noise, 
occasion  no  unpleasant  scratchy  sensations, 
and  seem  almost  ideal  surfaces  for  blackboard 
exercises.  The  advantages  of  glass  black- 
boards are:  the  color  can  be  made  to  suit 
the  most  exacting  demands  of  the  hygiene  of 
vision;  no  high  lights  are  possible  from  any 
part  of  the  room;  they  will  not  absorb  the  oil 
from  perspiring  hands;  they  arc  impervious  to 
moisture,  and  can  be  set  against  outside  brick ' 
walls  if  the  conditions  demand  it;  they  are  easilj' 
and  safely  cleaned ;  they  will  last  indefinitely  and 
seem  to  grow  more  satisfactory  through  use, 
owing  doubtless  to  the  fact  that  the  ground  sur- 
face becomes  more  finely  and  evenly  roughened ; 
they  are  not  noi.sy,  and  display  a  plain  uniform 
mark;  they  vnti  in  time  become  inexpensive,  and 
can  be  adjusted  to  the  wall  space  as  readily  as 
hyloplate.  The  disadvantages  which  were 
noticed  in  the  London  schools,  where  they  are 
commonly  used,  are  these:  the  joints  are 
slightly  noticeable,  and,  if  they  separate  a 
little,  gather  chalk  dust;  some  teachers  of  art 
claim  that  they  do  not  give  an  "  artistic  line." 
These  objections  seem  comparatively  insignifi- 
cant when  the  main  use  of  the  blackboard  is 
taken  into  the  consideration.  Clay,  who  doubt- 
less had  considered  all  materials  carefully,  says, 
"The  best  material  for  a  black-board  is  probably 
roughened  glass  coloured  black  or  dark  green  at 
the  back,  though  the  objection  to  this  (glass) 
is  that  it  wears  away  the  chalk  so  quickly  that 
it  is  difficult  to  keep  a  point  for  writing." 
(See  Felix  Clay,  Modern  School  Buildings, 
p.  99,  Botsford,  London,  1902.)  In  the  Report 
of  the  Schoolhouse  Commission  made  to  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States  in  1908  relative 
to  consohdation  of  schools  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  we  are  told,  "  The  black-glass  board 
is  the  ideal  board,  remaining  permanently 
black,  never  needing  repair,  and  being  practi- 
cally indestructible.  It  is,  however,  extremely 
expensive."     (See  p.  26.) 

In  addition  to  the  kinds  of  boards  here  men- 
tioned, there  are  a  number  of  patented  composi- 
tion mostly  made  of  paper  or  pulp  compressed 
and  coated  with  so-called  liquid  slating.  They 
are  rather  inexpensive,  and  on  inner  walls  free 
from  moisture  they  serve  very  well  for  a  number 
of  years.  But  they  will  not  stand  much  washing, 
and  will  in  time  buckle  and  warp  and  lose  their 
color. 

Position  of  Blackboards.  —  Naturally  black- 
boards ought  to  be  located  where  the  pupils 
will  have  ready  access  to  them,  where  they  can 
be  seen  easily  from  the  desks,  and  where  they 
will  receive  "plenty  of  light.  With  unilateral 
lighting,  the  teacher's  board  should  be  at  the 
front  end  of  the  room,  with  preference  given  to 
the  center  and  right  half,  as  the  children  sit  at 
their  seats.  This  board  should  be  higher  from 
the  floor  than  any  other  board  in  the  room,  in 
order  that  whatever  may  be  placed  thereon 
can  be  read  easily  from  all  parts  of  the  room. 


393 


BLACKBOARDS 


BLACKSTONE 


The  bottom  of  the  teacher's  board  should  be 
4  feet  from  the  floor  and  the  width  of  the  board 
should  be  at  least  3  feet.  The  bottom  part  of  a 
teacher's  board  set  lower  than  this  is  rarely  if 
ever  used,  and  the  upper  part,  if  higher  than 
7  feet  above  the  floor,  is  usually  out  of  reach  of 
the  average  teacher,  and  therefore  seldom  used. 

The  blackboards  especially  designed  for  the 
use  of  the  pupils  should  be  placed  on  the  wall 
opposite  the  windows,  and  also  on  the  wall  in 
the  rear  end  of  the  room.  All  the  available 
space  of  the  proper  height  on  these  walls  should 
be  used  for  lilackboards.  In  rooms  designed 
for  the  children  of  the  primary  grades  (from 
grade  I  to  III,  inclusive)  the  bottom  of  the 
blackboard  should  be  set  26  inches  above  the 
floor,  and  the  width  of  the  board  from  bottom 
to  to])  should  be  30  inches.  In  the  rooms  de- 
signed to  accommodate  children  of  the  inter- 
mediate grades  (IV  to  VI  inclusive),  the  bottom 
of  the  blackboard  should  be  30  inches  from  the 
floor,  and  the  width  of  the  board  from  bottom 
to  top  shouUl  be  36  inches.  In  rooms  designed 
for  children  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  and 
high  school  grades,  it  is  best  to  set  the  board 
3  feet  above  the  floor  and  make  it  3  feet  6 
inches  wide  from  bottom  to  top. 

It  will  be  well  for  school  authorities  to  insist 
that  their  builders  follow  these  figures  closely, 
for  by  so  doing  the  expense  of  blackboards  will 
be  diminished,  less  light-absorbing  surface  will 
be  introduced,  and,  best  of  all,  blackboards  will 
be  situated  within  the  easy  and  normal  reach  of 
the  children.  There  are  many  school  buildings 
in  our  country,  in  which  they  are  set  so  high 
above  the  floor  that  the  children  of  the  primary 
grades  cannot  reach  them  unless  they  stand  on 
foot  benches;  and  there  are  a  multitude  of 
others  in  which  the  boards  are  set  so  high  as  to 
render  the  upper  half  useless  because  out  of 
reai'h  of  the  pupils.  In  the  two  upper  grades 
and  the  high  school  there  are  greater  differences 
in  the  height  of  the  children,  and  therefore  all 
cannot  be  so  evenly  adjusted  to  the  blackboard 
as  in  the  lower  grades.  In  high  school  the 
boys  are  often  much  taller  than  the  girls,  and 
hence  there  must  be  more  room  for  adjustment 
than  in  the  lower  grades. 

Chalk  trays  so  placed  as  to  catch  all  the 
chalk  dust  and  to  hold  the  crayons  and  erasers 
should  be  fastened  immediately  beneath  the 
blackboards.  These  trays  should  be  rounded 
on  the  inside  and  out;  inside,  to  make  it  easy 
to  collect  and  remove  the  chalk  dust  and  any 
other  dirt  accumulating  therein;  outside,  to 
get  rid  of  sharp-cornered  projections  in  the 
room. 

It  is  helpful  to  set  a  wire  screen  in  the  chalk 
trough  so  as  to  prevent  the  crayons  and  the 
erasers  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  dust 
which  has  fallen  from  the  board.  This  wire 
must  be  set  sufficiently  below  the  level  of  this 
trough  to  prevent  erasers  and  crayons  from 
falling  out.  It  can  be  hinged  or  clasped  to  the 
sides  so  that  it  will  not  get  warped,  or  knocked 


out,  and  yet  be  easily  removed  when  necessary 
to  clean  the  dust  out  of  the  trough. 

Under  no  condition,  in  old  buildings  or  new, 
should  there  ever  be  a  blackboard  between 
windows,  as  it  is  impossible  to  read  from  a 
distance  anything  written  on  a  board  so  placed. 

Value.  —  Blackboards  have  become  so 
much  of  a  factor  in  our  methods  of  work  that 
we  really  wonder  how  old-time  teachers  did 
without  them.  They  are  not  only  valuable 
aids  in  our  methods  of  presenting  many  subjects; 
they  serve  as  a  socializing  agent  of  no  smaU 
moment.  They  bring  the  individual  pupil 
and  his  work  directly  before  the  whole  class, 
stimulate  him  to  self-dependence,  and  furnish  a 
splendid  opportunity  for  that  democratic  give- 
and-take  criticism  which  he  must  meet  in  real 
life.  They  save  the  teacher  much  time,  and 
furnish  a  ready  means  of  giving  daily  drill 
and  daily  tests.  It  is  entirely  safe  to  say 
that  American  teachers  and  pupils  get  more 
help  from  blackboard  work  than  do  the 
teachers  and  students  of  any  other  nation. 

F.  B.  D. 

BLACKBURN  UNIVERSITY,  CARLIN- 
VILLE,  ILL.  —  A  coeducational  institution 
organized  in  1864-1865.  Academic,  collegiate, 
and  musical  departments  are  maintained. 
Admission  to  the  college  is  by  certificate  from 
an  approved  high  school  or  by  examination 
reciuiring  about  15  units  of  high  school  work. 
Degrees  are  conferred  in  arts,  philosophy,  and 
science.  There  are  7  professors  on  the  faculty. 
Walter  Hensill  Bradley,  Ph.D.,  is  the  presi- 
dent. 

BLACKSTONE,  SIR-WILLLAM  (1723-1780). 
—  The  author  of  the  famous  Commentaries  has 
a  certain  importance  in  the  history  of  education 
as  one  who  strengthened  the  drift  of  theoretical 
or  philosophic  thought  in  the  direction  of  com- 
pulsory education.  He  was  indeed  one  of  its 
earliest  advocates,  and  gave  expression  to  his 
\'iews  before  the  same  position  was  adopted  by 
Adam  Smith  and  Jeremy  Bentham.  Writing 
on  the  subject  of  education  {Commentaries, 
Book  I,  ch.  16)  in  1765  he  says,  "  As  Puffendorf 
(Laiv  of  Nations,  Basil  Kennet's  translation, 
3d  ed.,  1717;  Bk.  VI,  c.  2,  3,  §  12,  p.  379)  very  weU 
observes,  it  is  not  easy  to  imagine  or  allow, 
that  a  parent  has  conferred  any  considerable 
benefit  on  his  child,  by  bringing  him  into  the 
world;  if  he  afterwards  entirely  neglects  his 
culture  and  education,  and  suffers  him  to  grow 
up  like  a  mere  beast,  to  lead  a  life  useless  to 
others,  and  shameful  to  himself.  Yet  the 
municipal  laws  of  most  countries  seem  defec- 
tive in  this  point,  by  not  constraining  the 
parent  to  bestow  a  proper  education  upon  his 
children.  Perhaps  they  thought  it  punishment 
enough  to  leave  the  parent,  who  neglects  the 
instruction  of  his  family,  to  labor  under  those 
griefs  and  inconveniences,  which  his  family, 
so  uninstructed,  wiU    be   sure   to    bring   upon 


394 


BLAIR 


BLIND 


him."  This  school  of  thought  did  in  this  way 
scarcely  less  than  the  practical  energy  of  Bell 
(q.v.)  and  Lancaster  {q.v.)  or  the  political  energy 
of  Whitbread  (q.v.),  Brougham  (q.v.),  and  Roe- 
buck to  produce  a  revival  in  English  elementary 
education.  The  Cummentaries  of  course  are  also 
a  useful  guide  to  some  historical  questions  relat- 
ing to  education  (such  as  Benefit  of  Clergy  (q.v.), 
and  tell  us  much  as  to  the  history  of  legal 
education.  J.  E.  G.  de  M. 

BLAIR,  JAMES  (1656-174.3).  —  The  first 
president  of  William  and  Mary  College  (q.v.) 
was  born  in  Scotland  and  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  in  1676.  He  was 
sent  to  America  as  a  missionary  by  the  Bishop 
of  London  in  1685.  He  became  deeply  inter- 
ested in  the  educational  needs  of  the  colonists, 
and  was  the  moving  spirit  in  the  organization 
of  William  and  Mary  College,  and  the  president 
of  this  institution  from  1692  to  1743.  He  was 
also  interested  in  the  education  of  the  Indians, 
and  endeavored  to  secure  a  special  endowment 
for  this  purpose.  Blair  cooperated  with  H. 
Hartwell  and  Chilton  in  writing  The  Present 
State  of  Virginia  and  the  College  (London,  1727). 

W.  S.  M. 
References  :  — 
Adams,    H.    B.     College    of    William    and    Mary.     In 

U.S.   Circulars  of  Information,   1887,   No.    1. 
History  of  the   College  of   William   and   Mary  from   its 

Foundation,  16li0  to  1874. 
Life  of  Commissary   James   Blair,  Founder  of  WiUiatn 

and     Mary     College.     Johns   Hopkins   University 

Studies,  Ser.  9,  No.  10.     (Baltimore,  1904.) 

BLAIRSVILLE    COLLEGE    FOR    GIRLS, 

BLAIRSVILLE,  PA.  —  Founded  in  1857  as 
the  Blairsville  l^eminary;  present  title  dates 
from  1893.  Preparatory,  collegiate,  and  musi- 
cal departments  are  maintained.  Girls  12 
years  of  age  are  admitted  to  the  preparatory 
course.  Admission  into  the  college  is  by  cer- 
tificate from  a  high  school  or  academy  or  by 
examination  requiring  about  10  points  of  high 
school  work.  Degrees  are  given  in  classical 
and  literary  courses.  There  are  12  instructors 
on  the  faculty. 

BLANKS,  FORMS  AND  USE  OF.  —  See 
Reports  and  Records. 

BLAURER,  AMBROSIUS  (1492-1564).— 
A  German  schoolman  of  the  Reformation 
period.  He  was  born  in  Constance  and  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Tubingen.  Having 
emijraced  the  new  faith,  he  introduced  the 
Reformation  in  Constance,  Ulm,  and  a  numlier 
of  other  cities  in  Southern  (Jermany.  While 
drawing  up  church  regulations  for  these,  he 
always  had  special  regard  for  the  schools.  In 
1535  he  reorganized  the  University  of  Tubingen. 

BLEDSOE,  ALBERT  TAYLOR  (1809-1877). 
—  Educator,  graduated  from  the  United  States 
Mihtary  Academy,  1830;   instructor  in  Kenyon 


College  and  Miami  University  from  1833  to 
1836;  professor  in  the  University  of  Mississippi 
from  1848  to  1854,  and  m  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia from  1854  to  1861;  author  of  F'hilosophy 
of  Mathematics.  W.  S.  M. 

BLIND,  EDUCATION  OF  THE.  —  Bhnd- 
ness  varies  through  all  degrees  of  defective 
vision  to  absolute  blindness,  which  is  inability 
to  perceive  dayhght.  In  a  practical  sense 
any  one  is  bhnd  who  cannot  distinguish  common 
objects,  and  a  child  who  cannot  see  ordinary 
print  is  admitted  to  our  schools  for  the  bhnd. 
It  has  been  calculated  that  there  is  one  sightless 
person  in  every  thou.sand.  The  census  of 
England  and  Wales  for  1901  shows  one  blind 
person  in  1285.  The  prevalence  of  blindness 
is  greatest  in  Eastern  countries,  where  little  is 
done  toward  healing  the  diseases  of  the  eye  or 
improving  the  unsanitary  conditions  that  cause 
them.  In  Western  countries  blindness  is  di- 
minishing, especially  among  the  more  prosperous 
classes,  which  receive  the  benefits  of  advanced 
medical  and  surgical  knowledge.  Probably 
two  fifths  of  all  bhndness  is  preventable  by  the 
application  of  modern  medical  treatment  to 
defects  and  diseases  of  the  eye  and  by  the  appli- 
cation of  simple  hygienic  principles  to  domestic 
and  industrial  life.  The  Massachusetts  Com- 
mission for  the  Blind  issues  a  bulletin  on  the 
prevention  of  blindness  from  ophthalmia  neona- 
torum, and  various  agencies  in  other  states 
distribute  similar  bulletins;  but  many  of  our 
commonwealths  have  done  nothing  to  check 
the  needless  waste  of  human  eyes.  A  large  por- 
tion of  the  blind  are  stricken  in  adult  years  in 
the  midst  of  active  lives;  many  of  them  are 
blinded  by  unnecessary  accidents  in  mines  and 
factories.  IMuch  blindness  is  but  one  result 
of  disease  which  has  caused  other  weaknesses  of 
mind  and  body.  M.  Sizeranne  (1887)  finds 
that  of  the  40,000  blind  in  France  and  Algiers 
4000  are  minors,  and  that  of  these,  after  the 
feeble-minded  and  otherwise  incapable  are 
deducted,  there  remain  from  1500  to  2000  from 
5  to  15  years  of  age  fit  to  benefit  by  the  schools 
for  the  blind.  He  also  believes  that  nearly  all 
of  the  capable  blind  children  find  their  waj^  to 
the  schools,  and  this  is  probably  true  in  all  the 
more  progressive  countries.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  in  Germany  (1900)  there  were 
3000  blind  of  school  age  and  fit  for  instruction, 
and  of  these  2500  were  in  the  schools.  In 
America  calculations  based  on  the  special 
census  of  Massachusetts  and  on  that  of  New 
York  State  show  that  there  are  about  100,000 
sightless  in  a  population  of  over  80,000,000. 
A  proper  American  census  of  defectives  has  not 
yet  been  taken.  About  4.500  pupils  are  enrolled 
in  the  schools  of  the  United  States.  It  may  be 
that  the  thin  distribution  of  our  people  over 
a  great  area  tends  to  isolate  some  of  the  blind 
and  deprive  them  of  the  opportunities  which 
the  state  in.stitutions  offer;  but  this  condition, 
if  it  exists,  must  yield  before  the  increase  of 


395 


BLIND 


BLIND 


popular  knowledge  about  the  blind  and  a  more 
thorough  registration  of  defective  classes. 

Historical.  —  Until  near  tlie  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  it  was  not  deemed  necessary 
or  possible  to  teach  the  siglitless.  Here  and 
there  an  educated  blind  person  distinguished 
himself  by  remarkable  ability,  usually  one  who 
had  lost  his  sight  after  his  education  had  been 
completed,  and  who  continued  work  with  which 
he  had  long  been  familiar.  The  masses  of  the 
blind  remained  in  utter  ignorance,  neglected, 
shunned.  They  sat  by  the  roadside  and  begged 
alms,  and  they  were  looked  upon  with  supersti- 
tious pity.  The  gospel  which  Christianity  had 
brought  to  the  inflicted  was  strangely  misin- 
terpreted. BUndness,  deafness,  and  mental 
defects  were  regarded  as  signs  of  the  wrath  of 
God  against  sinful  man,  to  be  patiently  borne. 
Only  two  institutions  for  the  sightless  were 
founded  during  the  Middle  Ages,  one  in  Mein- 
mingen,  Bavaria,  in  1178  (the  story  of  this 
foundation  is  not  well  authenticated),  and  the 
other  at  Paris,  the  Quinze-Vingts,  an  asylum 
established  by  St.  Louis  in  1260  for  300  soldiers 
who  had  been  blinded  in  war.  This  in.stitu- 
tion  in  a  modified  form  is  still  in  existence. 

The  deeper  humanitarianism  and  more 
scientific  spirit  of  modern  times  has  replaced 
the  idea  of  forlorn  endurance  with  the  nobler 
idea  of  alleviation  and  cure.  In  1771  at  a 
fair  in  Paris  an  innkeeper  exhibited  for  the 
edification  of  the  pubUc  a  group  of  blind  men 
attired  in  ridiculous  garb,  including  pasteboard 
spectacles.  They  gave  a  "  concert  "  for  the 
benefit  of  their  employer;  and  the  people 
laughed,  as  the  Elizabethans  laughed  at  mad- 
ness, thoughtlessly,  good-naturedlj'.  One  of 
the  spectators  was  Valentin  Haiiy,  the  Moses 
of  the  blind.  He  cast  about  for  some  means  to 
make  the  lot  of  the  bhnd  less  miserable,  to 
J  teach  them  self-respect  and  usefulness.  He 
bribed  a  bright-faced  blind  boy,  Lesueur,  to 
cease  begging  and  submit  to  instruction.  His 
success  led  to  the  founding,  in  1784,  of  L'lnsti- 
lulion  Nalionale  des  Jeunes  Aveiigles,  the  first 
school  for  the  blind  in  the  world. 

When  the  possibility  of  teaching  the  blind 
was  once  demonstrated,  the  public  was  filled 
with  wonder,  and  philanthropists  and  teachers 
were  filled  with  joy  and  ambition;  they  took 
up  the  new  work  for  humanity,  and  carried 
Haiiy's  ideas  to  other  countries.  Under  the 
most  adverse  economic  and  political  circum- 
stances —  it  was  the  period  of  the  Revolution 
—  money  was  raised,  and  schools  for  the  sight- 
less sprang  up  in  rapid  succession.  One  was 
founded  in  Liverpool,  1791,  another  in  Bristol, 
1793,  another  in  London,  1799;  Norwich 
Asylum  and  School,  1805,  Richmond  National 
Institution  in  Dublin,  1810,  an  asylum  in 
Aberdeen,  1812.  New  institutions  have  been 
founded  in  Great  Britain  every  year  or  two 
during  the  last  century.  The  early  rapid 
development  of  the  work  for  the  blind  in  Great 
Britain  is  due  partly  to  the  admiration  of  the 


British  for  the  great  blind  men  of  their 
race,  Milton,  Saunderson,  the  mathematician, 
Thomas  Blacklock,  the  Scottish  poet  and 
preacher,  and  John  Metcalf,  the  road  builder, 
a  man  of  astonishing  energy  and  self-reliance. 
In  Austria  the  first  school  was  ojiened  at  Vienna 
by  Johann  Williclm  Klein  in  1S04.  Au.stria  has 
been  called  the  cradle  of  the  education  of  the 
blind,  for  it  w^as  the  Austrian  singer,  Maria 
Theresa  von  Paradis,  herself  blind,  whose 
accomplishments  inspired  in  Haiiy  and  Klein 
the  belief  that  the  sightless  can  be  raised  not 
merely  out  of  misery,  but  to  high  planes  of 
culture  and  achievement.  Klein's  splendid 
energy  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  other 
institutions  in  Austria  during  the  first  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  and  his  influence 
contributed  to  the  foundation  of  institutions 
in  Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  In  the 
midst  of  bitter  war  —  Napoleon  was  in  the 
city!  —  the  Royal  Institution  for  the  Blind 
was  founded  in  Berlin  in  1806.  The  institu- 
tion at  Dresden  followed  in  1S09.  Nine  years 
later  work  for  the  blind  began  in  Brcslau,  and 
from  1826  to  1830  schools  were  opened  at 
Munich,  Stuttgart,  Bruchsal,  Braunschweig, 
Hamburg.  Holland  made  haste  to  begin  the 
work  of  educating  the  blind,  in  1808;  Sweden 
followed  in  1810,  and  Denmark,  in  1811. 

Most  of  the  early  institutions  for  the  blind 
were  enterprises  undertaken  by  generous  indi- 
viduals and  philanthropic  societies.  But  grad- 
ually civil  authorities  came  more  and  more  to 
feel  it  their  duty  to  extend  the  education  of  the 
blind  as  well  as  of  the  seeing.  To-day  most 
institutions  for  the  blind  in  Europe  and  America 
receive  aid  from  the  proAince  or  state,  and  are 
under  the  control  of  the  government. 

The  work  for  the  blind  in  America  began  a 
generation  later  than  the  work  in  Europe.  Dr. 
Howe  in  Boston,  Ackerly  and  Russ  in  New 
York,  Fricdliinder  in  Philadelphia,  were  the 
pioneers  in  this  country,  and  entered  upon  their 
labors  in  the  early  thirties.  Other  states  fol- 
lowed, until  now  there  are  42  schools  in  America, 
roughly  speaking,  one  for  each  commonwealth. 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York  have  2  each. 
Some  .states,  such  as  New  Jersey,  Vermont,  and 
New  Hampshire,  have  none,  but  make  provi- 
sion to  send  blind  pupils  to  neighboring  states. 

Most  of  the  institutions  in  America  are  sup- 
ported wholly  by  the  State,  though  several, 
notably  the  Perkins  Institution  at  Boston,  the 
Pennsylvania  Institution  near  Philadelphia,  and 
the  institution  in  New  York  City,  are  sup- 
ported also  by  endowments.  Only  4  of  these 
institutions  for  the  instruction  of  the  young 
blind  were  founded  within  the  last  10  years. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  of  the  17  or  18 
industrial  establishments  for  the  blind  of  the 
United  States  more  than  half  came  into  exist- 
ence within  the  la.st  decade,  it  will  be  seen  that 
during  the  first  75  years  of  w^ork  for  the  blind 
in  America,  attention  was  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  the  teaching  of  the  young  bhnd. 


396 


BLIND 


BLIND 


Almost  all  the  schools  offer  some  sort  of  indus- 
trial training  or  business  course.  But  with  one 
or  two  exceptions  they  have  no  adequate 
records  of  the  careers  of  their  graduates  in  after 
life,  so  that  their  efficiency  is  hard  to  measure. 
In  this  they  do  not  differ  from  our  common 
schools  for  the  seeing. 

Some  Principles  in  the  Education  of  the  Blind. 
—  The  institutions  for  the  blind  in  the  several 
countries  reflect  the  educational  ideals  of  the 
schools  for  the  seeing.  In  France,  where  the 
public  is  artistic  and  music  lo\ang,  there  seem 
to  be  more  successful  blind  musicians  than  in 
any  other  country,  though  Dr.  Campbell's 
great  school  in  England,  the  Royal  Normal 
College  and  Academy  of  Music  for  the  Blind,  is 
inferior  to  none  in  the  world.  The  effort  in 
Germany  is  to  fit  each  individual,  seeing  or 
blind,  to  be  an  independent  workman  contribut- 
ing to  the  national  welfare;  Germany  therefore 
has  built  up  the  best  balanced  system  of  intel- 
lectual and  industrial  training,  and,  as  would 
be  expected,  the  work  for  the  blind  in  Germany 
embodies  a  similar  ideal  of  balance,  unity,  and 
completeness.  It  should  be  noted,  too,  that 
in  Germany  the  teachers  of  the  blind  are  al- 
most all  normal  school  graduates  with  teach- 
ing experience  in  the  elementary  schools,  and 
are  therefore,  as  a  class,  superior  to  the  average 
teacher  in  other  countries.  In  Great  Britain 
the  tendency  has  been  to  keep  the  blind,  who 
are  mostly  from  the  poorer  classes,  in  the  ranks 
of  the  lower-grade  workman,  and  England  and 
Scotland  have  been  remarkably  successful  in 
carrying  out  the  sensible  and  practical  idea 
of  providing  manual  occupation  for  as  many 
of  the  blind  as  possible.  Intellectual  edu- 
cation has  not,  until  recently,  been  ex- 
tended to  so  many  of  the  sightless  in  Great 
Britain  as  in  America,  and  yet  a  generation 
ago  no  country  in  the  world  would  have  equaled 
the  readiness  with  which  the  English  people 
recognized  and  promoted  to  high  position  such 
a  blind  man  as  Henry  Fawcett,  who  became 
postmaster-general.  In  America  the  preva- 
lent educational  ideal  has  been  to  offer  to  every- 
body a  common  school  education,  and  to  trust 
that  the  individual,  following  his  own  inclina- 
tions and  plunging  into  practical  work,  will 
find  in  the  work  itself  the  special  training  needed 
to  prepare  him  for  it!  A  beginning  to  provide 
trades  schools  even  for  the  seeing  is  only  just 
being  made.  Few  states  have  correlated  and 
unified  the  education  of  the  seeing  into  an 
effective  system.  But  under  any  system,  if  it 
is  as  generous  and  free-for-all  as  the  American, 
the  seeing  person  will  find  himself,  whereas  the 
blind  man  is  left  unguidcd.  Almost  any  Ameri- 
can blind  child  can  go  to  a  school  and  learn 
geometry  and  Latin.  But  with  our  40  schools 
for  the  blind  we  have  only  a  score  of  indu.strial 
establishments,  of  which  only  10  are  state  insti- 
tutions or  receive  state  aid.  In  them  about 
000  men  and  women  are  eini)loye(l.  In  Great 
Britain,  which  has  half  the  population  and  so 


about  half  the  number  of  blind  of  this  country, 
there  are  50  workshops  employing  some  20(30 
men  and  women.  Twelve  of  the  state  schools 
in  America  are  combined  institutions  for  the 
deaf  and  the  blind, —  a  combination  which  is  bad 
for  both  classes.  As  a  whole,  the  work  for  the 
blind  in  America  is  generous,  energetic,  and  dis- 
orderly, and  yet  several  of  the  schools  taken  by 
themselves  are  wonderfully  fine.  What  a  recent 
writer  says  about  the  work  done  for  the  deaf 
by  "  the  receptive  and  thorough  American  "  is 
true  of  the  work  for  the  blind:  the  blind  person 
"  is  being  experimented  with  on  a  colossal 
scale.  More  money  is  being  spent  on  him 
than  in  any  other  country  in  the  world,  and 
although  not  the  shortest,  nor  the  cheapest, 
nor  in  any  sense  the  best  way,  this  is  one  way 
of  getting  at  the  truth  —  and  the  Americans 
will  get  at  the  truth  whatever  it  costs."  Any 
comparison  of  the  work  done  in  the  various 
countries  becomes  untrue  even  as  it  is  written. 
Every  country  is  trying  to  find  out  what  other 
countries  are  doing,  and  to  import  the  best. 
Industrial  education  for  the  blind  and  other 
systematic  effort  to  prepare  the  blind  to  take 
their  rightful  places  in  the  social  scheme  is 
advancing  rapidly  in  America.  Several  states 
have  recently  created  commissions,  and  volun- 
teer associations  are  being  formed  in  many 
cities.  Though  the  new  work  does  not  always 
merge  economically  and  without  friction  into 
the  work  that  is  already  established  and  tra- 
ditional, all  streams  of  education  and  enterprise 
in  behalf  of  the  blind  must  in  time  find  their 
beds,  unite,  and  flow  increasingly  together. 
Besides  the  wealth  and  energy  brought  to  bear 
on  the  problems  of  the  blind  in  America,  there 
is  in  the  American  system  one  principle  which  is 
fundamentally  established,  and  more  than  any- 
thing else  insures  success  in  the  end,  that  is,  the 
principle  that  the  sightless  are  not  objects  of 
willful  charity,  to  be  set  outside  of  the  social 
scheme,  but  they  have  a  right  to  the  best 
education  that  can  be  devised,  and  the  State 
must  provide  it. 

When  the  education  of  the  blind  was  a  new 
enterprise  in  Europe  and  America,  philanthro- 
pi.sts  and  teachers  were  enthusiastic  idealists 
—  if  they  had  not  been,  the  work  would  never 
have  been  started.  They  dreamed  that  the 
sightless,  because  of  their  freedom  from  the 
distractions  of  the  outer  world,  would  be  able 
to  concentrate  their  minds  upon  lofty  themes 
and  become  brilliant  poets,  mathematicians, 
musicians.  For  a  while  this  belief  seemed  to 
be  justified;  only  the  brighter,  more  enter- 
prising blind  went  to  the  new  institutions. 
But  later  the  mediocre  and  the  inferior  came  in 
large  numbers,  and  teachers  found  themselves 
confronted  with  a  class  of  people  below  the 
average  in  general  health  and  therefore  in 
ability.  The  disappointment,  however,  had  a 
steadying  effect;  it  led  teachers  to  study  the 
nature  of  blindness  and  put  the  work  on  a 
practical  basis.     The  labor  of  lifting  the  sight- 


397 


BLIND 


BLIND 


less  out  of  niispry  becaino  more  and  more 
rational  without  losing  all  of  its  initial  enthu- 
siasm, and  the  history  of  it  is  a  touching  record 
of  disintcrestt'd  cITort,  patience,  and  devotion. 

Present  Position.  —  The  education  of  the 
blind  child  does  not  differ  essentially  from  that 
of  the  child  who  sees.  Both  are  taught  to 
8tu<ly,  to  work,  to  live  with  other  people.  They 
are  etiually  susceptible  to  lessons  and  discipline, 
provided  the  blind  child  has  no  other  disability 
than  lack  of  siglit.  Differences  in  the  methods 
of  teaching  the  blind  and  the  seeing  arise  from 
differences  in  their  sense  experience.  The 
blind  learn  through  hearing  and  touch;  they 
read  raised  letters  instead  of  flat.  They  are 
not  shut  out  from  the  richest  source  of  civi- 
lized knowledge,  the  spoken  words  of  men, 
and  they  make  the  same  identity  between  the 
the  embossed  letters  and  the  spoken  word  that 
the  seeing  person  makes  between  oral  language 
and  flat  letters.  For  the  blind  person  the  pro- 
cess of  reading  the  world  of  objects,  and  the 
printed  letters  that  symbolize  them,  is  slower 
than  the  corresponding  process  of  the  sighted 
person.  Sight  surveys,  includes,  makes  rapid 
and  sweeping  comparisons.  The  sense  of  touch 
perceives  points  and  assembles  disjointed  im- 
pressions; it  constructs,  measures,  and  synthe- 
sizes. It  conveys  to  the  mind  very  much  more 
than  the  seeing  person  is  wont  to  believe 
possible  unless  he  has  read  Berkeley  and  other 
philosophers  and  psychologists.  The  blind 
man  who  suddenly  recovers  his  sight  cannot 
recognize  by  sight  alone  objects  with  which  his 
fingers  are  familiar.  He  has  to  learn  to  see, 
to  interpret  visual  impressions  in  the  light  of 
tactual  experience.  Touch  is  the  fundamental 
sense.  With  the  sight  shut  off,  the  intellect 
is  still  amply  nourished.  The  gravest  ill  con- 
sequences of  blindness  are  not  intellectual,  but 
physical. 

The  normal  child  constantly  sees  others 
move,  work,  and  play.  He  imitates,  and  so  he 
grows.  He  is  active,  eager  to  do,  to  explore, 
to  investigate.  The  incentive  of  things  without 
stirs  the  inner  impulse  to  action  and  exercise. 
He  romps  and  dances  through  his  first  years, 
daily  aroused  by  the  friendly,  challenging  rays 
of  light.  He  revels  in  the  freedom  of  play- 
ground, the  woods,  the  fields,  or  the  alley  and 
the  crowded  street.  Attracted  by  bright 
colors  from  afar,  by  the  bustle  and  the  thousand 
sights  of  the  city  and  the  country,  he  is  ever 
in  motion.  The  elastic  movements  of  his  bod}', 
which  he  unconsciously  learns  from  others, 
keep  him  straight,  graceful,  and  vigorous. 

The  blind  child  who  is  not  taught  falls  into 
ill  health,  which  is  far  more  damaging  to  his 
mind  than  mere  blindness.  Cut  off  from  the 
swirl  and  rush  of  life  in  the  outer  world,  the 
frolics  of  other  children,  and  the  cheerful  work 
of  men,  he  is  deprived  of  stimidi  that  not  only 
enliven  the  brain,  but  stir  the  body  to  action. 
He  sees  nothing  to  imitate,  and  he  is  easily  dis- 
couraged from  imitating  the  activity  that   he 


can  hear.  Unused  muscles  relax  and  degen- 
erate, and  the  whole  organism  is  enfeebled. 
A  similar  degeneration  can  take  place  in  one 
who  loses  sight  in  adult  years,  who  sits  and 
mopes  and  takes  no  exercise.  But  the  case  of 
the  blind  child  is  more  heartbreaking  because 
he  cannot  help  himself:  he  is  dependent  on  his 
parents,  who  may  spoil  him  with  misdirected 
kindness  or  selfishly  keep  him  ''tiuiet"  and 
"out  of  the  way."  Intelligent  care  can  put 
a  blind  child  on  almost  equal  terms  with  the 
seeing  liy  deliberately  supplying  the  stinndi 
that  blindness  cheats  him  of.  He  should  be 
taught  to  walk  at  the  same  age  as  a  seeing  child. 
He  should  be  encouraged  to  touch  a  great 
variety  of  objects,  and  should  have  plenty  of 
simi)Ie  toys  to  throw  around,  to  hunt  for,  to 
put  into  his  mouth  if  he  chooses.  He  should  be 
led  into  the  habit  of  quick,  sjirightly  movements, 
so  that  he  will  skip  and  run  like  other  children, 
regardless  of  bumps  and  falls.  The  merry 
spirit  should  be  awakened  in  him,  so  that  he 
will  play  games  alone.  He  should  be  per- 
mitted to  handle  common  household  articles 
and  turn  the  house  into  a  playroom,  act  the 
sailor,  the  soldier,  the  carpenter,  and  Mowgli 
in  the  jungle.  He  can  model  in  clay  or  putty, 
spin  tops,  beat  a  drum,  make  chains  of  spools, 
peel  potatoes,  shell  peas,  and  play  at  other 
useful  occupations.  He  can  work  at  a  bench 
with  hammer  and  saw,  nails,  and  pieces  of  wood. 
He  will  not  cut  himself  any  oftener  than  the 
seeing  child.  Interesting  tasks  occupy  his 
mind,  keep  him  in  health,  render  his  fingers 
firm,  flexible,  jirecise,  and  cultivate  a  habit  of 
observation. 

It  is  important  for  success  and  happiness  in 
life  that  a  blind  person  should  have  an  atti'ac- 
tive  face,  natural  gestures,  and  good  carriage. 
The  blind  child  should  be  allowed  to  touch  the 
faces  of  others,  so  that  he  can  perceive  the  smiles, 
the  varying  motions  of  the  head,  the  looks  of 
sorrow  or  delight,  and  so  imitate  them.  If  he 
is  left  too  much  alone,  he  falls  into  nervous 
habits  called  "  blindisms,"  habits  which  bring 
debility  and  unhappiness.  He  makes  faces, 
uses  his  fork  wrongly,  sniffs,  sticks  his  fingers 
in  his  eyes,  and  sways  from  one  foot  to  the 
other.  Such  habits  are  too  frequent  among 
.sightless  children  at  the  institutions,  and  the 
schools  are  thus  needles.sly  burdened  with  the 
task  of  overcoming  timidity,  ungraceful  man- 
ners, and  disagreeable  gestures  that  should  have 
been  corrected  at  home.  Since  the  average 
home  cannot  be  counted  on  as  a  fit  school  for 
the  blind  child,  there  is  need  of  nurseries  and 
kindergartens  in  every  large  town. 

There  are  3  nurseries  for  blind  babies  in 
America,  at  Hartford,  Boston,  and  Brooklyn. 
The  first  kindergarten  for  the  blind  was  estab- 
lished in  jMoritzburg,  Germany,  in  1861.  Simi- 
lar kindergartens  have  since  been  opened  in 
Copenhagen,  Bennekom  (Holland),  Diiren 
(Germany),  Kdnigsthal,  Leipzig,  Miinchen, 
Neukloster,  Niirnberg,  Steglitz,  Kleefeld,   and 


398 


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P  q 

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u 


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New  York  Point,  Lower  Case 


E 

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I 
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M 

•    •  • 

Q 


U 

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B 

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F 

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X 

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Y  Z 

•    •  •  •  •  • 

•    •  •  • 

New  York  Point,  Capitals 


A 

H 

•  • 

O 


a 


B 


P 


C 

•  • 

J 
Q 


D 
K 


E 


F         G 


M 
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English  Braille 


P 


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•        •  •       • 

American  Bkaillb 


N 


U 


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u 


To  capitalize  a  letter  prefix  to  it  points  3  and  6 
(•  •)  leaving  a  space  before  the  letter  to  be  cap- 
italized. 


BLIND 


BLIND 


Vienna.  Some  German  schools  have  a  kin- 
dergarten department.  In  America  there  are 
2  kindergartens,  one  in  Boston,  connected  with 
the  Perkins  Institution,  and  tlie  other  a  depart- 
ment, in  a  separate  building,  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Institution.  The  functions  of  these 
nurseries  and  kindergartens  are  (1)  to  furnish 
the  blind  child  with  many  ideas  and  experiences 
that  come  to  the  normal  child  without  special 
instruction,  (2)  to  correct  the  evils  that  result 
from  his  being  coddled  at  home,  (3)  to  conquer 
nervous    habits   and   avert   their   bad   effects, 

(4)  to  sharpen  and  train  hearing  and  touch, 

(5)  to  strengthen  the  body  by  means  of  exercise. 
Curricula   and    Apparatus.  —  The    curricula 

of  the  ordinary  institutions  for  the  young  blind 
are  about  the  same  as  those  of  the  common 
schools  for  the  seeing,  —  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  geography,  history,  etc.  The  chief 
difference  in  method  lies  in  the  apparatus,  and 
is  at  once  suggested  by  a  study  of  the  apparatus 
itself. 

The  first  embossed  book  for  the  blind  was 
printed  at  the  Paris  Institution  in  1786.  The 
early  books  were  expensive,  not  easy  to  read, 
and  were  used  chiefly  for  exhibition  purposes. 
The  type  was  a  form  of  Roman  letter.  RIany 
persons  experimented  with  variations  of  our 
common  letters  and  arbitrary  arrangements  of 
lines  and  curves.  In  1836  about  twenty  line 
alphabets  were  submitted  to  the  Society  of  Arts 
for  Scotland.  That  by  James  Gall  was  chosen, 
and  books  were  printed  in  it.  The  Boston  line 
letter,  later  improved  by  Dr.  Howe,  persisted 
for  long  in  America.  But  except  for  the  very 
useful  ^loon  type  for  the  elderly  blind  and  those 
whose  fingers  are  insensitive,  all  line  alphabets 
have  been  abandoned  (the  Perkins  Institu- 
tion only  recently  discontinued  the  printing  of 
Roman  line)  in  favor  of  point  systems,  braille 
and  two  variants  of  it.  . . 

The  base  of  braille  is  a  cell  of  6  points,  thus  I ', 
The  characters  consist  of  various  combinations 
of  these  6  points.  For  instance,  3  points  in  a 
vertical  line  form  the  letter  L.  If  the  middle 
dot  is  struck  out  and  another  placed  at  the 
right  of  the  lower  dot,  the  letter  is  U,  and  so  on. 
There  are  62  characters.  Each  represents  a 
letter,  a  punctuation  mark,  or  a  contraction 
standing  for  several  letters.  This  point  system 
was  made  by  Louis  Braille  in  182.5,  and  bears  his 
name.  It  is  used  all  over  the  world.  American 
braille  embodies  some  changes,  not  in  the  form 
of  the  letters,  but  in  the  assignment  of  the 
letters  to  the  various  combinations.  The  idea 
was  that  the  letters  which  occur  most  frequently, 
such  as  E,  O,  R,  S,  T,  should  be  made  with  the 
fewest  dots.  The  changes  do  not  alter  the 
mechanical  structure  of  the  type  any  more 
than  the  mechanical  structure  of  this  ink  type 
would  be  altered  if  it  should  be  agreed  to  print 
s  for  e  and  e  for  s.  New  York  point  differs 
from  braille  in  that  the  characters  are  not  3 
points  high  and  2  wide,  but  2  points  high  and  3 
wide.     It  has  no  advantages,  and  some  disad- 


INTERLral^^o  Bkaillb  SLATS- 


vantages     as     compared     with     braille.      The 

variety  of  prints  has  caused  some  confusion 

and   has   resulted   in   reduplication   of   books. 

Some    American    institutions    are    provincial 

enough  to  cling  to  New  York  point  when  other 

American  institutions  and  the  whole  of  Europe 

use  braille  both  for  literature 

and    for    music.      But    any 

enterprising  blind  person  who 

knows   one  print  can  easily 

learn   another.      The    point 

systems  can  be  written  for 

notes,    correspondence    and 

manuscript  books,  on  special 

writing  machines  and  also  bj- 

means  of  small  hand  frames 

and  a  stylus  to  indent  the 

points.      To  write  ink  print 

the  blind  can  use  any  kind  of  typewriter,  and 

typewriting  is  taught  in  the  best  schools.     The 

blind  also  write  pencil   script,  and   there   are 

several  ingenious  devices  to  guide  the  pencil. 

For  arithmetic  the  best  instrument  is  the 
brain,  in  which  figures  can  be  written  on  the 
memory  and  combined  and  erased  with  ease. 
There  are  several  mechanical  devices  to  assist 
the  pupil.  Ballu's  calculator  consists  of  a 
rectangular  board  divided  by  raised  metal 
lines  into  equal  squares.  Each  square  is  pierced 
with  9  holes.  Each  hole  corresponds  to  a 
figure,  and  a  pin  in  one  of  the  holes  indicates 
which  figure  that  square  stands  for.  A  special 
pin  gives  zero  in  one  position  and  8  alge- 
braic signs  in  the  other  positions.  Taylor's 
frame  is  a  metal  plate  filled  with  holes  shaped 
like  8-pointed  stars,  the  holes  equidistant. 
A  square  peg,  with  a  ridge  on  the  side  of  one 
end,  and  2  points  on  the  side  of  the  other  end, 
will  obviously  take  16  positions  in  the  octagonal 
hole,  and  so  represent  the  10  figures  and  the 
signs  of  multiplication,  addition,  etc.  Some 
of  the  blind  become  rapid  and  accurate  in 
mental  calculations.  The  principles  of  geom- 
etry can  be  learned  without  visible  or  tangible 
diagrams.  To  assist  the  blind  student  there 
are  several  devices.  One  is  a  cushion  with 
curved  and  straight  wires,  the  ends  of  which  are 
pointed  and  cling  to  the  cushion.  Construction 
lines  can  be  drawn  with  strings  and  pins,  and 
the  points  of  the  diagram  can  be  lettered  with 
pins,  the  heads  of  which  form  braille  characters. 

In  studying  geography  the  blind  explore 
raised  maps  and  globes  with  the  land  raised  and 
the  seas  depressed,  the  rivers  represented  by 
fissures,  the  capital  cities  by  large  points,  and  the 
other  cities  by  small  points.  If  the  globe  is 
large  enough,  the  names  of  the  countries,  seas, 
rivers,  and  cities  are  printed  in  embossed  type. 
Dissected  maps  make  a  pleasant  game  and  con- 
vey useful  lessons.  The  physical  sciences  are 
taught  the  blind  by  laboratory  methods,  with 
the  same  models  and  apparatus  that  are  used  bj' 
the  seeing.  Manikins  that  can  be  taken  apart 
are  used  to  teach  anatomy.  Some  of  the 
institutions   have   museums   of    stuffed    birds, 


399 


BLIND 


BLIND 


aninuils,  and  other  objects.  The  institution  at 
Illzach,  Germany,  nianufaetures  embossed  i)ic- 
tures  of  birds  and  animals.  In  history,  hin- 
guages,  and  literature,  all  the  humanities  that 
are  embodied  in  printed  words,  the  resources  of 
the  blind  are  all  but  equal  to  those  of  the  see- 
ing, as  win  become  evident  from  a  glance  at  the 
catalogues  of  books  printed  for  the  blind  in 
Europe  and  America.  The  United  States  has 
printed  more  books  than  any  other  country,  and 
the  invention  of  special  pres.scs  to  emboss  type 
has  so  cheapened  and  multiplied  books  for  the 
sightless  that  in  the  last  ten  years  probably 
more  books  have  been  printed  here  than  in  all 
the  years  before.  The  institutions  have  good 
libraries,  and  they  lend  their  books  to  blind 
persons  for  the  asking.  The  Post-office  De- 
partment carries  them  free.  There  is  no  other 
class  of  people  in  the  world  that  have  books 
delivered  at  their  doors  for  nothing.  The 
American  Printing  House  for  the  Blind  at 
Louisville  receives  SIO.OOO  a  year  from  the 
United  States  Government;  the  books  paid 
for  by  this  fund  are  distributed  to  the  various 
institutions.  The  Congressional  Library  in 
Washington  maintains  a  spacious  reading  room 
for  the  blind,  containing  about  2500  volumes. 
The  public  libraries  in  several  of  the  larger  cities 
have  embossed  books  which  are  taken  out  on 
cards  hke  the  books  In  ink.  The  Public 
Library  of  New  York  City  has  a  branch  for  the 
use  of  the  blind  containing  about  2500  volumes; 
it  maintains  a  teacher  who  visits  the  blind  that 
cannot  read  and  gives  them  free  instruction. 
The  state  of  Massachusetts  and  several  of  the 
private  organizations  for  the  blind  employ 
teachers  to  give  instruction  to  the  sightless 
at  their  homes.  The  Pennsylvania  Home 
Teaching  Society  provides  books  in  Moon  type, 
and  sends  teachers  to  the  blind  who  Hve  in 
Philadelphia. 

There  are  special  schools  or  departments 
for  the  instruction  of  weak-minded  and  back- 
ward blind  children  in  Vienna,  Kiel,  Chemnitz, 
(in  Saxony),  Lausanne,  Paris,  and  Copenhagen. 
In  America  the  feeble-minded  blind  are  not 
properly  provided  for.  They  should  not  be  in 
the  regular  school  for  the  blind,  and  the  ordinary 
institutions  for  the  feeble-minded  are  not 
fitted  to  cope  with  the  double  infirmity  and 
mitigate  it  so  far  as  mitigation  is  possible.  A 
unique  in.stitution  is  that  in  Venersborg,  Sweden, 
for  deaf-blind  children.  In  other  countries  the 
education  of  the  deaf-blind  has  been  conducted 
in  the  schools  for  the  deaf  and  the  schools  for 
the  blind  and  by  private  teachers  (see  Deaf- 
Blind,  Edic.\tio.\  of). 

Industrial  Training.  —  The  education  of  the 
sightless  does  not  end  wth  their  graduation 
from  the  ordinary  institutions.  It  remains  for 
them  to  be  trained  so  that  they  can  earn  all  or 
part  of  their  support.  The  manual  departments 
of  the  institutions  give  elementary  training  in 
handicrafts,  and  special  industrial  establish- 
ments are  multiplying,  but  this  work  for  the 


blind  has  not  advanced  far  enough  in  any  coun- 
try, certainly  not  in  America.  Blind  workmen 
need  not  only  instruction  in  the  crafts,  but  com- 
petent supervision  and  assistance  after  they 
have  begun  to  produce  articles  for  sale.  Many 
of  the  blind  in  America  have  been  encouraged 
to  make  useless  and  ugly  things  by  the  patron- 
age of  kindly  persons  who  were  sorry  for  the 
workmen.  The  productions  of  blind  workmen 
should  compete  fairly  in  the  markets,  and  the 
handicap  of  the  workers  should  be  recognized 
and  reUeved  by  assistance  in  the  processes  of 
manufacture  and  of  distrii)ution  and  sale. 

The  chief  indu.stries  of  the  blind  are  basketry, 
weaving,  cordage,  mattress  nuiking,  brush  mak- 
ing, and  chair  caning.  At  the  shops  of  the 
Massachusetts  Commission  are  manufactured 
not  only  an  excellent  patented  mop,  but  very 
beautiful  curtains  and  rugs.  At  the  trade 
school  in  Marseilles  tlie  l)lind  engage  in  fine 
beadwork  and  cabinet  work  with  the  aid  of 
seeing  persons.  A  few  of  the  blind  are  em- 
ployed in  copying  braille  books  for  the  libraries 
and  their  more  prosperous  brothers.  The  prac- 
tice of  massage  is  steadily  gaining  ground  among 
the  blind  of  France,  Germany,  England,  and 
America.  In  Japan  massage  has  long  been  a 
recognized  monopoly  for  the  blind.  Retail 
trade  is  a  fruitful  field  for  the  blind,  and  busi- 
ness courses  and  training  in  salesmanship  are 
legitimate  branches  of  education  for  our  in- 
stitutions to  develop.  In  Great  Britain  the 
Blind  Tea  Agency  sells  tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa, 
and  employs  only  blind  salesmen.  A  number  of 
successful  American  salesmen  are  blind.  Sev- 
eral expert  blind  typists  have  found  employ- 
ment with  business  firms.  Efforts  are  being 
made  to  find  more  and  more  profitable  occupa- 
tions for  the  sightless.  Since  trades  and  in- 
dustries vary  in  different  communities  the  find- 
ing of  suitable  work  for  the  blind,  and  in  large 
part  the  preparation  of  the  blind  for  the  work 
must  be  a  local  matter. 

The  most  talented  of  the  sightless  are  edu- 
cated as  musicians,  organists,  piano  tuners, 
teachers.  There  have  been  blind  men  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic  eminent  in  intellectual 
work,  Rodenbach  the  Belgian  statesman, 
Fawcett,  the  English  statesman.  Senator  Gore 
from  Oklahoma,  Huber,  the  naturalist,  Pres- 
cott,  the  historian,  and  others.  The  Royal 
Normal  College  in  England  and  LTnstitution 
Nationale  in  Paris  have  educated  many  blind 
musicians  and  helped  them  to  positions  of  self- 
support;  but  only  a  few  of  the  blind  are  capa- 
ble of  becoming  competent  musicians,  and 
in  order  that  the  hard-won  reputation  of  the 
blind  may  be  sustained,  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  encourage  sightless  persons  of  mediocre 
ability  to  appear  before  the  public  as  products 
of  the  musical  departments  of  the  schools. 

In  order  to  help  the  adult  blind,  both  the 
graduates  of  the  schools  and  those  who  have 
lost  their  sight  in  maturity,  there  must  be 
increasing  cooperation  between  the  institutions 


400 


BLIND 


BLIND 


and  the  public,  between  the  schools  and  their 
graduates,  and  among  the  blind  themselves. 
There  are  several  organizations  at  work  bring- 
ing about  this  cooperation;  notably  the  British 
and  Foreign  Blind  Association,  the  Valentin 
Haiiy  Association  of  France,  the  New  York 
Association,  and  the  Massachusetts  Association. 
State  commissions  working  together  with  local 
volunteer  organizations  and  the  already  estab- 
lished schools  could  and  should  form  such  unified 
systems  as  have  grown  up  in  Massachusetts 
and  in  Saxony.  In  Massachusetts  the  State 
Commission,  the  Perkins  Institution,  and  the 
volunteer  association,  with  its  valuable  paper. 
The  Outlook  for  the  Blind,  are  working  together. 
In  Sa.xony  the  work  for  the  sightless  centers  in 
the  multiple  institution  at  Chemnitz.  This 
institution  comprises,  in  separate  depart- 
ments, a  kindergarten,  a  common  school,  a  trade 
school,  a  school  for  feeble-minded  bhnd,  homes 
for  aged  and  incapable  blind,  and  houses  for 
capable  blind  men  and  women.  It  has  a  fund 
from  which  sums  are  lent  to  blind  men  who  set 
up  as  artisans,  and  the  institution  supervises 
the  work  that  the  graduates  are  doing  in  their 
homes  throughout  Saxony.  A  bond  of  unity 
and  a  strong  practical  educational  force  among 
the  bhnd  of  America  is  the  Zicgler  Magazine, 
printed  in  point,  which,  through  Mrs.  Ziegler's 
generosity,  is  distributed  free  to  the  sightless. 
The  American  blind  are  beginning  to  know 
each  other,  to  know  the  merits  and  defects  of 
existing  institutions,  and  to  learn  what  is  being 
done  in  Europe. 

Several  recent  experiments  in  behalf  of  the 
blind  deserve  mention,  though  the  results  are 
not  yet  known.  The  good  Queen  of  Roumania 
has  founded  a  colony  for  the  blind,  the  Vatra 
Luminosa,  where  persons  of  all  races  and 
rehgions  may  work  side  by  side  at  profitable 
occupations  and  live  in  separate  houses  with 
their  families.  The  principle  of  segregation 
involved  in  this  plan  is  contrary  to  the  prevail- 
ing effort  in  other  countries,  which  seeks  to  dis- 
tribute the  bhnd  among  the  seeing,  to  teach  the 
public  to  take  the  capabihties  of  the  blind  for 
granted,  and  to  give  them  a  place  in  the  midst 
of  normal  life.  Experiments  are  being  made  in 
Milwaukee,  Chicago,  and  New  York  City  to 
teach  the  bhnd  in  the  public  schools.  There 
are  30  sightless  children  in  the  Chicago 
schools,  and  the  reports  of  their  progress  are 
encouraging.  The  average  cost  is  817.5  a  year, 
whereas  the  average  cost  per  pupil  in  the  in- 
stitutions is  S270.  But  the  institutions  are 
boarding  schools,  and  the  per  capita  cost  in- 
cludes food  and  shelter.  If  the  necessary 
books  and  apparatus  are  provided,  and  a  special 
teacher  is  maintained  to  prepare  the  pupils  to 
take  part  in  regular  classroom  work,  there  is  no 
reason  why  the  blind  child  should  not  keep  up 
with  his  seeing  fellow  pupils,  learn  much  from 
them,  and  be  a  means  of  teaching  the  rising 
generation  the  needs  and  the  capabilities  of  the 
sightless.     A    considerable    number    of    blind 


VOL.  I  — 2d 


students  have  graduated  from  our  universities, 
and  there  have  been  several  bhnd  professors  in 
colleges  for  the  seeing.  It  has  been  proposed 
to  found  a  national  college  for  the  blind,  but 
this  would  be  a  costly  and  superfluous  institu- 
tion. A  better  plan  is  to  give  scholarships 
to  sightless  students,  as  is  done  in  New  York 
State,  which  offers  subsidies  of  $300  each  to 
blind  students  in  the  colleges  of  the  state. 
Further  assistance  to  the  sightless  who  are  work- 
ing for  a  higher  education  might  be  given  in  the 
form  of  braille  transcripts  of  such  textbooks 
as  are  not  to  be  found  among  the  books  printed 
in  embossed  type. 

The  present  hopeful  tendency  in  the  educa- 
tion of  the  blind  is,  like  the  tendency  in  the 
education  of  the  seeing,  to  relate  instruction  to 
the  uses  of  life.  The  methods,  the  available 
forces,  the  types  of  institutions  have  been  in- 
dicated. The  work  of  the  future  is  to  strengthen 
and  intensify  the  institutions  already  estab- 
lished, to  add  others  that  are  lacking  in  the 
various  communities,  and  to  bring  about  full 
cooperation  between  the  institutions  in  the 
several  states  and  nations.  The  collective 
functions  of  the  agencies  at  work  for  the  blind 
are:  (1)  to  prevent  blindness  and  disseminate 
a  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  prevention; 
(2)  to  teach  the  pubhc  about  the  bhnd;  (3)  to 
found  adequate  nurseries,  kindergartens,  and 
schools,  and  improve  such  as  exist;  (4)  to 
open  workshops  in  populous  centers  and  to 
systematize  the  marketing  of  the  products 
of  the  sightless;  (5)  to  help  the  blind  worker 
over  the  days  when  he  is  establishing  himself 
in  business,  and  to  provide  the  materials  of  his 
work  at  minimum  cost;  (6)  to  seek  out  the 
blind  in  their  homes  and  teach  them  read- 
ing, writing,  and  handicrafts;  (7)  to  find  a 
greater  variety  of  paying  occupations  in  which 
the  sightle.ss  can  engage;  (8)  to  register  all 
blind  children  and  see  that  they  find  their  way  to 
the  institutions  provided  for  them;  (9)  to 
reach  the  blind  in  their  isolation  and  inform 
them  of  the  possibilities  of  their  blindhood  in 
order  that  they  may  a\'ail  themselves  of  the 
advantages  already  provided  and  of  the  enlight- 
ening experience  of  other  blind  persons. 

H.  K. 

References:  — 

AR.MITAGE,    Thom.\s.     Education  and    Employment    of 

the   Blind,   2d   ed.      (London,    1SS6.) 
Illingwokth,  W.   H.     History  of  the  Education  of  the 

Blind.      (London,  1910.) 
J.WAL,    Emile.     On    Becoming    Blind.     Eng.     tr.     by 

Carroll  E.  Edson.      (New  York,  1905.) 
Lexis,    W.    Das    Unterrichtswesen  im   deutschcn   Reich, 

Vol.  III.      (Berlin,  1904.) 
Massachusetts  Commission,  Anmial  Reports. 
Mell,    Alexander.     Eficykloiiddisches  Handhuch    des 

Blindwctens.      (Vienna   and    Leipzig,  1900.) 
New    York   Slate   Commission,   Report   of,   to   Investigate 

the  Condition  of  the  Blind,  1906. 
Perkins  Institution  and   Massachusetts  School  for  the 

Blind.  Special     Reference     Library    of     Books 

Relating  to  the  Blind.      Part  I :    Books  in  English. 

(Boston,  1907.) 
Perkins  Institution,  Annual  Reports.     (Boston.) 


401 


BLIND-DEAF 


BLUNDEVILLE 


SizERANNE.      Maurice      de      la.     Mca     Nolrs,  —  Lc.i 
Arcuylis  I'liles,  —  Lis  Aveugles  par  un  Ai'tugle. 
Tnnic   Ans    D'bltudes    et    de    Propayandc   en    Faveur 
lies   Aveuglfs.      (Moutbrison,    1908.) 

Wilson,  Henry  J.     Information  with  Regard   to  Insti- 
lutions,  Societies,  and  Classes  for  the  Blind  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales.     4th  ed.      (London,  1907.) 
Periodicals :  — 

DcT  Blindcnfreund,  monthly,  pub.  in  Diircu,  Germany. 

Le  Valentin  Haiiy.  Revue  Universelle  des  Questions 
Relatives  aux  Aveuoles,  monthly,  pub.  by  Valentin 
Hai'iy  Assn.,  Pari.s. 

The  Blind,  quarterly,  pub.  by  Gardner's  Trust  for  Blind, 
London. 

The  Braille  Review,  monthly,  pub.  by  British  and  Foreign 
Blind  .\ssooiation,  London. 

The  Outlook  for  the  Blind,  pub.  by  Mass.  Association, 
Cambridge. 

BLIND-DEAF,     EDUCATION     OF.  —  See 

Db.\f-Blind,  Education  ui-. 

BLIND  SPOT.  —  Draw  two  small  circles 
on  a  piece  of  jniper  (5  or  8  inches  apart;  close 
the  left  eye,  and  fi.xate  with  the  right  the  left- 
hand  circle,  moving  the  paper  slowly  back  and 
forth  from  the  eyes.  At  a  certain  distance 
from  the  eyes  (dependent  on  the  distance  be- 
tween the  circles)  the  right-hand  circle  will 
disappear  from  vision.  For  the  left  eye  the 
right-hand  circle  must  be  fi.xated.  The  given 
circle  disappears  because  the  light  rays  from  it 
have  fallen  on  that  area  of  the  retina  where  the 
optic  nerve  leaves  the  eye.  This  is  called  the 
blind  spot,  therefore,  because  the  optic  nerve 
is  not  directly  sensitive  to  light.  The  influence 
of  the  blind  spot  is  not  usually  felt  even  in 
monocular  vision  —  a  printed  page  or  the  wall 
of  a  room  appears  as  a  uniform  surface.  This 
is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  our  significant 
reactions  to  an  object  are  elicited  by  the  sensi- 
tive retinal  points  stimulated  and  not  by  the 
insensitive ;  partly,  too,  to  the  substitution  of 
other  e.xperience  with  the  object  (e.g.  binocular 
vision  iq.v.),  eye  movements  iq.v.),  etc.).  The 
existence  of  a  blind  spot  shows,  however,  that 
we  cannot  always  rely  upon  the  results  of  intro- 
spection in  interpreting  a  given  phenomenon. 

R.  P.  A. 

References:  — 
Baldwin's   Dictionary   of  Philosophy  and  Psychology  : 

Art.  Blind  Spot. 
Howell,  VV.   H.     American  Textbook  Physiology.    744 
pp.      (Philadelphia,  1901.) 

BLINDNESS.  —  Inability  to  see  normally. 
There  are  all  degrees  of  blindness.  These  are 
due  either  to  defects  of  the  organ  of  sense 
(peripheral  blindness)  or  to  defects  in  the 
central  organs  (mental  blindness).  There  are 
also  defects  in  ability  to  discriminate  visual 
qualities.  (See  Color  Blindness;  Deaf- 
ness.) 

BLINDNESS,  PSYCHICAL.  —  Also  called 
rtiind  or  mental  blindness;  involves  an  inability 
to  recognize  the  nature  and  significance  of  objects 
by  means  of  vision.  The  visual  sensations  are 
not  lost;  they  may  exist  in  their  full  variety; 
they  arc  simply  incorrectly  interpreted,  or  not 


interpreted  at  all.  This  defect  is  doubtless 
due  to  the  disintegration  of  the  rich  network 
of  associative  relationshijis  into  which  visual 
elements  must  enter  before  they  signify  com- 
plete objects.  Support  is  given  such  a  view 
by  the  character  of  the  cortical  lesions  which 
cause  psychical  blindness.  Tiiey  appear  to 
occur  chiefly  in  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
parietal  association  area  just  in  front  of  the 
occipital  lobe,  which  includes  the  cortical 
centers  for  visual  sensation.  Psychical  blind- 
ness has  been  artificially  produced  in  dogs 
by  extirpating  certain  parts  of  the  occipital 
lobe.  Word  blindness  (inability  to  grasp 
the  significance  of  printed  words)  is  a  special 
variety  of  psychical  blindness.  Analogous  to 
psychical  blindness  is  inental  deafness. 

R.  P.  A. 
References  :  — 
Baldwin.     Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology. 
Bastian.     Aphasia,  pp.  210-213. 
Collins.     The  Faculty  of  Speech,  p.  302. 

BLINN  MEMORIAL  COLLEGE,  BREN- 
HAM,  TEX.  — Founded  in  1SS2  by  the  South- 
ern (jerinan  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  and  opened  in  1883.  Prejiaratory, 
academic,  normal,  commercial,  and  music 
courses  are  offered.  No  degrees  are  given. 
A  theological  course  conducted  in  Cierman  is 
also  included.  There  are  13  instructors  on 
the  faculty.  John  Pluennekc,  B.S.,  D.D.,  is 
the  president. 

BLUE  MOUNTAIN  COLLEGE,  BLUE 
MOUNTAIN,  MISS.  —  A  proprietary  insti- 
tution for  the  education  of  young  ladies,  opened 
in  1873.  Preparatory,  collegiate,  and  mu.sical 
departments  are  maintained.  The  4  years' 
course  for  the  degree  is  based  on  about  4  points 
of  high  school  work. 

BLUE  RIDGE  COLLEGE,  BLUE  RIDGE, 

GA.  -i-  A  coeducational  institution  organized 
as  a  college  in  1904.  Primary,  academic,  col- 
legiate, normal,  and  business  courses  are  main- 
tained. The  college  course  of  4  years,  on  the 
completion  of  which  degrees  are  given,  is  based 
on  approximately  3  years  of  high  school  work. 

BLUNDEVILLE,  THOMAS.  —  A  country 
gentleman  in  (jueen  Elizabeth's  reign;  trans- 
lated in  1570,  from  the  Italian  of  Alfonso 
D'Ulloa,  the  Spanish  treatise  of  Federigo 
Furio  on  the  training  of  a  prince,  which  con- 
tains much  educational  matter.  In  the  same 
year  (1570),  it  was  possibly  Blundeville  who 
translated  John  Sturm's  book  on  the  education 
of  princes  under  the  title,  A  Rich  Storehouse 
or  Treasurie,  for  the  Nobilitie,  etc.  He  also 
translated,  in  1574,  from  the  Italian,  Pa- 
trizi's  True  order  and  Methode  of  wryting 
and  reading  Hystories.  In  1589,  he  wrote 
A  Brief e  Description  of  universal  Mappes  and 
Cardes  and  of  their  use ;  and  also  the  use  of 
Ptholemy  his  Tables.    Having  thus  translated  a 


402 


BLUSH 


BOARDING   ROUND   OF   TEACHERS 


work  on  education  generally,  on  history  study, 
on  geography  study,  he  wrote  a  work  on  the 
Art  of  Logike,  1599,  in  English,  founded  on 
Aristotle  "and  all  other  best  account  Authors 
thereof."  In  1594  appeared  his  Exercises,  con- 
taining six  Treatises,  viz.  on  Arithmetic,  Cosmog- 
raphy, Description  of  the  Globes,  description  of 
the  Universal  Map  of  Plancius,  of  the  Astrolabe 
of  Mr.  Blagrave,  and  of  the  Principles  of  Nari- 
gation.  In  this  work,  Blundeville  established 
himself  as  the  first  introducer  into  England  of 
plane  trigonometry.  The  Exercises  were  issued 
in  augmented  editions  in  1597,  the  fourth  edi- 
tion in  1613;  the  sixth  edition  m  1621-1622;  and 
the  seventh  edition,  enlarged  by  R.  Hartwell,  ap- 
peared in  1636.  Blundeville  may  be  said  to  be 
the  representative  writer  of  Queen  Elizabeth's 
reign  on  the  encj'clopedic  education  of  the 
nobleman.  In  addition  to  writings  on  the 
above  subjects  of  instruction,  he  is  perhaps 
even  better  known  by  his  treatise  on  the  Four 
chiefcst  Offices  belonging  to  Horsemanship,  in 
editions  1565-1566,  1570,  and  1609.        F.  W. 

BLUSH.  —  The  peripheral  blood  vessels, 
especially  of  the  face  and  neck,  react  in  certain 
emotional  states  so  as  to  bring  a  large  blood 
supply  into  the  skin.  This  is  an  instinctive 
reaction.  See  Darwin's  Exprei^sion  of  the 
Emotions  for  an  interesting  general  discussion  of 
its  significance.  It  is  a  typical  emotional  reac- 
tion, without  adaptive  value  at  the  present  time. 

BOARDOFEDUCATION,  CONVENTIONS 

OF.  —  See  Conventions,  School  Boards. 

BOARD     OF     EDUCATION,    ENGLAND 

AND  WALES.  —See  Great  Britain,  Educa- 

TIO.N    IN. 

BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  OF  THE  METH- 
ODIST EPISCOPAL  CHURCH.  —  See  Col- 
lege    Boards     in     Education,     Denomin.i- 

TIONAL. 

BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  OF  THE  METH- 
ODIST EPISCOPAL   CHURCH,  SOUTH.  — 

See    College    Boards    of    Education,    De- 

N0.MIN.\TI0NAL. 

BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  OF  THE  RE- 
FORMED   CHURCH    IN    AMERICA. —  See 

Collei;e  Boards  of  Educatio.\,  Denomina- 
tional. 

BOARD  OF  GOVERNORS.  —  See  Boards 
OF  Control. 

BOARD  OF  REGENTS.  —  A  term  applied 
to  the  governing  bodies  of  a  number  of  our  uni- 
versities. For  this  see  Boards  of  Control. 
The  term  is  also  used  for  what  is  virtually  tlie 
State  Board  of  Education  of  the  State  of  New 
York.  For  this  see  the  article  on  New  York, 
State  of. 


BOARD  SCHOOLS. 

Education  in. 


See  Great  Britain, 


BOARDING  ROUND  OF  TEACHERS.— 

The  first  reference  to  the  movement,  of  teachers 
from  house  to  house  and  school  to  school  ap- 
pears in  the  Commonwealth  Act  of  1649  "for 
the  better  propagation  and  preaching  of  the 
Gospel  in  Wales,"  in  which  provision  is  made  for 
the  appointment  of  schoolmasters  in  parochial 
charges  or  in  "  itinerary  "  courses,  "  for  the  keep- 
ing of  schools  and  education  of  children."  Itin- 
erant teachers  there  were  in  England  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  members  of  the  universities  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  who  took  the  license 
of  their  university  and  the  letters  testimonial 
of  their  chancellor,  and  under  the  protection  of 
the  Statute  Law  of  the  Realm  wandered  from 
place  to  place  and  were  paid  with  bed  and  board 
for  the  diffusion  of  scholarship  and  the  encour- 
agement of  learning.  The  history  of  these 
wandering  scholars  has  been  traced  elsewhere 
(see  Special  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Education 
(England),  1908,  Vol.  21),  and  it  is  sufficient  to 
say  that  the  universities  seem  to  have  issued 
licenses  as  late  as  1640,  when  a  man  was  arrested 
at  Malton  in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire  for 
begging  with  a  counterfeit  university  pass. 
(See  Quarter  Session  Records,  North  Riding 
Record,  Vol.  IV,  p.  183.)  Apart  from  these 
wandering  scholars,  who  at  last  degenerated  into 
common  beggars,  there  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  in  England  proper  any  itinerant  teachers. 
But  such  teachers  were  common  in  Scotland 
as  well  as  in  Wales.  The  Welsh  Circulating 
Schools  (q.v.)  were  started  by  Griffith  Jones 
(1683-1761)  in  1730,  and  were  at  first  entirely 
supported  out  of  church  offertories.  The 
teachers  stopped  in  each  town  or  college  for  a 
few  months  only  at  a  time,  and  were  supported 
locally.  The  movement  was  supported  by 
Mrs.  Bevan  (q.r.),  and  in  1752  there  were  134 
schools,  with  5118  scholars.  In  1760  there  were 
10,000  children  in  the  schools,  while  the  evening 
schools  were  still  more  extensively  attended. 
The  schools  ended  through  a  chancery  suit  soon 
after  Mrs.  Bevan's  death  in  1779,  but  they  were 
revived  under  a  decree  of  the  Court  of  Chancery 
in  1807.  These  circulating  schools  numbered 
34  in  1836.  The  teachers  remained  at  each  cen- 
ter from  6  to  12  months.  In  each  center  there 
were  from  50  to  140  children,  who  were  taught 
the  alphabet,  spelling,  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, and  Scripture.  By  this  date,  however, 
presumably  the  teachers  paid  for  board,  as 
they  received  £25  annual  salary.  In  Scotland 
during  the  eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth 
centuries  the  teachers  were  very  often  "  boarded 
round."  Mr.  Brougham  in  his  famous  speech 
of  .June  28,  1820,  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
said  on  this  point:  "In  Scotland  there  were 
parishes  fifteen  miles  in  length,  and  six  in 
breadth.  It  was  easier  for  an  adult  to  go  to 
church  than  for  a  child  to  go  to  school  in  such 
cases.    But  what  was  the  expedient  suggested  by 


403 


BOARDING  ROUND  OF  TEACHERS   BOARDING  ROUND  OF  TEACHERS 


their  zeal  and  ingenuity?  The  schoolmaster 
was  taken  into  houses  successively,  and  was 
boarded  as  remuneration  for  his  trouble  in 
teaching  the  children.  Scotland  was  not  re- 
markable for  abundance  of  animal  food,  but 
the  parents  gave  him  some  kind  of  subsistence, 
probably  better  suited  to  their  means  than  his 
appetite."  Probably  much  the  same  principle 
was  adopted  in  Ireland.  Mr.  Brougham  went  on 
to  point  out  that  the  same  prin('ii)le  of  "board- 
ing round  of  teacher  "  prevailed  in  the  Pj'renees. 
"  It  was  observed  in  a  Report  of  the  French 
commissioners  that  '  happy  was  the  school- 
master who  lived  in  the  rugged  districts  of  the 
Pyrenees;  there  he  was  at  least  sure  of  not  dying 
of  hunger,'  for  those  havuig  no  money  boarded 
him  by  rotation."  Exactly  the  same  principle 
seems  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Cape  by 
de  Mist,  the  Commissioner-General  sent  to 
South  Africa  by  the  Batavian  Republic  in  1S04 
to  take  over  the  colony  from  England.  In 
thinly  populated  districts  itinerant  school- 
masters were  introduced  by  Sir  John  Cradock, 
who  had  put  himself,  in  1807,  into  touch  with 
de  Mist's  Education  Commission  after  the 
resumption  of  the  Colony  by  England.  The 
method  was  mdeed  the  obvious  method  in  any 
half-developed  rural  area,  and  forms  a  definite 
stage  in  the  early  history  of  rural  education. 

J.  E.  G.  DE  M. 
In  Germany  the  practice  of  boarding  round 
of  teachers  {Frcitisch,  Reihetisch,  Wandcltisch) 
was  quite  common  until  the  thirties  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  In  many  cases  this  sys- 
tem of  part  payment  of  salaries  was  preferred 
to  payment  in  foodstuffs,  which  the  teacher 
would  have  to  cook  himself.  The  practice  of 
boarding  round  was  particularly  frecpient  in 
the  case  of  the  peripatetic  teacher  (Wandcr- 
lehrer)  and  the  teacher  of  the  winter  school 
(Wintcrschule),  for  in  both  cases  the  local 
community  possessed  no  schoolhouse  or  accom- 
modation for  the  teacher  other  than  the  homes 
of  the  members.  But  boarding  round  is  found 
also  in  city  school  systems;  thus  at  Zwickau 
in  1521  the  Council  makes  an  agreement  that 
the  teacher  and  his  assistants  shall  be  boarded 
by  the  citizens.  In  1545  an  agreement  was 
made  at  Hildburghausen  that  the  schoolmaster 
should  receive  his  meals  at  the  pastor's  house. 
In  1753  it  was  found  by  the  school  visitors  in 
the  county  of  Wildstein  that  the  parents  had 
withdrawn  their  children  from  the  local  school, 
leaving  the  teacher  without  his  regular  meals 
for  fourteen  days.  In  Potsdam  as  late  as  1771 
the  members  of  the  Reformed  Church  refused 
to  board  the  teachers;  the  rest  of  the  school 
community  appealed  to  the  King,  who  dis- 
missed the  matter  with  a  joke,  with  the  result 
that  all  refused  to  be  responsible  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  teacher.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
last  century  a  class  of  provisional  teachers  was 
appointed  in  Saxe-Mciningen,  and  received  part 
of  their  salary  in  board.  Wilberg,  a  contem- 
porary of  Diesterweg,  records  that  the  practice 


of  boarding  round  was  common  in  Westphalia  in 
his  day,  the  teachers  moving  round  from  house 
to  house  daily  or  weekly.  In  the  administra- 
tive county  of  Magdeburg  it  was  necessary  in 
1818  to  issue  an  ordinance  that  no  teacher 
should  be  engaged  for  any  period  less  than  one 
year,  and  that  until  satisfactory  schoolhouses 
would  be  built  teachers  must  be  boarded  round. 
An  ordinance  had,  however,  been  passed  in  1811 
in  Prussia  al)olisliing  the  practice  of  boarding 
round  in  part  payment  of  salary;  in  future 
teachers  had  the  option  of  retaining  or  giving 
up  the  custom.  But  in  Saxony  it  was  found  in 
the  course  of  an  inquiry  that  as  many  as  224 
teachers  received  part  of  their  salary  in  board  in 
1833.  The  law  of  1835  abolished  this  practice 
in  that  state.  The  rise  of  state  systems  of 
elementary  education  with  fixed  minima  of 
salaries  put  an  end  to  a  practice  which  was  never 
satisfactory  to  either  of  the  parties  concerned, 
and  always  served  to  keep  the  teachers  in  deg- 
radation. 

In  the  United  States.  ■ —  The  practice  of 
"  boarding  round  "  is  a  very  natural  makeshift  in 
any  poor  and  rural  frontier  community  wlierc 
a  group  of  neighbors  maintain  a  school  by  agree- 
ing among  themselves  to  be  responsible  for 
the  schoolmaster's  salary,  in  whole  or  in  part. 
Wherever  such  conditions  exist,  we  may  well  ex- 
pect to  find  the  practice.  And  we  do,  in  fact, 
find  it  in  America  from  early  colonial  days  to 
within  recent  times.  Of  Delaware  in  1720, 
for  example,  we  read  that  "some  schoolmasters 
are  hired  by  the  year,  by  a  knot  of  families  who, 
in  their  turn,  entertain  him  monthly,  and  the 
poor  man  lives  in  their  houses  like  one  that 
begged  an  alms,  more  than  like  a  person  in  credit 
and  authority."  The  same  seems  to  be  in 
existence  on  Long  Island  in  1728,  where  we  read 
that  "the  usual  custom  is  for  a  set  of  neighbors 
to  engage  a  schoolmaster  for  one  year.  .  .  . 
The  common  rule  for  payment  is  by  subscrip- 
tion, £20  with  diet  or  "£30  without."  The 
evidence  is  more  abundant  for  the  early  nine- 
teenth-century period.  Barnard  states  that 
"  the  district  system  required  of  the  instructor 
to  itinerate  among  the  different  families  of  the 
district."  One  who  taught  in  Connecticut  about 
ISOO  says,  "  It  was  an  almost  universal  custom 
for  the  teacher  to  board  round."  A  writer 
in  Barnard's  Journal  saj's  of  his  experience  in 
New  York  State  in  1839,  "  It  was  the  uniform 
custom  there,  as  now  in  many  quarters,  for 
the  teacher  to  '  board  around.'  "  Wickersham 
says  of  Pennsylvania  during  the  same  general 
period,  "  It  was  customary,  in  most  sections  of 
the  state,  for  the  master  to  board  around  among 
the  patrons  of  his  school,  remaining  with  each 
a  stipulated  time."  Even  in  the  last  decade 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  custom  prevailed 
in  some  isolated  rural  regions,  as  no  doubt  it 
does  yet. 

The  conclusion  seems  warranted  that  the 
practice  of  "  boarding  around "  was  general 
throughout  the  more  rural  regions  of  America 


404 


BOARDING  SCHOOLS 


BOARDING   SCHOOLS 


until  well  into  the  nineteenth  century.  Since 
that  time  with  the  rise  of  state  systems  it  has 
gradually  passed  away. 

See  Begging  Students;  Circulating 
Schools;  Moving  Schools;  Traveling  Teach- 
ers; Wandering  Schox^rs. 

References:  — 

Bahnard,  H.     American  Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  22, 

p.  466. 
Fischer,   K.     Geschichte    des    deutscken,    Volksschulleh' 

rerstandes.      (Hannover    and    Berlin,    1S98.) 
Grant,   T.      The  Burgh  Schools  of  Scotland.     (London 

and  Glasgow,  1S70.) 
Montmorency,    J.    E.    G.    de.     State   Intervention    in 

English  Education,  pp.  102,  151,  203,  263-264. 

BOARDING  SCHOOLS.  —  A  term  applied 

to  a  type  of  educational  institutions  in  which 
the  pupils  have  been  surrendered  by  their 
parents  or  guardians  to  the  care  and  super- 
vision of  the  teachers  of  the  school,  and  in  which 
they  receive  not  only  instruction,  but  board 
and  lodging.  In  England,  where  they  have 
received  their  greatest  development,  the  large 
majority  of  such  schools  are  under  private 
management  and  range  from  the  great  public 
schools  to  the  private  estabhshmcnts,  where  only 
a  few  pupils  arc  taken.  From  the  fact  that  such 
schools  are  under  private  management  and  the 
pupils  are  constantly  under  the  care  of  the 
teachers,  they  have  afforded  important  centers 
for  educational  experimentation,  so  that  in  this 
respect  the  boarding  schools  on  the  purely 
educational  side  do  represent  a  wide  variety 
of  types,  ranging  from  the  traditional  classical 
schools  to  the  new  school  {q.v.)  of  the  present 
day  (see  ExpERniEXTAL  Schools).  For  a 
long  time  the  boarding  schools  were  a  tool  for 
meeting  the  educational  needs  of  the  upper 
cla.sses,  although  in  their  origin  most  of  the 
early  English  boarding  schools  were  intended 
for  the  education  of  the  poor. 

The  main  line,  however,  of  boarding  school 
growth  is  a  matter  of  upper  class  interests. 
At  an  early  day  the  problem  of  the  division  of 
lal)or  lietwecn  the  home  and  some  other  edu- 
cational institution  demanded  attention.  We 
find  the  range  extending  from  schooling  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  members  of  the  family  to  such 
complete  isolation  in  boarding  schools  as  led  to 
questioning  the  advisability  of  vacations  at 
home.  Between  these  extremes  arc  found  the 
tutor  the  day  school,  boarding  for  convenience 
in  the  i.eighborhood  of  a  school,  the  dormitory, 
and  the  boarding  school  proper,  in  which  the 
headmaster  or  some  representative  stands  in 
loco  parentis.  The  advocates  of  these  various 
systems  have  presented  their  claims  in  both 
practical  and  theoretical  forms.  In  Ebcrs' 
I'arda  is  given  an  account  of  schooling  away 
from  home  for  the  youth  of  the  better  class  in 
Egypt  about  1500  B.C.  The  Book  of  Daniel 
tells  of  an  institution  connected  with  the  court 
at  Babylon.  In  (Ireece  the  Spartan  boy  at  the 
age  of  7  was  taken  from  his  home  and  placed 
under  charge  of  assistants  to  the  padonomus,  anil 


was  maintained  at  state  expense  in  public  bar- 
racks. In  Plutarch,  0/  the  Training  of  Children, 
we  find  the  assumption  that  schoohng  be  done  in 
the  home,  while  Quintilian  considers  the  moral 
conditions  of  the  home  to  be  such  as  to  make 
preferable  attendance  upon  a  school.  The 
monasteries  and  courts  of  the  Middle  Ages 
found  it  necessary  to  provide  places  where 
students  might  live  while  they  were  training 
for  clerical  or  court  life.  In  a  similar  way  the 
homes  of  the  master  workmen  were  opened  to 
their  apprentices.  The  utilitarian  aspects  of 
the  former  as  well  as  of  the  latter  forms  of  the 
school  are  sometimes  lost  sight  of.  They  were 
all  in  a  very  real  sense  vocational  schools.  The 
conditions  of  the  life  into  which  pages  or  bower 
maidens  were  placed  called  for  a  training  in 
manners  that  meant  serviceableness  as  well  as 
courtesy;  "  it  included  for  these  children  knowl- 
edge how  to  carve  and  wait  at  table,  how  to 
serve  their  lord  both  at  the  board  and  in  his 
chamber;  the  pouring  of  water  for  his  hands, 
the  handing  of  napkins,"aiid  how  all  these  things 
should  be  done  with  urbanity  and  grace." 
(Godfrey,  84.) 

The  rise  of  the  universities  produced  a  variant 
upon  the  existing  forms.  The  boarding  houses 
in  which  students  congregated  (somewhat 
similar  to  the  "clubs"  found  near  colleges 
and  normal  schools  to-day)  became  convenient 
units  for  the  purposes  of  both  teachers  and 
students.  These  hospitia  (q.v.)  were  at  first 
self-governing,  and  later  were  reduced  to  con- 
trol. In  England  the  colleges  were  frequently 
at  first  places  in  which  poor  students  could 
live,  but  their  convenience  in  school  adminis- 
tration and  teaching  soon  led  to  a  change  of 
function  and  to  an  inclusion  and  predominance 
of  well-to-do  students.  In  Germany  in  the 
fifteenth  century  the  college  or  boarding  house 
succeeded  the  nation  as  the  chief  unit  of  organ- 
ization. In  this  connection  may  be  noted 
some  of  the  recent  criticisms  of  the  American 
College,  and  also  the  tendency  to  the  utilization 
of  the  fraternity  organizations  and  their  club- 
houses. 

The  most  distinct  form  of  the  boarding  school 
is  found  in  the  English  public  schools  (q.v.)  be- 
ginning in  Winchester  (q.v.)  (1387)  and  Eton 
{q.v.)  (1440),  and  becoming  well  established  in 
the  time  of  John  Colet's  day  school,  St. 
Paul's  (1512).  In  the  seventeenth  century 
appeared  one  of  the  most  potent  influences  in 
making  these  the  significant  tool  wliich  they 
have  become  in  Anglo-Saxon  civilization. 
This  was  formulated  in  the  work  of  John 
Locke,  despite  the  fact  that  he  was  prejudiced 
in  favor  of  home  education,  which  while  ac- 
counted by  him  inconvenient,  even  under  the 
direction  of  the  tutor,  who  looms  large  in  his 
system  and  in  that  of  Rousseau,  yet  offered 
less  dangers  than  were  met  where  the  influence 
of  the  schoolmates  was  greater  than  that  of 
the  schoolmasters.  He  feared  the  "prevailing 
infection  of  his  fellows  the  greater  part  of  the 


40.J 


BOARDING   SCHOOLS 


BOARDING   SCHOOLS 


four-and-twenty  hours,"  also  the  "  malapert- 
ness,  trickery  or  violence  learnt  amongst  school 
boys." 

A  somewhat  different  type  of  boarding  school 
is  set  forth  in  Milton's  Tractate  (q.v.).  This 
had  much  influence,  although  at  a  considerable 
distance,  upon  that  form  of  the  school  called 
the  academy.  He  is  an  advocate  of  travel  as 
a  factor  in  schooling,  as  is  Montaigne.  Under 
another  form  this  need  is  taken  account  of  by 
the  new  schools  of  Europe  in  the  exchange  of 
students,  and  by  insistence  upon  residence  in 
foreign  schools  in  order  to  secure  a  foundation 
in  other  languages  than  the  mother  tongue. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  Mulcaster  had 
carefully  discussed  the  merits  of  private  and 
public  education,  and  had  decided  that  the 
"  difficulties  of  upbringing  are  too  serious  for 
all  the  responsil)ilities  to  be  thrown  into  the 
hands  of  one  alone."  (Note  the  hesitation  of 
the  .Jesuits  to  burden  themselves  with  all  these 
cares.) 

In  Germany  in  the  sixteenth  century  there 
emerged  the  Filrstenschulen  (q.v.),  or  schools  for 
princes.  These  were  similar  to  the  court 
schools  of  Italy,  the  best  known  of  which  was 
that  of  Vittorino  da  Feltre  (q.v.)  at  Mantua, 
1438.  As  modern  representatives  may  be 
taken  St.  Afra  in  Meissen  (15-13),  Schulpforta 
(1543),  and  Rossleben  (1554).  The  boarding 
school  was  found  serviceable  by  Basedow  (q.v.) 
in  the  Philnnthropinum  at  Dessau  (1774). 
This  was  intended  to  bring  together  both  rich 
and  poor,  and  as  in  all  the  more  democratic 
ventures,  there  was  here  strong  emphasis  upon 
Reallen  as  object  lessons,  and  even  forestalling 
more  recent  work  in  manual  training.  (Note 
the  relations  of  Francke's  work  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Reahchule.)  Basedow's  in- 
fluence was  wide-reaching,  but  even  more  so 
in  manv  ways  was  that  of  Fellenberg  (q.v.), 
whose  school  at  Ilofwyl  (1806-1844)  stirred 
people  to  new  endeavors  in  education  from 
Russia  to  America. 

The  schools  of  Pestalozzi  are  too  well  known 
to  require  more  than  reference  in  this  statement 
of  the  general  movement.  Another  boarding 
school  of  importance  is  Keilhau,  founded  by 
Froebel  in  1S17,  and  still  in  operation.  There 
is  a  delightful  simplicity  in  its  atmosphere 
to-day,  which  recalls  the  charm  of  the  days 
spent  there  by  George  Ebers  and  described  by 
him  in  The  Story  of  my  Life. 

The  most  definite  outcome  of  the  Hcrbartian 
movement  in  this  line  is  the  Stoy'.sche  Erzieh- 
ungsan.italt  in  Jena  (1843).  (See  Russell's  Ger- 
man Higher  Schools,  ch.  x.) 

In  the  earlier  days  of  the  boarding  school  we 
find  them  termed  "  closed  "  schools  in  distinc- 
tion from  those  "  open  "  to  day  pupils.  The 
name  Internal  is  extensively  used,  and  one  still 
finds  doors  in  seminars  for  the  training  of 
teachers  marked  Convict.  The  verb  intcrnare 
from  which  the  former  term  was  derived  re- 
tained the  significance  suggested  in  English  by 


the  second  term,  "  to  put  into  jail."  It  is  to 
France,  however,  that  we  must  turn  to  find 
the  extreme  forms  of  seclusion  and  restraint. 
This  nation  has  made  extensive  use  of  the 
boarding  school  in  the  form  of  the  Lyc6e  of  the 
internal  type.  Much  of  the  seclusion  so  gen- 
erally deprecated  came  from  the  dominance  of 
the  Church,  and  the  opportunity  thus  given  to 
control  the  situation  sufficiently  to  make 
possible  withdrawal  from  supiioseiUy  objec- 
tionable influences.  Yet  we  find  that  the 
society  which  has  left  its  mo.st  definite  impress 
upon  French  schools,  the  Jesuits,  opened  board- 
ing colleges  reluctantly.  This,  however,  came 
about  sooner  and  with  less  difficulty  in  the  south 
and  in  France  than  in  Germany. 

The  problems  of  boarding  schools  for  girls 
have  not  differed  essentially  from  those  for  boys. 
On  the  one  hand,  there  has  been  a  tendency 
toward  the  life  of  seclusion  for  a  young  woman, 
particularly  in  troubled  times  w'hen  homes  were 
unsettled  and  fathers  away  on  public  business. 
The  court  gathered  in  its  bower  maidens  to  be 
trained  for  court  life,  but  the  Church  has  done 
the  larger  work.  On  the  other  hand,  there  has 
always  been  a  stronger  tendency  to  keep  the 
girls  within  the  home  circle.  F^nelon  and 
many  others  in  various  countries  have  urged 
education  for  them  at  home. 

We  find  the  Carow  Nunnery  near  Norwich, 
England,  with  boarders  from  its  foumlation  in 
1146.  Dartford  Nunnery  dates  from  1355  (see 
GiKLS,  Education  of).  The  Reformation  closed 
many  nunneries,  but  was  slow  to  offer  a  substi- 
tute. Excepting  the  convents,  we  have  little 
record  of  schools  for  girls  before  the  seventeenth 
century.  We  find  ]\Irs.  Bathsua  Makyns  in 
charge  of  a  school  at  Putney,  and  others  can  be 
traced  by  means  of  Pepys'  Diary  and  similar 
writings  of  incidental  reference.  Occasionally 
a  modern  girls'  school  lays  emphasis  ujion  train- 
ing for  home  duties,  but  these  are  apt  to  be 
reduced  as  social  advancement  and  recognition 
is  secured.  The  old  type  of  "  finishing  "  school 
is  essentially  vocational  in  the  sense  of  preparing 
for  the  conventions  of  society,  and  this  phase  is 
still  evident,  even  though  the  preparatory  func- 
tion is  taking  a  leading  place.  This  change 
marks  an  advance,  but  there  is  room  for  more 
definite  experimentation  in  the  working  out  of 
schools  for  girls  which  will  frankly  recognize  the 
home  and  Ijusiness  activities  of  women  as  worthy 
of  study  upon  a  scientific  liasis.  (Sec  Bed.\les.) 
In  Japan  practical  gardening  and  kitchen  classes 
are  included  in  the  courses. 

In  America  conditions  had  prevented  crys- 
tallization along  older  lines,  and  the  main 
current  during  the  century  was  public  educa- 
tion, and  that  of  the  external  rather  than  the 
internal  type.  The  latter,  however,  for  reasons 
of  convenience,  has  at  all  times  held  an  impor- 
tant place.  From  the  group  of  boys  collected 
in  the  home  of  a  New  England  clergyman  has 
come  in  time  a  boarding  school.  One  type  has 
followed,  often  at  a  considerable  distance,  the 


406 


BOARDING   SCHOOLS 


BOARDING   SCHOOLS 


English  public  school.  Another  has  developed 
with  many  important  changes  from  the  acad- 
emy of  the  Puritans;  this  is  best  seen  in  some 
of  the  town  academies  (q.v.)  of  New  England. 
A  third  type  was  seen  in  the  manual  labor 
institutions  (q.v.)  following  the  lead  of  Fellen- 
berg.  These  usually  took  especial  account  of 
the  partial  or  entire  self-support  by  the  students 
found  to  some  extent  even  to-day  in  some  of  the 
other  types  and  e.xpected  to  bring  about  a 
thorough  phy.sical  development  in  connection 
with  it  without  the  sacrifice  of  scholastic  attain- 
ments. The  Atlantic  coast  saw  many  of  these 
institutions  rise  and  fall.  Their  failure  was 
due,  in  part,  to  inability'  to  recognize  the  far- 
reaching  consequences  of  their  schemes  if  suc- 
cessful, and  the  groat  amount  of  time  needed  to 
make  efficient  machinery  equal  to  forwarding 
the  task.  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  such  a 
school  as  Hampton  how  the  self-support  idea 
tends  to  move  to  the  background  as  academic 
standards  are  raised. 

When  the  industrial  aspect  was  thus  for  the 
time  abandoned,  the  "  return  to  nature  "  tend- 
ency, with  its  appreciation  of  the  importance 
of  recognition  of  the  physical  nature,  led  to  the 
establishment  of  schools  in  which  self-support 
and  productive  industry  were  frankly  given  up. 
Especial  effort  was  made  to  provide  more  ade- 
quate physical  training. 

The  work  of  Jahn  (q.v.)  and  others  in  Europe 
had  made  progress  in  this  direction  much  less 
difficult.  It  is  not  strange  that  the  military 
training  given  to  youth  in  many  countries  should 
have  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  form  of  the 
military  school  (q.v.). 

In  Adams,  Some  Famoii.s  American  Schools, 
will  be  found  a  somewhat  popular  account  of 
nine  representative  boarding  schools,  extending 
from  New  England  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  The 
tendency  toward  schools  of  this  type  has  in- 
creased with  the  growth  of  wealth.  Adams 
states  that  "  where  one  such  institution  existed 
prior  to  1865  twenty  may  be  counted  now." 
Among  the  earlier  were  Nazareth  Academy 
(17.50),  Phillips  Andover  (1778),  Phillips  Exeter 
(1781). 

It  i.s  not  strange  that  social  reformers  have 
in  all  periods  planned  to  use  the  boarding  school 
to  accomplish  their  purposes.  Nazareth  Hall 
in  Pcnn.sylvania  was  founded  in  1759,  and  for 
a  few  years  exemplified  some  forms  of  Mora- 
vian Communism.  One  of  the  most  interest- 
ing plans  of  this  kind  is  that  advocated  by 
Lepelletier,  a  Jacobin,  and  put  forward  after 
his  death  in  1793  by  Robespierre  in  the  Assem- 
bly. Among  other  provisions  was  the  following: 
"  Let  us  ordain  that  all  children,  girls  as  well 
as  boys,  girls  from  five  to  eleven,  and  boys 
from  five  to  twelve,  shall  bo  educated  in  com- 
mon, at  the  expense  of  the  state,  and  shall 
receive,  for  six  or  seven  years,  the  same  educa- 
tion." Similar  schemes  were  advocated  by 
Fourier  and  others.  Coethe's  Pedagogic  Province 
is  much  less  known  than  it  deserves  for  its  sug- 


407 


gestiveness  in  other  school  fields  as  well  as  that 
of  the  boarding  school. 

The  more  recent  discussions  concerning  the 
community  care  of  little  children,  by  Mrs. 
Charlotte  Perkins  Oilman  and  others,  also  the 
increasing  tendency  for  the  community  to 
take  account  of  the  need  of  more  adequate 
feeding  of  school  children,  open  up  phases  of 
the  subject  which  may  well  require  more  ade- 
quate consideration  before  long. 

Fichte  had  called  for  a  complete  separation  of 
children  from  their  home  (Works,  Vol.  3,  pp.  406- 
407).  In  fact,  he  seemed  to  think  that  by  the 
isolation  of  children  from  the  society  of  their 
day  a  new  start  could  be  made  by  which  we 
should  be  freed  from  many  of  the  defects  that 
now  trouble  us.  This,  with  his  interest  in 
physical  welfare  and  vocation,  has  been  a  factor 
in  the  development  of  the  Deutsche  Lander- 
ziehungsheime  (q.v.).  A  further  application  of 
these  ideas  to  the  training  of  apprentices  is 
suggested  in  Grtindfragcn  der  Schidorganisation 
of  Dr.  Georg  Kerschensteiner  (p.  14). 

One  of  the  most  significant  developments 
during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  in  this 
department  of  the  school  has  been  that  chain 
of  schools  beginning  in  Abbotsholme  (q.v.)  in 
1888  under  Dr.  Cecil  Reddie,  and  carried  into 
Germany  by  Dr.  Herman  Lietz  in  the  Deutsche 
Landerziehungsheime  (q.v.)  and  into  France 
by  M.  Edmund  Demolins  in  L'Ecole  des  Roches 
(q.v.).  One  of  the  most  important  of  these 
schools  is  the  coeducational  institution  estab- 
lished by  J.  H.  Badley  at  Bcdales  (q.v.).  Others 
have  been  established  in  France,  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  Poland.  Interlaken  at  La 
Porte,  Ind.,  is  the  American  representative. 
There  are  in  all  over  20,  for  the  most  part  inde- 
pendent of  each  other  and  showing  remarkable 
adaptation  to  national  conditions,  yet  unified 
by  the  common  attempt  to  afford  to  the  stu- 
dents opportunities  to  meet  real  problems  with- 
in their  range  in  school  organization  and  life. 
There  is  a  marked  emphasis  upon  simplicity 
of  life,  and  in  nearly  all  cases  a  real  interest  in 
outdoor  life  by  means  of  sports  and  participa- 
tion in  various  forms  of  productive  labor. 

The  problems  of  the  boarding  school  are  many 
and  complex.  By  no  means  least  is  that  of  the 
immoral  customs  appearing  oftentimes  in  a  so- 
ciety of  boys  of  various  ages.  The  fagging  sys- 
tem has  been  at  times  involved  in  this.  Some 
headmasters  have  separated  the  school  into 
sections  according  to  ages.  Discussion  of  some 
of  the  moral  problems  will  be  found  in  Fitch's 
Arnold,  p.  77;  Dublin  Review,  October,  1878, 
p.  294;  and  the  preface  to  the  sixth  edition  of 
Hughes'  Tom  Brown  at  Rugby. 

There  is  in  the  boarding  school  an  oppor- 
tunity, too  little  recognized,  to  accomplish  ex- 
perimental work  (see  ExPERi.^tEXTAL  Schools). 
On  the  whole,  however,  the  men  engaged  in 
this  work  pay  too  little  attention  to  education 
outside  their  fields,  and,  with  a  few  notable 
exceptions,  as  the  work  of  Arnold  and  Thring, 


BOARDING  SCHOOLS 


BOARDING   SCHOOLS 


their  contribution  to  educational  literature  has 
been  much  less  than  the  opportunities  justify. 
Especially  is  there  much  to  be  learned  concern- 
ing a  closer  relation  between  the  school  and 
other  parts  of  society  from  these  institutions. 
The  isolation  from  certain  aspects  of  social 
life  has  led  to  a  greater  development  of  student 
societies  and  other  social  tools.  These  are 
recognized  to  a  greater  extent  as  important 
factors  in  training  and  not  merely  as  difficulties 
to  be  controlled  or  gotten  rid  of.  Dr.  Findlay 
has  written  much  upon  the  corporate  life  of  the 
school,  and  has  shown  the  advantages  of  mak- 
ing use  of  the  house  system  and  other  devices, 
even  for  day  pupils  as  at  Cardiff.  The  devel- 
opment of  more  effective  cooperative  super- 
vision in  secondary  schools  by  means  of  class 
teachers,  session  masters,  advisers,  social  secreta- 
ries, etc.,  has  the  same  end  in  view.  The  house 
system,  however,  gives  a  permanence  by  bring- 
ing the  student  into  definite,  responsible,  social 
relations  with  the  head  of  the  house  throughout 
his  entire  course.  Perhaps  nowhere  to-day 
is  this  lifelong  function  so  well  seen  as  in  the 
relation  of  the  best  type  of  English  head  or 
house  ma.ster  to  the  "old  boys"  of  the  school. 
The  English  college  tutor  and  the  preceptor  in 
the  recent  experiment  in  Princeton  make  use  of 
the  same  need. 

Apart  from  the  advantages  arising  from  op- 
portunity for  intimate,  stimulating,  and  in  many 
cases  permanent,  relations  with  men,  the  main 
arguments  for  the  boarding  school  have  been  the 
effects  upon  a  boy  of  a  system  of  customs  and 
traditions  on  a  plane  which  has  meaning  to 
him,  and  the  belief,  as  Quick  puts  it,  that,  "As 
far  as  our  character  depends  upon  others,  it 
is  formed  mainly  by  our  companions  at  every 
age.  Men  have  not  enough  in  common  with 
boys  at  every  age  to  be  their  companions,  even 
when  they  are  never  out  of  their  company." 
These  are  both  seen  at  their  best  in  England,  and 
have  given  rise  to  the  prefect  system,  to  fagging, 
etc. 

In  many  countries  the  boy  is  not  a  part  of  the 
household  until  he  is  a  man.  Where  initiative 
is  not  counted  an  advantage,  the  habit  formation 
possibilities  of  the  boarding  school  are  urged. 
Where  citizenship  is  progressive,  there  is  the  fur- 
ther opportunity  for  an  epochal  development  in 
the  society  of  his  peers.  Dc  Quincey  says  {Au- 
tobiographical Skdchen,  Works, Vol.  I,p.  l.'jO) :  "At 
nine  or  ten  the  masculine  energies  of  the  char- 
acter are  beginning  to  develop  themselves;  or, 
if  not,  no  discipline  will  better  aid  in  their 
development  than  the  bracing  intercourse  of  a 
great  classical  school.  There  is  not  in  the 
universe  such  an  Areopagus  of  fair  play  and  ab- 
horrence of  all  crooked  ways  as  an  English  mob, 
or  one  of  the  time  honored  English  foundation 
schools."  The  value  of  this  experience  at  so 
early  an  age  is  less  urged  now  than  formerly. 
"  I  think  this  is  a  gain  where  boys  can  be  kept 
at  home,  but  very  much  the  reverse  where  they 
are  sent  as  boarders  to  private  schools.     What 


we  stand  urgently  in  need  of  is  good  day  schools 
for  the  younger  boys  of  all  classes."  (Quick, 
Educational  Reformers,  p.  117.)  There  are  two 
marked  tendencies  in  this  development.  These 
are  well  seen  in  the  works  from  which  we  get 
our  impressions  of  the  English  public  school 
which  is  best  known  in  America  —  Rugby  under 
its  great  headmaster  Thomas  Arnold.  From 
Tom  Brown  at  Rugby  by  Hughes  one  gets  what 
is  sometimes  referred  to  as  the  "Spartan" 
view,  while  Stanley's  Life  of  Arnold  gives  the 
"Athenian."  The  former  is  deprecated  by 
some  who  feel  that  the  physical  interests  are 
given  entirely  too  much  consideration.  An- 
other view  is  that  of  those  who  object  to  the 
physical  training  in  a  formal  sense  as  subversive 
of  adequate  development.  These  problems  are 
coming  up  for  further  consideration  in  Conti- 
nental and  American  schools,  and  also  in  the 
summer  camp  (q.v.),  that  modern  device  for 
affording  the  opportunities  of  the  boarding 
school  for  a  part  of  the  year. 

A  critic  of  the  work  A  Famouis  Eton  House 
{Quarterly  Review,  Vol.  208,  pp.  399-416)  makes 
an  "attempt  to  criticize  frankly  the  whole 
boarding  school  system  from  an  idealistic  point 
of  view."  The  dangers  he  sees  have  as  much 
bearing  in  other  countries  as  in  England.  They 
are  "(1)  An  atmosphere  unfavorable  to  intel- 
lectual pursuits.  (2)  The  withdrawal  of  home 
influences.  (3)  The  dangers  of  encouraging 
and  increasing  class  prejudices."  The  problems 
are  "  how  to  raise  the  intellectual  tone  without 
inducing  a  precocious  self-consciousness;  how 
to  fortify  the  moral  standard  without  develop- 
ing a  premature  and  oppressive  sense  of  respon- 
sibility; how  to  direct  energy  into  the  right 
channel  without  sacrificing  the  sense  of  personal 
liberty;  how  to  govern  effectively  yet  leave 
the  community  its  conscious  independence." 

F.  A.  M. 

See  Athletics  ;  Dormitories  ;  Experi- 
mental Schools ;  Military  Schools ;  Out 
Door  Schools  ;  Public  Schools,  English  ; 
Private  Schools  ;  Summer  Camps  ;  and  the 
special  articles  on  the  various  institutions,  Eton, 
Winchester,  etc. 

References :  — 

Adams,  O.  F.  Some  Famous  American  Schools.  (Boston, 
1903.) 

B-^UMEisTER.  Handbiich  der  Erziehungs-  und  Unter- 
richtslehre  filr  hohere  Schulen;  Art.  tjber  Inier- 
Tiais-Erzich  u  n(j. 

Bishop  of  Hereford.  Educational  Problems,  Popu- 
lar Science  Monthly.     (.Ian.,  1905.) 

Browk,  E.  E.  The  Making  of  our  Middle  Schools, 
chs.  XV,  xviii,  pp.  44S  ff.,  also  index  and  bibliog- 
raphy.     (London,   190.3.) 

BuissoN,  Diclionnaire  dc  Pedagogic.  Articles  by  Cadet, 
Pensionnal  Primaire:  and  Surveillance  ;  Gasf  r^s,  Pen- 
sionnals;  Jaconlet,  Aorma/cs  (Jfcote);  Steg,  Inlernat. 

Eber.s,   George.     Story  of  my  Life.     (Keilhau,   New 
York,  1893.) 
Vnrda.      (Egyptian  Boarding  School,  ch.    ii.)      (New 
York.) 

Edwards,  Geo.  C.  The  Private  School  in  American 
Life,  Educnlional  Review.  Vol.  23.  p.  264  (discussion 
Vol.23,  pp.  503  and  511). 


408 


BOARDS  OF  CONTROL 


BOBBIO 


Ellis,  W.  T.     Misa'  Japan,  the  School  Girl.     Outlook, 

Vol.  88,  pp.  447^55. 
FiNDLAY,    J.    J.     Uber    d.    Entwickelung    des    hoheren 
Schulwesens       Englands       (Doktor      Dissertation, 
Leipzig,   1893)  ;     Corporate  Life  of  School,    School 
Review,   Vol.  15,  pp.  744-753,  Vol.  16,  pp.  601-608. 
GiLM.AN,  Arthur,  and  Others.     What  is  the  place  and 
function  of  the  endowed  academy  or  of  the  private 
high  school  for  boys  and  girls  in  our  present  system 
of  education?     In  National  Conference  on  Second- 
ary Education,  1904,  pp.   17—48. 
Godfrey,   Elizabeth.     Enalish  Children  in  the  Olden 
Time,  chs.  iii,  vi,   ix,    xiv,   xvi,  xvii.     (New  York, 
1907.) 
Great  Britain.    Special  Reports  on  Education,  Vol.  VL 
Preparatory  Schools  for  Boya ;  their  place  in  English 
Education. 
HnuHES,   R.   E.     The  Making  of  Citizens,  pp.   15  £f., 

218  ff.      (New  York,    1902.) 
Hughes,  Thomas.     Loyola,  eh.  vii.    (New  York,  1899.) 

Tom  Brown  at  Rugby. 
Hull,  L.  C.     Private  Schools  for  Boys,  Ed.  Rev.,  Nov., 

1900. 
Jackman,  W.  S.     Notes  on  Foreign  Schools,  Ed.  Rev., 

Vol.  XXI,  p.  2  ;    Vol.  XXII,  p.  50. 
Jamin,    Georges.      Life    in    a    French    Lycfe,     Ed. 

Rev.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  266-277. 
Keilhau  in  Wort  und  Bild.     (Leipzig,  1902.) 
Kipling,  Rudyard.     Stalky  and  Co. 
MiJNCH,  W.    Zukunftspddagogik,  pp.  304-316.    (Berlin, 

1908.) 
Niemeyer,   a.   H.     Grundsdtze  der  Erziehung  und  des 

Unterricht^,   Bd.   Ill,   pp.    118  ff. 
Norwood,  C,  and  Hope,  A.  H.     The  Higher  Education 

of  Boys  in  Englfirui.     (London,  1909.) 
Owen,  Robert  D.     Autobiography  (Hofwyl),  in  Afian- 

tic.  Vols.  XXXI-XXXV. 
Parry,  G.     Review  of  Annals  of  an  Eton  House,  Rev. 
Quar..   Vol.  208,  pp.  399-416.     LitlelV a  Living  Age, 
Vol.  40.  pp.  152-163. 
Pe.vbody,  E.ndicott.     Aims,  Duties  and  Opportunities 
of  the  Headmaster  of  an  Endowed  Secondary  School, 
Sch.  Rev.,  Oct.,  1909. 
Public  Schools  from  Within.      (London,  1906.) 
Quick,  R.  H.     Educational  Reformers,  chs.  \'iii,  x,  xi. 
Rein.     Encyclopddischcs      Handhuch      der      Pddagogik. 
Arts,  on  Internal   and   Alumn^t   by  Rud.    Menge  ; 
also  Interiuite,  hygienisch,  by  O.  Janke  ;  etc. 
Russell,  J.  E.     German  Higher  Schools,  ch.  x.     Student 
Life  in  the  Higher  .Schools.      (Same  material  in  Ed. 
Rev.,  Vol.  VIII.  pp.   240-257.)      (New  York.  1905.) 
S.ADLER,    M.    E.     Moral    Instruction    and    Training    in 

Schools.     See  index.      1908. 
Sanford,   D.  S.     Two  Foreign  Schools,  New  England 

Magazine,  May,. .1902. 
ScHiMMELPFENG.       UbcT  Intemalaerziehung.     (Munich, 

1895.) 
ScHMiDT-ScHRADER.      Encyclopodie  des  gesamlen  Erzieh- 
ungs-  und  Unterrichtswesens.  Alt.  onl n^tituterziehung 
by  Bauer. 
Scott,  Colin.    Social  Education,    chs.  iii-iv.     'Boston, 

1908.) 
Seabury,  C.  R.      Endowed  Boarding  Schools,  Outlook, 

Vol.  86,  pp.  67-69. 
Sheldo.n,  He.vry  D.     Student  Life  and  Customs.     (New 

York,  1901.) 
Snedden,  D.  S.     Administration  and  Educational  Work 
of  American  Juvenile  Reform  Schools.     (New  York, 
1907.) 
WiLLMANN,  O.     Didaklik,  Vol.  I,  pp.  132-136  and  179. 

(Braunschwirg,  1882.) 
Woodward.      Viltorino  da  Feltre.     (Cambridge,  1897.) 
ZiEULER.     Gesch.  d.  Plldagogik.      (Munich,  1895.) 

BOARDS  OF  CONTROL.  —  A  somewhat 
gciienil  tenn  ajiplied  to  luaii.v  kinds  of  official 
boards.  Ordinarily  a  Hoard  of  Control  means 
a  Board  of  Trustees,  or  Managers,  or  Governors, 
having  charge  of  linances  and  the  management 
of  some  puhlio  or  jirivatc  institution  estab- 
lished   for    some    educational,    charitable,   or 


philanthropic  purpose,  such  as  a  Board  of  Con- 
trol for  a  state  university,  or  an  agricultural 
and  mechanical  college;  a  Board  of  Control- 
for  a  home  for  friendless  children,  or  a  school 
for  the  blind  or  deaf;  or  a  Board  of  Control  for 
a  fund  for  the  aid  of  negro  schools.  Boards 
of  Trustees,  Boards  of  Regents,  and  Boards  of 
Governors  are  Boards  of  Control,  and  these  are 
the  terms  commonly  used.  Sometimes  official 
state  boards  are  ex  officio  Boards  of  Control  for 
certain  state  institutions,  as,  for  example,  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education  is 
ex  officio  a  Board  of  Control  for  the  State 
Normal  Schools  of  Massachusetts.  Any  official 
body  which  has  charge  of  the  administration  of 
a  trust,  a  foundation,  or  an  established  in- 
stitution may  be  called  a  Board  of  Control, 
though  the  term  is  less  frequently  used  than 
the  others  given  above.  E.  P.  C. 

BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION,    CITY.  —  See 

City  School  Administration. 

BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION,  COUNTY.  — 

See  County  Boards  of  Education. 

BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION,  DISTRICT.  — 

See  District  System  of  Education. 

BOARDS    OF    EDUCATION,    LOCAL.— 

See  City  Schools,  Local  Boards. 

BOARDS    OF    EDUCATION,    STATE  — 

See  State  Boards  of  Education. 

BOARDS  OF  EXAMINATION.  —  See  Ex- 
amination Boards. 

BOARD    OF      SCHOOL       LAND       AND 
SCHOOL  FUND  COMMISSIONERS.  —  See 

School  Fund,  and  Co.mmissioners. 

BOARDS  OF  TRUSTEES,  DISTRICT.  — 

See  District  Bo.\rds  of  Trustees. 

BOBBIO.  —  A  town  situated  on  the  Trebbia, 
37  miles  northeast  of  Genoa,  famous  for  its 
ancient  monastery  founded  by  St.  Columban 
about  615.  Some  of  the  most  important  of  the 
earliest  Mss.  of  classical  works  originated  from 
this  monastery.  The  first  catalogue,  which 
was  made  in  the  tenth  century  and  was  printed 
by  Muratori,  contained  nearly  700  Mss.,  and 
included  Terence,  Lucretius,  Ovid,  Virgil, 
Lucan,  Persius,  Martial,  Juvenal,  Claudian, 
Cicero,  Seneca,  and  the  elder  Pliny.  A  second 
catalogue  was  made  in  14C1.  The  library  en- 
joyed a  great  reputation  during  the  Renaissance 
period,  and  was  visited  by  many  of  the  earlier 
humanists.  Most  of  the  Mss.  were  dispersed 
in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  and 
are  now  located  chiefly  in  the  Ambrosian 
Library  in  Milan,  the  Vatican  Library  in  Rome, 
and  the  Royal  University  Library  in  Turin. 
Some  of  the  oldest  palimpsests  belonged  to  this 
40'J 


BOCCACCIO 


BODY   AND   MIND 


collection,  and  were  found  to  contain  writings 
of  Cicero,  Fronto,  Synuiiachu.s,  and  the  Theo- 
dosian  Code.  The  most  famous  relic  was  a 
Ms.  (known  as  the  Muratorian  fragment  in  the 
Anibrosian  Library),  containing  the  earliest 
extant  catalogue  of  New  Testament  books, 
which  is  probalily  of  eighth-century  origin  and 
is  a  copy  of  an  older  Ms.  of  the  second  century. 

References  :  — 
Sanuvs,    ,1.    E.     .1    History    of    Classical    Scliolarshii). 

(Cambridge,  1903.) 
Stokes,    M.\rg.\het.     Six    Months    in    the   Apennines. 

(London  and  New  York,  1892.) 

BOCCACCIO  (1313-1375).  — Next  to  Dante 
and  Petrarch  the  most  important  of  the 
Italian  writers  immediately  preceding  and 
.  influencing  the  Renaissance.  Apart  from  his 
position  as  a  remarkable  prose  writer  and  the 
founder  of  the  Italian  novel,  Boccaccio  played 
an  important  part  in  the  restoration  of  classical 
studies.  A  mixture  of  skepticism  and  super- 
stition, Boccaccio  allowed  himself  to  be  terri- 
fied into  a  conversion  in  1361,  but  although 
he  gave  up  literature  of  the  type  of  the  Decam- 
eron, his  love  for  the  ancient  classics  did  not 
wane  nor  his  studies  and  researches  relax.  Like 
Petrarch,  he  hoped  for  immortality  through  his 
Latin  w'orks,  but  though  these  hopes  were  not 
fully  realized,  he  contributed  largely  to  the 
awakening  which  soon  followed.  Many  valuable 
Mss.  owe  their  preservation  and  discover}-  to 
him.  He  made  a  copy,  still  preserved  in  the 
Laurentian  Library,  of  all  the  writings  of  Ter- 
ence; he  was  the  first  to  quote  Varro;  he  was 
the  earliest  of  the  humanists  to  study  Tacitus. 
Influenced  by  Petrarch,  Boccaccio  was  the 
first  modern  scholar  in  Europe  to  study  Greek; 
that  he  did  not  learn  much  was  due  rather  to  the 
ignorance  of  his  teacher,  Leontius  Pilatus, 
whom  he  kept  for  three  years  in  his  home  in 
Florence.  With  his  assistance  he  managed  to 
give  to  Europe  the  first  modern  tran.slation  of 
Homer  into  Latin.  He  seems  to  have  read 
something  of  Plato  and  of  Aristotle.  His 
Latin  writings  are  numerous;  the  majority 
are  based  on  ancient  sources:  On  Famous 
Women,  On  the  Falls  of  Pritices,  On  the  Geneal- 
ogy of  the  Gods,  a  book  of  mythology,  On 
Mountains.  Woods  and  Waters,  a  reference  hand- 
book to  the  geographical  names  in  ancient 
literature.  For  the  future  of  the  revival  of 
classical  study  Boccaccio's  defense  of  pagan 
poetry  through  an  allegorical  interpretation  was 
an  important  factor  in  disarming  the  opposition 
of  the  Church.  At  his  death  Boccaccio  was  in 
the  possession  of  106  Mss.  of  classical  works. 
He  was,  indeed,  as  Symonds  said  of  him,  "a 
painstaking  pioneer  of  antiquarian  research." 

References :  — 

Boccaccio.     Decameron,  in  Morley's  Universal  Library. 

(London,  1889.) 
BuRCKH.iRDT.    .J.      Civilization    of   the    Renaissance    in 

Italy.     (London,  1890.) 
Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  I.      (London  and  New 

York,  1902.) 


Landau,  M.     Giovanni  Boccaccio,  Sein  Leben  und  Seine 

Werke.     (.Stuttgart,  1.S77.) 
Owen,  J.      Sceptics  of  the  licriaissance.     (London,  1893.) 
Sanoys,  J.  E.     A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  Vol. 

n.      (Cambridge,  1908.) 
Sy.MONDs,    J.    .\.     The   Renaissance   in   Italy.   Vol.    II, 

The  Rceival  of  Learning.      (New  York,  1888.) 

BODLEIAN  LIBRARY.  —  The  first  public 
library  in  Europe,  founded  at  Oxford  in  1597, 
tlirough  the  gift  of  Sir  Thomas  Bodley  (1545- 
1613).  A  library  had  already  existed  at  0.\- 
ford  through  the  benefaction  of  Duke  Hum- 
phrey of  Gloucester,  but  this  had  been  destroyed 
in  Edward  VI's  reign.  Thus  the  foundation  of 
1597,  the  year  in  which  Bodley  conveyed  his 
offer  to  the  Vice-Chanccllor,  was  in  reality  a 
restoration.  Bodley  was  a  graduate  of  O.x- 
ford  and  a  scholar  of  repute.  He  had  intro- 
duced the  study  of  Greek  into  his  college,  and 
was  a  well-known  Hebrew  student.  He  spent 
several  years  in  the  diplomatic  service.  A 
marriage  with  a  wealthy  widow  enabled  him 
to  carry  out  his  project.  He  himself  presented 
a  large  number  of  books  to  the  library,  and  en- 
gaged a  bookseller  to  make  purchases  on  the 
Continent.  In  addition  he  induced  his  friends 
to  make  similar  gifts  to  the  library,  and  their 
example  was  followed  in  all  parts  of  England. 
The  library  was  officially  opened  in  1603,  and 
received  its  charter  and  name,  Bodleian  Library, 
in  1604.  In  1610  the  Stationers'  Company 
agreed  to  present  the  library  with  a  copy  of 
every  book  which  appeared.  In  1611  Bodley 
gave  the  library  a  permanent  endowment,  and 
at  his  death  in  1613  left  the  greater  part  of  his 
wealth  to  it.  From  time  to  time  the  library 
has  received  valuable  gifts.  Thus  Archbishop 
Laud  presented  it  with  1300  Mss.  in  different 
languages,  ^'aluable  additions  were  obtained 
by  purchase.  The  strength  of  the  library  is  in 
its  collection  of  Oriental,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Hebrew  M.S.S.,  and  material  for  British  history 
and  literature.  A  collection  of  marbles  and 
portraits  is  also  included.  The  more  general 
and  common  books  are  now  located  in  the 
Radcliffe  Camera,  which  is  used  as  a  reading 
room. 

References  :  — 

Life  of  Sir  Bodley  Written  by  Himself,  with  the  First 
Draft  of  the  Statutes  of  the  Public  Library  at  Oxford. 
In  Literature  of  Libraries  in  the  Seventeenth  and 
Eighteenth  Centuries.  Vol.  III.      (Cliieago,  1900.) 

M.iCRAY.  Annals  of  the  Bodleian  Library.  (Oxford, 
1868.) 

BODY  AND  MIND.  —  This  subject  has  been 
discussed  by  writers  on  both  philosophy  and 
psj'chology.  The  former  have  been  interested 
inthe  question  of  the  relation  of  mind  to  the 
material  universe,  and  may  be  roughly  divided 
into  materialists,  who  hold  that  mental  pro- 
cesses are  to  be  explained  as  manifestations  of 
bodily  activity,  and  into  spiritualists,  w-ho  hold 
that  "all  true  reality  is  mental  rather  than 
physical  in  character.  Intermediate  forms 
of  these  theories  and  the  various  compromises 


410 


BODY  AND   MIND 


BOETHIUS 


between  them  have  constituted  the  major  sub- 
ject matter  of  philosophical  discussion. 

Psychologists  have  been  interested  in  the  re- 
lation between  body  and  mind  in  their  efforts  to 
explain  the  origin  of  sensations  and  the  relation 
between  conscious  processes  and  bodily  activi- 
ties. One  group  of  writers  has  held  that  there 
is  a  causal  relation  between  mind  and  body, 
that  the  physical  processes  which  take  place  in 
the  nervous  system  are  the  causes  of  mental  pro- 
cesses and  that  conscious  processes  are  in  turn 
the  causes  of  motor  activities.  The  difficulty 
with  this  causal  view  of  the  relation  between 
mind  and  body  is  that  it  introduces  into  the 
conception  of  the  universe  an  element  which 
does  not  seem  to  comport  with  the  doctrine  of 
the  conservation  of  energy.  The  physical  sci- 
ences through  which  the  doctrine  of  the  conser- 
vation of  energy  has  been  established  recognize 
the  transformation  of  energy  from  one  form 
into  another.  Thus,  light  may  be  transformed 
into  heat,  and  heat  may  be  transformed  into 
motion.  Throughout  all  these  transforma- 
tions, however,  there  is  an  uninterrupted, 
quantitative  equivalence  and  a  fundamental 
similarity  in  character.  When  now  the  ner- 
vous processes  that  arise  in  one  of  the  organs 
of  sense  are  supposed  to  be  carried  to  the  cen- 
tral nervous  system  and  from  this  point  to  be 
carried  back  down  along  a  motor  nerve  to  a 
muscle,  there  seems  to  be  no  easy  formula 
whereby  consciousness  can  be  included  in  the 
descriptive  series.  If  the  nervous  energy  is 
even  for  a  single  moment  transformed  into  con- 
sciousness, it  would  seem  to  lose  its  character  as 
a  physical  force,  and  thus  the  principle  of  the 
conservation  of  energy  would  be  violated. 
Because  of  these  difficulties  in  maintaining 
a  causal  relation  between  mind  and  body,  a 
general  formula  has  been  very  commonly  used 
in  current  psychological  writing  which  evades 
the  difficulty.  This  principle  is  known  as 
the  principle  of  psychophysical  parallelism. 

According  to  this  doctrine,  phj'sical  processes 
are  not  in  any  wise  interrupted  by  mental 
processes.  The  physical  series  has  a  causal 
character  entirely  in  keeping  with  the  principle 
of  conservation  of  energy.  Mental  processes 
on  the  other  hand  unite  in  an  independent 
parallel  series.  Mental  processes  constitute  a 
cycle  of  causal  relations  in  no  wise  interrupting 
the  cycle  of  physical  relations.  This  doctrine 
of  p.sychophysical  parallelism  has  been  widely 
accepted  as  the  simplest  solution  for  the  pur- 
poses of  psychology  of  the  difficult  problem  of 
the  relation  of  mind  and  body.  One  who  is  at 
work  on  a  problem  which  deals  with  sensations 
must  assume  a  relation  between  mind  and  body, 
but  since  he  cannot  assume  the  validity  of  causal 
relations  without  involving  himself  in  protracted 
discussions,  he  may  be  satisfied  with  a  recognition 
of  mere  parallelism,  which  serves  his  temporary 
purposes  without  in  any  wise  committing  him 
to  any  of  the  radical  philosophical  positions. 

See  Nervous  SvsTEiM. 


References:  — 

J.4.MES,     W.     Principles    of    Psychology.     (New    York, 

1S90.) 
Stout,  G.  F,     A  Manual  of  Psychology.      (New  York, 

1S'J9.) 
TiTCHENER,    E.    B.      Text-book    of   Psychology.     (New 

York,  1909.) 

BODY,  CARE  OF  THE.  —  See  Hygiene, 
Pehsonal. 

BOETHIUS,  ANCIUS  MANLIUS  SEVE- 
RINUS.  —  Born  about  480  a.d.  and  executed 
by  Theodoric  the  Ostrogoth  in  525.  Gibbon 
says  of  Boethius,  that  he  was  "  the  last  of  the 
Romans  whom  Cato  or  Tully  could  have  ac- 
knowledged for  their  countryman."  At  the  .same 
time,  he  stands  at  the  opening  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  summarizes  for  that  period  the  learn- 
ing of  the  past.  Boethius  was  a  favorite  coun.sel- 
lor  of  Theodoric,  and  assisted  in  interpreting  the 
cla.ssic  past  to  its  Teutonic  conquerors,  politi- 
cally as  well  as  intellectually.  He  was  a  man 
of  great  influence,  was  elected  to  the  consulship 
in  510,  and  later  saw  his  two  sons  attain  the 
same  height,  chosen  at  the  same  time.  Later, 
however,  he  was  unjustly  accused  of  conspiring 
against  the  King  to  restore  the  ancient  Roman 
government,  and  was  imprisoned  and  executed. 
During  his  imprisonment  he  wrote  his  Conso- 
lations of  Philosophy,  one  of  the  most  widely 
circulated  and  frequently  published  books  of 
all  times.  It  summarizes  the  pagan  ethics,  and 
gave  to  the  Middle  Ages  its  best  account  of  the 
ancient  philosophy.  So  thoroughly  did  its 
spirit  harmonize  with  the  teachings  of  Chris- 
tianity that  during  the  ages  in  which  it  was  a 
great  favorite  the  Consolations  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  Christian  work  and  its  author  as  a 
Christian  martyr.  As  the  opposition  to  the 
Arian  heresy,  with  which  views  Theodoric 
sympathized,  gave  occasion  for  the  false  charges 
against  Boethius,  the  legend  of  martyrdom 
early  found  credence.  Though  it  is  yet  a  dis- 
puted point  whether  Boethius  had  any  connec- 
tion with  the  Christians  (certainly  none  is 
shown  in  the  Consolations),  he  soon  came  to  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  great  Christian  teachers, 
and  his  writings  acquired  authority  other  than 
that  of  their  own  merit. 

But  a  greater  influence  was  exerted  by  Boe- 
thius through  his  summaries  of  the  logical 
work  and  the  scientific  knowledge  of  the  ancients 
than  through  his  Consolations.  As  the  latter 
interpreted  the  ethics  of  the  ancient  world  to 
the  medieval,  so  his  other  works  interpreted 
their  learning.  The  most  important  of  these 
were  his  summaries  of  Aristotle.  He  trans- 
lated into  Latin  the  first  and  second  Analytics, 
the  Sophistici  Elenrhi,  the  Topica,  and  the 
De  Interpretatione,  though  the  first  three  of 
these  were  seemingly  unknown  until  the 
twelfth  century.  He  wrote  extensive  com- 
mentaries on  the  De  Interpretatione  and  the 
Categories  of  Aristotle,  also  on  Porphyry's 
Isagoge,  and  on  Cicero's  Topica. 


411 


BOIS 


BOLIVIA 


It  is  from  these  sources  that  the  Middle  Ages 
had  their  knowledge  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  until 
the  direct  translation  of  the  hitter's  work  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  Boethius  also  composed 
treatises  on  dialectic  and  on  music,  and  wrote 
a  compendium  of  the  other  liberal  arts.  In  his 
own  day  ("assiodorus  wrote  of  him:  "Through 
your  tran.slations  the  music  of  Pythagoras  and 
the  astronomy  of  Ptolemus  are  read  by  the 
Italians;  the  arithmetic  of  Nicomachus  and 
the  geometry  of  Euclid  are  heard  by  the 
Westerners;  the  theology  of  Plato  and  the 
logic  of  Aristotle  dispute  in  the  language  of 
Quintilian;  the  mechanical  Archimedes  also 
you  have  restored  in  a  Latin  dress  to  the 
Sicilians,  and  whatever  discipline  or  arts  fer- 
tile Greece  has  produced  through  the  efforts  of 
individual  men,  Rome  has  revived  in  her  own 
language  through  your  single  instrumentality." 

These  services  indeed  were  performed  not  only 
for  his  own  but  for  six  succeeding  centuries,  dur- 
ing which  Boethius  was  recognized  as  the  great 
educational  authority.  And  indeed  his  work 
continued  to  be  used  as  the  te.xt  in  music  in 
the  English  universities  until  recent  times. 
From  his  logical  writings  the  great  struggle  be- 
tween the  nominalists  and  the  realists  of  the 
Middle  Ages  took  rise,  and  from  it  the  combat- 
ants of  both  sides  drew  their  materials  or  at 
least  got  their  fundamental  ideas. 

Boethius  helped  materially  to  give  permanent 
form  to  the  seven  liberal  arts  (q.  v.). 

See  Arithmetic,  History  of. 

References:  — 

Abelson.  P.tuL.  The  Seven  Liberal  Arts.  Columbia 
Univ.  Teachers  College,  Contributions  to  Educa- 
tion. 1006. 

Sandys,  J.  E.  A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  Vol.  I. 
(Canibridge,  1903.) 

Taylor,  H.  O.  The  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Aliddle 
Ages.     (New  York,  1901.) 

BOIS,  JOHN  (1561-1644).— A  Greek  scholar 
who  was  Fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  Greek  lecturer  1584-1595.  The 
father  of  .John  Bois,  William  Bois,  was  brought 
up  at  school  at  Halifax,  and  "  according  to 
the  custom  of  the  time  and  place,  instructed 
in  music  and  singing.  His  mother,  Mirabel 
Bois,  had  read  the  Bible  over  twelve  times  and 
the  Book  of  Martyrs  twice,  besides  other  books 
not  a  few."  Between  the  years  five  and  six, 
it  is  said  John  Bois  could  read  the  Hebrew 
Bible  and  write  the  Hebrew  characters  "ele- 
gantly." His  father  instructed  him  in  Greek. 
It  is  said  that  when  John  Bois  entered  the 
University  of  Cambridge  at  St.  John's  College, 
only  one  other  student  there  could  write  Greek. 
"  In  so  short  a  time  afterwards  came  that  gen- 
eral perfection,  which  would  have  made  the 
Grecians  blush."  In  five  weeks,  it  is  stated, 
Bois  was  so  well  prepared  that  he  was  able  to 
get  himself  in  touch  with  lectures  only  usually 
reached  after  three  years'  residence.  "He  was 
a  most  exact  grammarian,  having  read  near 
sixty  grammars,  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Syriac, 


etc."  Bois  was  one  of  the  translators  of  the 
Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible  (1604-1611). 
The  "Company"  to  which  he  was  admitted 
held  their  sittings  at  Cambridge,  over  the 
translation  of  the  Apocrypha,  and  of  Bois  his 
biographer  (Harleian  Ms.  7053,  |)rintcd  in  Peck's 
Dcsid.  Curiosa,  Vol.  II,  p.  326  et  seq.)  stated 
that  he  worketl  all  the  week  at  his  post,  as  well  as 
discharged  his  cure  on  Sunday,  and  took  up  the 
part  assigned  to  another.  "  Four  years  he  spent 
in  this  service  .  .  .  and  then  a  new  choice 
was  made,  of  6  of  the  47  translators,  to  re- 
view the  whole  work.  Bois  and  the  Cam- 
bridge Professor  of  Greek,  Andrew  Downes 
((J.V.),  were  two,  and  with  the  others  went  to 
Stationers'  Hall,  and  in  three  quarters  of  a 
year  fulfilled  their  task.  All  which  time 
they  received  duly  30  shillings  each  of  them  by 
the  week,  —  from  the  Company  of  Stationers, 
though  before  they  had  nothing."  Bois  also 
contributed  to  another  great  undertaking,  the 
preparation  of  notes  to  the  Greek  text  of  St. 
Chrysostom.  Both  the  Greek  professor,  An- 
drew Downes,  and  John  Bois  prepared  notes 
for  Savile's  wonderful  edition  of  St.  Chrysos- 
tom published  at  Eton  in  8  folio  volumes  in 
1610-1613.  Dr.  Thomas  Baker  stated  that 
Bois'  notes  were  incorporated  in  the  Benedictine 
(1636)  Paris  edition  of  St.  Chrysostom's  work, 
w'hilst  those  of  his  teacher  Downes  were  omitted. 
Bois  published  a  treatise  on  Greek  Accents  in 
1630,  and  his  critical  notes  on  passages  in  the 
Greek  Testament  were  issued  in  1655.     F.  W. 

BOLIVIA,  EDUCATION  IN.  —  Bolivia  Re- 
public: area,  605,400  square  miles;  population, 
1,953,916  (estimated,  1906).  Of  this  number 
about  50  per  cent  are  Indians  and  27  per  cent 
metis;  the  white  population,  about  14  per  cent; 
remainder  negro  and  unclassified.  Capital, 
Sucre;  population,  67,235. 

Public  instruction  is  represented  in  the  central 
government  of  Bolivia  by  a  ministry  combined 
at  present  with  that  of  justice.  The  i)olitical 
divisions  form  a  graded  series  of  which  the  munic- 
ipalities represent  the  final  unit.  The  various 
divisions  are  administered  by  prefects,  subpre- 
fects,  etc.,  all  appointed  by  the  president  of 
the  republic,  a  plan  which  affords,  as  it  were, 
a  guarantee  of  political  solidarity.  The  system 
of  public  instruction  comprises  primary  schools 
and  secondary  and  higher  institutions.  The 
primary  schools  are  under  the  direct  control 
of  the  municipaf  authorities.  Secondary  and 
higher  education  forms  a  united  system  ad- 
ministered through  a  university  organization, 
resembling  that  of  France. 

While  the  system  of  public  instruction  has 
a  somewhat  elaborate  official  organization,  the 
political  and  industrial  conditions  of  the  country 
have  precluded  its  practical  development,  and 
education  is  almost  entirely  under  the  control  of 
the  Church  and  the  religious  orders.  According 
to  the  latest  official  statistics  (1906),  there  were 
710  primary  schools,  with  1126  teachers  and 


412 


BOLOGNA 


BONAVENTURA 


48,560  pupils.  Outside  of  the  cities  the  instruc- 
tion is  of  the  most  elementary  character,  and 
even  in  the  cities  the  primary  schools  have  a 
very  limited  range,  as  children  of  the  better 
classes  enter  the  secondary  schools  at  an  early 
age.  The  public  expenditure,  government  and 
municipal,  for  primary  education  amounts  to 
about  550,000  bolivianos  annually,  equivalent 
to  $214,000,  United  States  currency.  The 
official  regulations  governing  admission  to  the 
higher  institutions,  and  the  requirements  for 
professional  diplomas,  determine  the  scope  of 
secondary  education,  which  is  specially  ex- 
tended on  the  literary  side.  In  1906  there 
were  reported  8  public  colleges,  5  clerical 
establishments,  and  5  private  hjceos,  with  126 
teachers  and  2530  students. 

In  addition  to  the  secondary  schools  for  liberal 
culture,  there  are  schools  of  arts  and  trade,  and 
schools  of  commerce,  maintained  at  La  Paz, 
Sucre,  and  at  the  departmental  capitals.  The 
training  of  teachers  is  a  subject  that  receives 
much  attention  in  Bolivia,  and  the  city  of  Sucre 
can  boast  a  well-organized  normal  school  whose 
director.  Dr.  G.  Rouma,  is  recognized  as  a  leader 
in  those  researches  which  are  giving  scientific 
precision  to  the  methods  of  modern  education. 

There  is  no  organized  university  in  Bolivia, 
but  nearly  every  civil  department  is  provided 
with  schools  of  law,  medicine,  and  theology. 
The  standards  of  professional  training  and  of 
the  diplomas  that  entitle  the  holders  to  practice 
the  liberal  and  technical  professions  are  high. 

A.  T.  S. 

BOLOGNA,    UNIVERSITY    OF.  —  One   of 

the  earliest  institutions  of  higher  learning  in 
Europe,  whose  history  can  be  definitely  traced 
back  to  a  period  before  that  of  Irnerius  (q.v.), 
under  whose  influence  it  gained  a  European 
reputation.  The  earliest  legal  charter  was 
given  to  the  university  in  1158  by  Emperor 
Frederick  Barbarossa,  which,  however,  con- 
tains nothing  more  than  an  official  recognition 
of  the  scholars,  and  grants  them  some  privileges. 
The  early  history  of  the  University  of  Bologna  is 
the  early  history  of  the  universities  (q.v.).  It 
was  here  very  largely  that  an  organization  was 
evolved  which  served  as  a  model  for  numerous 
other  institutions.  The  earliest  statutes,  which 
are  now  in  part  available,  date  from  1317. 
The  faculty  of  law  was  the  earliest  and  most 
famous.  Faculties  of  medicine  and  arts  were 
added.  A  faculty  of  theology  existed,  but 
never  attained  much  popularity.  Women  were 
admitted  not  only  as  students,  but  as  in- 
structors and  professors,  as  early  as  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  uni- 
versity has  been  reorganized  in  the  last  century. 
Faculties  of  arts,  sciences,  law,  and  medicine  are 
maintained,  as  well  as  schools  of  agriculture, 
pharmacy,  and  veterinary  medicine.  In  1009 
there  was  an  enrollment  of  about  2000  students. 
See  Canon  Law;  Italy,  Education  in;  Uni- 
versities. 


References:  — 
Denifle,    H.     Die    EnUtehung    der    UniversiUiten    des 

Mitldaltcrs  bis  1400.      (Berlin,  1885.) 
Rashdall,    H.      Universities   of  Europe   in   the   Middle 

Ages.     (Oxford,  1S95.) 

BOLTON,    or    BOULTON,    EDMUND.— 

An  English  poet  and  historian,  who  in  James 
I's  reign  proposed  a  scheme  for  an  academy  of 
letters  and  science  which  in  1620  was  referred  to 
a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Lords  on  the 
motion  of  Lord  Admiral  Buckingham.  The 
idea  of  an  academy  (q.v.)  was  in  the  air.  Prince 
Henry  (son  of  James  I)  had  supported  such  an 
institution,  in  which  all  the  King's  wards  and 
others  should  be  educated  in  England,  with- 
out the  necessity  of  going  abroad  to  complete 
their  training.  (Cf.  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert's 
Queen  Elizabeth's  Acadeviy.)  But  Prince  Henry 
died  in  1618.  The  project  was  also  in  Lord 
Bacon's  mind.  James  I  seems  to  have  pro- 
ceeded so  far  as  to  grant  a  seal,  badge,  and  es- 
cutcheons for  the  members  of  the  academy.  The 
College  was  to  be  in  or  near  London.  "  Finally 
His  Majesty  .  .  .  graciously  added  that  the 
censure  of  all  books,  which  handled  not  things 
divine,  should  belong  to  the  officers."  (See  on 
this  and  other  projects  for  academies,  Oxford 
Hist.  Society,  Collectanea,  l.st  Series,  Part  VI, 
Dr.  Wallis's  Letter,  article  by  T.  W.  Jackson, 
pp.  269-307.)  In  1629  Bolton  wrote  the 
Citks  Advocate,  justifying  the  importance  of 
apprenticeship,  and  showing  that  in  the  past 
youths  of  good  family  had  been  "apprentices," 
and  arguing  that  apprenticeship  did  not  ex- 
tinguish the  "claims  to  gentry."  This  is 
significant,  as  showing  the  decadence  of  the  old 
idea  of  apprenticeship  bj^  Charles  I's  reign. 

F.  W. 

BOMBAY,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  Organized 
in  1857,  and  reconstituted  in  1904  under  the 
India  Universities  Act.  It  is  an  examining 
body,  consisting  of  a  Syndicate  in  the  faculties 
of  arts,  law,  medicine,  and  engineering.  The 
teaching  colleges  organized  under  this  university 
are  Elphin.stone,  Wilson,  St.  Xavier's,  Grand 
Medical,  and  Sir  Jamsetji  Jijibho  y  Zarthoshti 
Madrassa,  the  last  for  Parsee  students. 

See  British  India    Education  in. 

BONAVENTURA,  or  JOHN  OF  FIDANZA. 

—  Born  at  Bagnarca  in  Italy  in  1221,  and 
died  while  in  attendance  at  the  Council  of 
Lyons  in  1274.  In  1242  he  entered  the  order 
of  the  Franciscan  friars,  and  afterwards  studied 
at  the  University  of  Paris,  where  in  1253  he 
became  a  teacher  and  in  1255  doctor.  His  .sobri- 
quet "  seraphical "  is  no  better  witness  to  his 
fame  than  the  fact  that  in  1256  he  became  prin- 
cipal of  the  Order  of  St.  Francis,  and  might  have 
been,  had  he  wished  it.  Archbishop  of  York.  One 
finds  him  persecuting  the  eminent  and  Hberal- 
minded  Roger  Bacon,  helping  to  elect  Pope 
Gregory  X,  and  being  appointed  a  cardinal 
and    Bishop    of    Albano.     His  works    include 


413 


BOND 


BONIFACE 


Sermons,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  expositions  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  of  the  Book  of  Sentences. 
Boiiavcntuni  was  a  realist,  and  somewhat  of  a 
mystic,  tiie  hitter  tendency  being  beautifully 
expressed  in  his  Itinerary  of  the  Soul  to  God. 
"In  brother  Bonaventura,"  said  Alexander  of 
Hales,  "the  sin  of  Adam  does  not  seem  to  have 
had  place." 

BOND,  JOHN  (1550-1612).  — An  English 
scholar  and  teacher,  described  by  Anthony  b, 
Wood  as  "  a  most  noted  critic  in  Greek  and 
Latin  learning,"  is  an  instance  of  the  times 
when  a  man  could  easily  change  from  one 
learned  profession  to  another,  or  indeed  prac- 
tice both.  He  was  born  at  a  village  (Trull) 
2  miles  from  Taunton  in  Somersetshire  (Eng- 
land), educated  at  Winchester  College,  and 
from  thence  passed  to  New  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  was  one  of  the  "  clerks."  He  took 
his  degree  about  1575.  About  1579  he  became 
master  of  the  Free  (Grammar)  School  of 
Taunton,  a  post  conferred  upon  him  by  his 
Oxford  college.  The  rest  of  his  story  is  best 
given  in  the  words  of  Anthony  a  Wood  {Athen. 
Oxon.,  ed.,  1815,  Vol.  II,  col.  115).  "At 
which  place  continuing  many  years,  he  did 
exercise  such  an  admirable  way  of  teaching, 
that  many  departed  thence  so  excellently  well 
grounded  in  humane  learning,  that  they  proved 
afterwards  eminent  either  in  church  or  state. 
At  length,  being  in  a  manner  worn  out  with  the 
drudgery  of  a  school,  he  did  for  diversion,  I 
cannot  say  profit,  practice  phy.sic,  though  he 
has  taken  no  degree  in  that  faculty  in  this 
(Oxford)  University,  and  became  at  length 
eminent  therein."  As  for  his  writings,  they 
"are  used  by  the  juniors  of  our  universities, 
and  in  many  Free  Schools,  and  are  more  ad- 
mired and  printed  beyond  the  seas  than  in 
England."  The  classical  works  edited  by 
John  Bond  were:  (1)  Quinti  Horatii  Flacci 
Poemata,  scholiis  sive  annotationibus,  quae 
brevis  Commentarii  vice  esse  possint,  iUustrata, 
Lond.,  160G  (with  editions  published  also  at 
Leyden,  Frankfort,  Hanover,  Amsterdam, 
Leipzig).  The  British  Museum  Library  con- 
tains 17  different  editions.  (2)  Auli  Persii 
Flacci  Satyrae  sex,  cum  posthumis  Commen- 
tariis  Johannis  Bond,  London,  1614  (editions 
also  published  at  Paris,  Amsterdam,  Nurem- 
berg). Of  John  Bond's  notes  on  Horace, 
John  Brinsley  in  his  Ludus  Literarius  says: 
"  He  hath  by  his  brains  made  that  difficult 
Poet  so  easy  that  a  very  child  which  hath  him 
well  entered  and  hath  read  the  former  school 
authors  in  any  good  manner,  may  go  thorough 
[i.e.  through]  it  with  facility,  except  in  very 
few  places."  F.  W. 

BONDED  INDEBTEDNESS  FOR 
SCHOOLS.  —  Indebtedness  incurred  for  the 
purchase  of  sites,  and  for  the  erection  and 
repair  of  school  buildings.  Compared  with 
other  forms  of  indebtedness,  this  is  small  in 


amount,  but  it  has  increased  faster  than  either 
the  municipal  or  the  state  debt  during  the 
past  two  decades.  This  is  due  to  the  new 
interest  in  providing  school  buildings  of  the 
best  type,  which  has  called  for  a  large  outlay 
of  money. 

The  usual  form  of  this  indebtedness  is  serial 
bonds,  running  for  from  10  to  20  years,  a  cer- 
tain i)roportion  of  the  bonds  being  retired  each 
year  after  their  issue.  Sometimes,  in  cities, 
the  issue  is  for  more  than  20  years,  but  in  rural 
districts  10  years  is  the  common  period.  The 
school  laws  of  the  different  states  provide  in 
detail  for  the  bonding  of  school  districts,  and 
for  the  collection  of  taxes  to  provide  for  the 
interest  and  the  gradual  retirement  of  the 
bonds. 

In  rural  districts,  towns,  and  small  cities, 
and  not  infrequently  in  large  cities  also,  all 
such  bonds  are  issued  only  after  the  question  of 
bonding  the  school  district  has  been  submitted 
to  the  voters,  and  authorized  by  them  by  a 
two  thirds  majority  vote.  In  a  few  of  the 
Eastern  states,  the  voters,  assembled  in  annual 
or  special  school  meeting,  may  vote  to  bond  the 
district  for  building  purposes.  In  large  cities, 
particularly  in  the  East,  a  general  vote  is  not 
required,  the  bonds  being  issued  by  the  city 
council  on  the  request  of  the  school  authorities. 

E.  P.  C. 

BONIFACE,     ST.,     or    WINFRID.  —  The 

apostle  of  Germany,  as  he  was  known,  was 
born  at  Crediton  in  675,  and  after  an  education 
at  Exeter  and  Nursling,  became  a  missionary 
in  Thuringia  and  Friesland.  His  mission 
among  the  Saxons  and  Hessians  was  fraught 
with  the  greatest  danger,  but  also  the  greatest 
success.  In  723  he  became  a  bishop,  and  in 
745  Archbishop  of  Mainz.  The  great  monas- 
tery of  Fulda,  for  long  the  home  of  the  highest 
learning  in  Germany,  was  erected  with  his 
approval  in  744.  Boniface  himself  wrote 
textbooks  on  meter  and  on  grammar,  founded 
on  the  classical  originals  of  Charisius,  Diomedes, 
and  Donatus,  together  with  sermons,  letters, 
and  moral  acrostic  poems,  typical  of  the  spirit 
of  the  day  and  its  inferior  Latin  and  scholarship. 
According  to  the  standards  of  his  day,  however, 
Boniface  was  a  purist  in  literature  and  an  ardent 
friend  of  education.  One  finds  him  asking  an 
abbess  for  a  copy  of  St.  Peter's  Epistles  in 
letters  of  gold,  and  writing  to  England  for 
books.  Boniface  resigned  his  high  ecclesiastical 
preferment  in  753,  to  return  to  Friesland,  where 
in  754  he  met  the  death  of  a  martyr,  his  body 
being  taken  for  burial  to  the  monastery  of 
Fulda.  P.  R.  C. 


References:  — 

KuRTH.     .S(.  Boniface.     (Paris,  1902.) 

Opera  in  MiRne,  Pal.  Lat.     (186.3,  v.  89.) 

Sandys.  History  of  Classical  Scholarship.  (Cam- 
bridge, 190:J-1908.) 

Werner.  Bonifacius,  der  Aposlel  der  Deutschen. 
(Leipzig,  1875.) 


414 


BONITZ 


BOPP 


BONITZ,  HERMANN  (1814-1888). —A 
prominent  German  schoolman  and  classical 
philologist.  He  was  born  in  Langensalza,  and 
received  his  secondary  education  at  the  famous 
school  in  Pforta,  then  studied  philology  at  the 
University  of  Leipzig  under  Gottfried  Hermann, 
and  in  Berlin  under  Bockh  and  Lachmann.  In 
1836  he  became  a  teacher  at  the  Blochmann 
Institute  in  Dresden,  and  in  1838  he  received 
a  position  at  the  Friedrich-Werder  Gymnasium 
in  Berlin.  In  1848  he  was  called  as  professor 
of  classical  philology  to  the  University  of 
Vienna,  with  the  special  view  of  assisting 
E.xner  in  the  reorganization  of  the  Austrian 
secondary  school  system.  The  two  men 
worked  out  the  famous  Organisaiioiisenlwurf 
(Plan  of  Organization),  "the  Magna  Charta  of 
Austrian  secondary  schools,"  which  inaugu- 
rated a  new  era  in  the  history  of  higher  edu- 
cation in  Austria.  The  Organisalionsenlwurf 
was  promulgated  by  the  Minister  of  Educa- 
tion, Count  Leo  Thun,  in  1849,  and  in  its 
main  outlines  is  still  in  force  at  the  present 
day.  It  contained  instructions  for  the  teaching 
of  the  various  subjects,  most  of  which  were 
written  by  Bonitz.  These  instructions  are 
permeated  by  the  Herbartian  spirit,  and  are 
full  of  the  finest  pedagogical  insight.  In 
the  philological  seminary  which  he  conducted 
in  the  university,  he  trained  capable  teachers 
for  the  newly  reformed  higher  schools,  and 
through  the  Zeitschrifl  fiir  die  osterreichischen 
Gymnasien  (Journal  for  the  Austrian  Gymna- 
siums), which  he  edited  for  17  years,  he  infused 
life  and  activity  throughout  the  whole  body  of 
Austrian  secondary  teachers,  and  defended  the 
work  of  reform  against  the  attacks  of  the  reac- 
tionary parties.  In  1867  he  accepted  an  ap- 
pointment as  director  of  the  "  Graue  Ivloster  " 
Gymnasium  in  Berlin,  and  in  1875  he  became 
a  councilor  in  the  Ministry  of  Education,  a 
po.sition  in  which  he  was  very  influential,  and 
which  he  filled  almost  up  to  the  time  of  his 
death.  Although  a  classical  philologist  him- 
self, Bonitz  maintained  that  the  time  was  past 
when  the  classical  languages  were  destined  to 
perform  the  exclusive,  or  even  the  leading,  part 
in  higher  education.  His  published  writings 
arc  chiefly  studies  of  the  Greek  classics,  espe- 
cially of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  with  whose  philoso- 
phies he  had  a  profound  acquaintance. 

F.  M. 

BONN,  THE  RHENISH  FREDERICK 
WILLIAM  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  Founded  by 
King  Freilerick  William  III  of  Prussia  in  1818, 
being,  with  the  exceijtion  of  the  University  of 
Munich,  the  youngest  in  the  German  Empire. 
In  .spite  of  its  youth,  it  is  the  fourth  largest 
institution  of  higher  learning  in  the  country, 
Berlin,  Munich,  and  Leipzig  alone  exceeding 
it  in  enrollment.  The  Elector  Maximilian 
Frederick  founded  an  academy  at  Bonn  in 
1777,  which  in  1784  was  transformed  into  an 
institution  of  university  rank;   but   ten   years 


later  the  French  occupied  the  city,  and  the  in- 
stitution was  disorganized.  The  final  estab- 
lishment of  the  university  in  1818  reflects  the 
political  conditions  of  the  time,  inasmuch  as  the 
institution  was  intended  to  constitute  the 
center  for  higher  education  in  the  new  western 
districts  of  Prussia  after  the  war  of  the  libera- 
tion. The  university  to-day  includes  faculties 
of  Protestant  and  Catholic  theology,  law,  medi- 
cine, and  philosophy,  there  being  about  four 
times  as  many  students  of  Catholic  as  of  Prot- 
estant divinity.  An  agricultural  school  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  university.  The  library  contains 
325,000  volumes  and  almost  1500  manuscripts, 
while  the  annual  expenditures  amount  to 
approximately  8400,000.  Among  prominent 
faculty  members  may  be  mentioned  Niebuhr, 
Welcker,  Brandis,  Ritschl,  Diez,  Ernst  Moritz 
Arndt,  A.  W.  von  Schlegel,  Helmholtz  (1855- 
1858),  Karl  Simrock,  and  Dahlmann.  A  num- 
ber of  German  princes,  including  the  present 
Emperor  and  the  Crown  Prince,  and  Emperor 
Frederick  III,  studied  at  Bonn.  During  the 
winter  semester  of  1909-1910,  there  were  in 
attendance  3598  students,  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: Theology  403,  law  807,  medicine  370,  and 
philosophy  2018.  In  addition  there  were  282 
auditors  enrolled.  R.  T. 

BONNET,  CHARLES  (1720-1793).  —  An 
eminent  Swiss  naturalist  and  psychologist. 
Appointed  at  the  age  of  20  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  French  Academy.  In  1742  he 
discovered  the  method  of  the  respiration  of 
caterpillars  and  butterflies.  The  failure  of  his 
eyesight  led  him  to  substitute  the  study  of  the 
reflective  sciences  for  that  of  experimental 
science.  He  adhered  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
empirical  origin  of  knowledge  through  the 
senses,  and  the  dependence  of  mental  life  on  the 
nervous  organism,  but  he  believed  in  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  and  held  a  metaphysical 
theory,  based  on  Leibnitz,  of  the  organic  unfold- 
ing of  the  countless  germs  of  which  the  universe 
is  composed,  in  regular  and  continuous  order, 
through  successive  stages.  He  is  accordingly 
counted  among  the  precursors  of  Lamarck  and 
Darwin. 

His  works  include,  Traile  d'lnsedologie, 
1745;  a  Traite  de  I'usage  dcs  fcuilles,  1754;  an 
Essai  de  psychologic,  1754;  Essai  analytiqtie 
sur  les  facidtes  de  I'dme,  1760;  Contemplation 
de  la  Nature,  1764-1765;  La  palingenesie  philo- 
sophique,  1769.  S.  W. 

BOOKKEEPING,    INSTRUCTION    IN. — 

See    Accountancy    Education;    Commercial 

Education. 

BOPP,  FRANZ  (1791-1867.)  — A  German 
scholar  who  was  the  founder  of  the  compara- 
tive study  of  language.  Born  at  Mainz,  he 
studied  for  about  3  years  at  Paris,  when  he  had 
an  opportunity  of  learning  Arabic  and  Persian. 
Through  the  medium  of  grammars  and  trans- 


415 


BORDEAITX 


BOSNIA   AND    HERZEGOVINA 


lations  he  tauRht  himself  S;inskrit.  In  1821 
he  became  an  extraordinary  professor  in  Berlin, 
and  full  professor  in  1S35.  His  most  important 
work,  Comparative  Grammar  (1833),  aimed  at 
an  explanation  of  the  grammatical  forms  of  the 
Indo-Clcrmanic  languages.  Like  most  jjioneers 
in  the  field  of  knowledge,  Bopp  was  discredited, 
and  it  remained  for  his  successors  to  secure 
recognition  for  the  study  of  i)hilology. 

BORDEAUX,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  ~  Founded 
in  1441  by  papal  bull  on  tiie  iietition  of  the 
representatives  of  the  English  King  and  the 
municiijality.  A  dudiiim  generate  was  estab- 
lished, tiiougii  little  work  was  done  in  medicine. 
The  university  had  no  endowment,  with  the 
result  tluit  at  times  professors  could  not  be 
oljtaiued  to  lecture.  Under  Louis  XIII,  the 
right  of  giving  the  doctorate  was  taken  away 
from  the  university  for  a  time.  The  decline  of 
Bordeaux  was  even  more  rapid  than  that  of  the 
other  French  universities,  until  it  was  suppressed 
in  1793.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  a 
faculty  of  letters  and  sciences  was  established 
at  Bordeaux,  to  which  were  added  in  1870  a 
faculty  of  law  and  in  1878  a  faculty  of  medicine 
and  pharmacy.  The  4  faculties  mentioned  are 
now  maintained.  There  were  enrolled  in  1909 
2780  students,  of  whom  984  were  in  law,  1121 
in  medicine,  319  in  sciences,  and  316  in  letters. 
See  Fr.\nc'e,  Education  in;  Universities. 

BORGO,  LUCAS  DI.  —  See  Paciuolo. 

BOROUGH  ROAD  TRAINING  COLLEGE, 
LONDON,  ENGLAND.  —  One  of  the  earliest 
English  normal  schools  for  the  training  of 
teachers  for  the  elementary  schools.  It  was  the 
original  school  where  Lancaster  (q.v.)  began  to 
put  into  practice  his  monitorial  system,  prob- 
ably in  1798.  In  1812  the  school  was  handed 
over  to  the  committee  which  developed  later 
into  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (q.v.), 
in  whose  control  the  school  has  remained  up 
to  the  present.  In  the  early  years  boys  and 
young  men  from  all  parts  of  the  United  King- 
dom, Europe,  and  other  parts  of  the  world  were 
trained.  A  practicing  school,  which  the  super- 
intendents endeavored  to  maintain  as  a  pro- 
gressive model  school,  was  associated  with  the 
institution  from  the  first.  The  monitorial 
system  was  retained  until  1847,  when  the  pupil- 
teacher  system  was  adopted,  accompanied  by  a 
government  grant.  The  effect  of  this  financial 
assistance  was  an  almost  immediate  extension 
of  the  school.  Grants  were  also  paid  in  aid  of 
trained  Queen's  scholars.  The  institution  was 
further  enlarged  in  1871-1872.  In  1888  the  col- 
lege was  removed  to  Lsleworth,  a  few  miles  west 
of  London;  the  old  practicing  school  which  had 
been  in  existence  for  90  years  at  Borough  Road 
was  closed,  and  local  schools  were  used  for  prac- 
tice teaching.  Throughout  its  career  the 
Borough  Road  Training  College  has,  like  the 
society  which  controls  it,  stood  for  undenomi- 


nationalism.  In  1908-1909  there  were  enrolled 
Episcopalians,  Congregationalists,  Methodists, 
Baptists,  Unitarians,  Roman  Catliolics,  and 
Mohammedans.  The  enrollment  is  about  145. 
On  the  general  relation  of  the  college  to  the 
English  system  of  training  teachers,  see  the  ar- 
ticle on  Training  of  Teachers. 

Reference:  — 
BiNNS,    H.    B.     A    Century    of    Education.     (London, 
1908.) 

BOSCOBEL  COLLEGE,  NASHVILLE, 
TENN.  —  An  institution  for  the  education  of 
young  women.  Kindergarten,  intermediate, 
academic,  and  musical  departments  are  main- 
tained. 

BOSNIA  AND  HERZEGOVINA,  EDUCA- 
TION IN.  —  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  are 
under  the  sovereignty  of  Austria-Hungary. 
Laws  enacted  by  the  provincial  government 
{Landesregierung)  must  be  sanctioned  by  the 
Austro-Hungarian  government.  The  admin- 
istration of  schools  is  vested  in  a  provincial 
ministry  of  instruction.  Area:  19,702  square 
miles.     Population:    1,568,092  (1905). 

Historical.  —  The  schools  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  have  for  several  centuries  been 
divided  into  3  fairly  distinct  classes.  First, 
those  maintained  by  the  Croats,  who  are  ad- 
herents of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  second, 
those  maintained  by  the  Serbs,  who  arc  ad- 
herents of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church;  and, 
third,  those  of  the  Turks,  who  are  followers 
of  Mohammed. 

The  provinces  were  subject  to  Turkey  from 
1503  to  1882,  and  during  this  period,  while 
each  nationality  maintained  its  own  schools,  no 
uniform  system  existed,  and,  excepting  as 
regards  a  few  Turkish  schools,  the  State  gave 
no  support  to  education. 

Previous  to  1882  the  schools  maintained  by 
the  Turks  were  chiefly  for  religious  instruction. 
In  the  mosque  schools  {dhian  mekteh)  children 
were  taught  to  read,  to  recite  in  Arabic  some 
verses  from  the  Koran,  and  to  write  in  Turkish 
characters.  There  were  also  religious  schools 
(tnedresse),  of  a  high  grade.  The  number  of 
religious  schools  in  Bosnia  (1882)  was  719. 
Secular  schools  (18)  were  maintained  at  public 
expense,  and  provided  elementary  instruction  in 
those  subjects  usually  taught  in  public  or 
national  schools.  In  addition,  there  were  a 
Turkish  normal  school,  a  military  school,  and 
a  technical  school,  all  of  secondary  grade  and 
supported  by  the  State. 

Franciscan  monks  and  nuns  of  the  order  of 
St.  Francis  conducted  schools  for  children  of 
the  Catholic  faith.  They  were  taught  reading, 
writing  of  the  Serbo-Croatian  language  in 
Latin  characters,  arithmetic,  geography,  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  catechism. 

Serb  schools  for  those  of  the  Orthodox 
Greek  Church  gave  instruction  in  reading 
(Serbo-Croatia  printed  in  Cyrillic  character), 


416 


BOSSUET 


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writing,  and  arithmetic.  These  schools,  which 
were  maintained  by  gifts  and  by  taxes  of  the 
communicants,  numbered  over  100  in  1882,  with 
about  3400  pupils.  As  a  rule  they  admitted 
only  children  of  the  Serbs  belonging  to  the 
Orthodox  Greek  faith. 

The  revolution  of  1875  resulted  in  the 
Austro-Hungarian  sovereignty  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  (1SS2),  and  in  the  readjustments 
that  followed  education  was  brought  under 
government  direction.  The  transition  was 
marked  by  the  passage  of  a  law  making  pri- 
mary instruction  obligatory  in  both  provinces. 
State  control  of  schools  has  been  assumed 
gradually  by  extending  aid  to  existing  schools 
antl  by  opening  new  schools.  In  the  case  of 
aided  schools  the  State  reserves  the  right  to 
assist  in  the  nomination  of  teachers,  and,  in 
some  cases,  to  prescribe  the  course  of  study. 
The  law  specifics  that  all  instruction  shall  be 
given  in  the  Serbo-Croatian  language. 

Primary  Schools.  —  There  are  now  four  classes 
of  primary  schools:  The  national  schools,  con- 
sisting of  those  which  have  been  opened  recently 
by  the  government,  and  reorganized  religious 
schools;  Turkish  confessional  schools,  of  which 
58  have  been  brought  into  conformity  with 
state  regulations;  Catholic  schools;  and  schools 
of  the  Orthodox  Greek  confession  similar  in 
character  to  the  national  schools.  The  number 
of  schools  in  the  first  two  classes  in  1907  was 
1063,  and  in  the  last  two  was  98.  The  subjects 
of  instruction  in  the  national  schools  correspond 
to  those  for  the  elementary  schools  of  Austria- 
Hungary.  Much  attention,  however,  is  given 
to  agriculture.  Eleven  higher  primary  schools 
for  girls  are  maintained,  and  a  normal  school 
for  the  training  of  teachers,  located  at  Sarajevo. 
The  secondary  schools  for  boys  consist  of  5 
gymnasia  and  1  realschule.  There  are  also 
9  lower  commercial  schools,  a  Greek  oriental 
school,  and  a  Catholic  seminary  for  priests 
of  the  respective  denominations.         L.  D.  A. 

Reference :  — 
Jeanxot,  M.  Bosnia-Herzegovine.  In  Paris,  Expo- 
sition universelle,  1900.  Rapports  du  jury  inter- 
national, Classe  I  ;  Kducation  de  I'cnfant ;  en- 
seignemcnt  primaire  ;  enseignement  des  adultes, 
pp.  681-711.  (Paris,  1001.)  Prepared  from  official 
documents  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Exposition,  1900. 

BOSSUET,        JACQUES        BENIGNE.  — 

French  prelate  and  orator,  born  at  Dijon, 
Sept.  27,  1627;  educated  at  the  Jesuit  Col- 
lege of  Dijon  and  the  University  of  Paris,  Col- 
lege of  Navarre;  promoted  to  the  priesthood 
and  obtained  his  doctorate  in  1652,  and  estab- 
lished as  priest  in  Metz.  He  removed  to  Paris 
in  1659,  and  at  once  gained  a  reputation  for 
eloquence,  and  was  in  great  demand  as  a 
preacher  for  special  occasions.  In  the  year 
1669  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Condom,  and 
in  1670  he  was  chosen  by  Louis  XIV  as  pre- 
ceptor of  the  Dauphin.  For  10  years  he 
devoted    himself   to   his   appointed   task,    but 

VOL.  I  —  2e  417 


with  indifferent  success.  The  prince  lacked 
ability,  and  the  aim  was  too  high  for  the  mark. 
The  pedagogical  plan  was  imposing,  and  the 
range  of  studies  comprehensive.  Bossuet  him- 
self assumed  immediate  direction  of  the  instruc- 
tion in  ancient  languages,  in  history,  and  in 
philosophy.  He  composed  his  Discours  sur 
I'histoire  universelle,  a  logic,  and  a  treatise  upon 
the  Knowledge  of  God  a)td  of  One's  Self,  for  the 
benefit  of  his  pupil.  He  undertook  to  fashion 
the  character,  develop  the  judgment,  and  refine 
the  mind  of  his  pupil,  while  preparing  him  for 
his  future  profession  as  king. 

Bossuet  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Meaux  in 
1681.  His  scholarship  and  his  eloquence  made 
him  the  actual  leader  of  the  clergy  in  France. 
He  was  almost  constantly  engaged  in  some 
form  of  religious  controversy.  He  defended 
the  liberty  of  the  Gallican  Church,  but  he  ar- 
dently opposed  the  Protestants.  His  attacks 
upon  the  Quietistic  heresy  led  him  into  a  bitter 
conflict  with  Fenelon,  which  resulted  in  the 
condemnation  of  the  latter.  His  long  life  was 
intensely  active  throughout.  His  death  oc- 
curred Apr.   12,   1704.  S.  W. 

References  :  — 

Sainte-Beuve.  C.  A.    Monday  Chats.     (Chicago,  1890.) 
Stephen,  Sir  J.  F.     Horae  Sabbaticae,  Vol.  II.     (Lon- 
don, 1892.) 

BOSTON,  CITY  OF.  —  The  largest  city 
and  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Massachusetts, 
and  the  chief  commercial  city  of  New  Eng- 
land. Incorporated  as  a  city  in  1822.  In  1900 
the  total  population  of  the  city  was  560,892, 
and  its  estimated  population  in  1909  was  622,- 
970.  Its  school  census,  5-15  years  of  age,  was 
104,150  in  1909,  and  its  total  school  enroll- 
ment was  111,450  in  day  schools,  and  21,409 
in  night  schools.  The  enrollment  in  private 
and  parochial  schools  was  16,563  additional. 
Of  the  total  population  in  1900,  35  per  cent 
were  foreign  born,  and  2  per  cent  colored. 
Of  the  foreign-born  population  in  1900,  35  per 
cent  were  Irish,  2.5  per  cent  Canadians,  8 
per  cent  Russians,  7  per  cent  Italians,  and  5 
per  cent  Germans. 

History.  —  On  Apr.  13,  1635,  the  beginnings 
of  the  public  school  system  of  Boston  were 
made  by  the  passage  of  the  following  order  by 
the  freemen  of  the  town:  "  Likewise,  it  was 
then  generally  agreed  upon,  that  our  brother 
Philemon  Purmont  shall  be  entreated  to  become 
school-master  for  the  teaching  and  nurturing 
of  children  with  us."  The  school  thus  set  up 
has  maintained  a  continuous  existence  up  to  the 
present,  and  has  long  been  known  as  the  Boston 
Public  Latin  School.  Its  chief  function,  from 
the  first,  has  been  to  prepare  boys  for  entrance 
to  Harvard  College.  In  1641  the  income  from 
Deer  Island  was  set  aside  for  the  support 
of  schools,  and  in  1660  the  General  Court  of 
Massachusetts  gave  Boston  1000  acres  of 
land  for  the  same  purpose.  By  1682  the  school 
established  in  1635  had  become  so  crowded  that 


BOSTON 


BOSTON 


two  others  were  established,  "  to  teach  children 
to  write  and  to  cipher."  These  two  schools 
really  mark  the  beginning  of  general  education 
in  IBoston.  These,  and  others  established 
later,  became  the  so-called  Grammar  Schools 
of  Boston,  wherein  masters  taught  reading, 
spelling,  grammar,  geography,  and  the  "  higher 
branches."  Boys  under  7  years  of  age  were  not 
admitted  to  them,  and  children  over  7  only  if 
they  "  could  read  the  English  language  by 
spelling  the  same."  Ciirls  were  not  admitted 
at  all  until  1789,  and  from  1789  to  1828  they 
were  admitted  only  between  Apr.  20  and 
Oct.  20.  In  1828  girls  were  finally  ad- 
mitted to  the  grammar  schools  on  the  same 
terms  as  boys.  In  1830,  the  process  of  segre- 
gating the  sexes  was  begun. 

For  more  than  half  a  century  the  schools 
were  under  the  control  of  the  selectmen  of  the 
town,  the  clergy  being  invited  to  visit  them  and 
to  report.  In  1789  they  were  put  under  the 
control  of  a  board  composed  of  the  select- 
men and  12  additional  committeemen,  elected 
annually  by  the  town  meeting.  On  the  incor- 
poration of  the  city  of  Boston  in  1822,  this 
board  was  displaced,  and  the  control  of  the 
schools  was  given  to  the  8  aldermen  of  the 
new  city.  In  1835  this  was  again  changed,  and 
the  control  of  the  schools  was  given  to  a  School 
Committee,  consisting  of  2  persons  elected 
annually  from  each  of  the  12  wards,  with  the 
Mayor,  and  the  President  of  the  Common 
Council,  ex  officio,  as  additional  members. 

In  1818  the  town  appropriated  $5000  for 
Primary  Schools,  and  directed  the  School 
Committee  to  elect  annually  a  certain  number 
of  persons  in  each  ward  to  manage  its  expendi- 
ture. The  general  School  Committee  ap- 
pointed what  was  virtually  a  subcommittee, 
consisting  of  3  citizens  from  each  of  the  12 
wards,  constituted  them  a  Primary  School 
Committee,  and  assigned  to  them  the  task  of 
providing  primary  schools.  These  schools  were 
to  be  taught  by  women  all  the  year  round, 
were  to  admit  children  as  early  as  4  years  of 
age,  and  were  to  prepare  them  for  admission  to 
the  grammar  schools.  Primary  schools  were 
accordingly  opened  in  1819,  and  this  primary 
board,  by  the  institution  of  new  schools  and 
the  addition  of  territory,  rose  so  rapidly  in 
importance  and  in  numbers,  that  by  1849  it 
had  increased  from  36  to  190  members,  and 
Boston  had,  in  effect,  two  school  committees, 
one  for  grammar  schools  and  one  for  primary 
schools.  This  condition  continued  until  1854, 
when  the  Primary  School  Committee  was 
abolished,  the  schools  consolidated,  and  a  new 
school  committee  took  charge  of  the  schools. 
This  new  committee  consisted  of  the  Mayor 
and  the  President  of  the  Common  Council, 
ex  officio,  and  of  6  members  from  each  of  the 
12  wards,  one  third  to  be  elected  annually,  and 
to  hold  office  for  3  years  each.  The  organiza- 
tion of  the  schools  into  districts,  and  the  board 
into   district   committees,   soon   followed.     By 


1875  this  board,  by  the  annexation  of  territory, 
had  increased  in  number  from  72  to  116,  and 
was  then  displaced  by  a  board  of  24,  elected  at 
large  and  for  3-year  terms,  and  with  the  Mayor 
and  the  Chairman  of  the  Council  as  ex  officio 
members.  In  1851  the  election  of  a  Superin- 
tendent of  City  Schools  was  authorized  by  law. 
In  1876  the  appointment  of  a  board  of  6  assist- 
ant superintendents  was  authorized.  Since 
that  time  the  progress  of  the  schools  has  been 
rapid.  In  1901  a  Schoolhouse  Department 
was  established  by  law,  to  consist  of  3  salaried 
Commissioners,  who  have  charge  of  all  school 
buildings  and  repairs.  In  1905  the  School 
Commission  was  entirely  reorganized  by  law 
and  reduced  to  5  members,  elected  at  large  and 
for  3-ycar  terms,  not  more  than  2  going  out  of 
office  at  any  one  time.  In  1906  further  legis- 
lation gave  a  modern  business  organization  to 
the  system,  with  authority  and  responsibility 
properly  placed. 

In  1821  a  new  high  school  for  boys,  known  as 
the  English  High  School,  was  organized  for  the 
benefit  of  those  not  intending  to  go  to  college. 
This  is  usually  regarded  as  the  first  public 
high  school  in  America.  In  1852  a  normal 
school  for  girls  was  established,  in  which  a 
2-years'  course  of  training  was  offered,  designed 
to  prepare  girls  to  become  teachers  in  the 
public  schools  of  Boston.  In  1855  a  third 
year  of  instruction  was  added,  and  the  school 
was  made  into  a  girls'  high  school  as  well  as  a 
normal  school.  In  1872  the  school  was  divided 
into  two  schools,  —  a  High  School  for  girls,  and 
Normal  School  for  girls.  By  the  annexation  of 
adjacent  territory,  and  by  the  establishment  of 
new  high  schools,  the  city  now  maintains  14 
high  schools,  7  of  which  are  coeducational. 
The  Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  established 
in  1889,  is  one  of  the  best  of  its  kind.  A  High 
School  of  Commerce  for  boj's  was  established 
in  1906,  and  a  High  School  of  Practical  Arts 
for  girls  was  established  in  1907.  In  1907  a 
Department  of  School  Hygiene  was  created, 
to  take  charge  of  all  work  in  athletics,  play, 
health,  medical  inspection,  nurses,  military 
drill,  etc.  In  1908  a  city  pension  fund  was 
created  by  law. 

Present  School  System.  —  The  school  system 
of  Boston,  as  organized  and  conducted  in  1908, 
is  as  follows:  — 

At  the  head  is  a  School  Committee  of  5 
members,  elected  from  the  city  at  large.  A 
Schoolhouse  Department,  consisting  of  3 
Commissioners  appointed  by  the  Mayor,  has 
charge  of  the  construction  and  repair  of  school 
buildings.  The  School  Committee  elects  a 
Secretary,  Business  Agent,  Auditor,  and  a 
Schoolhouse  Custodian,  who  hold  office  during 
good  behavior  and  efficiency,  and  who  appoint 
their  own  assistants,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  School  Commissioners.  The  School  Com- 
missioners also  appoint  a  Superintendent  and 
6  Assistant  Superintendents,  who  form  a 
Board  of  Superintendents,  and  who  hold  office 


418 


BOSTON 


BOSTON 


for  6  years  each.  The  Secretary  keeps  all 
records  of  the  School  Commissioners  and  of  the 
Board  of  Superintendents;  compiles  all  reports 
and  edits  all  publications;  issues  all  notices 
and  certificates;  has  control  of  the  offices; 
and,  in  general,  oversees  all  clerical  work 
connected  with  the  general  administration  of 
the  schools.  The  Business  Agent  keeps  a 
complete  set  of  books,  showing  in  detail  all 
receipts  and  expenses  of  the  schools;  prepares 
all  payrolls;  examines  all  bills  presented  for 
payment;  approves  all  requisitions;  submits  a 
monthly  statement  of  appropriations  and  e.x- 
penses  to  the  School  Committee;  and  prepares 
an  annual  financial  report.  The  Auditor  acts 
as  the  executive  officer  of  the  School  Committee 
for  the  purchase,  storage,  and  distribution  of 
all  supplies  required  by  the  schools;  furnishes 
all  supplies  as  needed  and  takes  a  receipt  for 
the  same;  obtains  bids  for  all  articles  needed; 
certifies  as  to  the  correctness  of  aU  purchases 
and  bills;  and  submits  an  annual  report  of  his 
work  and  an  annual  estimate  of  needs  to 
the  School  Committee.  The  Schoolhouse  Cus- 
todian acts  for  the  School  Committee  in  the 
care  and  custody  of  the  lands  and  buildings 
used  for  school  purposes;  with  the  approval  of 
the  School  Committee  appoints,  transfers, 
suspends,  and  removes  all  janitors  and  engi- 
neers; inspects  all  buildings;  i.ssues  requisitions 
for  fuel  and  all  janitors'  supplies;  and  keeps  on 
file  a  complete  record  of  the  business  of  his 
department.  The  Superintendent  of  Schools 
is  the  executive  officer  of  the  School  Committee 
with  reference  to  all  matters  relating  to  in- 
struction and  discipline  in  the  public  schools; 
may  make  supplemental  regulations,  as  he 
deems  necessary;  acts  as  Chairman  of  the 
Board  of  Superintendents  and  instructs  them 
as  to  their  work;  appoints  and  removes  all 
teachers,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Com- 
mittee; may  transfer  or  suspend  teachers  as 
he  sees  fit;  has  oversight  of  the  work  of  the 
truancy  department;  and  submits  an  annual 
report  to  the  School  Committee.  The  Board 
of  Superintendents  has  control  of  the  course  of 
study;  passes  on  all  books  and  apjiaratus  pro- 
posed to  be  purchased;  awards  all  diplomas; 
conducts  all  examinations  for  certificates  of 
qualification  to  teach  in  any  of  the  schools  of 
the  city;  issues  all  certificates;  and  arranges 
the  lists  of  eligible  teachers. 

The  school  system  consists  of  1  normal 
.school,  14  day  high  schools,  64  day  elementary 
school.s,  100  kindergartens,  a  parental  school, 
and  a  school  for  tiie  instruction  of  the  deaf, 
6  evening  high  schools,  14  evening  elementary 
schools,  and  .")  evening  drawing  schools.  Prac- 
tically no  children  are  excluded  from  school 
because  of  lack  of  school  accommodation. 
The  system  employed  2673  teachers  in  the  day 
schools,  408  teachers  in  the  special  and  evening 
schools,  and  148  special  teachers,  —  78  of 
whom  were  in  household  science  and  arts,  and 
49  in  drawing  and  manual  training.     28  play- 

419 


grounds  were  opened,  and  30  school  nurses 
were  employed  in  1908.  A  Truancy  Depart- 
ment and  a  Department  of  School  Hygiene  are 
maintained.  A  city  pension  system,  sabbati- 
cal vacations,  years  of  rest  for  long  service  on 
pay,  and  a  plan  of  promotion  based  on  edu- 
cation and  training,  are  provided.  Free  text- 
books and  supplies  are  provided  in  all  schools. 
The  high  school  system  is  especially  complete, 
there  being  a  Boys'  Latin  School,  a  Girls' 
Latin  School,  a  Boys'  EngHsh  High  School, 
a  Girls'  English  High  School,  a  Boys'  High 
School  of  Commerce,  a  Boys'  High  School  of 
Mechanic  Arts,  a  Girls'  High  School  of  Prac- 
tical Arts,  and  mixed  high  schools  in  Brighton, 
Charlestown,  Dorchester,  East  Boston,  Rox- 
bury.  South  Boston,  and  West  Roxbury.  A 
city  Normal  School,  open  since  1904  to  both 
sexes,  completes  the  system  at  the  top. 

The  cost  of  the  system  for  the  financial  year 
1908-1909  was  $3,957,551,  not  counting  new 
school  buildings  constructed,  which  cost  $774,- 
920  additional.  This  amount  is  all  raised  by  local 
taxation,  the  rate  of  which  was  fixed  by  law 
in  1901.  The  total  tax  allowed  must  not  exceed 
34  cents  on  the  SlOO  of  the  average  valuation 
of  the  city  during  the  3  years  immediately  pre- 
ceding. Of  this,  4  cents  must  be  appropriated 
for  new  buildings,  lands,  and  furniture,  and  2.5 
cents  must  be  used  for  repairs  and  alterations. 
This  leaves  27.5  cents  with  which  to  conduct  the 
entire  school  system,  an  amount  lower  than 
any  other  Massachusetts  city.  Though  the 
maximum  amount  is  levied,  the  increase  of 
pupils  in  the  schools  and  the  increased  school 
facilities  provided  far  outrun  the  increase  in 
valuation  of  the  city.  Between  1901  and  1908, 
the  a.ssessed  valuation  of  the  city  increased 
18.7  per  cent,  the  enrollment  in  the  day  and 
evening  schools  increased  24  per  cent,  and  the 
net  cost  per  pupil  increased  from  $32.96  to 
$34.52.  During  the  same  period,  the  enrollment 
in  the  high  schools,  where  the  per  capita  ex- 
pense is  double  the  average  for  the  system,  in- 
creased from  7.48  per  cent  of  the  total  enrollment 
to  10.88  per  cent.  The  result  is  that  the  School 
Committee  has  been  forced  to  adopt  the  most 
rigid  economy  to  enable  it  to  conduct  the  schools 
within  the  appropriations  available.  The  even- 
ing lecture  system  has  had  to  be  abandoned; 
the  reduction  of  the  number  of  pupils  per 
teacher  from  50  and  60  to  44,  as  proposed,  has 
had  to  be  postponed;  floors  and  windows  are 
cleaned  less  frequently  than  they  should  be; 
the  day  industrial  schools,  as  proposed,  cannot 
be  started;  and  the  salary  schedule  for  teachers 
is  endangered.  It  is  probable  that  legislative 
relief  will  soon  be  granted.  E.  P.  C. 


References:  — 

Among  the   more  useful  articles  and   books   are   the 
following  :  — 
Anmtal    Reports    of   the    School    Committee    of    Boston, 

18.35  to  date. 
Annual   Reports   of    the   Primary   School   Committee   of 
Boston,  1818-1854. 


BOSTON   COLLEGE 


BOSTON   UNIVERSITY 


Boston  School  Administration.  Educational  Review, 
April  luui  June,  li)06.  Early  efforts  for  reform, 
(mil  1(105  reorganization. 

Jenk.i,  Hknhy  1''.  Catalogue  (aiui  History)  of  the  Bos- 
ton I'uhlic  I.iitin  ^School  (ISSC). 

Rules  anrt  Regulations  of  the  School  Committee  of  Boston. 
(1'.I08.) 

Spencku,  D.wid.  Srhool  Reform  in  Boston.  Atlantic 
Monthly,  July,  1907. 

BOSTON  COLLEGE,  BOSTON,  MASS.  — 

A  t';itholi('  institution  for  higher  education, 
chartered  in  ISiV,],  and  controlled  by  the  Society 
of  Jesus.  Students  are  admitted  on  graduation 
from  the  Boston  College  High  School,  which  is 
connected  with  the  institution,  on  certificate 
from  approved  high  schools,  or  by  examination, 
the  requirements  for  which  are  equivalent  to 
16  units.  The  degree  of  B.S.  is  conferred. 
There  is  a  faculty  of  14  professors. 

BOSTON  EVENING  LAW  SCHOOL, 
Y.M.C.A.,  BOSTON,  MASS.  —  Established 
in  1895  to  provide  employed  men  with  an 
opportunity  of  obtaining  a  legal  course  equiva- 
lent to  that  of  university  schools  of  law.  In 
1904  the  school  was  incorporated  and  em- 
powered to  grant  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Laws  at  the  end  of  a  4  years'  course.  The 
school  admits  without  examination  graduates 
of  colleges,  scientific,  and  4  years'  courses  in 
high  schools  over  18  years  of  age. 

BOSTON  UNIVERSITY,  BOSTON,  MASS. 

—  A  coeducational  institution  chartered  May 
26,  1869.  The  first  department  was  the 
School  of  Theology,  projected  in  1839  by 
graduates  and  friends  of  Wesleyan  University 
as  a  commemoration  of  the  first  centennial  of 
Methodism;  after  25  years  at  Newbury,  Vt., 
and  Concord,  N.H.,  the  school  was  removed 
to  Boston  and  called  the  Boston  Theological 
Seminary.  Adopted  by  the  university  in 
1871,  it  was  the  first  seminary  in  the  United 
States  to  introduce  the  .study  of  comparative 
religion,  and  the  first  in  New  England  to 
include  members  of  other  denominations  among 
its  public  lecturers.  The  School  of  Law  was 
opened  in  October,  1872 ;  it  offered  a  3 
years'  course  from  the  outset.  The  School 
of  Medicine  (Homeopathic),  opened  in  1873, 
adopted  the  New  England  Female  Medical 
College  and  occupied  its  building.  The  first  un- 
dergraduate department,  the  College  of  Music, 
established  in  1872,  had  a  fairly  succe.s.sful  career, 
but  was  taken  over  in  1891  as  a  graduate 
department  by  the  New  England  Conserva- 
tory of  Music,  ceasing  to  be  part  of  the  univer- 
sity. In  spite  of  the  depreciation  in  the  re- 
sources of  the  university  consequent  upon  the 
Boston  fire  of  1872  and  the  panic  of  the  follow- 
ing year,  a  seconfl  undergraduate  department, 
the  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  was  established  in 
1873;  this  school  grew  rajjidly,  and  the  re- 
quirements for  admission  were  soon  advanced 
until  they  were  a  year  in  advance  of  those  in 
force  at  other  classical  colleges.     Provision  for 


a  College  of  Agriculture  was  made  in  the  original 
charter  of  the  university,  but  the  financial 
difficulties  of  the  early  seventies  delayed  its 
organization.  In  January,  1875,  the  Massa- 
chusetts Agricultural  College  at  Amherst  was 
affiliated  with  the  university  as  an  agricultural 
department.  A  graduate  school,  overlapping 
in  its  activities  the  work  of  several  schools,  and 
intended  ultimately  to  crown  the  whole  univer- 
sity structure,  was  projected  at  the  founding  of 
the  university,  and  for  a  number  of  years  was 
ambitiously  styled  the  School  of  All  Sciences. 
The  iilan  of  the  university  involved  a  com- 
bination of  English  and  (ierman  university 
ideas;  provision  was  made  for  a  group  of  under- 
graduate colleges,  not  necessarily  in  one  place, 
and  for  several  professional  and  nonprofessional 
graduate  schools.  In  organization,  the  univer- 
sity is  sectarian;  two  thirds  of  a  self-perpetu- 
ating corporation,  of  not  less  than  10  or  more 
than  30  trustees,  must  be  members  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Each  trustee 
serves  5  years.  The  full  professors  constitute 
a  Senate,  with  the  usual  powers  of  a  university 
faculty.  In  theory,  graduation  from  a  school 
is  held  to  admit  to  membership  in  the  university; 
the  entire  body  of  graduates,  about  6000,  is 
styled  the  University  Convocation,  and  has 
(1909)  16  representatives  in  the  Corporation, 
3  in  the  Council  (which  comprises  the  ])resi- 
dent  and  heads  of  the  schools),  and  25  in  the 
Senate. 

Fraternities  have  been  established  as  follows : 
Beta  Theta  Pi  ;  Theta  Delta  Chi;  Sigma  Al- 
pha Epsilon;  Kappa  Kappa  Gamma;  Al|iha 
Phi;  Gamma  Phi  Beta;  Delta  Delta  Delta; 
Pi  Beta  Phi;  Phi  Delta  Phi;  Epsilon  Tau; 
Sigma  Kappa;  Phi  Alpha  Gamma;  and  Gamma 
Eta  Alpha. 

The  bachelor's  degree  is  given  in  arts,  law, 
science,  medicine,  and  surgery;  the  master's 
degree  in  arts  and  law;  and  the  doctor's  degree 
in  medicine,  philosophj',  sacred  theology,  and 
law.  This  last  degree  (LL.D.)  is  given  to 
holders  of  a  master's  degree,  upon  presentation 
of  a  thesis  after  2  years  of  approved  advanced 
work. 

The  establishment  of  Boston  University  fol- 
lowed the  bequest  for  this  purpose  by  Isaac 
Rich  of  the  bulk  of  his  estate;  originally  ap- 
praised at  81,700,000,  it  had  depreciated  in  1S72 
to  .§700,000.  In  1900  the  productive  endow- 
ment was  .'51,031,365;  the  total  annual  income 
was  .$155,365.47.  Grounds,  buildings,  and 
equipment  were  valued  at  .$886,776.  The  aver- 
age salary  of  a  professor  is  $2466.  The 
instructing  staff  numbers  (1909)  158;  there 
are  1459  students,  divided  as  follows:  College 
of  Arts,  314;  Specials,  275;  College  of  Agricul- 
ture, 500;  School  of  Theology,  196;  School  of 
Law,  319;  School  of  Medicine,  102;  Graduate 
School,  104.  Of  the  students,  419  are  women. 
Sixteen  foreign  countries  and  31  states  and 
territories  in  the  United  States  are  represented. 

CO. 


420 


BOTANIC   GARDENS 


BOTANIC   GARDENS 


BOTANIC  GARDENS,  EDUCATIONAL 
WORK  OF.  —  The  botanic  garden  as  au  edu- 
cational institution  is  a  comparatively  modern 
development,  but  may  be  traced  backward 
through  a  series  of  gradual  stages  to  the  time 
when  man  first  began  to  cultivate  wild  plants. 
The  first  gardens  were  cultivated  for  useful 
rather  than  ornamental  purposes,  and  the 
earliest  Greek  gardens  were  httle  more  than 
olive  orchards.  The  Greeks  also  developed 
ornamental  flower  gardens,  and  this  idea  was 
borrowed  from  them  by  the  Romans. 

The  remote  ancestry  of  the  true  botanical 
garden  is  to  be  found  in  the  earliest  attempts 
to  cultivate  medicinal  plants.  Pliny  (23-79 
A.D.)  mentions  such  a  garden  owned  by  An- 
tonius  Castor,  in  Rome,  and,  early  in  the 
Christian  era,  the  monks  in  Italy  began  to 
grow  medicinal  herbs  in  the  monastery  gardens. 
This  practice  was  subsequently  undertaken  by 
the  early  apothecaries,  giving  rise  to  the  so- 
called  "  physick  gardens,"  for  the  growing  of 
"  simples."  Such  gardens  were  naturally  uti- 
lized to  forward  the  work  of  instruction  in 
materia  medica,  in  connection  with  the  medical 
schools. 

About  the  sixteenth  century  occurred  a 
renaissance  of  the  scientific  study  of  plants, 
and  the  early  herbalists  began  to  cultivate  liv- 
ing specimens  for  botanical  study.  Thus  the 
modern  botanic  garden  may  be  traced  from 
the  vegetable  garden  and  orchard,  through  the 
ornamental  garden,  the  physic  gardens,  and 
the  private  gardens  of  the  herbalists,  an  inter- 
esting and  very  natural  parallel  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  science  of  botany  itself;  for 
plants  were  first  studied  as  articles  of  diet, 
then  as  the  source  of  remedies  for  disease,  and 
only  subsequently  for  their  own  sake,  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  modern   botanist. 

There  are  to-day  over  200  so-called  botanical 
gardens  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  36  of 
which  are  in  Germany,  23  in  Italy,  22  in  France, 
16  in  Ru.ssia,  13  in  Austria-Hungary,  and  12 
each  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  in  the 
United  States. 

Formal  instruction  was  undertaken  by  bo- 
tanical gardens  as  early  as  1545,  in  the  garden 
at  Padua,  where  lectures  on  plant  life  were 
given,  and  a  crude  form  of  laboratory  work 
undertaken  in  the  form  of  ostencio  simplicium, 
or  demonstrations  of  medicinal  herbs.  Even 
before  this  date  the  public  study  of  botany  was 
inaugurated  at  the  garden  of  Pisa  (1543),  by 
order  of  the  Grand  Duke  Cosmo  I,  and  the 
second  director  of  this  garden  was  the  cele- 
brated botanist  Caesalpino,  the  successor  of 
Ghinus,  who,  in  1547,  founded  the  garden  at 
Bologna. 

The  educational  work  of  botanic  gardens  falls 
naturally  under  six  heads:  1.  Information  by 
means  of  well  labeled  specimens.  2.  Popular 
lectures.  3.  Research  work.  4.  Periodical  and 
other  pulilications.  5.  Courses  of  lectures 
and  instruction  to   organized   classes.     6.  Uo- 


centry.  These  various  phases  of  botanical 
education  developed  in  connection  with  gar- 
dens approximately  in  the  order  here  named. 

1.  Information  by  means  of  well  labeled 
specimens.  A  museum  has  recently  been 
described  as  a  collection  of  attractive  labels 
well  illustrated  by  specimens.  The  earliest 
educational  work  of  botanic  gardens  was  con- 
fined almost  entirely  to  what  might  be  accom- 
phshed  by  such  means.  In  other  words,  the 
garden  was  a  place  where  any  one  sufficiently 
interested  could  go  and  "  educate  "  himself, 
i.e.  secure  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher  a  cer- 
tain limited  amount  of  information  about 
plants.  From  the  nature  of  the  case,  this  must 
always  remain  a  prominent  and  valuable  phase 
of  botanical  instruction  by  gardens.  In  the 
early  gardens  the  labels  gave  only  the  scien- 
tific name  of  the  plant,  but  subsequently  there 
were  added  the  common  name,  the  geographic 
distribution,  and  the  place  of  the  specimen  in 
the  system  of  classification  —  the  family  to 
which  it  belongs.  So  long  as  no  attempt  was 
made  to  illustrate  any  phase  of  botany  but 
classification,  such  labels  indicated  the  limits 
of  information  one  might  obtain;  but,  as  a 
rather  modern  development,  appearing  first 
in  this  country  in  the  Missouri,  Harvard,  and 
New  York  gardens,  plantations  were  organ- 
ized on  other  bases,  such  as  geographical  dis- 
tribution, relation  to  environment  (ecology), 
modification  of  parts  (morphology),  economic 
use  both  for  food  and  medicine,  plant  breed- 
ing, and  the  history  of  botany.  Thus  the 
range  of  information  to  be  obtained  from  labels 
was  greatly  extended.  But  after  all,  and  at 
best,  the  result  was  for  the  most  part  only  in- 
formation about  plants,  more  or  less  detached 
and  uncorrelated;  not  botanical  education. 
The  general  public  visit  a  botanical  garden  for 
recreation  rather  than  information,  and  while 
these  well  labeled  plantings  do  a  real  service, 
and  meet  with  a  genuine  and  widespread  appre- 
ciation, they  leave  much  to  be  desired.  They 
would  be  justified,  however,  from  the  stand- 
point of  education,  if  they  did  no  more  than 
extend  the  interest  of  the  public  in  things 
botanical,  or  serve  to  give  an  added  interest  in 
life. 

2.  Popular  lectures.  As  an  educational 
force  in  botanic  gardens,  popular  lectures  are 
only  second,  in  time  of  development,  to  the 
labeling  of  specimens.  They  were  introduced 
as  early  as  1545  at  the  Padua  garden.  At  first 
they  were  no  doubt  largely  confined  to  the 
medicinal  ])roperties  of  plants,  illustrated  by 
living  specimens  from  the  garden  and  green- 
houses and  by  dried  specimens  from  the  her- 
barium. Later  they  have  been  extended  to  all 
phases  of  scientific  botany,  from  the  early  spring 
flowere  to  botanical  exploration  and  theories  of 
heredity.  The  introduction  of  the  stereopticon 
has  here,  as  elsewhere,  done  much  to  increase 
the  interest  in  such  lectures.  At  the  free 
weekly   lectures   given   every   Saturday   after- 


421 


BOTANIC   GARDENS 


BOTANIC   GARDENS 


noon  throughout  the  year  at  the  New  York 
Botanical  Garden,  the  attendance  varies  from 
50  to  500,  depending  upon  the  weather,  the 
topic,  and  somewhat  upon  the  time  of  the  year 
and  the  extent  of  the  lecturer's  reputation. 
The  average  attendance,  however,  is  increasing. 

3.  Research.  Botanical  Oardens,  in  the  true 
sense  of  the  word,  have  alwaj-s  been  centers 
of  investigation,  otherwise  they  tend  to  become 
merely  [)leasure  i)arks.  The  educational  work 
of  the  early  physic  garden.s  was  very  largely 
research,  wliile  practically  no  attention  was 
given  to  jjopularining.  Thus,  when  John 
Gerarde,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  acting  for  Lord  Burleigh,  prepared  the 
letter  to  C"aml)ridge  University,  recommending 
that  a  physic  garden  be  established  there,  the 
purpose  stated  was  to  encourage  "  the  facultie 
of  simpling";  and  the  gardens  of  Bologna, 
Montpellicr,  Lcyden,  Paris,  and  Upsala  (the 
seat  of  Linn6's  labors),  flourished  in  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century  for  the  primary 
purpose  of  aiding  teaching  and  research. 
Well  equipped  garden  laboratories  for  research 
are  becoming  more  and  more  common,  espe- 
cially in  gardens  organically  connected  with  or 
affiliated  with  colleges  and  universities. 

4.  Publications.  At  first  these  were  mainly 
confined  to  catalogues  of  the  living  plants,  then 
were  introduced  guides  to  the  grounds,  seed 
lists,  lists  of  plants  offered  in  exchange,  guides 
to  the  museum  and  conservatories,  and  finally 
montlily  and  other  periodicals,  embodying  the 
results  of  research,  and  other  matters  pertain- 
ing to  the  advancement  of  botany  or  the  organ- 
ization of  the  institution. 

5.  Courses  of  lectures  and  instruction  to 
organized  classes.  This  is  one  of  the  latest 
and  most  important  educational  developments 
of  botanical  gardens.  Regular  courses  were 
offered  to  medical  students  as  early  as  1829 
in  the  Chelsea  Physic  Garden,  and  this  has  now 
become  an  important  phase  of  activity,  espe- 
cially of  all  gardens  connected  in  any  way  with 
educational  institutions.  In  fact,  didactic  in- 
struction by  botanic  gardens  has  developed 
parallel  with  the  growing  tendency  to  establish 
them  in  connection  with  universities  or  other 
educational  institutions.  In  the  earliest  and 
later  private  gardens,  practically  no  attention 
was  given  to  teaching.  In  the  physic  gardens 
of  apothecaries'  societies  and  schools  of  medi- 
cine, the  teaching  was  confined  to  the  nature 
and  properties  of  medicinal  plants;  but,  with 
the  organization  of  university  gardens  and 
gardens  closely  articulating  with  institutions  of 
learning,  was  introduced  formal  instruction  to 
classes  in  various  phases  of  pure  and  applied 
botany.  The  public  school  system  of  Pitts- 
burg furnishes  what  is  doubtless  a  unique  in- 
stance of  a  botaidc  garden  and  laboratory  as 
part  of  the  equipment  for  science  teaching  in 
high  schools.  The  new  Botanic  Garden,  estab- 
lished by  the  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and 
Sciences,  while  not  organically  connected  with 


any  school,  and  while  planning  ample  provision 
for  research,  was  inaugurated  primarily  as  a 
tea('hing  institution.  The  plan  involves  a 
staff  of  teachers,  as  well  as  of  investigators,  and 
the  organizing  of  classes  of  both  elementary 
and  advanced  grade. 

6.  Doccntry.  Docentry  is  a  comparatively 
new  idea  in  education,  and  is  confined  to  in.stitu- 
tions  devoting  a  considerable  portion  of  time 
to  the  popularizing  of  knowledge.  So  far  as 
the  writer  knows,  the  New  York  Botanical 
Garden  was  the  first,  and  is  to  date  (1910)  the 
only  botanical  garden  employing  docentry. 
The  former  system,  here  as  in  most  other  gar- 
dens, was  that  of  personal  guides  for  visitors 
who  apply,  and  aids  and  gardeners  were  detailed 
for  this  purpose.  Under  the  new  system  there  is 
a  regularly  appointed  "  docent,"  who  leaves 
the  front  door  of  the  museum  building  every 
week  day  afternoon  at  3  o'clock,  with  a  defi- 
nite route  for  each  day.  Parties  may  start 
with  the  docent,  or  he  may  in  turn  meet  with 
two  or  three  interested  visitors,  volunteer  inter- 
esting information  concerning  the  trees  and 
other  plants  of  the  collections,  and  thus  assem- 
ble an  extempore  class.  The  Saturday  trip 
is  confined  to  the  museum,  herbarium,  and 
library  (containing  many  rare  and  historically 
interesting  volumes),  and  is  completed  in  time 
to  permit  those  who  wish  to  attend  the  weekly 
public  lecture  at  4  o'clock. 

There  is  outlined  below  the  educational  work 
of  various  gardens,  in  the  order  of  their  age. 
The  date  indicates  the  year  in  which  the 
garden  was  established. 

1.  Jardin  des  Plantes,  Paris  (IGIO).  As  is 
well  known,  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  is  only 
partially  devoted  to  plants,  the  botanical  work 
being,  in  fact,  quite  overshadowed  by  the 
zoological.  On  Sunday  afternoons  public  lec- 
tures on  botanical  subjects  are  given  in  the 
amphitheater  of  a  special  building.  These 
lectures,  locally  called  "  conferences,"  are  illus- 
trated by  lantern  slides,  museum  specimens, 
and  living  plants  from  the  conservatories,  and 
admission  to  each  course  is  by  ticket. 

2.  Tokyo,  Japan  (1638).  This  garden,  now 
the  garden  of  the  Imperial  University,  was 
established  by  Tokugana  the  Third,  at  Shino- 
gawa,  on  the  southern  side  of  Yedo  (modern 
Tokyo).  After  the  revolution  of  18G8  it  was 
taken  over  by  the  Meji  government,  and  was 
again  transferred  to  the  Imperial  University 
in  1869.  At  this  last  tran.sfer  its  old  name, 
Oyakuycn  ("  The  Medical'  Plant  Garden ") 
was  changed  to  Igakkoyakuyen  ("  The  Medical 
School  Garden").  In  1871  it  came  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Educational  Department  of 
the  Empire,  and  in  1875  its  name  was  again 
changed  to  Kaishikaira,  Botanic  Garden.  In 
1876  it  became  part  of  the  College  of  Science  of 
the  University.  Instruction  is  given  to  uni- 
versity students  in  botany,  entomology,  and 
pharmacy,  while  the  grounds  are  open  to  the 
general  public. 


422 


BOTANIC   GARDENS 


BOTANIC   GARDENS 


3.  Chelsea,  England  (1673).  Chelsea  is 
almost  unique,  among  the  early  gardens,  in  the 
extent  to  which  it  organized  instruction  in 
various  branches  of  pure  and  applied  botany. 
The  garden  was  established  by  the  Society  of 
Apothecaries  of  London,  on  lines  similar  to  the 
private  gardens  of  the  herbalists,  differing  from 
them  in  being  supported  by  a  public  society. 
It  was  the  first  public  institution  of  its  kind  in 
London,  and  is  now  the  oldest.  As  early  as 
1633  the  Society  of  Apothecaries  inaugurated 
an  annual  "  herbarizing,"  which  was  discon- 
tinued after  a  short  period;  but  after  the  open- 
ing of  the  Chelsea  garden  these  herbarizings 
were  renewed,  and  soon  took  the  form  of  a 
demonstration  of  plants  to  the  members,  bv 
the  "  Demonstrator  of  Plants."  In  1829 
weekly  demonstrations  were  begun,  confined 
largely  to  the  specimens  in  the  materia  medica 
department  of  the  garden,  followed  by  a  lec- 
ture. The  successive  lectures  were  planned  to 
form  a  summer  cour.se  of  study  in  botany.  The 
titles  of  the  lectures  in  one  course  were  as 
follows  :  (1)  the  different  sy.stems  of  botany, 
both  natural  and  artificial,  particularly  those 
of  Linnaeus  and  Jussieu;  (2)  the  structure 
and  growth  of  plants;  (3)  the  different  parts 
of  plants,  with  their  description  and  uses  in 
the  process  of  vegetation;  (4)  the  natural 
and  chemical  analyses  of  vegetable  matter  ; 
(5)  the  medicinal  u.se  of  the  most  important 
articles  in  the  materia  medica,  etc.  These  lec- 
tures were  well  attended  by  medical  students, 
and  when  Lindley  was  made  Director  of  the 
Garden  (Praefectus  Horli),  and  Professor  of 
Botany,  the  lectures  were  held  twice  a  week 
at  8:30  a.m.  in  May,  June,  and  July,  instead 
of  weekly  at  10  a.m.  from  May  to  September. 
At  the  close  of  this  course  an  examination  was 
given,  optional  to  the  students,  and  a  gold 
medal,  worth  ten  guineas,  awarded  to  the  candi- 
date attaining  the  highest  grade.  The  award- 
ing of  prizes  began  in  1830,  was  discontinued  in 
18.53,  but  subseciuently  renewed.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  among  the  successful  competi- 
tors were  Huxley,  Masters,  and  H.  C.  Bastian. 

In  the  "  Rules  and  Regulations  as  to  Admis- 
sion to  the  Garden,  Lecture  Room  and  Labora- 
tory," issued  Nov.  20,  1902,  it  was  stated 
that:  "  I.  The  purpo.ses  for  which  the  Chelsea 
Physic  Garden  is  maintained  are:  (1)  To 
render  assistance  in  the  teaching  of  botany  ; 
(2)  To  provide  material  and  opportunity  for 
Botanical  investigations;  ...  (4)  Teachers 
holding  tickets  of  admission  will  be  allowed 
to  introduce  their  students  to  the  Garden  for 
purposes  of  study,  but  each  teacher  will  be 
held  responsible  for  any  damage  that  may  be 
committed  by  his  or  her  students  whilst  in  the 
Garden."  Individual  students  and  classes  with 
teachers  take  advantage  in  large  numbers  of 
the  opportunities  offered,  and  in  addition  speci- 
mens arc  furnished  to  teachers  for  class  use. 

4.  Kew  (1759).'  The  famous  Kew  gardens 
date  from  the  appointment  of  William  Alton, 


a  pupil  of  the  Chelsea  Garden,  to  organize  a 
physic  garden  for  the  Princess  Augusta,  of  Saxe- 
Gotha,  Dowager  Princess  of  Wales.  The  orna- 
mental garden  around  the  royal  residence  was 
utilized  for  this  purpose.  The  only  formal 
educational  work  at  Kew  is  the  training  of 
gardeners,  but  this  is  thoroughly  organized,  and 
very  important,  for  Kew  is  the  source  of  gar- 
deners for  most  of  the  colonial  gardens.  Five 
years  of  practical  experience  are  required  for 
entrance  upon  the  course,  which  includes  lec- 
tures in  physics,  chemistry  (as  related  to  bot- 
any and  geology) ,  general  botany,  economic  bot- 
any, and  geographical  botany.  Each  student 
is  required  to  collect  a  herbarium  of  250  named 
and  mounted  specimens,  and,  if  his  work  is 
satisfactory,  he  receives  a  Kew  certificate  at 
the  end  of  two  years.  Kew  remained  a  private 
possession  of  the  Crown  until  1840,  when  it  was 
made  a  public  garden,  with  Sir  William  Hooker 
as  the  first  director. 

5.  Edinburgh  (1763).  This  garden  is  a  part 
of  the  LTniversity  of  Edinburgh.  It  has  museums, 
classrooms,  and  laboratories,  where  most  of  the 
instruction  in  botany  in  the  university  is  given. 

6.  Harvard  (1805).  Established  and  con- 
tinued primarily  to  further  botanical  teaching 
and  research  in  Harvard  LTniversity. 

7.  Buitenzorg,  Java  (1817).  The  's  Lands 
Plantentium,  at  Buitenzorg,  is  the  finest  botan- 
ical garden  in  the  world.  It  has  well  equipped 
laboratories  for  research,  a  botanical  library  of 
over  40,000  volumes,  and  one  large  building 
devoted  exclusively  to  laboratories  for  visiting 
botanists  from  other  countries.  Certain  Euro- 
pean governments  send  annually  a  student  to 
Buitenzorg,  and  other  countries  are  repre- 
sented at  irregular  intervals.  The  work  is 
almost  entirely  research. 

8.  Missouri^  St.  Louis,  Mo.  (1859).  These 
gardens  are  known  locally  as  "  Shaw's  Gar- 
dens," in  honor  of  the  founder,  Henry  Shaw. 
Among  the  objects  named  in  the  enactment 
that  established  the  garden  is  the  dissemination 
among  men  of  a  knowledge  of  plants,  "  by  hav- 
ing a  collection  thereof  easily  accessible;  by 
the  establishment  of  a  museum  and  library  in 
connection  therewith,  and  also  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  public  lectiures  and  instruction  upon 
botanj'  and  its  allied  sciences."  In  1885  the 
same  benefactor  endowed  the  Henry  Shaw  School 
of  Botany,  at  Washington  University,  St.  Louis, 
and  provided  for  the  cooperation  of  this  school 
with  the  botanical  garden.  The  professor  in 
the  Shaw  School  of  Botany  is  the  director  of  the 
garden.  In  addition  to  serving  the  needs  of 
the  students  and  staff  of  the  Shaw  School  of 
Botany,  the  garden  grounds  are  open  to  the 
public,  and  the  founder's  will  provides  that 
there  must  be  preached  an  annual  sermon  on 
the  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  of  God  as 
shown  in  the  growth  of  flowers,  fruits,  and  other 
products  of  the  plant  world.  The  collections 
are  freely  used  by  the  teachers  with  their 
classes  in  nature  study. 


423 


BOTANIC   GARDENS 


BOTANIC   GARDENS 


9.  Montreal  (1885).  It  was  the  intention 
of  the  founders  of  this  garden  to  make  ample 
provision  for  formal  instruction  in  botany, 
pure  and  applied,  but  the  institution  was  under 
munii'ii)al  control,  and  finally  "  killed  by  po- 
litical  differences   in    the   city   council." 

10.  The  New  York  Botanical  Garden,  Bronx 
Park,  N.  Y.  City  (1894).  The  forerunner  of 
this  garden  was  the  "  Elgin  Botanic  Garden," 
of  Dr.  David  Hosack,  in  New  York  City  (the 
present  borough  of  i\Ianhattan).  The  garden 
was  successively  transferred  to  New  York 
State  anil  then  to  Columbia  Universitj',  but 
was  finally  abandoned  for  lack  of  money.  The 
present  garden  has  a  cooperative  agreement 
with  Columbia  University.  The  herbarium 
and  botanical  library  of  the  university  are 
deposited  with  the  garden,  and  the  university 
students  and  staff  in  botany  enjoy,  \\'ithout  any 
additional  fees,  all  the  privileges  of  the  garden. 
The  undergrailuate  courses  are  all  given  at  the 
university,  but  much  of  the  research  is  carried 
on  at  the  garden.  Weekly  lectures  on  "  popu- 
lar "  and  semi-popular  botanical  subjects  are 
given  on  Saturday  afternoons  throughout  the 
year.  The  system  of  docentry,  inaugurated 
in  1910,  has  been  referred  to  above. 

Probably  the  most  elaborate  attempt  ever 
made  on  the  part  of  an  institution  of  this  char- 
acter to  cooperate  with  and  aid  the  nature- 
study  work  of  public  schools,  are  the  courses  of 
spring  and  fall  lectures  given  to  the  teachers 
and  pupils  of  grades  4  B  and  5  B  of  the  city 
schools.  In  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Director- 
in-Chief  for  1904,  it  was  recommended  that 
"  lectures  designed  with  special  reference  to  the 
need  of  teachers  and  their  pupils  might  be 
given  with  advantage,"  and,  on  March  29, 
1905,  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  city  passed 
resolutions  empowering  the  principals  to  ar- 
range for  the  lectures.  At  the  close  of  the  first 
course  the  District  Superintendent  reported 
that  the  results  were  most  gratifying,  the  chil- 
dren, in  some  instances,  being  stimulated  to 
make  collections  of  fungi,  ferns,  and  mosses, 
and  to  cultivate  window  boxes  further  illus- 
trating the  subjects  of  the  lectures. 

There  were  two  courses  arranged;  one  of  two 
lectures  and  demonstrations  to  grade  4  B,  and 
one  of  three  lectures  and  demonstrations  to 
grade  5  B.  After  a  lecture,  illustrated  with  the 
stereopticon,  and  given  by  a  regular  member  of 
the  garden  staff,  the  pupils  are  taken  out  on  the 
grounds  in  groups  of  30  to  40,  where  demonstra- 
tions are  given  on  the  subject  of  the  lecture. 
This  work  is  followed  up  during  the  next  week 
in  the  cla.ssroom. 

During  the  first  year  the  lectures  were  given 
to  the  pupils  of  Bronx  borough  only,  but  in 
1906  the  privilege  was  extended  to  the  public 
schools  of  Manhattan,  and  the  afternoons  of 
four  days  of  each  week  were  given  over  to  the 
lectures.  The  pupils,  accompanied  by  their 
teachers,  come  on  trolleys,  elevated  roads,  and 
subway,  each  paying  his  own  fare,  and,  notwith- 


standing this  fact,  and  the  further  fact  that 
attendance  is  optional  with  the  pujiils,  the 
attendance  increased  from  about  501)0  jnipils 
in  1905  to  nearly  13,000  (9378  from  the  Bronx, 
and  3391  from  ^lanluittan)  pu|)ils  and  teachers 
in  1900.  During  1900  the  work  was  inspected 
by  many  teachers,  including  several  from 
Europe,  and  the  course  was  repeated  on  Satur- 
day mornings  for  teachers  uiuible  to  be  present 
on  the  afternoons  regularly  scheduled.  The 
attendance  of  pupils  from  Manhattan  was  not 
continued,  owing  partly  to  the  long  ride  on  the 
elevated  railroad.  It  should  be  stated  that 
there  is  no  record  of  any  mishap  to  the  pupils 
in  going  to  and  from  the  garden.  In  1909 
7273  pupils  and  235  teachers  from  grade  4  B, 
and  9622  pupils  and  341  teachers  from  grade 
5  B,  or  a  total  of  16,895  pupils  and  576  teachers, 
attended  these  lectures. 

11.  The  Brooklyn  Botanic  Garden  (1910). 
This  garden  was  established  by  the  Brooklyn 
Institution  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  in  eoiiperation 
with  the  municipal  government  of  greater  New 
York.  It  is  the  primary  purpose  of  the  garden 
to  combine  instruction  in  botany  to  ela.sses  with 
research  work,  and  to  assist  in  every  practicable 
way  the  botanical  work  of  local  schools,  both 
public  and  private.  The  plans  provide  for  the 
organization  of  a  staff  consisting,  not  only  of 
investigators  to  have  charge  of  research,  but 
also  of  members  whose  primary  duty  will  be 
the  conducting  of  classes  in  various  branches  of 
the  science,  including  courses  for  beginners. 
Ample  provision  is  made  for  carrying  out  this 
purpose  in  the  plans  for  the  laboratories,  green- 
houses, and  plantations. 

In  addition  to  the  institutions  referred  to 
above,  there  should  be  mentioned  the  gardens 
at  Oxford  and  at  Cambridge  (England),  at 
Munich,  Amsterdam,  Berlin,  Vienna,  Geneva, 
St.  Petersburg,  and  lilontreal  (McGill  Univer- 
sity), nearly  all  of  which  are  affiliated  with 
universities  and  are  centers  of  botanical  instruc- 
tion and  research,  while  well  organized  gardens 
are  found  at  the  IVIichigan  Agricultural  College 
(Lansing,  Mich.),  the  University  of  California 
(Berkeley),  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
(Philadelphia),  Jolm  Hopkins  University,  and 
Smith  College.  The  educational  work  of  the 
Royal  Botanic  Society's  Gardens,  at  Regent's 
Park,  London,  is  also  extensive,  covering  popu- 
lar lectures,  the  supplying  of  materials  to  classes 
in  schools,  and  the  organization  of  a  practical 
school  for  the  training  of  gardeners.  Educa- 
tional exhibits  are  also  held  here  from  time  to 
time  to  illustrate  the  nature  study  of  the  local 
public  schools.  C.  S.  G. 

References:  — 
Beal,  W.  .1.     Botanic  Gardens.     Botanic  Gazette,  Vol. 

2.3.  p.  51.      (1897.) 
Blakeslee,   a.    F.      The  Botanic  Garden  as  a  Field 

Museum  of  Agriculture.     Science,  N.  S.  Vol.  31,  p. 

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Bhitton,    N.    D.     Botanical  Gardens.     Science,  N.  S. 

Vol.  4,  p.  2,S4.    (1896.)    BuUetin  New  York  Botanic 

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the  year  1904.     Bulletin  New  York  Botanic  Garden, 

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Journal  New  York   Botanic   Garden,  Vol.  2,  p.  24. 

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(1897.) 
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Journal  New   York  Botanic  Garden,  Vol.  7,  p.  156. 

(1906.) 
Ganong,  W.  F.    The  Place  of  Botanical  Gardens  in  Col- 
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(1910.) 
HAR.SHBERGER,  JoHN  W.     John  Evans  and  his  Garden. 

Garden  and  Forest.  Vol.  10,  p.  1S3.      (1.897.)     Bul- 
letin Torrey  Botanic  Club,  Vol.  24,  p.  274.     (1897.) 
American    Botanical   Gardens.    II.      The    Botanical 

Gardens  of  Jamaica.     Plant  World,  Vol.  5,  p.  41. 

(1902.) 
J0HN.SON,  Duncan  S.     A  University  Botanical  Garden. 

Science,  N.  S.,  Vol.  31,  p.  048.     (1910.) 
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Calcutta.     Chapter    II.     History    of    the    Garden. 

(Calcutta,  1895.) 
MacDougal,     D.     T.      Botanic     Gardens.      Popular 

Science  Monthly,  Vol.  501,  p.  72.      (1897.) 
The   Now   York  Botanical  Garden.      Science,   N.  S., 

Vol.  11,  p.  955.     (1900.)     Popular  Science  Monthly, 

p.  171.      (1900.) 
Nash,  George  V.     Cooperation  in  Nature  Study  with 

Public  Schools.     Journal  New   York  Botanic  Gar- 
den, Vol.  0.  p.  103.      (1905.) 
New  York  Botanical  Garden,  Act  of  Incorporation  of. 

Bulletin  New    York  Botanic  Garden,  Vol.   1,   p.   1. 

(1896.) 
Notes,  News  and  Comment.     Journal  New  York  Botanic 

Garden,  Vol.  9,  p.  119.     (1908.) 
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Botanic  Garden.  Vol.  10,  pp.  143,  273.      (1909.) 
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Gardens     Abroad.     Plant     World,   Vol.   10,    p.  27. 

(1907.) 
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Amiual  Report.     (1885.)      (Montreal,    1.S86.) 
Perrede.s,    Pierre     Elie     Felix.     London     Botanic 

Gardens.     American   Journal   Pharmacy,  Vol.    77, 

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172,  224,  270,  317,  353.      (1906.) 
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July  16,  1910.     Journal  New  York  Botanic  Garden, 

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BOTANY.  —  The  science  of  botany  has  had  a 
peculiar  historj'  as  a  subject  of  university  study, 
chiefly  because  its  purpose  has  Ijcen  misunder- 
stood even  by  the  university  public  to  the 
present  day,  and  also  because  its  numerous 
aspects  have  prevented  anything  approaching 
uniformity  in  presentation.  There  are  still 
thousands  of  intelligent  people,  intelligent 
enough  to  be  patrons  of  universities,  who  think 
of  botany  as  the  science  that  gives  names  to 
flowers,  and  this  deadening  conception  has 
proved  a  most  effective  obstacle  to  the  recog- 
nition of  botany  as  a  university  subject.  As 
a  result,  botany  was  the  last  of  the  major 
sciences  to  attain  a  position  of  first  rank  in  the 
universities.  Even  when  established,  the  sub- 
ject is  so  many-faced  that  it  presents  a  different 
aspect  in  each  university.  Especially  is  this 
true  if  either  a  teacher  with  initiative  or  a  strong 
tradition  dominates  the  situation.  For  such 
reasons  it  is  impossible  to  give  an  account  of 
the  development  of  the  subject  as  a  university 
study,  or  even  its  present  status,  which  will 
include  any  considerable  number  of  universities. 
The  following  statements,  therefore,  must  be 
understood  to  apply  to  those  institutions  in 
which  botany  has  had  a  history  and  has  made 
progress. 

History  of  Botany  as  a  University  Study.  —  In 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  study  of  plants  was  a 
recognized  part  of  medical  training  in  Europe. 
This  study  had  only  in  view  a  knowledge  of  the 
products  of  plants  useful  in  medicine.  This 
was  the  first  phase  of  botany,  and  it  was  long 
recognized  as  natural  that  botanists  should 
come  by  way  of  a  degree  in  medicine.  This 
same  conception  dominates  in  the  provision  for 
botanical  instruction  in  the  German  univer- 
sities to-day,  where  the  oidy  required  work  in 
botany  is  a  course  for  students  of  medicine 
and  pharmacy,  a  course  which  includes  most 
of  the  students  of  botany  in  the  universities, 
and  involves  most  of  the  income  of  the  instruc- 
tor. For  the  same  reason,  the  university  text- 
books are  compelled  to  devote  a  large  proportion 
of  their  pages  to  a  classification  of  "medicinal 
plants." 

The  second  phase  of  botany  followed  of 
necessity.  It  was  necessary  to  classify  medic- 
inal plants,  and  this  classification  began  to 
assume  scientific  form  toward  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  classification  or  tax- 
onomy of  the  higher  plants  gradually  became  a 
university  .study,  and  dominated  botanical  in- 
struction until  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  This  long  preeminence  of  taxonomy 
is  responsible  for  the  persistent  popular  mis- 


BOTANY 


BOTANY 


conception  of  the  purpose  of  botanical  instruc- 
tion. In  fact,  there  are  even  yet  universities 
that  represent  only  this  second  phase  of  botany. 
It  must  be  understood  that  the  appearance  of  a 
new  phase  of  botanical  instruction  did  not  in- 
volve the  abandonment  of  the  older  phases, 
for  they  have  been  carried  forward  continu- 
ously. 

Since  what  may  be  called  the  taxonomic  era 
of  botanical  instruction  in  American  universi- 
ties was  a  notable  one,  it  may  be  used  as  an 
illustration.  The  dominating  influence  in  this 
instruction  was  that  of  Asa  Gray,  whose  text- 
books and  manuals  were  models  of  clearness 
and  convenience.  The  texts  were  intended  to 
make  students  familiar  with  those  facts  and 
their  terminology  which  would  enable  them  to 
use  the  manual  in  the  identification  of  plants. 
Usually  the  student  was  required  to  collect  and 
identify  a  certain  number  of  the  plants  of  the 
neighborhood,  and  occasionally  to  preserve 
these  plants  in  what  was  called  a  "herbarium." 
This  kind  of  instruction  appealed  to  very  few 
colleges  and  universities  of  50  or  even  30 
years  ago  as  deserving  the  recognition  of  a  dis- 
tinct professorship.  In  case  it  was  recognized 
at  all,  it  was  given  as  a  short  course  by  some 
instructor  whose  chief  subject  was  something 
else.  Naturally  the  subject  was  more  conspic- 
uous among  the  Eastern  colleges  and  universi- 
ties than  among  the  Western,  and  perhaps  for 
this  reason  the  more  modern  phases  of  botany 
have  not  been  recognized  so  rapidly  by  the 
former  institutions  as  by  the  latter. 

The  modern  phase  of  botany  was  introduced 
by  the  work  of  Hofmeister,  which  10  years 
later  (1859)  was  supplemented  by  the  stimulat- 
ing effect  of  Darwin's  Origin  of  Species.  In 
fact,  modern  biology  in  the  universities  may 
be  said  to  date  from  the  appearance  of  Darwin's 
book.  Laboratories  supplied  with  compound 
microscopes  and  their  accessories  became  an 
essential  part  of  the  equipment  of  universities, 
and  biological  work  from  the  new  point  of  view 
became  established.  This  movement  was  felt 
first  in  the  German  universities,  and  was  devel- 
oping there  for  at  least  30  years  before  it 
became  noticeable  in  American  universities. 
The  method  of  introduction  of  modern  botany 
into  American  institutions  was  unfortunate,  in 
the  sense  that  it  long  delayed  a  proper  recog- 
nition of  the  subject.  It  came  in  as  a  part  of 
general  courses  in  biology  (q.v.),  the  texts  and 
laboratory  guides  for  which  were  always  written 
by  zoologists.  As  a  consequence,  zoologj"  (q-v.) 
received  so  much  the  greater  emphasis  that  to 
this  day  it  is  thought  of  as  synonymous  with 
biology,  and  botany  lagged  behind  in  develop- 
ment and  in  recognition.  The  real  segregation 
of  botany  from  animal  biology  in  university 
courses  began  with  the  appearance  of  Bessey's 
Botany  (1880),  which  was  in  effect  the  introduc- 
tion of  Sach's  Lehrhuch  into  American  labora- 
tories. Since  that  time  botanical  laboratories 
and  texts  have  multiplied;    in  one  institution 


after  another  botany  has  emerged  from  its  zoo- 
logical submergence;  and,  although  delayed,  it 
has  now  become  established  in  most  universities 
as  one  of  the  major  subjects. 

Present  Academic  Status  of  Botany.  —  In 
the  German  universities  botany  is  an  established 
subject  of  the  first  rank,  with  its  staff  of  in- 
structors, and  usually  its  separate  buildings. 
To  these  laboratories  for  many  years  the 
American  student  went  for  the  special  training 
he  could  receive  in  no  other  country.  As  a 
consequence,  the  type  of  botanical  instruction 
in  American  universities  has  the  spirit,  if  not  all 
the  methods,  of  that  given  in  German  univer- 
sities. There  are  very  few  general  courses  in  the 
German  universities  except  those  given  to  the 
large  groups  of  medical  and  pharmacy  students, 
the  other  university  students  electing  botany 
being  set  at  research  almost  at  once.  It  should 
be  remembered,  however,  that  such  students 
have  had  rigorous  elementary  training  in  botany 
in  the  gymnasium,  which  is  perhaps  more  than 
equivalent  to  the  average  amount  of  undergrad- 
uate instruction  in  botany  in  American  col- 
leges. 

In  the  British  universities  the  full  recognition 
of  botany  has  developed  very  slowly,  apparently 
often  being  tolerated  rather  than  encouraged. 
The  enormous  body  of  British  conservatism, 
especially  in  education,  has  given  botany  a 
chance  in  the  universities,  but  hardly  what 
could  be  called  an  opportunity.  There  are 
two  or  three  notable  exceptions  to  this  state- 
ment, and  they  are  the  promise  of  a  more  gen- 
eral recognition.  There  are  botanical  instruc- 
tors in  the  universities,  but  the  equipment  and 
the  structure  of  the  curricula  do  not  encourage 
and  sometimes  do  not  permit  students  to  enter 
courses  in  botany.  In  spite  of  this,  and  per- 
haps because  of  this,  the  British  botanists,  un- 
hindered by  large  groups  of  students,  have 
been  doing  notable  work  in  the  advancement 
of  the  science. 

In  the  French  universities  botany  has  a 
definite  place,  but  it  is  taken  cliiefly  by  students 
of  medicine  and  pharmacy.  The  classification 
and  medicinal  uses  of  plants  are  taught  with 
great  completeness  and  skill,  but  the  modern 
phases  of  botany  have  made  slow  progress. 
The  peculiar  relation  of  the  French  universities 
to  the  University  of  Paris  has  repressed  indi- 
vidual initiative  in  develo|)ing  botanical  instruc- 
tion, which  is  more  a  matter  of  prescribed  form 
than  of  personal  opinion. 

In  American  universities  the  newer  phases 
of  botany  are  well  represented  in  instruction, 
and  in  most  institutions  well  developed  de- 
partments of  botany  are  organized.  There  are 
great  variations  in  the  amount  of  undergraduate 
work  offered,  in  the  phases  of  the  subject 
emphasized,  and  in  the  requirements  for  gradu- 
ate work,  but  there  is  always  evident  the  at- 
tempt to  keep  pace  in  instruction  with  the 
growth  of  the  science.  In  the  organization  of 
botanical  work  in  American  universities  there 


426 


BOTANY 


BOTANY 


are  two  distinct  theories,  as  evidenced  by  the 
results.  One  theory  is  to  select  some  particu- 
lar field  of  botanical  activity  for  investigation, 
to  appoint  to  the  staff  instructors  trained  in  this 
field,  and  to  make  all  instruction  in  other  phases 
of  the  subject  elementary  and  incidental.  In 
such  a  university  the  botanical  student  secures 
very  superior  instruction  in  one  phase  of  botany, 
instruction  of  an  inferior  grade  in  the  other 
phases  of  his  subject,  and  a  distorted  perspec- 
tive of  botany  in  general.  The  other  theory  is 
to  appoint  to  the  staff  representatives  of  all  of 
the  major  fields  of  activity,  to  put  all  of  these 
phases  of  the  subject  upon  an  equal  footing  in 
instruction  and  in  opportunity  for  research. 
In  such  a  university,  the  botanical  student  se- 
cures superior  instruction  in  several  phases  of 
botany,  and  a  fairly  true  perspective  of  botany 
in  general.  From  the  standpoint  of  research, 
the  former  organization  has  some  advantages, 
but  even  in  such  conditions  research  lacks  the 
checks  that  other  phases  of  the  subject  always 
supply.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  student, 
to  be  instructed  and  guided  into  research,  the 
latter  organization  has  distinct  advantages. 

The  mo-st  striking  contrast  between  Euro- 
pean and  American  universities  in  equipment 
for  botanical  instruction  is  the  botanical  garden. 
Every  European  university  has  such  a  garden 
as  an  essential  part  of  its  equipment.  It  is 
true  that  the  botanic  garden  was  developed 
before  the  laboratory,  and  in  a  sense  it  is  an 
inheritance  from  the  older  phases  of  botany. 
But  none  the  less  it  is  regarded  also  as  a  sine 
qua  non  in  botanical  instruction  and  investiga- 
tion of  the  most  modern  kind.  In  American 
universities  the  laboratory  developed  first, 
and  it  seems  impossible  as. yet  for  boards  of 
control  and  patrons  to  appreciate  that  a  botan- 
ical garden  is  any  more  than  an  .-esthetic  ap- 
pendage. A  university  department  of  botany 
without  laboratories  is  now  inconceivable,  but 
with  the  more  recent  developments  of  the  sub- 
ject a  botanic  garden  is  equally  necessary,  and 
its  absence  ought  to  be  equally  inconceivable. 
It  is  the  lack  of  such  equipment  that  has 
become  a  serious  menace  to  the  standing  of 
American  universities  in  botanical  instruction 
and  investigation. 

The  Differentiation  of  Botany.  —  Reference 
has  been  made  to  the  many  aspects  of  botany, 
and  since  these  aspects  differentiate  university 
instructors  and  sometimes  universities,  it  is 
important  to  indicate  them.  This  modern 
development  of  the  subject  began  about  1860, 
following  a  period  of  revolutionary  ideas  that 
culminated  in  Darwin's  Origin  of  Species. 
Before  that  time,  th(!  taxonomy  of  plants  formed 
the  dominant  part  of  botanical  instruction 
and  research,  and  taxonomy  was  in  the  grip 
of  the  dogma  of  the  constancy  of  species. 
The  establishment  of  organic  evolution  as 
a  working  hypothesis  not  only  transformed 
taxonomy,  but  also  gave  rise  to  new  phases  of 
botany. 


427 


The  new  taxonomy  faces  the  problem  of 
variable  species,  whose  fluctuations  often  baffle 
the  attempts  to  define  their  boundaries.  It  is 
attempting  to  arrange  these  inconstant  species 
into  natural  groupings,  which  now  mean  group- 
ings on  the  basis  of  common  descent.  While 
in  a  certain  sense,  therefore,  the  old  subject  of 
taxonomy  persists  in  the  modern  period,  and 
must  continue  to  persist,  in  a  very  real  sense  it 
is  a  new  subject,  with  immensely  more  diffi- 
cult problems  and  a  different  purpose. 

Even  more  significant,  however,  is  the  rise 
and  development  of  modern  morphology, 
which  has  dominated  botanical  instruction  and 
research  for  much  of  the  modern  period.  It  is 
distinctly  an  evolutionary  subject,  its  control- 
ling purpose  being  to  investigate  those  large 
relationships  which  will  permit  the  construction 
of  an  account  of  the  evolution  of  the  plant  king- 
dom. In  brief,  its  topic  is  the  evolution  of 
plants.  Morphology  obtained  its  testimony 
first  from  a  comparative  study  of  the  structures 
of  living  plants,  and  most  seriv'iceable  among 
these  structures  were  found  to  be  those  con- 
nected with  reproduction.  Therefore,  through 
much  of  its  history,  morphology  has  been  the 
comparative  study  of  reproductive  structures. 

There  have  been  at  least  three  notable  expan- 
sions of  morphology,  which  have  made  very 
extensive  and  very  important  additions  to  its 
material,  and  which  have  resulted  in  the  differ- 
entiation of  as  many  subjects  and  groups  of 
investigators.  First  in  order  was  the  develop- 
ment of  cytology,  which  is  morphology  at  the 
limit  of  technique.  The  older  morphology 
used  the  cell  as  the  unit  of  structure,  but  it 
discovered  that  the  structure  and  behavior  of 
the  cell  itself  was  more  fundamental.  This  led 
to  the  development  of  microscopes  and  of 
methods  which  would  reveal  the  intimate 
structure  of  living  cells,  and  since  the  use  of  such 
technic  demands  special  training,  there  have 
been  developed  morphologists  who  are  called 
cytologi-sts.  Later  there  developed,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  vascular  groups,  such  a  com- 
parative study  of  the  vascular  system  that  these 
tissues  became  as  prominent  in  furnishing 
evolutionary  data  as  had  been  the  reproductive 
structures.  As  a  consequence,  there  have 
developed  morphologists  who  are  known  as 
vascular  anatomists.  The  development  of 
vascular  anatomy  made  it  possible  to  inter- 
pret the  structures  and  relationships  of  fossil 
plants  in  a  way  that  had  been  impossible  before, 
and  thus  actual  history  was  made  to  contribute 
its  testimony  to  the  evolution  of  the  plant 
kingdom,  and  such  morphologists  are  known  as 
paleobotanists.  There  are  thus  four  principal 
divisions  of  morphology  to-day,  divisions  that 
distinguish  instructors  and  often  institutions, 
namely,  morphology  dealing  with  reproductive 
structures  (often  spoken  of  simply  as  mor- 
phology), cytology,  vascular  anatomy,  and 
paleobotany. 

Early  in  the  modern  period  of  botany  the 


BOTANY 


BOTANY 


subject  of  plant  physiology  began  to  assume 
proiniiiencc  in  instruction  and  in  investigation, 
its  purpose  being  the  study  of  the  activities 
of  plants.  This  phase  of  botany  has  devel- 
oped with  such  rapidity  and  is  assuming  such 
importance  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  the 
dominant  phase  at  present.  It  has  developed 
in  several  directions,  which  differentiate  in- 
structors and  institutions,  but  its  closest  con- 
nections are  with  chemistry  and  physics.  In 
fact,  plant  physiologists  have  just  now  more  in 
common  with  organic  chemists  than  with  plant 
morphologists.  Although  physiology  includes 
all  activities  of  plants,  a  natural  cleavage  of  the 
subject  has  developed.  All  those  activities 
which  may  be  comprised  under  the  head  of  life 
processes  of  plants  constitute  the  subject  of 
physiology  proper,  while  the  responses  of  plants 
to  their  environment  have  been  made  the  basis 
of  ecology. 

It  is  impossible  to  separate  ecology  from 
physiology  proper,  except  by  arbitrary  con- 
vention, for  the  two  subjects  overlap  at  many 
points.  Such  ecological  topics  as  the  plant 
a.ssociations  (known  as  societies  or  formations), 
or  their  succession,  or  geographic  distribution, 
are  the  most  distinct,  dealing  with  plants  in 
the  mass,  and  demanding  field  work  rather 
than  laboratory  work  in  the  ordinary  sense; 
but  the  responses  of  individual  plants  to  such 
environmental  factors  as  light,  heat,  and  mois- 
ture are  a  part  of  the  ordinary  life  processes. 
Ecology  shares  with  physiology  proper  the 
present  dominant  interest  in  plant  activities 
as  contrasted  with  plant  structures,  and  in  some 
of  its  aspects  has  overlapped  the  science  of 
geography.  One  of  the  conspicuous  practical 
expansions  of  ecology  has  been  forestry  iq.v.). 
Forestry  had  long  existed  as  a  sentiment  and 
as  an  empirical  practice,  but  it  has  become  a 
science  by  being  put  upon  an  ecological  basis. 
Another  notable  development  of  the  physio- 
logical (including  ecological)  aspect  of  plants 
is  the  immensely  practical  subject  of  agronomy. 
The  name,  perhaps,  is  not  a  happy  one,  but  it 
stands  for  the  scientific  basis  of  agriculture, 
involving  chiefly  a  study  of  the  relation  of 
soils  and  soil  treatment  to  various  plants. 
This  subject  is  being  investigated  on  a  large 
scale  by  the  government,  but  it  is  also  a  promi- 
nent field  of  investigation  in  the  university 
laboratories  of  plant  physiology. 

The  overlapping  of  the  various  fields  of 
botanical  activity  is  due  to  the  increasing  tend- 
ency to  attack  the  most  fundamental  prob- 
lems. This  is  illu.strated  not  only  by  the  over- 
lapping of  the  morphological  topics  and  of  the 
physiological  topics,  but  also  by  the  necessary 
combination  of  morphology  and  physiology  in 
attacking  certain  problems.  This  has  resulted 
in  a  further  differentiation  of  investigators  and 
institutions. 

One  of  these  differentiated  combination  sub- 
jects is  experimental  morphology,  which  is  an 
experimental  study  of  the  factors  that  deter- 


mine the  form  and  structure  of  plants  or  of 
their  various  organs.  The  idea  that  form  and 
structure  are  predetermined  entirely  by  what 
is  called  heredity  has  ceased  to  be  useful;  it 
is  known  that  much  is  determined  by  conditions 
of  growth  and  that  much  that  is  called  heredity 
is  the  passing  on  of  similar  conditions  rather 
than  of  similar  structures. 

Another  combination  of  morphology  and 
physiology  has  develoi)ed  the  exceedingly  im- 
portant subject  of  plant  breeding.  This  has 
proved  to  be  not  only  of  fundamental  scientific 
value  in  connection  with  the  [jroblcms  of  evolu- 
tion and  heredity,  but  also  of  immense  practical 
importance  in  agriculture,  horticulture,  etc. 
Naturally  the  universities  are  interested  chiefly 
in  the  scientific  aspects  of  plant  breeding,  as 
shown  by  the  multiplication  of  instructors  and 
courses,  but  they  lack  sadlj-  the  necessary 
equipment  of  botanic  gardens.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  agricultural  colleges  are  just  as 
naturally  pressing  the  jiraetical  aspects  of  plant 
breeding,  and  their  equipment  always  includes 
ample  space  for  such  experimental  work.  It 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that  in  this 
subject,  as  in  all  others,  intelligent  advance  in 
practice  is  only  made  po.ssible  by  advance  in 
scientific  knowledge. 

A  third  combination  of  morphology  and 
physiology  is  plant  pathology.  In  its  original 
development  the  study  of  plant  diseases  was 
mainly  a  morphological  study,  attempting  first 
to  discover  the  parasitic  plant  causing  the 
disease  and  then  to  trace  its  life  history.  This 
knowledge  was  followed  by  suggestions  as  to 
treatment,  most  of  which  were  empirical.  It 
is  recognized  now  that  these  diseases  involve 
not  only  the  presence  of  a  parasite,  but  also  a 
derangement  of  the  functions  of  the  plant  body. 
In  other  words,  they  are  phj-siological  condi- 
tions induced  by  the  presence  of  a  parasite. 
This  new  aspect  of  plant  pathology  has  appealed 
strongly  to  university  interest,  for  it  represents 
a  thoroughly  scientific  attack  upon  problems 
of  immense  practical  importance. 

Related  to  plant  pathology,  and  in  certain 
aspects  a  part  of  it,  is  the  wide-ranging  subject 
of  bacteriology.  The  bacteria  are  plants  of 
such  peculiar  powers,  are  so  closely  connected 
with  human  interests,  and  demand  such  a 
special  tcchnic  for  their  investigation,  that 
bacteriologists  represent  an  unusually  distinct 
group  of  botanists.  In  fact,  the  subject  of 
bacteriology  is  so  broad  that  it  has  been  sub- 
divided into  several  special  topics;  for  example, 
bacteria  inducing  human  diseases,  bacteria 
inducing  animal  diseases,  bacteria  inducing 
plant  diseases,  bacteria  inducing  fermentation, 
bacteria  fixing  nitrogen,  bacteria  in  general, 
wdthout  reference  to  their  economic  relations, 
etc.  This  has  resulted  necessarily  in  more  or 
less  overlapping  with  other  subjects,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  case  of  pathological  bac- 
teriology in  its  relation  to  human  diseases, 
which  is  thought  of  chiefly  as  a  medical  subject. 


428 


BOTANY 


BOTANY 


In  the  same  way,  the  study  of  nitrogen-fixing 
bacteria  is  naturally  associated  with  soil  in- 
vestigations. 

The  foregoing  outline,  insufficient  because 
it  neglects  many  important  subdivisions  of 
botany  which  differentiate  instructors  and  in- 
stitutions, will  serve  to  indicate  the  great 
range  of  the  subject  as  represented  in  universi- 
ties. It  is  evident  that  there  does  not  exist 
any  uniform  presentation  of  botany  in  univer- 
sities, except  in  some  of  the  fundamentals  of 
morphology  and  physiology.  Each  univer- 
sity is  a  type  by  itself,  and  impresses  its  own 
interests  and  its  own  perspective  upon  its 
botanical  students.  J.  M.  C. 

Botany  in  the  Schools.  —  United  Slates.  —  In 
the  elementary  schools  plant  life  is  used  very 
generally  in  some  part  of  the  instruction. 
Where  organized  courses  in  nature  study  exist, 
plants  sometimes  constitute  the  dominant  part 
of  the  materials  for  work,  and  in  i)lans  for 
nature  study  plants  are  never  omitted  entirely. 
Even  in  schools  where  there  is  no  organized 
course  in  nature  study,  plants  receive  atten- 
tion that  is  more  or  less  casual  in  its  nature. 
In  some  elementary  schools  the  work  consists 
solely  in  answering  didactically  the  pupils' 
intermittent  questions  about  the  specimens 
that  they  chance  to  encounter.  Usually,  how- 
ever, such  topics  as  seed  distribution,  germina- 
tion, types  of  leaf  forms,  and  the  local  trees 
receive  some  attention.  In  schools  in  which 
an  attempt  is  made  to  arrange  an  organization 
of  nature-study  material  that  is  coherent  and 
sequential  throughout  the  grades,  plant  topics 
appear  in  all  or  nearly  all  the  grades,  the  topics 
of  one  grade  being  more  or  less  related  to 
those  which  follow.  By  means  of  schoolroom 
experiments,  field  observations,  and  garden 
studies  some  schools  develop  acquaintance  with 
common  vegetables  and  flowering  plants,  their 
ways  and  conditions  of  growth,  their  methods 
of  establishing  succeeding  generations,  plants 
as  means  of  decoration  and  as  food  for  man  and 
other  animals.  The  school  garden  as  an  out- 
door laboratory  for  the  study  of  plants  by 
elementary  school  pupils  is  now  found  in  con- 
nection with  every  school  in  Austria,  in  most 
schools  in  France,  Germany,  and  other  European 
countries,  and  is  becoming  common  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  In  some  elementary 
schools  in  the  central  and  southern  United 
States  (Michigan,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Wisconsin, 
Iowa,  Minnesota,  Texas,  Georgia,  and  others) 
consideralile  study  is  made  of  plants  under  the 
title  of  elementary  agriculture,  in  which  the 
plants  of  the  farm  and  home  are  studied. 

Few  of  the  secondary  schools  included 
botany  until  within  the  past  .50  years,  and 
most  of  them  not  until  within  the  past  30  years. 
The  subject  is  usually  elective,  but  throughout 
the  central,  southern,  and  western  United 
States  is  now  almost  universally  taught.  In 
the  eastern  United  States  it  is  taught  in  the 
better  high  schools.     The  subject  constitutes 


a  year's  course  in  some  schools,  while  in  others 
the  course  is  a  half  year  in  length,  the  remainder 
of  the  year  usually  being  given  to  zoology  or 
human  physiology.  The  number  of  full-year 
courses  is  constantly  increasing,  the  majority 
of  teachers  believing  that  it  is  better  to  have 
a  full  year  of  one  science  rather  than  half 
years  of  two. 

In  some  parts  of  this  country,  notably  in 
New  York  State,  a  combination  course  is 
presented  under  the  title  of  general  biology 
(q.v.).  The  advocates  of  this  course  are  readily 
classified  into  two  groups:  first,  those  who  or- 
ganize a  year's  course  consisting  of  two  smaller 
courses,  one  in  botany  and  one  in  zoology,  or 
tlu-ee  courses,  botany,  zoology,  and  human 
physiology;  and  secondly,  those  who  organize  a 
course  of  biological  topics  such  as  nutrition  and 
reproduction,  using  illustrative  material  from 
plants  or  from  animals,  or  from  both.  The  latter 
point  of  view  is  extremely  difficult  to  apply  in 
secondary  education,  since  at  the  outset  the 
pupil  has  no  knowledge  of  the  plants  and 
animals  selected  for  illustration,  and  more  or  less 
confusion  must  result.  Few  secondary  schools 
follow  this  plan.  The  first  plan  is  adopted  by  a 
larger  number  of  schools,  but  the  courses  are  too 
fragmentary  to  give  the  best  educative  results. 
Almost  without  exception  the  advocates  of 
courses  in  general  biology  are  specialists  in 
zoology,  rather  than  in  botany. 

The  year  of  the  high  school  in  which  botany 
is  taught  varies  greatly,  but  most  schools  give 
the  subject  in  the  first  or  second  year,  some  in 
the  third,  and  a  few  in  the  fourth.  This  varia- 
tion in  the  length  of  the  course  and  in  the  year 
in  which  it  is  given  is  evidence  of  the  striking 
absence  of  generally  accepted  standards  con- 
cerning botany  as  a  high  school  science,  and  of 
an  organized  plan  of  science  instruction  based 
on  a  determined  relationship  of  the  sciences  to 
one  another.  These  considerations  and  others 
to  be  mentioned  later  suggest  the  acute  need 
of  the  most  careful  scientific  investigation  of 
the  best  organization  for  efficiency  of  instruc- 
tion, not  only  in  botanj',  but  in  all  the  sciences 
that  appear  in  the  secondary  school  curriculum. 

In  most  of  the  state  normal  schools  botany  is 
universally  recognized  as  one  of  the  subjects 
requisite  for  the  education  of  those  who  are 
preparing  to  teach  in  elementary  schools  or 
ui  high  schools.  The  length  of  the  course 
varies  from  one  term  of  three  months  to  two  full 
school  years.  Not  only  is  botany  thus  recog- 
nized as  an  important  factor  in  a  teacher's 
preparation  while  in  the  normal  school,  but  in 
some  of  the  states  the  normal  schools  require 
that  prospective  students  shall  present  botany 
as  one  of  the  entrance  subjects.  All  Central 
and  Western,  and  most  Southern  and  Eastern 
colleges  and  universities  will  accept  botany  as 
an  entrance  subject,  but  they  do  not  specifi- 
cally require  it. 

Germany.  —  In  the  elementary  schools  botany 
is  grouped  under  and  included  in  Naturkunde, 


429 


BOTANY 


BOTANY 


Naturheschreihung  —  a  conglomerate  of  all 
branches  of  the  sciences.  Such  botany  as  is 
taught  does  not  go  beyond  description  and 
names  of  local  plants  and  their  morphology. 
In  the  secondary  schools  the  subject  is  similarly 
grouped  with  the  other  sciences  and  includes  a 
knowledge  of  the  more  important  families  in 
the  natural  system,  the  commonest  diseases  of 
plants  and  their  causes,  and  the  essentials  of 
morphology,  anatomy,  and  physiology  of  plant 
life.  Generally  closer  attention  is  paid  to  the 
local  and  native  forms,  followed  by  some  ac- 
count of  the  geographical  distribution  and  the 
elements  of  foreign  plants.  Classroom  work 
is  supplemented  by  sketches  and  excursions. 
In  the  Prussian  gymnasium  about  two  hours 
a  week  are  given  in  each  class  to  Naturkunde, 
which  includes  zoology,  physiology,  and  anat- 
omy; in  the  realschule  the  subject  receives  2 
hours  in  the  first  4  classes,  then  5  hours  in  the 
next  2,  followed  by  6  hours  a  week  in  the 
three  classes  of  the  oberrealschule. 

England.  —  A  study  of  plants  is  not  included 
in  the  curriculum  of  all  elementary  schools  in 
England.  Where  it  is  found,  botany  is  a  part 
of  either  nature  study  or  object  lessons,  which 
rarely  receive  more  than  one  hour  of  instruction 
each  week.  In  the  rural  schools  an  attempt  in 
made  to  teach  botany  in  the  form  of  elementary 
agriculture.  In  the  Suggestions  to  Teachers 
issued  by  the  Board  of  Education  simple  ex- 
periments, sketches,  labels,  an  avoidance  of 
technical  terms  where  possible,  school  walks  and 
excursions  are  recommended,  while  the  difficulty 
of  teaching  the  subject  in  town  schools  is  rec- 
ognized. 

The  higher  schools  for  boys,  however,  give 
very  little,  if  any,  attention  to  botany,  the 
science  studies  including  generally  only  physics 
and  chemistry.  Most  large  schools  have 
natural  history  clubs  or  societies,  but  these  are 
extra-class  and  are  voluntary.  Botany  has, 
however,  for  a  long  time  been  a  favorite  sub- 
ject in  girls'  schools,  where  the  extent  of  the  sub- 
ject has  been  very  much  like  that  given  for  the 
German  schools  above.  About  two  hours  a 
week  are  usually  given  to  this  subject. 

France.  —  Very  little  attention  is  given  to 
botany  in  the  French  primary  schools.  Some 
attempt  has  been  made  to  relate  the  "first 
scientific  notions"  with  agriculture,  and  it  is 
probable  that  developments  will  take  place  in 
this  direction.  For  the  present  such  elements 
of  botany  as  are  taught  seem  to  be  purely  names 
of  plants  which  the  pupils  do  not  see. 

In  the  higher  schools  the  scientific  studies 
apart  from  physics  and  chemistry  are  grouped 
under  the  title  of  "natural  history,"  but  even 
in  the  modern  schools  only  IJ  hours  per  week 
are  given  to  the  subject  in  the  first  2  years 
and  in  the  last,  the  division  of  science. 

Botany,  Methods  of  Teaching.  —  Botany 
was  formerly  taught  in  European  colleges 
and  universities  from  the  points  of  view- 
that  were  then  dominant  in  botanical   study, 


which  were  first  medicinal  and  then  sys- 
tematic. Quite  naturally,  when  physicians 
were  the  only  persons  who  were  particularly 
interested  in  plants,  and  the  only  students 
who  studied  plants  were  those  who  expected  to 
be  physicians,  the  medicinal  aspects  of  botany 
received  attention,  and  the  teacher  was  a 
physician  who  was  supposed  to  be  versed  in  the 
"virtues  of  plants."  At  the  present  day,  when 
there  are  frequent  claims  that  the  practical 
values  of  plants  should  be  recognized  in  educa- 
tion, it  is  interesting  to  note  that  botany  as  a 
subject  of  education  originated  as  an  applied 
subject  and  was  taught  almost  exclusively  to 
students  directly  interested  in  a  vocational 
pursuit. 

The  study  of  plants  with  real  or  supposed 
medicinal  values  naturally  led  to  attempts  to 
classify  plants;  and  accompanying  this  work 
were  many  endeavors  to  collect,  name,  and 
preserve  specimens  of  all  available  plants. 
Acquaintance  with  plants  of  the  world  and 
work  with  systems  of  classification  became 
foremost,  and  these  furnished  the  whole  of 
botanical  materials  that  were  used  for  instruc- 
tion. That  the  purpose  of  teaching  botany 
was  still  related  to  medicine  is  clearly  shown 
in  the  introduction  to  Lindley's  Text-Book  of 
Botany,  written  in  1830,  an  unusually  success- 
ful book  which  passed  through  several  editions 
and  greatly  influenced  the  educational  develop- 
ment of  the  subject  in  England.  Addressing  the 
preface  to  "  The  Court  of  Examiners  of  The 
Society  of  Apothecaries,  London,"  the  author 
says  :  "As  guardians  of  the  education  of  a  very 
considerable  part  of  the  Medical  Profession,  the 
subject  of  the  following  pages  cannot  be  other- 
wise than  interesting  to  you.  If  a  knowledge 
of  the  plants,  from  which  medicinal  substances 
are  obtained,  is  in  itself  an  object  of  importance, 
as  it  most  undoubtedly  is,  the  science  which 
teaches  of  the  art  of  judging  of  the  hidden 
qualities  of  the  unknown  vegetables  by  their 
external  characters  is  of  still  greater  moment. 
To  what  extent  this  can  be  safely  carried,  it  is 
not,  in  the  actual  state  of  human  knowledge, 
possible  to  foresee;  but  it  is  at  least  certain, 
that  it  depends  entirely  upon  a  careful  study 
of  the  natural  relations  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom." This  book,  as  others  of  its  time  and 
those  immediatelj'  following  it,  presents  first 
the  principles  of  classification,  then  a  discussion 
of  the  characteristics  of  each  of  the  families  of 
plants.  To  the  latter  discussion  are  appended 
remarks  upon  affinities,  geography,  and  proper- 
ties, and  in  a  sense  these  may  be  interpreted  as 
prophesies  of  the  recent  development  and  use  in 
education  of  morphology  and  physiology. 

During  this  same  period  numerous  attempts 
were  made  to  put  botanical  material  into  form 
for  use  in  education  of  pupils  below  the  college 
age.  These  usually  took  the  form  of  talks  or 
conversations  on  botany,'   in  which  the  writer 

'  A  type  of  these  books  is.  Conversations  on  Botany 
with  Platen,  4th  ed..  Improved.-    (London,  1S23.J 


430 


BOTANY 


BOTANY 


attempted,  in  the  form  of  conversation  or  dia- 
logue, to  present  the  structures  of  common  plants 
used  in  classification.  The  most  successful 
attempt  to  present  for  young  students  the  pre- 
vailing notions  of  botany  of  this  period  was 
made  by  Dr.  Asa  Gray  (q.v.)  who  began  in 
1S42  the  publication  of  a  remarkable  series 
of  textbooks  which  in  the  United  States  were 
the  means  of  giving  botany  a  place  in  the  sec- 
ondary school.  Furthermore,  these  books  pre- 
sented to  beginners  not  only  the  sj'stematic 
point  of  view  of  botany,  but  as  physiology  and 
morphology  began  to  develop,  the  series  was 
so  revised  and  augmented  as  to  include  these 
aspects. 

During  the  earlier  influence  of  Dr.  Gray  in 
this  country  there  appeared  in  Germany 
Schleiden's  Principles  of  Scientific  Botany,  or 
Botany  as  an  Inductive  Science,  which  was  later 
translated  into  English.  This  book,  which  was 
intended  for  students  of  college  age,  illustrates 
by  its  chief  divisions  the  growth  of  botanical 
knowledge  and  the  accompanying  change  in 
point  of  view  of  botanical  instruction.  There 
are  treated.  The  Chemistry  of  Plants  (30  pages), 
The  Plant  Cell  (92  pages).  Morphology  (330 
pages),  Organology,  (chiefly  physiology,  116 
pages).  The  characteristics  of  the  great  groups 
are  presented  under  the  section  of  morphology, 
and  the  usual  systematic  presentation  of  the 
great  groups  is  omitted. 

Slowlj'  there  came  a  change  in  the  point  of 
view  in  secondary  botany,  and  cla.ssificatory 
studies  gave  way  to  anatomj',  morphology, 
and  physiolog3^  So  completely  was  systematic 
work  omitted  in  some  places  that  not  infre- 
quently pupils  in  secondary  schools  and  stu- 
dents in  colleges  did  detailed  laboratory  work 
upon  plant  parts  concerning  whose  gross  out- 
door appearance  they  were  entirely  ignorant. 
Then  came  ecology  as  the  asjiect  of  plant  study 
that  combined  outdoor  study  and  acquaintance 
with  plants  with  an  investigation  of  the  dy- 
namic factors  that  have  to  do  with  the  life  of 
plants  in  various  regions.  This  point  of  view 
in  its  turn  became  recognized  by  some  as  the 
dominant  one  for  use  in  secondary  and  element- 
ary education.  Similarly,  as  the  science  of 
botany  has  grown  through  a  study  of  applied 
botany  in  agriculture,  horticulture,  forcstrj', 
bacteriology,  plant  diseases,  plant  breeding,  etc., 
there  have  been  attempts  to  accept  one  or  more 
of  these  points  of  view  as  the  one  to  determine 
the  educational  use  of  botanical  material.  It 
is  natural  perhaps  that,  as  the  science  has  devel- 
oped, each  newly  recognized  aspect,  by  virtue  of 
its  fresh  attractiveness  and  significance,  should 
seem  most  useful  in  education.  Textbooks 
for  secondary  schools  and  colleges  have  been 
prepared  with  each  of  the  aspects  of  botany 
as  the  determining  feature.  It  is  at  about 
this  period  that  writers  of  textbooks  began  to 
differentiate  high  school  textbooks  from  those 
for  colleges.  It  was  not  uncommon  to  find  a 
book  written  "For  High  Schools  and  Colleges," 


and  even  to-day  there  are  occasionally  seen 
vestigial  remains  of  this  old  idea,  which  rested 
upon  a  failure  to  differentiate  the  two  fields  of 
instruction. 

At  the  present  time  most  teachers  'of  botany 
in  the  secondary  schools  believe  that  the  course 
should  be  sj'nthetic,  including  an  introduction  to 
all  the  important  aspects  of  plant  study,  without 
treating  plants  under  any  of  the  rather  arbitrary 
divisions  —  morphology,  phj'siology,  agriculture, 
etc.  —  that  are  recognized  in  more  advanced 
study  of  the  subj  ect.  This  point  of  view  has  no w 
been  adopted  by  the  two  leading  organizations 
in  the  United  States  that  have  considered  the 
question.  The  Botanical  Society  of  America, 
through  its  committee  on  education,  consist- 
ing of  three  college  teachers  of  botany;  and 
the  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges 
and  Secondary  Schools,  through  its  committee 
on  the  unit  in  botany,  consisting  of  twenty- 
two  college  and  secondary  teachers  of  botany, 
have  adopted  a  .synthetic  unit  course  in 
the  subject  for  the  secondary  schools.  It 
is  also  believed  by  these  committees  that 
the  science  of  botany  has  grown  to  such 
proportions  that  it  is  not  wise  in  secondary 
education  to  attempt  to  keep  abreast  of  bo- 
tanical research.  There  is  now  a  fairly  well- 
defined  body  of  botanical  knowledge  that  should 
be  organized  for  use  in  elementary  and  second- 
ary education,  almost  regardless  of  what  may 
happen  in  the  research  development  of  botany. 
It  is  assumed  of  course  that  elementary,  second- 
ary, and  college  instruction  in  the  subject  will 
avail  itself  of  every  opportunity  to  correct  its 
body  of  knowledge  in  the  light  of  the  most 
recent  botanical  research. 

Method  of  Work.  —  In  present-day  practices 
in  teaching  botanj'  in  the  secondary  schools, 
laboratory  work  is  general,  though  not  universal. 
The  quantity,  kind,  and  purpose  of  the  labora- 
tory work  varies  so  greatly  as  to  force  upon  our 
attention  again  the  great  need  of  a  careful 
scientific  study  of  the  teaching  of  the  subject. 
In  some  schools  laboratory  work  is  intermittent, 
being  used  when  favorable  material  is  encoun- 
tered, and  then  for  only  part  or  all  of  a  single 
recitation  period.  In  other  schools  one  or  two 
recitation  periods  per  week  are  regularly  given 
to  laboratory  work,  while  in  the  best  schools 
two  doubled  periods  each  week  (occasionally 
more)  are  given  to  work  in  the  laboratory. 
The  purpose  and  kind  of  work  done  in  the  labo- 
ratory are  closely  a.ssociatcd.  A  comparatively 
small  number  of  teachers  use  laboratory  mate- 
rials as  means  for  an  inductive  study  of  plants. 
Some  make  no  attempt  at  an  inductive  study, 
using  materials  to  demonstrate  statements 
previously  made  by  the  textbook  or  teacher. 
Not  infrequently  physiological  experiments  are 
performed  by  the  teacher  in  the  presence  of  the 
class  entirely' as  demonstration.  As  such  they 
are  useful  and  commendable  in  case  first-hand 
contact  and  first-hand  inference  has  preceded, 
so  that  there  is  a  basis  for  interpretation,  other- 


431 


BOTANY 


BOTANY 


wise  the  instruction  is  wholly  didactic  and  not 
experimental.  In  many  schools  the  [nipils  are 
given  independent  laboratory  work,  and  are 
required  to  make  definite  statements  in  draw- 
ings and  notes  concerning  their  inferences, 
which  inferences  are  to  be  made  entirely  from 
this  study  of  materials.  Following  this  kind 
of  laboratory  work,  text  assignments,  recitations, 
and  additional  discussions  from  the  teacher 
have  a  basis  for  interpretation  and  organization 
by  the  student  because  of  his  contact  with 
plants  in  the  laboratory.  Field  work  and  the 
greenhouse  are  important  factors  in  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  laboratory  side  of  the  study  of 
which  they  are  a  part.  They  are  increasing 
with  commendable  rapiditj'. 

The  types  of  textbooks  in  most  general 
use  are  those  by  Coulter  and  by  Bergen.  In 
the  former  it  is  assumed  that  laboratory  work 
is  to  be  a  part  of  the  course,  and  the  textbook 
materials  are  presented  so  as  to  constitute  an 
elaboration  of  information  that  the  pupil  is 
expected  to  secure  from  a  first-hand  study  of 
plants.  These  books  do  not  include  laboratory 
directions,  which  are  given  apart  in  a  separate 
booklet  in  order  that  there  may  be  independence 
in  the  study  of  materials.  The  books  by  Ber- 
gen also  are  designed  for  use  with  laboratory 
work,  but  are  not  so  arranged  as  to  demand  as 
much  laboratory  work  as  the  other  type.  The 
latest  book  by  each  of  these  authors  represents  a 
synthetic  course  in  the  subject.  There  are 
numerous  laboratory  manuals,  ranging  in  plan 
from  those  that  include  a  relatively  few  topics 
and  present  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the 
pujjil  to  liis  own  resources  in  interpretation, 
to  those  that  present  an  impossible  array  of 
topics  and  by  thoroughly  detailed  questions 
attempt  to  inform  the  student  about  all  that 
botanical  knowledge  possesses  regarding  these 
topics. 

The  Teacher  of  Botany.  —  In  its  outline  of 
the  unit  in  botany  the  committee  of  the  North 
Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary 
Schools  makes  the  following  statement  regard- 
ing the  qualifications  of  the  teacher:  "It  is  be- 
lieved that  the  teacher  of  botany  in  the  high 
school  should  have  a  minimum  preparation  in 
botany  equivalent  to  two  years  of  college  work. 
This  work  should  include  the  general  morphology 
of  the  lower  and  higher  groups,  elementary  plant 
physiology  and  ecology,  some  knowledge  of  plant 
diseasesand  acquaintance  wit  hlocal  plants;  phys- 
iography, zoology,  and  a  course  in  general  bac- 
teriology are  also  desirable.  The  teacher  should 
have  some  knowledge  of  the  purpose  of  botany 
in  high  school  education  and  of  current  and  de- 
sirable practice  in  teaching  botany.  Since  the 
teacher  of  botany  usually  teaches  other  sciences, 
each  demanding  somewhat  similar  preparation, 
obviously  to  maintain  this  standard  more  gen- 
eral and  more  extended  preparation  needs  to  be 
urged.  This  standard  of  preparation  is  deemed 
highly  desirable  to  give  botany  its  proper 
place  in  secondary  education,  but  it  may  not 


always  be  practicable.  It  is  the  standard  that 
should  be  met  by  those  who  are  now  preparing 
to  teach  the  subject." 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  the  determin- 
ing factor  in  botany,  as  in  other  science  teach- 
ing, is  the  teacher.  In  subjects  that  are  more 
completely  organized  for  educational  purposes 
less  depends  upon  the  qualitj^  and  preparation 
of  the  teacher.  When  dcfiniteness  or  organiza- 
tion of  material  is  fairly  general,  somewhat 
less  is  required  of  the  teacher.  This  dcfinite- 
ness is  directly  helpful  in  secondary  school 
teaching;  but  in  the  college  preparation  of  the 
teacher  it  is  helpful  in  that  in  some  subjects  the 
part  of  the  body  of  knowledge  that  has  proved 
good  for  secondary  school  use  maj'  be  made 
distinct  from  the  parts  that  are  for  college  use, 
or  for  specialists  in  research.  The  usual  course 
of  preparation,  if  such  it  may  be  called,  of  a 
high  school  teacher  of  botany  carries  him 
through  a  series  of  courses  that  are  planned 
primarily  for  students  who  eventually  may  do 
research  in  botany.  Possibly  some  may  argue 
that  preparation  for  research  is  the  best  prepa- 
ration for  teaching,  but  this  is  not  yet  proved. 
Furthermore,  colleges  and  universities  empha- 
size different  aspects  of  botany,  some  agricul- 
tural, some  cytological,  some  morjihological, 
and  since  young  teachers  naturalh'  wish  to 
teach  the  things  that  they  are  most  interested 
in,  this  leads  to  unbalanced  courses,  determined 
not  by  what  are  the  educational,  social,  and 
industrial  needs  of  high  school  boys  and  girls, 
but  by  the  particular  line  of  botany  in  which 
a  particular  college  or  university  is  doing  its 
research  work. 

In  England  botany  is  not  elected  generally 
by  secondary  school  students,  but  by  those 
who  expect  to  take  a  medical  course.  It  is 
said  that  the  subject  is  not  elected  by  more 
pupils  because  it  is  taught  so  that  it  seems  sig- 
nificant only  to  those  who  are  going  to  study 
medicine.  This  suggests  a  very  real  difficulty. 
Botany  mu.st  be  taught  so  that,  while  having 
educational  values,  it  has  appreciable  signifi- 
cance to  those  who  are  studying  it.  In  this 
country  and  in  England  it  is  not  uncommon  for 
university  teachers  of  botany  and  zoology  to 
say  that  these  subjects  would  better  be  omitted 
from  secondary  schools  until  adequately  pre- 
pared teachers  are  at  hand.  It  is  true  that  an 
altogether  too  large  number,  fortunatelj'  a  de- 
creasing number,  of  secondary  school  teachers 
are  teacliing  botany  without  any  academic  prep- 
aration; but,  besides  these,  the  teachers  are  the 
college  and  university  product,  and  the  univer- 
sities and  colleges  are  getting  the  result  of  their 
own  students'  work.  If  the  schools  omit  these 
subjects,  pending  the  further  preparation  of 
teachers,  the  situation  is  likely  to  be  reached 
where  "  biology  is  not  taught  because  there  are 
no  teachers;  there  are  no  teachers  because 
biology  is  not  taught."  Rather  it  must  be 
frankly  recognized  that  the  adequate  prepara- 
tion of  the  teacher  of  botany  is  a  piece  of  work 


432 


BOTANY 


BOURNE 


commensurate  in  importance  with  the  adequate 
preparation  of  the  research  botanist.  Botany 
as  a  research  subject  depends  much  upon  the 
quality  of  the  teaeliing  of  those  general  students 
who  may  perhaps  become  special  research 
students  of  the  subject.  The  teacher  and  the 
research  man,  or  the  prospective  teacher  and 
the  prospective  research  student,  may  be  com- 
bined in  the  same  person,  but,  if  so,  the  condi- 
tion is  a  fortunate  by-product  and  by  no  means 
a  regular  occurrence.  O.  W.  C. 

References  :  — 

B.\iLEY,  L.  H.  On  the  Training  of  Persons  to  Teach 
Agriculture  in  the  Public  SchooU.  Bull.  No.  1, 
190fS,  Whole  No.  3S0.  Bureau  of  Ed.  7,  U.S.  Dept. 
of  the  Interior,  1908. 

Barnes,   CH.tRLES   R.     Sciences  in   the   High   School. 
School  Review,  Vol.  6,   1898. 
The    Progress   and    Problems    of    Plant    Physiology. 
Presidential  Address,  Section  G.,  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  S., 
1899.     Science.  Vol.  10,  p.  316,   1899. 

Bergen,  J.  Y.     Plant  Physiology  in  Secondary  Schools, 
Education.  Vol.  27,  pp.  409-419,  1907. 
Botany   as    an     Alternative     in    College    Admission 
Requirements.     Ed.  Rev..  Vol.  11,  1.890. 

BoRzi,  A.  (Tr.  by  J.  Y.  Bergen.)  On  Giving  a  Bio- 
logical Trend  to  Botany  and  Zo61og>-  in  Secondary 
Schools.     Jour,  of  Ed..  Feb.  20,  1908. 

Brendel,  F.  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Science  of 
Botany  in  North  America  from  1635-1840.  Am. 
Nat..  Vol.  13.  Dec,  1897. 

Caldwell,  Otis  W.     Essentials  of  High  School  Botany. 
Sch.  Rev..  Jan.,  1904. 
An    Investigation    of    the    Teaching    of    Biological 
Subjects    in    Secondary    Schools.     Sch.    Sci.    and 
Math..  June,  1909. 
and    Committee.        The     Unit    in  Botany.      Report 
of  the  Commission   on  Accredited   Schools  of  the 
North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Second- 
ary .Schools,    1910.     J.   E.   Armstrong,   Englewood 
High  School,  Chicago,  Secretary, 
ami  Committee.      A  Consideration  of  the  Principles 
that  Should  Determine  the  Courses   in   Biology  in 
Secondary   Schools.     Sch.    Sci.    and   Math.,  Mar., 
1909. 

Clements,  F.  E.  Greek  and  Latin  in  Biological  No- 
menclature. Published  by  the  University  of 
Nebraska,  Vol.  3,  No.  1,  1902.  University  Studies, 
1902. 

Cook,  O.  F.  On  Biological  Text-books  and  Teachers. 
Science.  Vol.  9,  pp.  541-545,  1899. 

ConLTER,  J.  G.  Opportunities  for  Young  Men  in 
Botany.    Sch.  Sci.  and  Math..  1908. 

Coulter,  J.  M.  The  Influence  of  the  Teacher's  Re- 
search Work  upon  his  Teaching  of  Biology  in 
Secondary  Schools.  Sch.  Sci.  and  Math.,  Feb., 
1905. 
Report  of  the  Sub-Committee  on  Botany  in 
Secondary  Schools.  Proceedings  of  the  N.  E.  A., 
Dept.  of  Science,  1898. 
Botany  as  a  Factor  in  Education.      Sch.  Rev..  Vol. 

12.  Oct.,  1904. 
The    Future    of    Systematic    Botany.     Proc.    A.    A. 

A.  S.     Science.  Vol.    18,  p.   127,  Sept.  4,  1891. 
The      Botanical      Outlook.       An      address      delivered 
before    the    Botanical   Seminar  of  the    University 
of  Nebraska,  May  27,  1895. 

Crosby,  D.  J.  Plant  Production.  Exercises  in  Ele- 
mentary Agriculture.  Bull.  No.  186,  Office  of  Ex. 
Stations.  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agr..  1907. 

Davis,  H.  M.  The  .Soil  and  its  Relation  to  Plants. 
Teachers'  Bull.  No.  1,  Dept.  of  Nat.  Hist,  and 
Elc.  Agr.,  Miami  University,  Oxford,  Ohio. 

Galloway,  B.  T.  Applied  Botany,  Retrospective  and 
Prospective.  Science.  Vol.  16,  pp.  49-59,  July  11, 
1902. 

Galloway,  T.  W.     The  Function  of  Biological  Sciences 
in  Education.     Sch.  Sci.  and  Math..  Oct..   1908. 
An  Appreciation  of  the  Pedagogical  Possibilities   of 
VOL.  I — 2  F 


the   Biological  Laboratorj-.     Sch.  Sci.  and  Math., 

Feb.,  1908. 
Ganong,  W.  F.     Cardinal   Principles  in    Morphology. 

Bot.  Gazette,  Vol.  31,  pp.  426-434,  June,  1901. 
The     Teaching     Botanist.      Revised     and     Enlarged. 

(New  York,  1910.) 
Some    Reflections    upon     Botanical     Education     in 

America.     Science,  New  Series,  Vol.  31,  pp.  321- 

334,   1910. 
The     Erroneous     Physiology     of      the      Elementary 

Text-books.     Sch.  'Sci.  and  Math.,  Apr.  1908. 
and    Committee.      Fourth    Report    on    the    College 

Entrance  Course  in  Botany.     Sch.  Rev.,  Vol.   16, 

1908. 
Hunter,  G.  W.     The  Methods,  Content,  and  Purpose 

of  Biological  Science  in  the  Secondary  Schools  of 

the  United  States.     Sch.  Sci.  and  Math.,  Vol.   10, 

Jan.  and  Feb.,  1910. 
Linville,   H.   R.,  and  Committee.     Practical  Uses  of 

Biology.     Sch.  Sci.  and  Math.,  Vol.  9,  1909. 
Lloyd,  F.  E.     The  Courses  in  Botany  in  the  Horace 

Mann   School.     Teachers'    College    Record,  Vol.  2, 

No.  1,  Jan.,  1901. 
and    BiGELOW,     M.    A.      The     Teaching    of   Biology. 

(New  York,  1904.) 
LocY,   W.   A.     Biology  and  Its  Makers.     (New  York, 

1908.) 
Newcombe,  F.  C.     Equipment  and  Administration  of 

the  High-school  Botanical  Laboratory.     Sch.  Rev., 

May,  1899. 
Russell,  J.  E.     Natural  Sciences  in  the  Higher  .Schools 

of  Germany.     Sch.  Rev.,  Jan.  and  Feb.,  1907. 
W.iGER,    H.     The    Teaching    of    Botany    in    Schools. 

School  World.  Vol.  3,   1901. 
Walter,  H.  E.     The  Nature  and  Amount  of  Biological 

Work  that  can  Profitably  be  attempted  in  Second- 
ary Schools.     Sch.  Rev..  March,   1900. 
Whitford,   H.   N.     Physiography   and   Botany.     Sch. 

Rev.,  Vol.  45,  Jan.,  1902. 
Wilson,    E.    B.     Teaching   and   Research   in   Natural 

Sciences.     Columbia   University  Quarterly.   Vol.   11, 

Mar.,  1909. 

For  the  place  of  botany  in  the  schools,  see — 
Hughes,  R.  E.     Making  of  a  Citizen.      (London,  1902.) 
Lexis,  W.     Das   Unterrichtswesen  im  deutschen  Reiche, 

(Berlin,  1904.) 
Payne,    R.    E.     The    Elementary    School    Curriculum. 

(New  York,  1905.) 
Russell,  J.  E.     German  Higher  Schools. 

BOTTA,  VINCENZO  (1818-1894.)  —  Edu- 
cator and  writer  on  education,  educated  in  the 
schools  of  Italy  and  at  the  University  of  Turin; 
served  on  the  educational  commission  in  Sar- 
dinia; was  professor  in  New  York  University 
for  many  years;  author  of  Education  in  Pied- 
mont and  of  numerous  articles  in  Barnard's 
American  Journal  of  Education.  W.  S.  M. 

BOURNE,  STURGES  (1769-1845).  --  A 
member  of  Parliament  who  played  an  active 
part  in  the  English  House  of  Commons  between 
1798  and  1831,  and  frequently  held  office.  He 
was  Home  Secretary  in  1827.  He  is  known 
in  the  history  of  English  education  in  connec- 
tion with  Mr.  Whitbread's  famous  Education 
Bill  of  1807  (.see  Whitbre.^d).  Mr.  Bourne 
objected  to  the  compulsory  establishment  of 
parochial  schools,  and  in  committee  on  July  21, 
1807,  proposed  as  a  substitutional  clause, 
"  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  church  wardens 
and  overseers  in  any  parish,  township,  or  place, 
with  the  consent  of  the  major  part  of  the 
parishioners  or  inhabitants  in  vestry  or  other 
parish  or  public  meeting  for  that  purpose, 
433 


BOUTWELL 


BOWDOIN   COLLEGE 


after  one  month's  notice  assembled,  or  of 
so  many  of  them  as  shall  be  so  assembled, 
to  estal)lish,  if  they  think  fit,  within  their 
respective  ])arishes,  a  school  or  schools  for 
the  instruction  of  the  children  of  the  poor, 
and  to  purchase  or  hire  any  buildings,  or 
to  purchase  any  land  for  the  erection  of  any 
buildings,  and  to  erect  any  buildings  which  may 
be  found  requisite  for  that  purpose,  and  to 
employ  or  contract  with  any  person  or  persons 
to  be  approved  by  the  minister  of  such  parish, 
to  instruct  the  children  of  the  poor,  under  such 
rules  and  regulations  as  they  may  think  it  expe- 
dient to  adopt."  This  clause  was  adopted  on 
August  4  and  power  given  to  the  parish  officers 
to  build  schools.  The  bill  thus  amended 
passed  the  Commons,  but  was  thrown  out  by 
the  House  of  Lords.  J.  E.  G.  de  M. 

BOUTWELL,  GEORGE  SEWELL  (1S15- 
1905).  —  Educated  in  the  common  schools  of 
Massachu.setts;  Secretary  of  the  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Education  (1S53-1S5S);  author 
of  Educational  Topics  and  Institutions  and  of 
several  historical  and  political  works. 

W.  S.  M. 

BOWDOIN  COLLEGE,  BRUNSWICK,  ME. 

—  A  nonsectarian  institution,  incorporated 
June  24,  1794,  by  the  General  Court  of  Massa- 
chusetts, to  meet  the  demand  for  a  college  in 
the  district  of  Maine,  since  Harvard  College, 
the  nearest  institution,  was  accessible  only  to 
the  richer  inhabitants.  The  location  at  Bruns- 
wick was  selected  as  a  compromise,  that  town 
being  midway  between  Portland  and  small 
towns  along  the  Kennebec  that  had  offered 
sites  for  the  new  college.  The  name  was  chosen 
in  honor  of  James  Bowdoin,  Harvard  1745,  an 
important  figure  in  the  Revolution,  and  twice 
Governor  of  Massachusetts;  he  died  in  1790. 
His  son,  also  James  Bowdoin,  the  first  minister 
to  Spain,  besides  gifts  in  money  and  land, 
willed  to  the  college  his  library  and  a  valuable 
collection  of  drawings.  Owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  resources  consisted  largely  of  inactive  wil- 
derness land,  no  building  was  erected  until  in 
1802  the  "  House  "  (now  called  Massachusetts 
Hall)  was  completed.  In  September,  1802, 
the  Rev.  Joseph  McKeen,  Dartmouth  1774, 
was  installed  as  first  president,  and  a  class  of 
8  students  was  matriculated.  In  1806  a  dor- 
mitory was  built;  in  1814  the  general  court 
appropriated  $3000  a  year  to  Bowdoin.  In 
1821  the  first  college  commencement  in  the 
state  of  Maine  was  marked  by  the  erection  of 
a  new  hall  and  by  the  entrance  of  the  largest 
class  so  far  received;  among  its  members  were 
Longfellow  and  Hawthorne.  By  1837  the 
endowment  had  increased  to  $100,000,  and 
Bowdoin  had  gained  a  widespread  reputation 
for  scholarly  thoroughness;  during  this  panic 
year,  however,  the  trustees  appealed  for  aid  and 
received  gifts  amounting  to  $70,000,  most  of 
the  sum  coming  from  members  of  the  Congre- 


gational churches,  a  denomination  with  which 
the  college  had  been  in  sympathy  from  the  out- 
set. In  1908  the  removal  of  sectarian  restric- 
tions accompanying  the  funds  for  certain  pro- 
fessorships and  the  transfer  to  the  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  of  the  fund  for  the  Stone 
professorships,  led  to  the  admission  of  Bow- 
doin by  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  Teaching  {q.v.)  as  participating 
in  its  system  of  retiring  allowances  to  profes- 
sors. (See  the  Third  Ileport  of  the  Founda- 
tion, 1908.) 

Bowdoin  has  the  student  life  of  a  t3'pical 
"  small  college."  Membershii)  in  fraternities 
included  (1908)  302  students,  86.8  per  cent  of 
the  total  number,  in  chapters  averaging  38 
members  each;  most  of  the  chapters  occupy 
houses.  The  following  fraternities  have  been 
established:  Alpha  Delta  Phi,  Psi  Upsilon, 
Delta  Kappa  Epsilon,  Theta  Delta  Chi,  Delta 
Upsilon,  Zeta  Psi,  Kappa  Sigma,  Beta  Theta 
Pi,  Alpha  Kappa  Kappa  (medical),  and  Phi 
Chi  (medical).  The  president  in  several 
reports  has  called  attention  to  the  need  of  a 
new  gymnasium,  plans  for  which  were  drawn 
in  1901.  Athletics  are  regulated  by  the  Ath- 
letic Council  of  the  General  Athletic  A.ssocia- 
tion,  consisting  of  two  members  of  the  faculty, 
and  five  members  each  from  the  alumni  and  the 
students.  According  to  tables  ( Bowdoin  College 
Bulletin,  New  Series,  No.  10)  based  on  returns 
from  200  undergraduates,  a  typical  low  expense 
account  is  $273.86  a  year;  a  liberal  account, 
$388.  In  1906-1907,  167  students  earned  on 
the  average  $283.51  each. 

Bowdoin  has  a  remarkable  list  of  distin- 
guished alumni,  including  President  Franklin 
Pierce,  Chief  Ju.stice  Fuller,  John  P.  Hale, 
and  Thomas  B.  Reed;  not  many  years  ago  the 
Senate,  House  of  Representatives,  and  Supreme 
Court,  were  all  tliree  presided  over  by  Bowdoin 
graduates. 

Degrees  given  by  the  college  are  A.B.,  and 
M.  A.  for  one  year's  graduate  study  in  residence. 
Admission  is  by  examination  and  certificate 
of  an  approved  high  school.  The  institution  is 
a  member  of  the  New  England  Association  of 
Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools  and  the  New 
England  College  Entrance  Certificate  Board  (see 
College  Entrance  Boards).  In  1907-1908 
the  entrance  requirements  were  advanced. 
After  the  freshman  year,  the  studies  are  nearly 
all  elective.  The  ^ledical  School  of  Maine, 
established  in  1820  by  the  fir.st  legislature  of 
the  state,  was  by  its  charter  made  the  Medical 
Department  of  Bowdoin  College;  the  work  of 
the  first  two  years  is  given  at  Brunswick  and  of 
the  last  two  in  Portland,  on  account  of  clinical 
advantages  in  that  city.  Nearly  all  the  teach- 
ers in  this  school  are  officers  of  the  Maine 
General  Hospital  in  Portland. 

The  corporation  is  a  self-perpetuating  body, 
styled  The  President  and  Trustees  of  Bowdoin 
College,  the  membership  of  which  is  never 
less  than  7  nor  more  than  13  (in  1909,  13);  in 
434 


BOWDOIN   COLLEGE 


BOY  BISHOP 


addition  there  is  a  self-perpetuating  Board  of 
Overseers,  which  has  only  a  veto  power  and 
which  has  a  membership  of  not  less  than 
25  nor  more  than  45  (in  1909,  42).  For  half 
of  its  vacancies,  the  Board  of  Overseers 
accepts  nominations  of  alumni.  This  bicameral 
system  of  government  was  modeled  originally 
on  that  of  Harvard  College. 

The  campus  of  40  acres  is  1  mile  from  the 
Androscoggin  River,  and  about  1  mile  inland 
from  Casco  Bay.  The  library  contains  (1909) 
92,000  volumes.  Grounds,  buildings,  and 
equipment  are  valued  (1909)  at  about  $'900,000. 
In  1897  the  income-bearing  funds  amounted  to 
$500,000;  in  1909,  to  .S2, 000,000.  For  the  year 
1908-1909  gifts,  many  of  small  amounts,  from 
alumni  amounted  to  S542,552.16,  includ- 
ing $20,595.64  from  the  General  Education 
Board  {q.v.),  $23,812.50  from  the  Elizabeth 
D.  Cummins  bequest,  $20,000  from  Mr. 
Andrew  Carnegie,  $33,187  from  an  anonymous 
donor,  .$50,000  from  Mr.  W.  R.  Porter,  and 
$310,000  the  bequest  of  J.  E.  Merrill.  The 
total  annual  income  is  about  $80,000.  The 
average  salary  of  a  professor  is  $2000;  the  presi- 
dent has  urged  the  application  of  part  of 
the  new  endowment  to  an  increase  in  salaries. 
There  are  (1909)  23  members  on  the  academic 
instructing  staff  and  38  members  on  the  medical ; 
the  total  instructing  staff  is  57  (deducting  for 
names  counted  twice).  There  are  419  students, 
divided  as  follows:  academic  department,  346; 
medical  school,  74.  Willam  DeWitt  Hyde, 
D.D.,  LL.D.,  is  president.  C.  G. 

References:  — 

Cleaveland,  Nehemiah.  History  of  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege.    (Boston,    1882.) 

History  of  Bowdoin  College  in  the  Biographies  of  its 
presidents.  National  Encyclopedia  of  American 
Biography,  Vol.  I,  pp.  417-419. 

Little,  G.  T.  Historical  Sketch  of  Bowdoin  College 
during  the  first  century  —  in  General  Catalogue 
for  189J,.   Pref.,  pp.  9-112. 

BOWDON  COLLEGE,  BOWDON,  GA.  — 

A  coeducational  institution  opened  in  1856 
and  chartered  in  the  following  year  with  power 
to  confer  degrees.  The  primary  and  prepar- 
atory departments  give  the  work  of  the  eight 
grades,  which  is  continued  in  a  four  years' 
academic  course. 

BOXING.  —  Since  the  fist  forms  a  natural 
means  of  offense  and  defense,  bo.xing  appeared 
early.  Among  the  Greeks  its  invention  was 
attributed  to  Theseus.  References  to  it  are 
found  in  Homer,  and  some  of  the  gods,  e.g.  Apollo 
and  Hercules,  were  credited  with  great  skill  in 
it.  Boxing  was  introduced  into  the  Olympic 
games  about  684  b.c,  and  was  always  included 
in  the  pentathlon.  It  was  also  found  at  other 
national  contests.  The  contestants  fought 
naked,  and  their  hands  were  covered  with 
boxing  gloves,  of  which  there  were  several 
varieties,  according  to  the  severity  of  the  blow 
which  it   was  desired  to  inflict.     Thus  these 


gloves  varied  from  the  light  rawhide  thongs 
wrapped  round  the  fingers  to  the  heavy  leather 
covering  studded  with  iron  and  lead,  or  knots 
and  nails.  The  latter  were  frequently  used  at 
Rome.  The  aim  of  the  boxing  match  was  to 
fight  until  one  of  the  contestants  declared  him- 
self conquered.  It  was  against  the  rules  to 
use  the  feet.  The  blows  were  inflicted  on  the 
head  and  upper  part  of  the  bodj'.  The  ears 
were  usually  heavy  sufferers,  so  that  in  lighter 
practice  ear  protectors  were  used.  If  both 
sides  were  agreed,  pauses  might  be  arranged  for 
a  rest.  Severe  wounds  were  common,  and  death 
was  not  infrequent.  Boxing  was  introduced 
into  Rome  at  an  early  date,  and  continued  into 
the  daj's  of  the  Empire. 

In  modern  times  boxing  is  practiced  chiefly 
in  America,  Great  Britain,  and  the  British 
Colonies.  It  is  known  also  under  the  terms 
"sparring,"  "the  Manly  Art,"  and  "the  Art 
of  Self-Defense."  The  particii)ants  wear  large 
padded  gloves  to  eliminate  the  danger  of  in- 
jury from  blows.  The  rules  of  the  sport  permit 
only  blows  given  with  the  hands  and  delivered 
on  the  parts  of  the  body  above  the  waist 
line.  Boxing  affords  all-round  vigorous  exer- 
cise and  serves  to  develop  strength,  agility, 
and  endurance.  The  combative  element  in 
this  exercise  makes  it  valuable  for  the  develop- 
ment of  self-control  and  manliness,  but  when 
not  properly  supervised,  it  may  degenerate 
into  brutal  fighting  with  disa.strous  results 
physically  and  morally.  Boxing  is  taught  in 
most  American  colleges  and  in  many  pre- 
paratory schools.  The  instruction  is  usually 
given  individually,  but  in  a  number  of  col- 
leges the  principal  blows  and  guards  are  taught 
to  large  classes  by  the  same  methods  as  are  used 
in  teaching  calisthenics  or  dancing  steps. 

The  association  of  boxing  with  prize-fighting 
has  interfered  materially  with  its  general  use 
as  a  legitimate  branch  of  the  physical  education 
curriculum,  but  with  the  better  organization 
and  supervision  of  physical  activities  in  educa- 
tional institutions,  boxing  will  undoubtedly 
come  to  be  recognized  as  a  valuable  form  of 
exercise  in  the  physical  education  of  boys  and 
young    men.  G.  L.  M. 

See  Athletics,  Educational. 

BOY,  PROBLEM  OF  THE.  —  See  Ado- 
lescence; Adolescence,  Hygiene  of;  Boys' 
Clubs. 

BOY  BISHOP.  —  The  boy  bishop,  "  barne- 
bishop,"  "  httle  bishop,"  "  youths'  bishop," 
"  scholars'  bishop,"  "  Bishop  Nicholas,"  was 
one  of  the  most  curious  of  medieval  institu- 
tions. The  creation  of  a  sham  bishop  to 
perform  mock  masses  was  one  of  the  oldest 
methods  of  holiday  making  for  those  in  statu 
pupillari.  In  the  cathedral  and  collegiate 
churches,  there  was  no  going  home  for  the  holi- 
days for  the  schoolboys,  any  more  than  there 
was  for  the  boys  in  the  monasteries  already 


435 


BOY   BISHOP 


BOY  BISHOP 


devoted  (oblati)  to  become  monks.  But  human 
nature  must  have  relief,  and  the  ecclesiastics 
reproduced  under  a  religious,  or  rather  a  Chris- 
tian, disguise,  the  holidays  of  the  Roman  popu- 
lar and  religious  winter  feasts  of  the  Saturnalia, 
New  Year's  Day  (the  Kalends  of  January),  and 
the  Feast  of  Fools  on  Feb.  17.  The  older 
members  had  their  000s  as  they  were  called, 
beginning  on  Dec.  16,  the  day  of  O  Sapicnda, 
from  which  day  to  Christmas  Day  the  an- 
thems began  with  "  O,"  O  radix  Jesse  for  the  gar- 
dener, and  the  like,  in  which  in  turn  each  officer 
of  a  catiiedral  or  monastery  gave  a  dinner  and 
wine  to  his  colleagues,  days  still  commemo- 
rated in  the  Bursar's  dinner  at  All  Souls'  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  held  till  10  years  ago  on  Dec.  19. 
These  days  corresponded  with  the  Roman 
Saturnalia,  which  also  began  on  Dec.  16. 
After  Christmas  there  were  four  tripudia,  or 
dancings,  says  a  canon  of  Amiens  c.  1182,  in  the 
church,  of  the  deacons  (on  St.  Stephen's  Day, 
he  being  accounted  the  first  deacon),  of  priests  on 
St.  John's  Day  (he  being  a  priest),  of  boys  on 
Innocents'  Day,  and  of  subdeacons.  Innocents' 
Day  reproduced  the  Juvenalia,  which  concluded 
the  Saturnalia  at  Rome.  License  was  of  the 
essence  of  the  Saturnalia,  the  slave  sat  in  his 
master's  place,  public  gambling  was  permitted, 
there  were  public  feasting,  processions,  and 
giving  of  presents.  On  the  eve  of  Innocents' 
Day,  in  like  manner,  at  Vespers  when  the  Mag- 
nificat was  sung,  at  the  verse  "  He  hath  put 
down  the  mighty  from  their  seats  and  hath 
exalted  the  humble  and  meek,"  the  deposuit, 
as  it  is  shortly  called,  the  real  bishop  vacated 
his  throne  in  favor  of  a  bishop  elected  by  the 
boys,  the  precentor  handed  over  his  staff  of 
office,  with  which  he  ruled  the  choir,  to  a  boy 
precentor,  and  the  other  dignitaries  and  canons, 
such  as  the  schoolmaster  or  chancellor,  gave 
place  to  boys  that  took  their  titles  and 
duties.  The  boy  bishop  for  the  whole  of 
Innocents'  Day  performed  the  services,  includ- 
ing the  mass  itself,  clad  in  full  pontificals, 
preached  a  sermon,  and  gave  the  solemn 
episcopal  blessing  to  the  people.  One  bishop 
at  least  gave  his  own  miter,  by  will,  for 
the  use  of  the  boy  bishop,  while  gorgeous 
capes  and  albs  were  provided  for  his  com- 
panions. They  went  round  the  town  in  pro- 
cession, the  boy  bishop  riding,  and  ended  with 
a  great  supper.  We  first  hear  in  England  of 
the  tripiidia  in  a  letter  of  Aldhelm  to  Hoeddi, 
Bishop  of  Winchester,  about  999,  excusing  him- 
self from  coming  to  the  Christian  tripudia  with 
his  old  companions,  because  of  his  immersion 
in  his  studies.  In  911,  when  Conrad  I  of  Ger- 
many was  staying  with  the  Bishop  of  Constance, 
he  visited  the  monastery  of  St.  Gall  on  purpose 
to  see  the  Christian  tripudia,  especially  the 
Procession  of  the  Infants,  which  was  then  so 
solemn  that  the  boys'  ranks  were  not  broken 
even  when  apples  were  rolled  on  the  pavement  of 
the  church  close  by  them.  This  decorum  was  by 
no  means  general  in  later  times.     At  St.  Paul's, 


London,  c.  1190,  a  statute  prescribed  that  a 
new  residentiary  canon  was  to  escort  the  boy 
who  represented  him  on  Innocents'  Day  back 
to  the  Almonry  with  dances  and  songs  and 
torches  and  to  give  the  boy  bishop  supper  on 
the  octave  of  the  day,  and  if  he  waited  for  him 
till  late  at  night,  was  excused  Matins  in  the 
morning. 

In  the  eleventh  century  the  boy  bishop's 
feast  was  combined  with  that  of  St.  Nicholas 
of  Myra,  lately  translated  to  Bari  in  Italy.  He 
was  made  the  patron  saint  of  scholars  and 
schoolboys,  because  of  the  tale  of  his  raising  to 
life  again  tliree  boys  on  their  way  to  school  at 
Athens,  who  had  been  murdered  and  pickled  by 
a  greedy  innkeeper.  In  many  places,  the  elec- 
tion of  boy  bishop  took  place  on  St.  Nicholas' 
Day,  Dec.  6.  At  York  in  1396  the  boy 
bishop  was  elected  on  that  day,  and  his  episco- 
pacy lasted  to  Candlemas  Day  (Feb.  2), 
during  which  time  he  rode  about  the  country 
with  five  attendants,  including  a  tenor  and  a 
middle  voice  singer,  and  performed  plays  be- 
fore, and  levied  contributions  on,  neighboring 
magnates,  especially  the  heads  of  religious 
houses.  An  account  roll  for  this  year  is  at 
York,  and  shows  that  the  Countess  of  Nor- 
thumberland contributed  no  less  than  £1  and 
a  gold  ring,  and  the  boy  bishop  had  a  surplus 
of  over  £30,  £600  of  modern  money,  after 
paying  all  expenses.  Various  fulminations 
were  aimed  at  abuses  of  the  ceremony.  In 
1263  at  St.  Paul's,  a  statute  especially  forbade 
the  real  dean  and  canons  from  being  made  to 
perform  services  for  the  Boy,  and  limited  his 
immediate  attendants  to  sup  with  the  Dean  to 
15  and  those  of  the  boy  dean  to  3;  and  in 
1319  at  Salisbury,  statutes  were  aimed  at  pre- 
venting the  crowds  and  disorderly  processions. 
Yet  the  school-founders  specially  recognized  it. 
In  1300  we  find  Merton  College  paying  for 
the  dica  or  offering  of  Blessed  Nicholas  for 
one  of  the  Founder's  kin  boys  in  the  grammar 
school  attached  to  the  college.  A  century 
later,  William  of  Wykeham's  Statutes  for  Win- 
chester College  in  1400,  while  providing  that 
the  Warden  and  fellows  were  to  officiate  on 
feast  days,  says,"  We  allow  however  that  on 
the  Feast  of  Innocents  the  boys  may  perform 
the  divine  offices  after  the  use  of  Sarum,"  and 
he  gave  a  miter  of  cloth  of  gold,  and  a  crozier 
of  coppergilt  for  the  boy  bishop:  who  is  called 
the  Scholars'  Bishop  in  1406,  when  men  from 
Ropley  came  and  danced  {tripiidiajitibvs)  be- 
fore him.  The  Eton  Statutes  of  1443  in  the 
same  connection,  allowed  the  bishop  of  the  boy 
scholars  to  be  yearly  elected  on  the  feast  of  St. 
Nicholas  and  not  on  Innocents'  Day,  to  do  all 
services  except  the  secret  of  the  mass.  This 
last  qualification  was  in  consequence  of  a  dead 
set  made  at  this  and  the  kindred  Feast  of 
Fools  by  the  Council  of  Basle  in  1435.  In  1464 
a  monk  of  Canterbury  records  as  a  notable 
event  that  there  was  no  boy  bishop  in  the  gram- 
mar school  there,  through  the  master's  default. 


436 


BOY  SCOUTS 


BOYS'  BRIGADES 


Archbishop  Rotherham  says  in  his  will  in  1495 
that  he  had  given  to  his  college  at  Rotherham 
with  its  schools  a  miter  of  cloth  of  gold  with 
silver  enameled  "  knops  "  to  be  used  by  the 
Barne-bishop.  The  Puritanical  Colet,  who 
did  not  allow  the  boys  of  St.  Paul's  School 
"  remedies,"  i.e.  casual  hoHdays,  did  not  allow 
them  a  boy  bishop  of  their  own,  but  directed 
in  1518  that  they  should  attend  St.  Paul's 
Church,  "  euery  Childermasse  day  .  .  .  and 
here  the  Chylde  Bisshopes  sermon  .  .  .  and 
offer  Irf.  to  the  childe  bisshop."  In  1541  Henry 
VIII,  by  Proclamation,  put  down  throughout 
his  dominions  the  boy  bishop  as  childish  and 
superstitious.  It  is  odd  to  find  the  Aberdeen 
Town  Council  the  very  next  year  ordering  that 
the  "  maister  of  thair  grammar  scuyll  sail  have 
4s.  Scotch  of  the  sobirest  persoun  that  resaives 
him  and  the  bischop  at  Saint  Nicolace  day." 
The  boy  bishop  was  revived  under  Queen 
Mary,  which  is  remarkable,  as,  even  at  Catholic 
Sens  in  France,  the  boy  bishop  was  suppressed 
in  1547.  He  died  in  England  under  Queen 
Elizabeth,  though  what  is  probably  his  last 
sermon  was  preached  in  Gloucester  Cathedral 
on  Childermass  day,  1558,  and  has  been  printed. 
At  Noyon  in  France,  he  was  suppressed  in 
1622,  at  Cologne  in  1662.  In  the  Catholic 
part  of  Germany,  the  Schul-Bischopp  of  Mainz 
survived  to  1779.  It  is  said  that  at  Sens  the 
choir  boys  still  elected  an  Ane  or  ass  archbishop 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  Santa  Claus  (Saint 
Niklaus)  is  his  modern  survival.  A.  F.  L. 

References:  — 
Cha.mbers,   E.   K.     The  Medioecal  Stage,  Vol.  I,   336. 

(1903.) 
Leach,  A.  F.     The  Schoolboys'  Feast.     Fortnightly  Re- 
view, Jan.,  1896. 

BOY  SCOUTS.  —  See  Boys'  Brigades. 

BOYHOOD.  —  See  Adolescence. 

BOYLE,  ROBERT  (1627-1691).  —  A  promi- 
nent English  man  of  science.  A  nobleman  by 
birth,  the  son  of  the  Earl  of  Cork,  he  was  in  a 
position  to  attract  general  attention  and  lend 
dignity  to  the  study  of  science.  After  spending  a 
few  years  at  Eton,  he  traveled  on  the  Continent 
and  visited  France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy. 
He  early  showed  a  bent  for  study,  particularly 
scientific,  combined  with  a  strong  religious 
temperament.  In  1854  he  settled  in  O.xford, 
and  soon  became  an  influential  member  in  a 
small  coterie  of  men  interested  in  science.  The 
group  had  already  met  earlier  in  London  at 
Gresham  College  under  the  title  of  Philosophic, 
or,  as  Boyle  calls  it,  the  Invisible  College,  in 
1645.  Out  of  these  meetings  grew  the  Royal 
Society  (q.v.)  in  1662,  with  which  Boyle  was 
connected  until  shortly  before  his  death.  At 
O.xford  Boyle  established  a  laboratory  and 
experimented  on  the  air  pump  and  the  elas- 
ticity of  gases,  the  permanent  contribution  of 
which  is  embodied  in  Boyle's  Law.     His  other 


interests  were  mainly  religious.  For  many 
years  he  was  Governor  of  the  Society  for^the 
Spread  uf  the  Gospel  in  Nerv  England,  and  spent 
much  money  on  the  circulation  of  Bible  trans- 
lations. He  also  left  money  for  the  payment 
of  a  stipend  for  eight  sermons  to  be  preached 
each  year  in  London  in  defense  of  Christianity 
against  all  other  beliefs.  He  consistently 
refused  to  take  orders,  as  a  consequence  of 
which  he  was  unable  to  accept  an  offer  of  the 
provostship  of  Eton.  I.  L.  K. 

References :  — 

Ad.uison,    J.     W.      Pioneers     of    Modern    Education. 

(Cambridge,  1905.) 
Dictionary  oj  National  Biography. 

BOYS'  BRIGADES.  —  Organizations  which 
began  in  Great  Britain  to  provide  a  definite 
kind  of  moral  and  civic  training  and  a  high 
ideal  of  conduct  to  boys  in  the  adolescent  stage 
who  have  been  compelled  in  most  cases  to 
complete  their  education  with  the  elementary 
schools.  Nearly  all  the  brigades  are  organized 
on  a  military  basis,  and  a  large  number  are 
connected  with  religious  bodies.  In  addition 
to  military  drill,  athletic  clubs,  gymnastic 
exercises,  games,  rambles,  as  well  as  Bible  classes, 
Sunday  services,  and  church  parades,  are  em- 
ployed as  means  of  training.  The  brigades  have 
served  to  popularize  summer  camps,  which 
form  a  strong  and  important  feature  in  their 
organization.  The  oldest  association  of  this 
type  is  the  Boys'  Brigade,  founded  in  1883 
with  headquarters  at  Glasgow  with  definite 
religious  motives,  although  on  undenominational 
lines.  In  1891  was  organized  the  Church 
Lads'  Brigade,  a  Church  of  England  association. 
The  Jewish  Lads'  Brigade  was  formed  on  sirni- 
lar  lines  and  with  similar  aims  on  the  disciplin- 
ary and  moral  side.  Apart  from  the  organiza- 
tions with  a  religious  motive,  there  arose  other 
associations  with  a  purely  patriotic  aim,  and 
these  have  been  fostered  by  the  influences 
which  came  out  of  the  Boer  War.  They  aim 
not  only  at  moral  training  of  adolescent  boys 
through  athletics  and  recreation,  but  at  the 
preparation  of  a  military  organization  and 
education  without  the  necessity  of  resorting 
to  conscription.  Of  these  the  earliest  was  the 
Lads'  Drill  Association,  which  was  founded  in 
1899  and  was  incorporated  in  1906  with  the 
National  Service  League,  which  frankly  aims  at 
military  preparation,  not  even  excluding  con- 
scription. The  League  includes  among  its 
objects  the  popularizing  of  rifle  shooting  and 
the  establishment  of  rifle  clubs.  Of  a  similar 
type  organized  with  a  similar  aim  but  without 
definite  military  drill  is  the  recent  association 
known  as  the  Boy  Scouts,  which  aims  to  train 
boys  to  quick  and  ready  action,  to  self-reliance 
as  well  as  cooperation,  to  serve  as  an  intelligent 
subsidiary  force  to  the  army  in  case  of  necessity. 
This  year  the  organization  received  permission 
to  send  a  detachment  of  Scouts  to  the  annual 
military    maneuvers.      The    moving    spirit   in 


437 


BOYS'  CAIMPS 


BOYS'   CLUBS 


the  association  is  Ooiicral  Sir  R.  S.  S.  Baden- 
Powell.  The  pledge  taken  by  the  members 
of  the  association  is:  "  I  will  do  my  duty  to 
God  and  my  country.  I  will  do  my  best  to 
help  others,  whatever  it  costs  me.  I  know 
the  scout  law  and  will  obey  it." 

The  Botjf:'  Life  Brigade  definitely  excludes 
military  drill,  but  makes  life-savins  its  central 
object  as  a  means  to  religious  and  moral  train- 
ing. The  physical  instruction  is  given  with  a 
view  to  train  a  spirit  of  heljifulncss  to  others. 
The  association  insists  that  its  members  should 
attend  Sunday  school  or  Bible  classes.  To 
inculcate  the  same  jirinciples  and  to  provide 
the  same  training  for  girls  a  Girls'  Life  Brigade 
was  organized.  In  addition  to  marching, 
gymnastics,  and  stretcher  drill,  life-saving  from 
fire  and  water,  hvgiene  and  first  aid,  the  girls 
are  also  taught  sick  nursing. 

On  the  whole  these  movements  represent  a 
healthy  tendency.  In  connection  with  and  sup- 
plementing the  work  of  the  boys'  clubs  they  are 
all  combining  to  teach  principles  of  discipline, 
helpfulness,  courtesy,  obedience,  and  self- 
reliance  and  to  provide  that  comradeship  and 
healthy  recreation  which  are  essential  to  ado- 
lescence and  which  otherwise  could  not  be 
attained  by  the  class  of  boys  who  are  thus 
reached.  Of  the  excellent  moral  and  social 
influences  and  the  training  afforded  to  make 
healthy  citizens  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  speak. 

I.  L.  K. 

See  BoTs'  Clubs;    Moral  Training. 

Reference:  — 

Sadler,   M.  E.     Continuation  Schools  in  England  and 
Elsewhere.     (Manchester,  1907.) 

BOYS'    CAMPS.  —  See   Camp   Schools. 

BOYS'  CLUBS.  —  The  formation  of  boys' 
clubs  represents  a  phase  of  preventive  phi- 
lanthropy, which  has  developed  during  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century  in  the  larger  cities  of  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States.  Many  varieties 
have  been  experimented  with,  ranging  from 
industrial  classes  to  groups  whose  chief  objects 
are  athletics,  or  young  people's  work  in  religion. 

As  early  as  1878  the  famyus  St.  Marks 
Place  Boys'  Club  was  started  in  New  York, 
as  a  means  of  combating  the  neighborhood 
gangs  which  had  grown  up.  In  subsequent 
years  numerous  other  boys'  clubs  have  been 
foundedi  some  by  churches,  some  by  settle- 
ments, and  many  quite  unconnected  with  exist- 
ing institutions.  A  form  of  club  activity  now 
exists  under  the  direction  of  the  public  school 
in  the  so-called  evening  play  centers,  where 
instructors  are  provided  for  groups  of  boys  in 
athletics,  etc. 

A  well-known  boys'  club  in  San  Francisco 
has  developed  as  a  special  feature  an  annual 
walking  and  camping  trip,  which  may  extend 
hundreds  of  miles,  and  which  is  made  partly 
self-supporting  through  entertainments  given 
on  the  way.     The  summer  outing  or  camp  for 


two  or  more  weeks  has  become  a  common  feature 
of  boys'  clubs  in  Eastern  cities,  and  in  some  cases 
land  for  camping  purposes  is  owned  or  rented 
by  the  club,  and  its  management  rests  on  a 
self-governing  basis. 

In  1900  some  8000  or  9000  boys  were  enrolled 
in  the  clubs  of  London.  Many  of  these  have 
no  connection  with  the  churches.  Apparently 
the  London  and  other  English  clubs  make  less 
of  self-government  and  [nirliamentary  law  than 
do  the  American,  but  in  other  respects  they  are 
quite  similar. 

The  theory  underlying  the  formation  of 
boys'  clubs  is  that  children  from  14  or  earlier, 
whose  homes  are  crowded  and  unattractive, 
gt-eatly  need  social  life,  and,  if  left  to  them- 
selves, will  find  it  in  the  "  gang  "  life  of  the 
streets,  and  rapidly  drift  toward  immorality 
and  crime.  Most  of  the  boj'S  reached  are 
already  wage  earners,  and  their  need  of  social 
relaxation  and  physical  exercise  in  the  evening 
is  especially  great.  Some  clubs  have  developed 
features  of  industrial  education,  leading  even  to 
trades  teaching,  but  this  work  is  effective  only 
with  selected  groups  of  boys.  Games,  gymnas- 
tics, debating,  and  reading  are  the  activities 
usually  found  successful,  but  the  fundamental 
object  of  the  club  is  not  so  much  to  get  definite 
results  in  these  as  to  employ  them  as  a  whole- 
some environment  to  keep  adolescent  children 
off  the  street  or  away  from  disreputable  resorts. 
Of  late,  theatricals,  interclub  contests,  and 
history  classes  have  become  prominent  means 
of  developing  the  kind  of  activity  needed  to 
attract  and  improve  members. 

In  practice  boys'  clubs  are  still  in  the  experi- 
mental stage;  the  successful  ones  owe  their 
permanence  often  to  magnetic  leaders  rather 
than  to  any  particular  systems  yet  developed. 
Some  make  a  feature  of  hard  work  and  firm, 
though  kindly,  discipline;  others  allow  much 
freedom,  and  strive  to  secure  control  largely 
through  self-government.  In  forming  clubs  in 
congested  quarters  of  cities,  racial  differences  of 
considerable  importance  have  been  encountered, 
the  most  marked  contrasts  being  between  the 
Irish  and  the  Hebrews.  Irish  youth  have  a 
fondness  for  sports  and  athletics,  caring  little 
for  the  more  intellectual  or  purposeful  pursuits; 
while  Hebrews  care  most  for  these  latter 
activities. 

From  the  standpoint  of  social  economy, 
the  preventive  or  constructive  significance  of 
boys'  clubs  is  very  great,  and  it  is  believed  that 
the  movement  is  too  important  to  be  left  to 
private  philanthropy.  In  a  few  cities  public 
school  buildings  are  now  utilized  for  club  pur- 
poses, and  paid  leaders  employed.  This  de- 
velopment is  still  experimental,  since  it  is 
not  possible  here  to  procure  the  same  degree 
of  personal  devotion  as  has  been  found  in  the 
philanthropic  developments.  Gymnasium  work 
and  swimming  have  proved  most  successful. 

D.  S.  S. 

See  School  Buildings,  Extended  Use  of. 


.438 


BOYS 


BRAIDLEY 


References:  — 

Bock,   W.     Boys'  Self-Goveming   Clubs.     (New   York, 

1903.) 
Calkins,  R.     Substitutes  for  the  Saloon,  pp.  314-321. 
Commons,  J.    R.     George   Jr.    Republic.    Am.  Jour,   of 

Soc.  Vol.  3,  pp.  USl,  433. 
FoRBUSH,  W.  B.     The  Boy  Problem.     (Boston,  1901.) 
The     Social     Pedagogy      of    Boyhood.    Ped.    Sem. 

Vol.  7,  307. 
GuNCKEL,  J.   E.     Boyville,  a  History  of  Fifteen   Years' 

Work  Among  Newsboys.      (Toledo,  1905.) 
Lee,  J.     Preventive  Philanthropy,  Ch.  XIII. 
Neuman,  Paul.      The  Boys'  Clubs.      (London,  1900.) 
Riis,  J.     Children  of  the  Poor,  Ch.  VIII. 
Russell,   C.   E.   B.     Working  Lads  Clubs.     (London, 

190S.) 
Sadler,  M.  E.     Continuation  Schools.     (London,  1906.) 
Sheldon,  H.  D.     The  Institutional  Activities  of  Ameri- 
can Children.     Pad.  Sem.,  Vol.  9,  p.  425. 
Stelze,   C.      Boys   of  the   Streets  —  How  to  Win  Them. 

(New  York,  1904.) 

BOYS,  ELIMINATION  FROM   SCHOOL. 

• —  See  Eli.minatiox  of  Pupils  from  School. 

BRACE,  JULIA  (1807-1884).  —  A  blind, 
deaf  mute,  who,  at  the  age  of  4  years  and  5 
months  lost  her  sight  and  hearing  and  shortly 
afterwards  her  speech,  was  taken  to  the  School 
for  the  Deaf  at  Hartford  when  she  was  18  years 
old,  and  attempts  were  made  to  train  her  mind. 
She  acquired  some  skill  in  the  performance  of 
household  duties,  and  her  sense  of  smell  grew 
remarkably  acute,  but  it  was  not  found  possible 
to  train  her  by  means  of  the  manual  alphabet 
as  was  later  done  with  Laura  Bridgman  (q.v.). 

W.  S.  M. 

See  Deaf-Blind,  Education  of. 

BRADLEY,  GEORGE  GRANVILLE  (1821- 
1903).  —  One  of  the  great  English  school- 
masters of  the  nineteenth  century  who  contrib- 
uted to  the  reorganization  of  sccondarj'  educa- 
tion. Born  in  1821  in  London,  he  attended 
a  local  school  until  the  age  of  16,  when  he 
went  to  Rugby  and  came  under  the  personal 
influence  of  Arnold  (q.v.).  In  1840,  he  went 
up  to  Oxford,  where  upon  graduating  he  be- 
came a  fellow  of  University  College.  Two 
years  later  he  entered  upon  his  career  as  a 
teacher  at  Rugby.  In  1858  he  was  appointed 
headmaster  of  Marlborough  College.  This 
school,  then  in  its  sixteenth  year,  had  suffered 
largely  through  laxness  of  discipline,  but  was 
just  beginning  to  recover.  Bradley  brought 
with  him  the  ideals  of  Arnold,  and  fearl&ssly 
devoted  himself  to  the  work  before  him,  with 
the  result  that  Marlborough  came  to  rank  with 
the  leading  public  schools  in  scholarship  and 
spirit.  Bradley  was  an  excellent  teacher  of 
the  classics,  and  knew  how  to  inspire  all  around 
him  with  his  own  untiring  energy.  Scathing  as 
his  criticism  often  was,  he  had  that  personality 
which  could  inspire  fear  without  losing  the  affec- 
tions of  those  with  whom  he  came  into  contact. 
But  his  influence  was  not  confined  to  his  school ; 
his  works  on  Latin  prose  composition  soon  won 
an  established  place  in  all  iMiglish  schools  and 
contributed  to  a  reform  in  the  teaching  of  the 


subject.  In  1870  Bradley  was  elected  master 
of  tfniversity  College,  and  in  1881  received  the 
appointment  of  Dean  of  Westminster,  which 
he  held  until  within  a  year  of  his  death. 

Reference:  — 
How,  F.  D.     Six  Great  Schoolmasters.     (London,  1904.) 

BRADLEY  POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE, 
PEORLA,  ILL.  —  Opened  in  1897  by  the  gift 
of  Mrs.  Tobias  S.  Bradley.  A  6-year  course 
is  provided  in  the  following  2-year  divisions, 
lower  academy,  higher  academy,  and  the  college 
where  freshman  and  sophomore  work  is  done. 
Courses  are  arranged  to  prepare  for  business, 
trade,  or  technical  work,  for  advanced  study 
in  college,  university,  or  school  of  engineering, 
and  for  teaching  manual  training,  domestic 
science,  and  drawing.  On  students  who  com- 
plete the  6-year  courses  the  degrees  of  Asso- 
ciate in  Science,  Arts,  or  Literature  are  con- 
ferred. There  are  9  professors,  and  25 
instructors  and  assistants.  Theodore  Chalon 
Burgess,  Ph.D.,  is  director  of  the  institute. 

BRAHMAGUPTA.  —  The  second  great  Hin- 
du writer  on  mathematics  whose  works  have 
come  down  to  us,  and  the  founder  of  the  cele- 
brated mathematical  school  at  L'jjain.  He 
was  born  in  598  a.d.,  and  spent  his  life  in  teach- 
ing, in  writing,  and  in  astronomical  observa- 
tions at  Ujjain.  His  work  on  arithmetic  and 
algebra  was  translated  into  English  and  pub- 
lished by  Colebrooke  in  1817.  D.  E.  S. 

BRAIDLEY,  BENJAMIN  (1792-1845).  — 
Braidley,  the  famous  pioneer  in  the  north  of 
England  of  "Week-evening  Sunday  schools,"  was 
born  at  Sedgefield  near  Durham  in  1792.  He  was 
apprenticed  to  a  firm  of  linen  importers  in  Man- 
chester. In  1813,  the  year  in  which  the  Sunday 
School  Teachers'  Magazine  atjd  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion was  started,  Mr.  Braidlej-,  then  21  years  of 
age,  became  an  active  worker  in  the  Bennett 
Street  Sunday  Schools.  In  1815,  1635  Sunday 
scholars  from  this  school  received  prizes,  while 
in  1816  there  were  2020  pupils  on  the  roll. 
Working  as  a  commission  agent  he  became  very 
wealthy  and  occupied  various  positions  of 
importance  in  Manchester.  In  1834  he  gave 
evidence  as  to  his  Sunday  school  before  the 
Select  Committee  on  Education.  In  1835,  he 
twice  stood  (unsuccessfully)  for  the  Manchester 
Parliamentary  seat.  In  1837  he  went  to  Amer- 
ica, and  was  deeply  interested  in  American  prob- 
lems of  slavery  and  education.  In  his  later 
years  he  lost,  through  the  failure  of  a  bank,  his 
ample  fortune.  He  died  of  apoplexy  in  1845. 
His  evidence  before  the  Select  Committee  of 
1834  (pp.  174-187)  and  his  notes  on  Sunday 
schools  are  valuable  documents  in  the  history  of 
nineteenth  century  education.  His  school  had 
2700  scholars  who  were  taught  by  120  unsal- 
aried teachers,  all,  save  two  or  three,  former 
scholars.     The    secular    instruction    given    in 


439 


BRAIN 


BRAY 


Sunday  schools  played  a  vital  part  in  the 
growth  of  the  nobler  aspects  of  life  in  Manchester. 
Mr.  Braidley  told  the  committee  that  Sunday- 
schools  in  Manchester  were  open  for  secular  in- 
struction for  51  hours  on  Sundays  and  for  2 
evenings  in  the  week.  The  age  of  the  scholars 
varied  from  5  to  25  years.  Many  of  the  chil- 
dren were  too  worn  out,  when  the  evening 
came,  to  think:  "I  have  frequently  seen  some 
of  them  asleep  before  they  have  gone  home 
at  half-past  nine."  Mr.  Braidley  considered 
that  in  1834  the  manufacturers  were  (at  last) 
favorable  to  the  instruction  of  children,  "and 
many  of  them  the  most  liberal  contributors  to 
our  Sunday  and  other  schools."  But  Mr.  Braid- 
ley, with  prophetic  mind,  considered  that  a 
compulsory  measure  of  education  would  not 
be  unpopular  among  the  operatives  of  Man- 
chester. But  that  was  not  to  come  for  nearly 
forty  years.  J.  E.  G.  de  M. 

See  SuxD.w  Schools. 

References:  — 

Bennett    St.    Memorials    (Manchester,     1880)    with    a 

memoir  by  Rev.  H.  Taylor. 
Report  of  the  Select  Committee  on  Education.     (London, 

1839.) 

BRAIN.  —  This  term  is  used  in  ordinary 
parlance  to  cover  all  of  the  higher  parts  of  the 
nervous  system,  especially  those  encased  in  the 
skull.  In  technical  language,  the  term  is  little 
used  because  it  is  better  to  describe  the  portions 
of  the  nervous  system  to  which  reference  is 
made  with  precision,  using  the  definite  names 
of  parts. 

See  Nervous  System. 

BRATHWAITE,  RICHARD  (1588-1673).— 
Poet  antl  author  of  several  books  of  interest  in 
educational  history.  The  two  books  on  The 
English  Gentleman  (1630)  and  The  English 
Gentlewoman  (1631)  belong  to  the  type  of 
educational  literature  which  was  called  out  by 
the  demand  for  courtly  training.  In  the 
former  of  these  books  Brathwaite  defines  educa- 
tion as  "the  seasoner  or  instructresse  of  youth 
in  the  principles  of  knowledge  discourse  and 
action."  But  the  Engli.<ih  Gentleman  is  note- 
worthy for  a  remarkable  characterization,  at  its 
close,  of  a  gentleman,  "  a  man  of  himselfe  with- 
out the  addition  of  either  Taylor,  Millener, 
Seamster  or  Haberdasher."  The  whole  chapter 
is  as  remarkable  for  its  literary  style  as  for  the 
excellent  portrayal  of  the  ideal  man.  Brath- 
waite was  also  the  author  of  an  interesting 
history,  the  Schollers'  Medley,  later  changed  to 
A  Survey  of  History  or  a  Nursery  of  Gentry 
(1638),  m  which  he  gives  several  reasons  for  the 
study  of  the  subject.  He  points  out  its  value 
for  social  training,  for  enabling  one  to  "  live  in 
all  ages"  and  to  reconcile  "the  future  and  the 
present  tense." 

References :  — 

Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

Raleigh,    W.     Hoby's    Translation    of   the    "Courtier," 
Introduction.     (London,  1900.) 


BRAUNSBERG,  EAST  PRUSSIA,  THE 
CATHOLIC  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY  OF. 

—  Known astheL(/fe«w  Hosianum,  wasfounded 
in  156S,  owing  its  name  to  Stani.slaus  Ilosius, 
Bishop  of  Ermland,  who  established  a  Jesuit 
college  at  Braunsberg  in  1565.  The  institution 
died  out  early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  but 
was  reestablished  in  1818  at  the  instigation  of 
Prince  Joseph  of  Hohenzollern  by  a  cabinet 
order  of  King  Frederick  William  III  of  Prussia. 
The  faculties  of  theology  and  philosophy  alone 
are  represented,  the  institution  numbering  only 
a  dozen  instructors  and  about  40  students. 
The  library  contains  25,000  volumes,  and  the 
annual  expenditures  amount  to  about  .§15,000. 

R.  T. 

BRAY,  THOMAS  (1656-1730).  —  Founder 
of  charity  schools  and  parochial  libraries  in 
England  and  the  British  colonics;  born  in 
Shropshire  (1656)  and  educated  at  Oswestry 
School  and  Oxford;  took  orders  in  the  Church 
of  England;  in  1695  appointed  by  the  Bishop 
of  London  (Compton)  as  his  Commissary  for 
church  business  in  Maryland.  While  en- 
gaged in  seeking  for  missionaries  for  work  in 
Maryland,  he  found  it  necessary  to  equip 
selected  candidates  with  books,  and  obtained 
the  help  of  several  bishops  in  providing  libraries 
for  the  clergy  in  that  colony.  He  ne.xt  pro- 
jected a  scheme  for  establishing  similar  paro- 
chial libraries  in  every  rural  deanery  through- 
out England  and  Wales.  Bray's  first  colonial 
library  was  established  at  Annapolis  in  1697- 
1698.  He  advocated  the  establishment  of 
a  Protestant  congregation  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Faith  in  North  America,  i.e.  an 
Anglican  organization  for  missionary  work, 
with  purposes  analogous  to  the  congregation 
de  propaganda  fide  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  State  aid  not  being  forthcoming  for 
this  enterprise.  Bray  laid  a  plan  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  voluntary  society,  which  became 
the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowl- 
edge (q.v.).  The  first  sketch  of  the  objects  of 
this  Society  —  which  included  charity  schools, 
the  establishment  of  parochial  libraries  at  home 
and  abroad,  and  missions  both  to  colonists  and 
natives  —  was  submitted  bv  Brav  to  a  small 
meeting.  Mar.  8,  1698-1699.  In  1699  Bray 
sailed  for  Maryland,  but  subsequently  returned 
to  England  to  carry  out  his  larger  plans  for 
missionary  work.  In  1701  he  obtained  from 
King  William  a  charter  for  the  incorporation  of 
the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
(q.v.).  He  was  thus  the  father  of  the  two  oldest 
societies  of  the  Church  of  England.  In  1709  his 
efforts  led  Parliament  to  pass  an  Act  "for  the 
better  preservation  of  Parochial  Libraries  in 
England."  He  devoted  himself  till  his  death 
in  1730  to  the  organization  of  charity  schools  in 
England,  the  foundation  of  clerical  libraries, 
and  the  provision  of  schools  for  the  negroes  in 
North  America.  The  charity  schools  (q.v.) 
which  Bray  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  estab- 


440 


BRAZIL 


BRAZIL 


lishing  in  England  were  the  outcome  of  a  wave 
of  educational  enthusiasm  which  especially 
influenced  the  High  Church  party  in  the  Church 
of  England.  During  the  first  30  years  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  they  rapidly  increased 
in  number,  and  received  the  warm  support  of 
Joseph  Addison  {q.v.)  and  other  friends  of  reli- 
gious toleration  and  social  reform.  The  prog- 
ress of  the  movement,  however,  was  arrested, 
partly  by  the  collapse  of  the  political  in- 
fluence of  the  High  Church  partj'  after  the 
death  of  Queen  Anne,  and  partly  by  the  igno- 
rance and  incompetence  of  many  of  the  teachers 
chosen  for  service  in  the  schools.  A  large 
number,  however,  of  the  charity  schools  estab- 
lished at  this  period  have  continued  their  work 
to  the  present  day,  though  all  of  them  have  been 
reorganized  and  placed  upon  a  new  financial 
and  educational  basis,  through  the  reforms  in 
English  elementary  education  since  1848. 

M.  E.  S. 
References :  — 
Allen,   W.   O.   B.,   and   McCluke,   E.     Two  Hundred 
Ye4irs,    The    Hititi'ry   of  the   Society  fur   Promoting 
Christiitn  KimwUdijr.   1698-1898.      (London,  1898.) 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

Pascoe,  C.  F.  Two  Hundred  Years  of  the  S.  P.  G., 
A  Historical  Account  of  the  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  1691-1900. 
(London,  1901.) 
Secretan,  C  F.  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Time  of 
Robert  Nelson.     (London,  1860.) 

BRAZIL,  EDUCATION  IN.  —  Brazil,  re- 
public; population,  19,910,640  (estimated  1907). 
Capital,  Rio  de  Janeiro;  population,  811,265. 
In  1890  the  population  was  composed  as  fol- 
lows: 6,302,198  whites;  4,638,495  M6tis ; 
2,097,426  negroes;    1,295,796   Indians. 

Historical. —  The  history  of  Brazil  as  a  depend- 
ency of  the  crown  of  Portugal  covers  a  period  of 
three  centuries,  beginning  with  the  arrival  of 
Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral,  who  took  possession  of 
the  country  in  the  name  of  the  Iving  of  Portugal 
in  1500,  and  ending  with  the  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence in  1822.  During  this  colonial  period, 
the  Church  and  religious  orders  established 
schools  and  missions  of  the  same  character  as 
those  in  the  neighboring  Spanish  colonies.  A 
few  zealous  missionaries  penetrated  to  the 
interior  of  the  country,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  efforts 
of  missionaries  and  teachers  were  limited  to  the 
coast  region. 

A  memorable  event  in  the  later  hi.story  of  the 
colony  was  the  arrival  of  King  John  of  Portugal, 
who  with  the  royal  family  fled  before  the  ad- 
vancing army  of  Najjoleon  and  sought  refuge 
in  his  American  possessions.  The  presence  of 
the  Portuguese  court  gave  peculiar  prestige  to 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  the  influence  of  the  Iving 
excited  an  interest  in  intellectual  pursuits. 
Recalled  to  his  kingdom  in  1812,  he  left  his 
historical  library  as  a  souvenir  of  his  exile,  and 
this  became  the  nucleus  of  the  great  library  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro. 

When  the  Iving  returned  to  Portugal  he  left 
his  eldest  sou  Dom  Pedro  as  regent  of  Brazil, 


441 


and  the  following  year  the  independence  of  the 
country  was  proclaimed  with  Dom  Pedro  as 
constitutional  Emperor.  In  1831  he  abdicated 
in  favor  of  his  son  Pedro,  then  a  child  of  6 
years  of  age.  A  regency  was  formed,  but  the 
majority  of  the  prince  was  early  declared,  and 
in  1840  he  began  his  reign,  which  continued  till 
the  Republic  was  proclaimed.  Under  the 
leadership  of  this  remarkable  sovereign  a  law 
was  passed  (1871)  providing  for  the  gradual 
emancipation  of  the  slaves.  The  final  extinc- 
tion of  slavery  was  due  to  an  irresistible  popular 
movement;  above  200,000  slaves  were  freed  by 
private  owners;  two  states,  then  called  provinces, 
Maranhao  and  Ceara,  emancipated  their  slaves 
before  the  system  was  abolished  throughout 
the  land  by  a  unanimous  vote  of  Parliament, 
May  13,  1888,  and  the  nation  made  a  grand 
forward  movement  in  the  cause  of  humanity 
and  liberty. 

By  the  constitution  adopted  in  1824  Brazil 
was  organized  as  a  confederacy  of  twenty  states 
and  one  federal  district  in  which  the  capital, 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  is  situated.  Each  state  was 
given  control  of  elementary  and  secondary 
education,  but  the  direction  of  higher  education 
tliroughout  the  country  and  the  entire  control  of 
education  in  the  federal  district  were  reserved  to 
the  federal  government. 

In  1827  a  law  was  passed  authorizing  the 
e.stablishment  of  public  primary  schools  in  all 
the  cities  and  towns  and  most  populous  places 
in  the  country.  But  little  progress  was  made 
in  the  application  of  the  law,  even  in  the  cities. 
The  first  decisive  step  in  the  matter  was  taken 
in  1851,  when  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  gave 
full  power  to  the  government  to  reorganize  the 
system  of  elementary  education  in  the  federal 
district.  This  action  was  rendered  effective  by 
a  decree  of  Feb.  18,  1854,  and  from  this 
time  public  education  has  made  progress  in  the 
capital  and  in  the  coast  states,  and  has  been 
gradually  extended  in  the  states  of  the  interior, 
following  the  lines  of  railroads,  of  which  the  first 
was  opened  to  traffic  in  the  year  the  decree  was 
issued. 

Present  System.  —  The  transition  from  a 
monarchy  to  a  republic  was  followed  by  the 
adoption  of  a  new  constitution  (1890)  which 
reaffirmed  the  existing  provisions  regard- 
ing education  and  declared  further  that  pri- 
mary education  should  be  free  and  secular. 
The  central  administration  of  education  was 
organized  under  a  cabinet  oflScer,  at  present 
the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  who  bears  also 
the  title  of  Minister  of  Public  Instruction. 
During  this  revolutionary  and  organizing  period 
there  was  a  strong  centralizing  tcndenc3'  or 
disposition  to  increase  federal  control,  but  the 
states  jealously  guarded  their  constitutional 
rights.  While,  however,  each  state  acts  inde- 
pendently in  respect  to  primary  education, 
there  is  theoretically,  at  least,  an  approach  to  a 
common  school  system  throughout  the  republic. 
State  control  is  exercised  by  a  superintendent 


BRAZIL 


BRAZIL 


or  director,  assisted  by  general  inspectors;  local 
school  committees  are  formed  for  cities  and 
districts;  local  inspectors  are  generally  em- 
ployed; courses  of  study  and  the  qualifications 
of  teachers  and  the  mode  of  their  appointment 
are  determined  by  official  regulations;  and  in  all 
the  states  primary  schools  are  supported  by 
state  and  municipal  appropriations.  Several 
of  the  states  have  made  education  compulsory, 
and  in  St.  Paul  a  law  was  passed  in  1895, 
fixing  penalties  for  failure  to  comply  with  this 
requirement.  On  account,  however,  of  the 
widely  scattered  population,  the  inditference 
of  parents,  and  the  consequent  inability  to 
enforce  the  compulsory  provision,  it  has  been 
generally  disregarded.  At  present  efforts  are 
being  made  to  give  effect  to  the  principle  in  the 
federal  district  and  in  the  states  of  St.  Paul 
and  Minas. 

The  primary  school  where  fully  organized 
comprises  two  divisions,  the  elementary  pri- 
mary for  pupils  7  to  13  years  of  age,  and  the 
higher  primary  for  pupils  13  to  15.  The  course 
of  study  for  the  elementary  primaries  includes 
the  Portuguese  language;  the  metric  system, 
elements  of  geography  and  history,  especially 
of  Brazil;  introductory  lessons  in  physical 
science  and  natural  history;  moral  and  civic 
instruction;  drawing,  elements  of  music;  gym- 
nastics and  militarj'  exercises;  maimal  training 
for  boys,  and  needlework  for  girls;  practical 
ideas  of  surveying.  The  course  for  the  higher 
primaries  adds  to  the  above  studies  elements  of 
French;  higher  arithmetic;  elementary  algebra; 
geometry  and  trigonometry;  elements  of  physi- 
cal science  and  natural  history  as  applied  to 
industries,  agriculture,  hygiene,  elements  of 
national  law  and  political  economy;  drawing, 
ornamental,   mechanical,   and  topographical. 

This  wide  range  of  studies  must  be  regarded 
rather  as  the  expression  of  a  liberal  purpose  in 
respect  to  popular  education  than  of  actual 
achievements  in  the  brief  period  of  primary 
instruction.  The  higher  primary  schools,  and 
the  trade  and  commercial  schools,  which  are 
usually  correlated  with  the  primary  schools, 
afford  opportunity  for  adapting  the  programs 
to  the  age  and  mental  capacity  of  pupils. 

It  was  undoubtedly  the  intention  to  make 
the  school  system  of  the  federal  district  a  model 
for  the  several  states,  and  to  a  certain  degree 
this  purpose  has  been  realized.  The  capital 
city  has  many  elementary  primary  schools, 
well  graded  and  admirably  equipped.  In  a 
few  schools,  which  are  maintained  as  models, 
boys  and  girls  are  taught  together,  but,  as  a  rule  . 
the  schools  are  for  boys  exclusively  or  for  girls 
exclusively.  The  latter  number  140  as  against 
52  schools  for  boys,  a  difference  probably 
arising  from  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  boys 
begin  their  education  in  the  preparatory  clas.scs 
of  secondary  schools.  The  race  prejudice 
apparently  does  not  exist,  as  both  white  and 
colored  children  are  found  in  the  same  classes. 
The  chief  difficulty  in  the  conduct  of  the  schools 


even  in  the  capital  arises  from  the  vcrj'  irregu- 
lar attendance  which  it  seems  impossible  to 
prevent,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  15  school 
inspectors  are  engaged  in  the  city  service. 

A  somewhat  marked  feature  of  this  municipal 
system  is  the  absence  of  higher  primary  schools 
which  are  flourishing  in  several  other  cities  and 
especially  so  at  St.  Paul.  This  is  an  impor- 
tant matter  because  the  higher  primary  schools 
afford  pupils  an  adequate  preparation  for  the 
primary  normal  schools  to  which  candidates 
are  admitted  at  15  years  of  age.  While  want- 
ing in  this  important  intermediate  grade,  Rio 
is  well  supplied  with  secondary  schools,  public 
and  private,  and  there  is  also  a  highly  developed 
professional  or  trade  school  maintained  by  the 
city.  The  latter  is  a  boarding  school  with 
separate  departments  for  boys  and  girls,  and 
is  completely  gratuitous.  The  boys  are  ad- 
mitted at  12  years  of  age,  after  passing  through 
the  primary  school,  and  are  taught  cabinet 
making,  carpentry,  and  printing.  Girls  are 
admitted  at  7  j'ears  of  age,  and  receive  primary 
instruction  before  entering  upon  the  indu.strial 
training,  which  includes  dressmaking,  embroid- 
ery, and  cooking.  From  the  fact  that  prefer- 
ence is  given  to  orphans  in  selecting  from 
applicants  for  vacancies  in  the  girls'  depart- 
ment, the  latter  has  become  a  kind  of  orphan 
asylum. 

Training  of  Teachers.  —  Normal  schools  are 
maintained  in  all  the  states  of  Brazil  and,  as  a 
rule,  are  situated  in  the  chief  cities  and  pro- 
vided with  truly  palatial  buildings.  The 
theory  of  professional  training  is  highly  devel- 
oped, and  the  normal  schools  are  progressive 
and  thorough.  The  course  of  instruction  and 
training  covers  4  years,  including  work  in 
the  practice  school.  The  normal  school  at 
St.  Paul  comprises  a  maternal  school,  a 
primary  school  for  both  sexes,  complementary 
or  higher  primary  schools,  and  two  normal 
sections,  one  for  men,  the  other  for  women. 
The  normal  school  at  Rio  was  limited  to  women 
until  1900,  when  the  examination  was  thrown 
open  to  young  men  also. 

The  pedagogium  is  a  national  institution 
created  primarily  to  carry  out  the  reforms  in 
education  initiated  by  Benjamin  Constant, 
but  it  has  become  a  general  center  of  influence 
comprehending  in  its  scope  all  doctrines  and 
grades  of  education.  The  institution  pub- 
lishes a  magazine  entitled  Reiii^ta  Pedagogica, 
and  other  works  relating  to  educational  matters. 
It  holds  evening  ses.sions  for  disseminating 
information  respecting  agricultural  science, 
pedagogy,  natural  history,  and  moral  and  civic 
education,  as  well  as  conventions  of  literary 
men  and  well-known  professors.  It  is  located 
in  the  building  of  the  Academia  Braziliera  do 
Letras,  founded  to  foster  the  national  language 
and  literature. 

Auxiliary  Agencies.  —  Besides  the  public 
schools  maintained  by  the  states,  there  are 
many  schools  established  by  the  religious  orders, 


442 


BRAZIL 


BRAZIL 


which  have  exercised  a  marked  influence  upon 
public  education.  In  St.  Paul  the  official 
regulations  for  the  conduct  of  the  schools  and 
the  programs  of  instruction  bear  the  impress 
of  the  Paulist  fathers,  who  have  been  active  in 
the  general  cause  of  education.  In  the  same 
state  there  are  many  foreign  schools,  espe- 
cially Italian,  some  of  which  are  independent 
and  others  are  supported  by  Italian  societies. 
Their  main  object  is  to  preserve  and  foster 
devotion  to  Italy,  but  except  for  a  slight  sur- 
veillance by  the  Brazilian  authorities,  they  are 
not  interfered  with. 

Secondary  Education.  —  Secondary  schools 
maintained  by  public  funds  and  controlled  by 
public  authorities  are  found  in  the  chief  cities 
of  Brazil,  but  priyate  secondary  schools,  secular 
and  clerical,  are  preferred  by  the  majority 
of  the  people  who  are  able  to  give  their  children 
liberal  education.  This  is  due  in  part  to  reli- 
gious sentiments  but  more  particularly  to  the 
fact  that  the  private  colleges  are  boarding 
schools,  generally  situated  in  the  country, 
and  therefore  they  attract  the  patronage  of 
the  great  rural  proprietors. 

The  national  gymnasium  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
which  is  under  the  direction  of  the  federal  gov- 
ernment, and  the  state  college  of  St.  Paul 
are  the  highest  types  of  public  secondary  schools 
in  Brazil.  They  are  well  organized,  and  offer 
extensive  courses  of  study.  The  program 
of  the  national  gymnasium,  which  may  be 
taken  as  a  model,  is  arranged  for  7  years,  and 
includes  two  modern  languages,  i.e.  French  and 
either  German  or  English,  which  are  pursued 
throughout  the  course;  6  years'  study  of 
Latin,  and  3  of  Greek.  The  Portuguese 
language  and  Hterature  are  studied  from  the 
first  to  the  seventh  year.  The  program  is 
equally  extensive  on  the  side  of  mathematics 
and  the  sciences.  Pupils  may  enter  the  insti- 
tution between  the  ages  of  11  and  14,  and  those 
who  finish  the  course  and  successfully  pass  the 
required  examinations  receive  the  diploma  of 
graduation  which  admits  them  to  the  higher 
institutions.  This  is  a  privilege  of  all  the  pub- 
lic secondary  institutions  and  of  the  private 
colleges  that  submit  to  government  inspection. 
The  public  commercial  school  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
corresponds  to  the  modern  secondary  or  com- 
mercial high  schools  of  the  United  States. 

The  General  Situation. —  In  general  it  may 
be  said  that  the  basis  of  a  comprehensive  system 
of  education  has  been  laid  in  every  state  of  the 
republic.  At  the  same  time,  little  progress 
has  been  made  outside  of  the  chief  cities  and 
the  surrounding  ilistricts.  This  is  indicated 
from  the  fact  that  only  about  3  per  cent  of 
the  total  pojiulation  of  Brazil  attend  school. 
The  causes  of  this  backward  condition  are  to 
be  found  in  the  vast  extent  of  the  country,  the 
tropical  climate  of  the  larger  portion,  and  the 
mixed  character  of  the  population.  The 
Portuguese  present  the  extremes  of  high  culture 
and  apathetic  ignorance,  and  the  Indians  and 


negroes  show  the  same  traits  in  Brazil  as  in 
the  United  States.  The  latter  are  represented 
in  the  list  of  graduates  from  secondary  schools 
by  some  really  brilliant  students  ;  but,  in  gen- 
eral, they  help  to  swell  the  mass  of  the  illiterate. 
Thus  far  the  provision  for  popular  education 
has  been  the  work  of  leaders  unsupported  by 
public  sentiment  or  customs;  at  the  present 
time  there  are  indications  that  the  people 
themselves  are  awakening  to  the  importance 
of  the  subject.  One  sign  of  this  interest  is 
found  in  the  recent  endeavor  on  the  part  of 
the  bureau  of  general  statistics  to  secure  com- 
plete returns  of  primary  and  secondary  educa- 
tion throughout  the  republic. 

From  the  report  of  this  investigation  it 
appears  that  in  1908  there  were:  1815  public 
municipal  schools,  7089  public  schools  under 
state  control  and  mostly  in  the  smaller  towns 
and  villages,  and  2243  private  schools,  most  of 
which  were  in  the  larger  towns  and  cities. 
The  state  schools  had  a  total  enrollment  of 
348,327  and  an  average  attendance  of  240,690; 
the  public  municipal  schools  had  an  enroll- 
ment of  106,754  and  an  average  attendance  of 
69,432.  Private  primary  schools  had  a  total 
enrollment  of  110,841  and  an  average  attend- 
ance of  81,066.  Of  the  327  institutions  of 
secondary  education  29  were  public  and  298 
private  as  to  control ;  the  former  had  an  enroll- 
ment of  4031  and  the  latter  26,258. 

Commenting  on  these  returns,  the  report 
says : — 

"In  the  case  of  the  Federal  District,  where  the  popu- 
lation is  almost  entirely  urban,  there  is  a  population  of 
858,000  and  a  school  enrollment  of  61,933  [7.2  per  cent], 
while  the  State  of  Alagoas,  with  a  population  almost 
as  great  and  ^\nth  the  exception  of  a  few  coast  towns 
altogether  rural,  has  a  school  enrollment  of  14,092 
[1.6  per  cent].  The  State  of  Pernambuco,  with  a  popu- 
lation almost  entirely  rural,  with  the  exception  of  the 
capital,  Recife,  has  a  school  enrollment  of  22,852,  the 
total  population  being  1,310,000." 

Higher  Education.  —  There  is  no  university 
in  Brazil,  and  higher  education  is  represented 
by  specialized  faculties  and  technical  schools, 
following  the  sj-stem  advocated  by  the  French 
revolutionary  leaders  and  long  perpetuated  in 
France  by  the  Napoleonic  System. 

The  principal  faculty  or  school  of  medicine 
and  jjharmacy  is  located  at  the  capital,  and  has 
the  additional  advantage  of  connection  with 
the  magnificent  hospital  of  the  Misericordia, 
which  offers  unsurpassed  advantages  for  clin- 
ical study  and  practice.  The  two  remaining 
schools  of  medicine  and  pharmacy  are  situated, 
respectively,  at  Bahia  and  Porto  Alegre.  The 
law  faculties  are  at  St.  Paul  and  Pernam- 
buco. The  diplomas  conferred  by  these  sev- 
eral faculties  entitle  the  recipients  to  practice 
the  professions  to  which  they  pertain  in  any 
part  of  Brazil. 

The  Polytechnic  Institute  at  Rio  de  Janeiro 
offers  a  general  course,  which  all  students 
must  attend,  and  five  special  courses  ;  students 
who  pursue  these  and  pass  successful  e.xamina- 


443 


BREATHING 


BREATHING  EXERCISES 


tions  may  receive  a  degree  of  bachelor  in  physi- 
cal or  mathematical  science,  or  certificates  as 
civil,  mining,  industrial,  mechanical,  or  agri- 
cultural engineers.  The  school  of  mines,  situ- 
ated at  Ouro  Preto  in  the  state  of  Minas 
Geraes,  educates  engineers  for  mining  and 
metallurgical  works  and  for  the  various 
branches  of  civil  engineering.  The  plan  of 
studies  comprises  a  fundamental  course  and  a 
special  course.  For  admission  to  the  latter, 
the  candidates  must  present  a  certificate  of 
efficiency  in  the  studies  of  the  fundamental 
course  of  this  school  or  proof  of  similar  studies 
in  the  polytechnic,  military,  or  naval  schools, 
or  in  foreign  schools  whose  grade  is  similar. 
From  the  most  distinguished  graduates  in  the 
special  course  the  government  is  empowered 
to  send  one  or  two,  at  the  cost  of  the  nation, 
to  perfect  their  studios  in  the  United  States  or 
Europe.  The  government  also  provides  for 
the  training  of  military  and  naval  officers 
by  a  graded  series  of  institutions  including 
preparatory  and  secondary  schools,  and  mili- 
tary and  naval  colleges.  The  national  academy 
of  fine  arts  and  the  national  institute  of  music 
at  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  the  school  of  fine  arts  at 
Bahia  are  liberally  supported  from  the  public 
treasury.  The  distinction  which  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro enjoys  as  a  center  of  scientific  activity 
is  due,  primarily,  to  the  influence  of  Dom 
Pedro  II.  The  Astronomical  Observatory  at 
the  capital  and  the  Historical,  Geographical, 
and  Ethnological  Institute  bear  witness  to  the 
breadth  of  the  Emperor's  scientific  interests, 
and  have  kept  Brazil  at  the  front  in  the  scien- 
tific movement  of  the  age.  In  like  manner  the 
national  institute  for  the  education  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb  and  the  national  institute  for  the 
blind  established  at  Rio  testified  to  the  Em- 
peror's practical  solicitude  for  the  welfare  of 
his  subjects,  and  early  brought  Brazil  into  the 
humanitarian  movement  that  is  a  distinguish- 
ing mark  of  modern  states.  A.  T.  S. 

References  :  — 
Ados  e  parcccs  do  Congresso  do  instruc(do,  188.3. 
Almeida,  Pere»de.     U I nstruclion  Puhlique  au  Brisil, 

Histoirc,  Legislation.      (Rio  de  Janeiro,  1889.) 
Anntml  Reports  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction. 
Associagao    do    Quarto    Ccntenario    do    Dcscohrimanto 

do  Br.isil.     Livio  do  Ccntenario  (1500-1900).     (Rio 

de  Janeiro,  1900.) 
Brazilian     Year    Book,     compiled    and    ed.    by    J.     P. 

AVilenian.      (Rio  de  Janeiro,  First  Issue,  1908.) 
Martinez,    Albert    B.     Baedeker    de    la    Repuhlique 

Argentine.     Includes  accounts  of  Brazil,  Uruguay, 

Chile,  and  Bolivia. 
Regimento    Interno    das    Esciielas    publican    primarias. 

(Rio  do  Janeiro.  1902.) 
RoDRiQUEZ,    JosE     Ign.\cio.     American    Constitutions. 

Brazil,    Vol.  I.      Complete  for  all  Soiith  American 

Republics  and  United  .States,  .Spanish  and  English 

version  in  parallel  columns. 
Santa-Ann.\    Nery,    Baron    de.      The    Land    of    the 

Amazons.     Tr.    by   George    Humphreys,    F.R.G.S. 

(London,  1901.) 
Verissi.mo  de  Mattos.  Jose.     A  educa^ao  nacional.    2d 

ed.     (Rio  de  Janeiro,  1906.)     206  pp.     12°. 

BREATHING.  —  Changes   in   the  rate   and 
intensity  of  respiration  are  important  as  emo- 


tional expressions  {q.v.).  The  sj'stem  of  mus- 
cles controlling  the  processes  of  respiration  are 
variously  affected  in  various  individuals  by 
different  degrees  of  emotion.  Furthermore, 
there  are  great  individual  differences  in  the 
habits  of  respiration.  Some  persons  respire 
through  the  use  of  their  intercostal  muscles, 
while  others  employ  chiefly  the  muscles  of  the 
diaphragm.  Such  activities  as  laughter  and 
articulation  are  intimately  related  to  the  mus- 
cular processes  involved  in  respiration. 
Breathing  is  an  involuntary  form  of  activity, 
and  consequently  not  ordinarily  considered  as 
an  appropriate  subject  for  educational  dis- 
cussion. As  an  important  form  of  emotional 
expression  it  deserves  more  attention  than  it 
has  had,  and  as  a  form  of  activity  which  is 
readily  modified  by  individual  training  it 
should  be  treated  as  worthy  of  definite  cultiva- 
tion and  control. 

References  :  — 
Behnke,  E.,  and  Browne,  L.     The  Child's  Voice;  its 

Treatment  in  Regard  to  After  Development.      (New 

York.) 
Bresgen,   M.      Ueher  die  Bedeutung  hehinderfer  Nasen- 

atmung      vorzuglich   bei   Schulkindcrn.      (Hamburg, 

1890.) 
Curtis,    E.    C.     Children's    Voices,    How   Harmed  and 

How  Helped.      (New  York,  1895.) 
Mackenzie,  Sir  Morell.     Hygiene  of  the  Vocal  Organs. 

(New  York,  1899.) 
TnBBs,    F.   H.     Science  and  Art  of  Breathing.     (New 

York.) 

BREATHING  EXERCISES.  —  Speci.il  ex- 
ercises designed  to  increase  lung  cajiacity  have 
occupied  a  large  place  in  the  various  systems 
of  light  gymnastics.  Among  the  many  forms 
of  breathing  exercises  advocated,  the  most 
commonly  used  are  (a)  simple  breathing  with 
emphasis  upon  costal  or  diaphragmatic  move- 
ments; (6)  deep  inspiration  followed  by  hold- 
ing the  breath  as  long  as  possible;  (c)  deep 
breathing  accompanied  by  arm  movements, 
mainly  elevations;  (rf)  deep  breathing  prac- 
ticed with  small  tube  held  lietween  the  lips 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  intrapulmonic  pres- 
sure and  thereby  dilating  all  the  air  vesicles; 
(e)  forced  inspiration  followed  by  forced  expira- 
tion into  spirometer. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  breathing  exer- 
cises are  increased  lung  capacity,  chest  develop- 
ment, and  fortification  against  consumption 
and  other  diseases  of  the  lungs.  A  better 
understanding  of  the  physiology  of  exercise 
has  brought  about  a  change  of  methods  in 
teaching  breathing  exercises.  The  labored 
breathing  resulting  from  vigorous  or  even 
moderate  exercise  in  untrained  persons  gave 
the  impression  that  this  condition  was  caused 
by  insuflRcient  lung  capacity,  but  the  difliculty 
lies  chiefly  in  the  heart,  which  fails  in  such  cases 
to  adapt  itself  quickly  to  the  need  for  rapid 
circulation  of  blood  through  the  lungs.  Res- 
piratory efficiency  is  best  secured  by  general 
vigorous  exercise  which  increases  the  functional 
activitj'  of  the  heart  and  lungs. 


444 


BREMEN 


BRESLAU 


Under  these  conditions  the  amplitude  and 
rapidity  of  respiration  are  augmented  auto- 
matically in  response  to  a  physiological  need 
for  increased  absorption  of  oxygen  and  elimi- 
nation of  carbon  dioxide.  Very  little  benefit 
results  from  the  practice  of  voluntary  deep 
breathing  exercises  unless  accompanied  by 
fairly  vigorous  exercise,  because  the  blood  will 
not  absorb  more  oxygen  from  the  air  in  the 
lungs  unless  more  oxygen  is  needed  in  the 
muscles  as  a  result  of  increased  activity.  The 
greatest  value  in  breathing  exercises  is  in  aid- 
ing the  gradual  readjustment  of  the  respiration 
and  circulation  after  vigorous  exercise  which 
ceases  abruptly.  G.  L.  M. 

References:  — 
Bishop,  E.  M.     Americanized  Physical  Cullure.    (Mead- 

villc,  Pa.,  1S92.) 
Call.  \.  P.     Power  through  Repose.     (Boston,  1892.) 

Motion  for  Health  and  Grace. 

BREMEN,  FREE  TOWN  OF,  EDUCA- 
TION IN.  —  See  Ger.m.\n  Empire,  Educa- 
tion IN. 

BRENAU  COLLEGE  — CONSERVATORY, 
GAINSVILLE,  GA.  —  Founded  in  187S  as 
the  Georgia  Baptist  Seminary  for  Young 
Ladies.  In  1886  it  became  a  private  pro- 
prietary school  for  girls.  Primary,  prepara- 
tory, collegiate,  and  fine  arts  departments  are 
maintained.  Students  are  admitted  by  cer- 
tificate of  an  approved  school  or  by  examina- 
tion with  requirements  equivalent  to  about 
8  points  of  high  school  work.  Eight 
degrees  are  conferred  on  the  completion  of 
the  appropriate  courses.  The  college  has  a 
faculty  of  14  instructors. 

BRENZ,  JOHANN  (1499-1570).  —  A  prom- 
inent educator  of  the  German  Reformation 
period.  He  was  born  in  Weil  in  Suabia  and 
educated  for  the  priesthood,  but  as  early  as 
1.522  joined  the  party  of  Luther.  His  work 
for  the  erection  and  reorganization  of  schools, 
both  lower  and  higher,  in  Wiirtemberg  was 
of  great  value.  He  wrote  a  large  catechism 
(Catechismus  pin  cl  iitiU  crpUrationc  illuKtratus, 
1551),  and  helped  to  draw  up  the  Wiirtemberg 
School  Regulation  of  1559,  one  of  the  most 
important  and  most  widely  imitated  German 
school  regulations  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
It  provided  for  a  complete  school  system  under 
state  control.  (Consult  bibliography  in  Mcrtz, 
Das  Schulwesen  der  deutsclten  Reformation, 
p.  82.) 

BREREWOOD,  EDWARD  (d.  1613).— 
Matiiematician  and  :uiti(iuary,  was  the  son 
of  a  wet  glover  at  Chester,  and  was  educated 
in  grammar  learning  in  that  city.  He  was  of 
Brasenose  College,  Ox'ford,  and  took  his  M.A. 
degree  in  1590.  In  1596  Brerewood  was 
appointed  First  Professor  of  Astronomy  in 
Gresham  College,  London.   Wood  {Allien.  Oxon. 


ed.  1815,  Vol.  II,  col.  139)  says:  "  He  was  ever 
mo.st  ready  in  private,  either  by  conference  or 
writing,  to  instruct  others,  repairing  unto  them, 
if  they  were  desirous  of  his  instruction  in  any 
doubtful  points  of  learning,  within  the  ample 
circuit  of  his  deep  apprehension." 

Brerewood  wrote  a  number  of  books,  which 
relatively  to  the  times  may  count  as  considerable 
research.  Amongst  these  were  treatises  on  the 
Sabbath  (1630)  and  a  Declaration  of  the  Patri- 
archal Government  of  the  Ancient  Church  (Oxford, 
1641).  He  wrote  Latin  commentaries  on  the 
first  four  books  of  Aristotle's  Ethics  (Oxford, 
1640).  His  more  educational  works  were  the 
following :  — 

1.  De  Ponderihus  et  pretiis  veterum  num- 
morum,  eorumque  cum  recentioribus  coUatione. 
(London,  1614.)  This  had  the  honor  of  being 
incorporated  in  the  great  Polygot  Bible  of 
Brian  Walton,  1657,  and  also  in  the  Critici 
Sacri,  1660,  edited  by  John  Pearson,  Anthony 
Scattergood,  and  Francis  Gouldman. 

2.  Enquiries  touching  the  Diversities  of  Lan- 
guages and  Religions  through  the  chief  parts  of 
the  World.     (London,  1614.) 

3.  Elementa  Logicae  in  gratiam  studiosa£ 
iuventutis  in  academia  Oxoniana.  (London, 
1614.) 

4.  Tractatus  duo:  quorum  primus  est  de 
meteoris,  secundus  de  vento.     (Oxford,  1631.) 

F.  W. 

BRESLAU,  SILESIA,  THE  ROYAL  UNI- 
VERSITY OF.—  One  of  the  few  German  univer- 
sities that  does  not  include  in  its  title  the  name 
of  a  ruler;  it  owes  its  present  status  to  a  consoli- 
dation effected  in  1811  under  King  Frederick 
William  III  of  Prussia  of  the  Universityof  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Odor,  established  in  1506,  and  the 
Leopoldinische  Universitdt  in  Breslau,  founded  in 
1702  by  a  "golden"  bull  of  the  Emperor  Leopold 
I.  The  latter  institution  owed  its  origin  to  a 
Latin  school  organized  in  the  city  of  Breslau  in 
1638  in  connection  with  a  Jesuit  mission,  the 
school  being  in  the  course  of  time  transformed 
into  a  gj'mnasium.  Before  its  consolidation  with 
the  University  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  and  its 
consequent  reorganization,  the  L'niversity  of 
Breslau  performed  the  functions  of  a  Catholic 
theological  seminary,  but  later  became  the 
first  university  in  Prussia  to  include  faculties 
of  both  Catholic  and  Protestant  theology.  In 
addition  it  comprises  the  remaining  traditional 
faculties  of  law,  medicine,  and  philosophy,  de- 
riving much  of  its  importance  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  located  in  the  intellectual  center  of 
eastern  Germany.  Breslau  is  especially  well 
supplied  with  clinics,  and  also  devotes  consider- 
able attention  to  instruction  in  agriculture.  A 
technological  school  is  being  organized  in  the 
city.  The  university  library  includes  350,000 
volumes  and  3700  manuscripts,  while  the  city 
library  contains  160,000  volumes  and  4300 
manuscripts.  The  university  is  also  closely 
associated  with  the  Roval  Archives,  the  official 


445 


BRETHREN  OF  THE  COIMMON  LIFE     BRETHREN  OF  THE  COMMON  LIFE 


depository  for  the  records  of  Silesia,  coiitaiuiiiK 
at  present  about  85,001)  documents.  The  an- 
nual budget  approximates  $475,000.  Among 
former  professors  of  eminence  may  be  mentioned 
Stobbe  in  law,  Purkinje,  Cohnheini,  and  Foerster 
in  mcilicine,  Stenzel  and  Neumann  in  history, 
Westphal  in  classical  philology,  von  der 
Hagen,  Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben,  Gustav 
Freytag  (q.i'.),  Heinrich  Rlickert  in  Germanic 
])hilology,  Kcilbing  in  English  philology,  Bun- 
sen  in  chemistry,  Kirchhoff  (q.v.)  in  phj'sics, 
Goppert  in  botany,  C'ohn  in  bacteriology. 
From  the  standpoint  of  student  attendance 
it  is  the  fifth  largest  university  in  Germany, 
being  exceeded  only  by  Berlin,  Munich,  Leip- 
zig, and  Bonn.  During  the  winter  semester 
of  1909-1910  there  were  enrolled  2359  students, 
distributed  as  follows:  theology  349  (of  these 
there  were  about  three  times  as  many  in  Catho- 
lic as  in  Protestant  theology),  law  560,  medicine 
414,  philosophy  1036.  In  addition  there  were 
400  auditors  enrolled.  R.  T. 

BRETHREN   OF    THE   COMMON   LIFE. 

—  An  organization  which  originated  in  Hol- 
land in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  had  the 
greatest  influence  in  religious  and  educa- 
tional reform.  The  order  arose  as  a  reaction 
against  the  decline  and  moral  laxness  of  the 
clergy  and  the  begging  orders.  Its  orig- 
inal purpose  was  to  unite  together  men  of  piety 
in  one  house  in  order  to  reduce  the  expenses 
of  living  by  contributing  to  a  common  fund. 
The  members  were  not  bound  by  vows  or  rule. 
They  were  clerics  extra  religioncm  (not  bound 
by  religious  vows).  Self-restraint,  humility, 
and  love  were  demanded  from  all,  but  any 
member  could  leave  when  he  pleased.  The 
man  who  inspired  the  establishment  of  the 
'  order  was  Gerhard  Groote.  Born  at  Deventer 
of  wealthy  family  in  1340,  he  studied  at  Paris, 
and  on  returning  to  his  home  was  intrusted 
with  a  mission  to  the  Pope  at  Avignon.  As  a 
reward  he  was  presented  with  two  rich  pre- 
bends at  Cologne,  which  he  used  to  live  the 
ordinary  irresponsible  life  of  the  clergy  of  the 
time,  and  became  known  more  for  his  foppish- 
ness than  anything  else.  In  1374  he  was  sud- 
denly converted,  and  sought  the  advice  of  the 
mystic  Ruysbroek.  As  a  result  he  renounced 
his  worldly  possessions,  surrendered  his  house  to 
the  use  of  poor  women  who  wished  to  conse- 
crate themselves  to  the  service  of  God,  and,  re- 
serving but  one  room  for  himself,  he  retired  to 
a  life  of  inward  spiritual  meditation.  In  1380 
he  came  out  from  his  retirement  and  began  to 
preach  throughout  Holland  in  the  vernacular, 
attacked  the  abuses  of  the  clergj',  and  soon 
gained  a  large  spiritual  following.  His  labors, 
carried  on  amid  great  opposition,  were  cut 
short  by  his  death  in  1384.  During  his  retire- 
ment Groote  had  read  assiduously.  It  was  in 
order  to  satisfy  his  need  of  material  that  he 
exchanged  Mss.  and  hired  poor  scholars  who 
flocked  to  the  school  at  Deventer  to  copy  them, 


and  was  also  assisted  by  men  "of  good  will," 
lay  and  ecclesiastic.  Among  these  was  Florcn- 
tius  Radewynius,  himself  a  graduate  of  the 
University  of  Prague,  and  attached  to  the 
Church  of  St.  Lebuinus  at  Deventer.  In  1371 
Florentius  made  the  suggestion  that  the  copyists 
should  place  their  earnings  in  a  common  fund 
and  live  together.  With  some  reluctance,  since 
he  feared  the  opposition  of  the  mendicant 
orders,  Groote  agreed,  and  a  trial  was  made. 
Florentius  gave  his  house  for  this  purpose,  and 
soon  another  was  added.  Here  the  copyists 
lived  together  and  followed  a  regular  routine, 
dividing  their  time  between  writing  and  praying 
and  discussing  questions  of  religious  moment. 
To  these  discussions  (collationes)  many  citizens 
resorted,  until  it  became  necessary  to  hold  them 
in  the  open.  The  greatest  ability  was  shown 
in  the  copying  of  Mss.,  not  only  of  sacred  but 
of  literary  and  classical  content,  with  the  re- 
sult that  the  price  of  Mss.  went  down  at  that 
period.  Gregory  XI  approved  of  the  order, 
and  soon  many  houses  were  established  in  the 
Netherlands  and  Germany. 

To  this  account,  as  so  far  given,  all  authorities 
agree.  Some  doubt  was,  however,  cast  on  the 
educational  work  and  influence  of  the  Brethren. 
It  was  claimed  for  a  time  that  the  order  under- 
took educational  activity  from  its  origin.  But 
K.  Hirsch  in  the  Realenzyklopadie  fur  Protes- 
ianUsche  Theologie  und  Kirche  (2d  ed.)  not 
only  attacked  this  view,  but  denied  that  the 
Brethren  exercised  any  influence  at  all  on 
education.  His  argument,  however,  rests  on 
but  one  authority,  who  has  been  proved  to  be 
incorrect.  Hirsch  points  out  that  the  mis- 
take arose  through  the  confusion  of  Florentius 
Rodoginus,  who  had  charge  of  the  school  at 
Deventer,  with  Florentius  Radewynius,  the 
friend  of  Groote.  It  is  highly  probable,  how- 
ever, that  the  two  were  one  and  the  same  man. 
In  any  case  there  is  the  authority  of  Erasmus, 
Melanchthon,  Badius,  Buschius,  and  many 
others,  as  well  as  the  title  Fratres  Scholnres,  by 
which  the  Brethren  were  also  known,  to  prove 
that  they  were  associated  with  the  education 
of  northern  Europe;  but  this  connection  was  a 
late  development. 

At  the  time  of  the  foundation  of  the  order 
the  schools  in  the  Netherlands  and  Germany 
were  of  three  types,  monastic  or  cathedral, 
parish,  and  municipal  schools.  Poor  scholars 
came  from  a  distance,  and  had  to  endure  the 
greatest  hardships  to  maintain  themselves 
by  begging  and  menial  work.  Among  them 
were  many  who  could  make  no  progress  in  the 
scholastic  disciplines  and  abstruse  disputations 
of  the  time  through  inabilitj'  to  read  or  write. 
Furthermore,  the  school  made  no  attempt  to 
exercise  anj'  moral  control  over  their  pupils, 
with  the  result  that  they  ran  riot.  It  was  in 
the  latter  direction  that  the  Brethren  first 
turned  their  attention.  In  order  to  enable  the 
poor  scholars  to  maintain  themselves,  they  pro- 
vided them  with  the  work  of  copying   Mss., 


446 


BRETHREN  OF  THE  COMMON  LIFE 


BRIDGES 


and  hostels  (q.v.)  were  opened  for  them;  they 
looked  carefully  after  the  moral  welfare  of  their 
charges.  To  the  backward  they  gave  tuition  to 
enable  them  to  benefit  by  the  school  work. 
Many  of  these  tutors  became  so  able  that  they 
were  invited  to  teach  in  the  schools,  with  the 
result  that  their  influence  among  the  pupils  was 
extended.  Thus,  while  they  had  no  schools  of 
their  own,  the  Brethren  took  a  deep  interest  in 
the  schools  at  Deventer,  Zwolle,  Utrecht, 
Groningen,  Gouda.  At  Deventer,  for  example, 
Sinthius,  the  teacher  of  Erasmus,  was  a  member 
of  the  order;  at  Zwolle,  Cele,  the  rector,  while 
not  a  member,  stood  in  intimate  relations  with 
the  Brethren.  At  the  latter  place  the  Brethren 
had  two  houses,  one  for  older  boys  who  taught 
in  the  lower  school,  and  one  for  poor  boys  whose 
studies  and  moral  training  they  supervised. 
Soon  the  success  of  the  Brethren  attracted 
attention,  and  they  were  invited  to  take  full 
charge  of  schools  or  to  open  new  institutions. 
Thus  the  Brethren  were  summoned  from  Delft 
to  Utrecht,  from  Herzogenbusch  to  Nijmegen, 
while  the  school  at  Herzogenbusch  was  taught 
by  Brethren  called  from  Zwolle;  in  1460  they 
opened  a  schoo  at  Brussels.  Standonkh, 
at  one  time  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
opened  4  schools  under  the  charge  of  the 
order  (Louvain,  Mechlin,  Cambray,  and  Valen- 
ciennes). Thus  by  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century  the  whole  of  the  educational  system 
of  northwestern  Europe  was  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Brethren.  Buschius  enumerated 
50  schools  in  1470. 

The  educational  influence  of  the  Brethren 
cannot  be  too  highly  valued.  In  their  work 
were  blended  together  the  strivings  of  northern 
Europe  for  religious  reform  and  the  literary 
renaissance  of  the  South.  From  them  came 
the  ideal  of  the  "cultured  Christian  gentlem  n," 
who  combines  a  love  for  literature  with  mystic 
devotion  (pietas  literala).  In  place  of  the  old 
scholastic  domination  they  introduced  a  more 
liberal  curriculum;  in  place  of  the  previous  un- 
organized and  uncontrolled  assembly  of  pupils 
under  constantly  changing  teachers,  they  estab- 
lished the  school  as  it  is  now  known.  The  best 
account  of  a  school  under  the  management  of 
the  Brethren  comes  from  Sturm's  report  to  the 
Magistrates  at  Strassburg  in  153S.  Sturm  had 
himself  been  a  pupil  at  the  school  in  Liege. 
The  school  had  a  rector  who  divided  the  scholars 
into  classes  which  were  placed  under  class 
teachers;  the  upper  classes  usually  were  taught 
by  specialists;  he  prescribed  the  readings  for 
each  class,  and  looked  after  the  general  progress, 
moral  and  intellectual,  of  the  pupils.  The 
classes  were  further  subdivided  into  dccuries  or 
groups  of  ten  under  the  charge  of  monitors. 
The  masters  were  among  the  best  teachers  of 
the  day.  In  addition  to  the  Brethren,  men 
of  distinction  were  summoned  from  Paris  and 
Prague  universities,  and,  since  the  schools  were 
always  well  attended  and  the  salaries  were  good, 
there  was  introduced  a  stai)ility  and  continuity 


in  the  lives  of  teachers  and  taught.  Among 
these  teachers  may  be  mentioned  Hcgius, 
Sinthius,  Cele,  Macropedius,  and  Despauterius, 
the  author  of  a  grammar  which  for  two  cen- 
turies superseded  that  of  Alexander  de  Villa 
Dei  (q.v.).  The  lower  classes  were  sometimes 
taught  by  senior  students.  The  schools  were 
divided  into  two  sections,  elementary,  for 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  grammar,  and 
classical,  for  Greek,  rhetoric,  dialectic,  and 
other  humanities.  Even  modern  subjects, 
such  as  history  and  geography,  were  introduced. 
There  were  from  six  to  eight  classes  in  each 
school.  The  discipline  was  rigorous,  but  good 
work  and  conduct  received  recognition  in  the 
shape  of  prizes.  Demosthenes,  Plato,  and 
Ari-stotle  in  Greek,  Cicero,  Cfesar,  Vergil,  and 
Horace  in  Latin  were  included  in  the  readings, 
while  considerable  attention  was  paid  to  the 
Scriptures.  A  play  of  Terence  was  performed 
by  the  pupils.  "Nor  do  I  see,"  says  Sturm, 
"how  that  infrequency  of  studies  can  be  avoided 
and  removed  throughout  Germany  except  by 
an  education  of  this  type  in  early  youth."  And 
the  Brethren  were  successful  in  inaugurating 
a  reform  which  is  comparable  to  that  of  Arnold 
at  Rugby,  and  certainly  had  a  greater  influence. 
Scarcely  a  name  can  be  mentioned  among  the 
northern  European  scholars  who  was  not  af- 
fected directly  or  indirectly  by  them  —  Thomas 
a  Kempis,  Rudolf  Agricola,  Buschius,  Erasmus, 
Sturm,  to  mention  only  the  more  important. 
From  Holland  their  schools  spread  to  West- 
phalia, and  thence  over  the  Rhine  to  Alsace, 
where  the  flourishing  towns  of  Schlettstadt  and 
Strassburg  became  important  centers  of  cul- 
ture on  a  religious  basis  (pietas  lilerata). 

To  sum  up,  the  Brethren  cared  for  the  poor 
scholars,  introduced  grading  of  schools,  new 
textbooks,  the  Renaissance  studies,  copying  and 
later  printing  of  books,  the  elements  of  modern 
subjects,  and  more  or  less  permanent  instruction 
in  the  schools.  The  introduction  of  printing 
took  away  a  considerable  source  of  revenue  from 
the  houses  of  the  Brethren,  while  the  Refor- 
mation dealt  a  deathblow  to  their  activities. 
Their  houses  were  shut  up,  their  schools  either 
declined  or  were  taken  over  by  municipalities. 
By  the  seventeenth  century  nearly  all  had 
disappeared;  the  last  of  all,  the  house  of  the 
Brethren  at  Emmerich,  continued  until  181 1. 

I.  L.  K. 
References :  — 
Bonet-Maurt.  G.     Gerard  dc  Groote.     (Paris,   1878.) 
De    Opera    Scholastica    Fratrum      Vitae     Communis. 

(Paris,   18S9.) 
Heimbucher,  M.     Die   Orden   und  Koyigregaiionen  der 

Kalholischen  Kirche.      (Padreborn,  1908.) 
Herzog.     Realenzyklopddie    fiir    Protestantische     Theo- 

logie   und  Kirche,  2d  ed.,  s.v.  Briider  dcs  gcmein- 

samen  Lebens. 

BRIDGES,  NOAH.  —  A  schoolmaster  of  the 
seventeenth  ccnturv.  He  had  studied  at  Bal- 
liol  College,  Oxford".  Took  B.C.L.  in  1646,  and 
was  Clerk  of  Parliaments  at  Oxford,  1643-1644. 
In  1653  he  kept  a  private  school  at  Putney, 


447 


BRIDGEWATER  COLLEGE 


BRIGHTLAND 


where,  he  says  in  his  prospectus,  "  is  taught  the 
Greek  and  Latin  tongues;  also  arts  and  sciences 
Mathematical!,  viz.,  Aritlimctique,  Fair  Writing, 
Merchants'  Accounts,  Geometry,  Trigonom- 
etrj',  Algebra,  etc."  His  school  was  there- 
fore a  private  grammar  school,  with  a  leaning 
to  what  are  called  the  "modern  subjects." 
In  the  earlier  private  schools,  ordinarily  the 
subjects  taught  were  those  excluded  from  the 
good  public  grammar  school,  e.^.  writing, 
arithmetic.  The  value  of  the  private  school 
for  these  subjects  apparently'  induced  good 
teachers  to  increase  the  curriculum,  so  as  to 
encroach  on  the  curriculum  of  the  public  gram- 
mar school,  and  eventually  to  become  com- 
petitors of  the  endowed  schools,  and  it  is  notice- 
able that  many  of  the  improvements  in  teaching 
of  method  in  the  English  schools  were  initiated 
in  these  private  schools.  In  1653  Bridges 
published  his  Vulgar  Arithmclique  "  peculiarly 
fitted,"  as  he  claimed,  "  for  merchants  and 
tradesmen,  made  useful  for  all  men,  famihar 
to  the  meanest  capacity;  and  for  the  public 
good  laid  down  in  a  school  method."  De  ]Mor- 
gan  praises  Bridges'  book  especially  for  its  ex- 
plicit account  of  the  modern  method  of  division. 
Bridges  also  wrote  on  stenography  and  crj-p- 
tography.  F.  W. 

BRIDGEWATER  COLLEGE,  BRIDGE- 
WATER,  VA.  —  A  coeducational  institution 
owned  and  controlled  by  the  Church  of  the 
Brethren.  Academic,  collegiate,  normal,  musi- 
cal, and  commercial  departments  are  main- 
tained. The  college  courses  leading  to  de- 
grees are  based  on  about  12  points  of  high 
school  work.  There  is  a  faculty  of  16  profes- 
sors and  instructors. 

BRIDGMAN,  LAURA  (1829-1889).  —  The 
first  deaf  and  blind  person  in  the  United 
States  to  receive  a  formal  education.  At  the 
age  of  18  months  she  lost  sight  and  hearing. 
When  8  years  old  she  was  taken  to  the  Per- 
kins Institution  for  the  Blind,  and  by  means  of 
the  embossed  letters  she  received,  under 
the  direction  of  Samuel  G.  Howe,  a  general 
literary  education.  She  acquired  some  skill  in 
piano  playing,  and  considerable  dexterity  in 
needlework  and  other  household  duties. 

W.  S.  M. 

See  De.\f-Blind,  Education  of. 

References:  — 
Lamson.   M.\rt  Swift.     Life  and  Education  of  Laura 

Bridgman.      (Boston,  1879.) 
Elliott,  Maude  Howe.     Laura  Bridgman.     (Boston, 
1903.) 

BRIGGS,  HENRY  (1561-1630).  —  A  dis- 
tinguished mathematician,  born  at  Halifax  in 
Yorksliire,  England,  1561.  He  was  a  scholar 
of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  took  his 
M.A.  degree  in  1585.  He  became  First  Pro- 
fessor of  Geometry  in  Gresham  College  on  its 
foundation  in  1596  and  in  1620  became  First  Sa- 
vilian  Professor  of  Geometry.     He  was  thus  the 


first  professor  in  the  first  two  professorships 
in  geometry,  established  in  England.  Briggs  is 
noteworthy  as  an  opponent  of  astrology  in 
days  when  the  subject  was  currently  ac- 
cepted. He  recognized  the  value  of  Napier's 
work  on  Logarithms,  in  the  making  of  prac- 
tical computations,  and  in  1016  urged  Napier 
to  use  a  decimal  base,  on  which  Napier 
acted.  The  Arithmetica  Logaritliniica  of  Briggs 
and  of  Vlacq  in  extension  of  Napier's  tables 
has  held  a  unique  position.  Mr.  Ball  is  of 
opinion  that  the  introduction  of  the  decimal 
notation  was  due  to  Briggs.  See  the  article  on 
Logarithms.  P.  W. 

BRIGHAM  YOUNG  COLLEGE,  LOGAN, 
UTAH.  —  Opened  in  1S7S  as  a  coeducational 
institution  controlled  by  the  Church  of  the 
Latter-Day  Saints.  Preparatory,  collegiate, 
normal,  musical,  business,  domestic  science, 
and  mechanical  arts  courses  are  offered.  The 
work  of  the  college  is  open  to  graduates  of  the 
state  district  schools,  or  those  who  pass  the 
necessary  examination  in  the  common  school 
branches.     No  degrees  are  given. 

BRIGHTLAND,  JOHN.  —  The  writer  of  A 

Grammar  of  the  English  Tongue  .  .  .  jnaking  a 
complcat  System  of  an  English  Education  for 
the  Use  of  the  Schools  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land. (London,  1712.)  The  significance  of 
Brightland's  book  consists  in  the  recognition 
that  the  study  of  Latin  grammar  was  not  con- 
sidered by  him  as  necessary  to  the  knowledge 
of  English.  If  Greek  and  Latin  are  assumed 
as  necessary  to  the  study  of  English  grammar, 
Brightland  argued  that  the  greater  part  of 
mankind  would  be  doomed  to  "  spare  ten  or 
eleven  years  in  learning  dead  languages,"  before 
beginning  their  own.  Our  language  is  indebted 
to  Greek  and  Latin,  but  it  is  also  indebted  to 
Spanish,  Italian,  High  and  Low  Dutch,  French, 
Old  (i.e.  Anglo-Saxon),  Welsh,  Runic,  Gothic, 
and  Icelandic,  but  no  one  thinks  it  is  necessary 
to  acquire  these  before  we  can  begin  English. 
The  effect  of  the  Port  Royalists  (q.v.)  can  be 
traced  on  Brightland.  He  not  only  treats  of 
English  grammar,  but  is  also  able  to  include  a 
treatise  on  the  Art  of  Poetry,  so  as  to  open  up 
to  Englishmen  the  art  of  poetry,  "  as  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans  did  and  the  French 
nation  does  at  present."  So,  too,  the  English 
scholar,  who  has  English  grammar  as  his  center 
instead  of  Latin  and  Greek,  may  be  led  to 
rhetoric  and  logic,  and  Brightland  provides 
him  with  treatises  on  these  subjects.  The  poet- 
laureate  of  Queen  Anne's  reign,  N.  Tate,  sup- 
plies a  prefatory  poem  on  the  excellence  of  Mr. 
Brightland's  suggestions  for  an  English  educa- 
tion.    Tate  suggests:  — 

"  To  Grecian  Hills  our  Youth  no  more  shall  roam, 
Supply'd  with  these  Castalian  Springs  at  Home." 

And  Isaac  Bickerstaff,  Esq.,  declares  in  an 
Approbation  that  Brightland's   English  Gram- 


US 


BRIGHTNESS 


BRINSLEY 


mar   has   done   that   justice   to   our   language 
which  "  till  now,  it  never  obtained."    F.  W. 

BRIGHTNESS.  —  By  the  brightness  of  a 
color  sensation  is  meant  technically  its  equality 
to  a  particular  gray  of  the  achromatic  .series 
(q.v.),  when  its  special  color  tone  is  abstracted 
from.  An  increasing  degree  of  brightness  of 
any  color  would  correspond,  therefore,  with 
grays  progressively  approaching  white,  a 
decreasing  brightness  with  grays  progressing 
toward  black.  One  may  have,  thus,  different 
colors  of  the  same  brightness  or  the  same  color 
with  different  brightnesses.  The  physical  cause 
of  brightness  is  amplitude  or  extent  of  vibration 
of  the  ether  particles  that  give  rise  to  the  par- 
ticular color  (see  Color  Intensity).  Change 
in  brightness  is  usually  accompanied  by  change 
in  saturation  (o.t'.). 

R.  P.  A. 
References:  — 
Baldwin's    Dictionary   of   Philosophy   and   Psychology 

p.  146  :    also  Art.  on  Vision. 
Howell,    H.    \V.     American    Text-book   of  Physiology. 

(Philadelphia,  1901.) 
ScHAEFER,    E.    A.      Textbook    of    Physiology.      (Edin- 
burgh, 1S98-1900.) 

BRINSLEY,  JOHN  (date  of  birth  and 
death  unknown). —  The  educational  writer;  to  be 
distinguished  from  his  son,  John  Brinsley,  the 
well-known  Yarmouth  Puritan  divine.  He  was 
educated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  and 
gradifated  M.A.  in  1588.  He  was  headmaster 
of  Ashby-de-la-Zouch  school  (Leicestershire). 
William  Lilly  the  astrologer  was  entered  as  a 
pupil  in  1613  and  records  that  the  authors 
taught  bj'  Brinsley  were:  Scntentiae  Pueriles, 
Cato,  Corderius,  ^Esop's  Fabler,  TuUy's  Offices, 
Ovid's  de  Tristibus,  Vergil,  Horace,  Camden's 
Greek  Grammar,  Theognis,  Homer's  Iliad,  and 
an  entrance  into  .John  Udall's  Hebrew  Grammar. 

Brinsley 's  chief  work  was  the  Lndus  Litera- 
riiis,  or  The  Grammar  School,  published,  first 
edition  1612,  second  edition  1627.  This  work 
contains  a  complete  account  of  the  educational 
methods  practiced  in  the  English  grammar 
schools  of  the  time,  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest  forms,  and  is  the  most  important  state- 
ment of  the  details  of  school  arrangements  and 
organization  for  the  study  of  Latin  grammar, 
reading  of  authors,  and  composition  of  the 
(Ircek  language,  and  school  study  of  Hebrew 
for  the  first  iialf  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
A  noteworthy  feature  of  the  Ludux  Litcrarius 
is  the  insistence  on  the  teaching  of  English  as 
well  as  Latin.  Brinsley's  reasons  are  (1)  be- 
cause it  is  the  language  which  all  sorts  and 
conditions  of  men  amongst  us  mu.st  use  in 
speech  and  writing;  (2)  purity  and  elegancy  of 
our  own  language  is  a  chief  part  of  the  honor 
of  our  nation;  (3)  because  of  those  who  are 
for  a  time  trained  up  in  schools,  there  are  very 
few  who  proceed  in  learning,  in  comparison  of 
them  who  follow  other  callings.  The  outstand- 
ing feature  of  Brinsley's  method  for  the  teach- 

VOL.  I  —  2  G 


ing  of  Latin  is  a  thorough  drilling  in  the  pre- 
paratory steps  for  construing.  Pupils  must 
always  be  familiarized  with  the  subject  matter 
of  the  Latin  or  Greek  which  they  are  to  be 
required  to  construe.  The  "  hard  words  "  are 
to  be  given  the  pupils  by  the  ma.ster.  Then 
the  pupil  is  to  inquire  (with  regard  to  the 
passage  to  be  translated  into  English)  "  who 
speaks,  in  what  place,  what  he  speaks,  or  to 
what  end,  when  he  speaks  it,  at  what  time  it 
was,  what  went  before  in  the  sentences  nearest, 
what  foUoweth  next  after?"  Then  the  pupil 
is  to  arrange,  or  to  have  arranged  for  him  by 
the  master,  the  Latin  irords  in  the  grammatical 
order  ichich  is  required  by  English  construction. 
This  is  Brinsley's  distinctive  doctrine  of  trans- 
lation, though  it  is  not  original  to  him,  for  he 
himself  acknowledges  he  took  it  from  Martin 
Crusius,  a  German  grammarian.  He  calls  the 
order  in  Latin,  an  "  artificial  "  order,  i.e.  an 
order  determined  by  the  standards  of  the  "  art " 
of  the  Romans.  He  insists  that  the  pupil  must 
transpose  the  Latin  words  to  make  them  take 
the  order  of  English  grammatical  construction. 
This  he  calls  the  "  natural  "  order  (natural, 
that  is,  to  the  pupil).  Having  obtained  the 
"  natural  "  order,  translation  then  can  proceed 
verbatim.  He  maintains  that  this  method 
makes  parsing  easy  and  quickly  develops  trans- 
lation at  sight.  To  help  the  pupil  Brinsley 
devised  "  grammatical  translations  "  for  the 
Latin  books  read  by  the  pupil  in  the  earliest 
stages,  viz.:  Pueriles  confabulatiunculae,  Sen- 
tcntiae  Pueriles,  Cato,  Corderius'  Dialogues, 
^sop's  Fables,  Tully's  Epistles,  TuUy's  Offices, 
together  with  the  De  Amicitia,  De  Seneclute, 
Paradoxes,  Ovid's  de  Tristibus,  Ovid's  Meta- 
morphoses, Vergil.  Of  these,  at  any  rate,  the 
Cato,  ^'^ergil's  Eclogues,  Corderius'  Dialogues, 
Tully's  Offices  (Book  I),  Ovid's  Metamorphoses 
(Book  I),  are  still  extant.  He  further  requires 
the  pupil  to  be  well  acquainted  with  the  best 
commentators  on  Vergil,  Horace,  Persius, 
Juvenal.  Brinsley  omits  from  his  list  the 
classical  historians.  In  Greek,  Brinsley  began, 
as  was  usual,  with  the  Greek  Testament,  with 
which  a  translation  was  to  be  used,  Latin  or 
English.  He  then  proceeded  to  Isocrates, 
Theognis,  Hesiod,  or  Homer.  Elementary  He- 
brew was  also  required.  Disputations  (q.v.) 
were  to  be  conducted  in  the  Latin  language  on 
grammatical  questions.  Religious  instruction 
must  be  given  in  the  histories  of  the  Bible  and 
on  the  grounds  of  religion.  Pupils  must  go  to 
church  and  take  down  the  substance  of  the 
sermon,  which  must  afterwards  be  written  out 
in  good  Latin  style,  and,  further,  a  brief  repe- 
tition of  the  whole  sermon  be  made,  "  without 
book."  Brinsley  also  supplies  chapters  on 
school  government,  punishments,  school  times 
and  recreations,  diversity  of  grammars,  the 
relation  of  the  schools  to  the  universities,  and 
a  very  (juaint  chapter  on  "  discouragement  of 
Schoolmasters  by  unthankfulness  of  parents." 
Besides  the  Ludus  Literarius,  Brinsley  wrote: 
449 


BRISTED 


BRITISH   ETC.  SCHOOL  SOCIETY 


A  Consolation  for  our  Grammar  Schnolcs:  or 
A  failhfull  and  most  comfortable  incouragcmcnt, 
for  laying  of  a  sure  foundation  of  all  good  learn- 
ing in  our  Schooles,  and  for  prosperous  building 
thereupon.  More  especially  for  all  those  of  the 
inferiour  sort,  and  all  ruder  countries  and  places, 
namely  for  Ireland,  Wales,  Virginia  ivith  the 
Summer  Islands,  and  for  their  more  speedie  attain- 
ing of  our  English  tongue  by  the  same  labour, 
that  nil  may  speahe  one  and  the  same  language. 
And  u'ithnll,  for  the  helping  of  all  such  as  are 
desirous  speedily  to  recover  that  ivhich  they  had 
formerlie  got  in  the  Grammar  Schooles,  and  to 
proceed  aright  therein,  for  the  perpetuall  benefit 
of  these  our  Nations  and  of  the  Churches  of 
Christ.  London,  printed  by  Richard  Field  for 
Thomas  Man,  dwelling  in  Paternoster  Row, 
at  the  sign  of  the  Talbot,  1622.     (4to.) 

This  is  a  vigorous  appeal  to  all  who  have 
charge  of  schools  to  read  the  author's  Ludus 
Literarius,  and  goes  over  much  of  the  same 
ground.  But  it  contains  an  important  Appen- 
di.x,  which  gives  a  list  of  the  school  textbooks 
which  Brinsley  considers  the  best  in  each 
subject.  F.  W. 

References:  — 

ADAM.SON,     J.     W.     'Pioneers    of    Modem    Education. 

(Cambridge,  1905.) 
Watson.    Foster.      The  English  Grammar  Schools   up 

to  1600.     (Cambridge,  1908.) 

BRISTED,  CHARLES  ASTOR  (1820-1874). 
—  Author,  educated  at  Yale  College  and  at 
the  University  of  Cambridge  in  England; 
author  of  Letters  to  Horace  Mann  and  Five 
Years  in  an  English   University.        W.  S.  M. 

BRITISH  AND  FOREIGN  BIBLE  SO- 
CIETY. —  This  organization  was  founded  in 
1804  on  the  suggestion  of  a  member  of  the 
Committee  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society, 
when  the  subject  of  the  want  of  Bibles  in 
Wales  was  brought  up  by  a  Welsh  clergyman. 
Rev.  Thomas  Charles.  The  Society  at  once 
succeeded  in  obtaining  support  for  its  object, 
to  bring  the  Bible  within  the  reach  of  the 
destitute  of  all  lands.  For  this  purpose  the 
society  has  issued  translations  of  the  Bible 
into  about  350  languages  and  dialects  of  the 
world.  This  society  was  the  parent  of  many 
others  in  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

Reference:  — 

Canton,  VV.     History  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society.     (London,  1904.) 

BRITISH  AND  FOREIGN  SCHOOL  SO- 
CIETY. —  .'\.n  organization  which  arose  out  of 
a  society  founded  by  Jo.seph  Lancaster  (q.v.) 
and  two  of  his  supporters  in  1808  "  for  the  pur- 
pose of  affording  education,  procuring  emplo}'- 
ment,  and  as  far  as  possible  to  furnish  clothing 
to  the  children  of  the  poorer  subjects  of  King 
George  III."  This  society  was  organized  for 
two  other  purposes,  which  were,  however,  soon 
dropped.     There    were    soon    attracted    to    it 


men  who  had  an  earnest  and  intense  interest 
in  education  and  who  were  liberal  in  their 
religious  views.  They  combined  to  support 
and  spread  the  monitorial  schools  of  Lancaster. 
Capital  was  raised,  and  subscriptions  came  in 
from  all  parts.  Lancaster  was  relieved  of  his 
duties  at  his  school,  and  made  a  successful 
propagandist  tour  of  the  British  Isles.  In  ISIO 
the  financial  support  was  increased,  and  men 
who  were  then  prominent  in  all  walks  of  life 
joined  the  society.  In  1811  the  National 
Society  for  Educating  the  Poor  in  the  Prin- 
ciples of  the  Church  (q.v.)  was  established 
on  a  denominational  basis,  but  failed  to 
withdraw  any  support  from  the  other  society. 
From  1812  to  1814  the  society  was  involved  in 
quarrels  with  the  shiftless  Lancaster,  and  in 
1814  the  final  separation  with  Lancaster  took 
place.  In  the  same  year  the  title  The  British 
and  Foreign  School  Society  was  adopted.  The 
society  had  now  the  patronage  of  the  Crown, 
and  enjoyed  the  active  assistance  of  members 
of  the  Royal  Family.  The  aim  of  the  society 
was  to  encourage  the  formation  of  local  com- 
mittees to  found  schools,  to  train  teachers  for 
all  parts  of  the  world,  to  maintain  the  volun- 
tary basis,  and  above  all  to  teach  the  Bible  in 
the  schools  on  undenominational  lines.  The 
Society  took  over  the  Borough  Road  School 
which  Lancaster  had  founded;  a  girls'  school 
and  an  institution  for  women  teachers  were 
opened,  and  work  was  done  in  foreign  parts. 
When  a  committee  reported  on  the  unsatis- 
factory nature  of  the  training  of  teachers, 
which  was  entirely  mechanical  and  very 
limited  in  scope,  reading,  writing,  history,  and 
geography  were  ordered  to  be  taught.  Local 
subcommittees  sprang  up  in  many  places,  but 
large  parts  of  England  remained  untouched. 
Auxiliary  societies  were  established  to  obtain 
information  as  to  local  needs,  the  population, 
the  number  of  the  poor,  and  the  educational 
facilities.  Schools  were  to  be  established  for 
which  the  central  society  promised  aid.  For 
the  purpose  of  propaganda  work  a  Manual  was 
published  in  1816  and  w-as  soon  tran.slated  into 
foreign  languages.  New  textbooks  were  pub- 
lished, and  a  depository  was  maintained  from 
which  books  and  school  materials  were  sold  at 
cost  price.  At  the  Borough  Road  School, 
teachers  from  all  parts  of  the  world  were  being 
trained.  The  Society  had  its  agents  and 
representatives  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  Canada, 
India,  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  Washington 
(Robert  Ould).  It  was  only  in  Catholic  coun- 
tries that  the  Society  failed  to  meet  with  con- 
tinued success.  In  18.30  the  Society  was  in  a 
position  to  appoint  propaganda  agents  and 
inspectors  of  schools.  The  Reform  Bill  riots 
still  further  emphasized  the  need  of  increasing 
schools  in  the  agricultural  districts,  and  the 
Society  offered  assistance  to  rural  teachers. 
In  1834  state  aid  was  given  for  the  first  time, 
but  the  method  of  allotment  was  so  poor  that 
support  was  not  given  where  the  needs  were 


450 


BRITISH   COLUMBIA 


BROOKBANK 


greatest.  In  1842  the  normal  school  at  Borough 
Road  was  rebuilt  under  the  inducement  of  an 
offer  of  aid  from  the  Treasury  to  training 
schools  for  teachers.  About  this  time  great 
anxiety  was  caused  to  the  Society  by  the  un- 
satisfactory report  made  on  the  British  schools 
by  the  government  inspector.  In  1847  the  old 
monitorial  system  was  abolished,  and  pupil  and 
assistant  teachers  were  appointed.  In  1847- 
1849  the  Society  was  torn  by  disputes  concern- 
ing the  acceptance  of  state  aid,  since  it  was 
feared  that  this  might  endanger  the  voluntary 
principles  and  the  undenominational  Bible 
teaching  for  which  the  Society  stood.  Between 
1855  and  1880  the  Society  established  five 
normal  schools  at  Bangor,  Stockwell,  Darling- 
ton and  Saffron  Walden  and  Swansea.  In 
1875  the  Society  contributed  largely  to  the  im- 
provement of  the  education  of  infants  by  doing 
propaganda  work  for  the  Froebelian  System 
and  establishing  a  kindergarten.  The  Educa- 
tion Act  of  1870  was  a  vindication  of  the  prin- 
ciples for  which  the  Society  stood,  and  was 
brought  about  largely  through  the  efforts  of 
men  who  then  or  later  became  members  of  the 
Society. 

With  the  increase  of  national  and  popular 
control  of  education  the  function  of  the  Society 
is  gradually  disappearing.  For  English  educa- 
tional development  it  did  a  great  service  through 
collecting  reports  and  through  general  propa- 
ganda work.  The  Society,  which  was  incor- 
porated by  Letters  Patent  in  1906,  still  supports 
about  1500  schools,  but  its  chief  work  is  in 
the  training  of  teachers  for  elementary  schools. 
Apart  from  serving  as  a  rallying  point  for 
those  who  desire  to  retain  the  Bible  in  the 
schools,  the  Society  by  a  resolution  of  1907 
proposed  to  employ  its  funds  for  the  "  propa- 
gation and  encouragement  of  agencies  for  the 
education  and  training  (physical,  social,  and 
moral)  of  youths  of  both  sexes  during  the 
period  of  rapid  development  which  succeeds 
the  age  of  childhood  and  primary  school." 
This  will  provide  the  society  with  a  sphere  of 
work  as  important  as  that  which  it  so  success- 
fully undertook  at  its  inception  a  century  ago. 
Sec  Lancaster,  Joseph;  Training  of 
Teachers  in  England;  Bible  in  the 
Schools. 

Reference :  — 
BiNNs.    H.    B.      A    Ci-nlurij   of  Education.    1808-1908. 
(London,  1908.) 

BRITISH   COLUMBIA,  EDUCATION  IN. 

—  See  Canada,  Education  in. 

BRITISH    GUIANA,   EDUCATION    IN. — 
See  Guiana,  Education  in. 

BRITISH  INDIA,  EDUCATION  IN.  —  See 
India,  Edccation  i.n. 

BRITISH    SCHOOLS.  —  A    term    formerly 
applied  in  England  to  the  elementary  schools 


provided  and  maintained  by  the  British  and 
Foreign  School  Society  {q.v.).  It  stiU  survives 
in  the  names  of  a  few  schools. 

BROCKETT,  LINUS  PIERPONT  (1820- 
1893).  —  Educated  at  Brown  University  and 
Yale  College;  several  years  professor  in  George- 
town College;  author  of  History  of  Educa- 
tion, which  was  published  under  the  pseudonym 
"  Philobus."  W.  S.  M. 

BROCKLESBY,  JOHN  (1811-1889).— 
Educator  and  textbook  writer,  educated  at 
Yale  College;  tutor  at  Yale  College  (1838- 
1840) ;  professor  in  Trinity  College  at  Hartford 
(1842-1874);  author  of  textbooks  on  physical 
geography,  astronomy,  and  meteorology. 

W.  S.  M. 

BROOE^BANK,  JOSEPH  (b.  1612).  — A 
schoolmaster  and  educational  writer.  Little 
is  known  of  his  life  except  a  few  facts.  He 
was  a  minister  and  private  schoolmaster.  (See 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography.)  For  his 
parishioners  at  West  Wycombe,  13uckingham- 
shire,  he  wrote  a  catechism  entitled  Vitis 
Salutaris,  or  the  Vine  of  Catechetical  Divinitie 
and  Saving  Truth.  His  educational  works  are 
deserving  of  notice.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  are  his  translations  of  Joh. 
Amo.s  Comenius,  His  Last  Porch  of  the  Latin 
Tongue,  etc.  (the  title  is  both  in  Latin  and 
English).  The  translation  was  made  from  the 
Low  Dutch  translation  of  the  original  by 
Henry  Schoof.  The  work  appeared  in  1647 
and  1657. 

Brookbank  in  his  address  to'  the  Candid 
Reader  urges  that  there  are  Three  Forms  or 
Ranks  of  Teachers.  "Worth  and  ability  in 
school-teachers;  set  them  as  their  scholars  in 
their  forms,  or  ranks;  in  the  highest  thereof, 
are  those  who  have  been  long  approved  for 
their  skill,  experience  and  success,  in  their 
praiseworthy  labours;  unto  whom  here  I  have 
nothing  to  say  but  x°^V"^-  The  next  are 
those,  who  as  yet  have  not  either  studied,  or 
made  trial  of  school  travels,  though  otherwise 
able  and  deserving;  but  either  upon  occasion, 
or  otherwise,  desire  and  endeavor  to  overtake 
or  exccde  the  former;  unto  whom  my  advice 
is,  That  they  would  advance  their  judgment 
and  experience,  By  the  Reading  of  Authors  for 
that  Purpose;  such  as  are  Plutarch,  irtpt 
■TraiSwv  aywyrj^,  Quintilian,  Hen.  Schori  spe- 
cimen, Martinius  (Ejus  praefationem  ante  fun- 
danunta  Graecae  Linguae),  Ascham  his  School- 
master, Brinsley  his  Ludus  Literarius,  and 
Consolation  to  Grammar  Schools,  the  Preface  to 
our  Latin  Grammar,  Mr.  Robotham's  Epistle 
before  his  translation  of  Janua  Linguaruvi, 
Mulcaster  his  Elementary,  and  Positions,  and 
his  EpLstle  before  his  Calo,  Christianus,  Vossius, 
Dc  Arte  Grammatica,  Hugonis  Grotii  et  aliorum 
dissertotiones  de  sludiis  instituendis,  J.  A. 
Comenii  Prodromus,  The  ready  way  to  the  Latin 


451 


BROOKLYN 


BROOKLYN   INSTITUTE 


Tongue,  etc.,  attpstcd  by  Mr.  Hartlib.  Ami 
those  who  inteiul  to  fit  themselves  for  the  educa- 
tion of  Noble  Youth,  I  commend  them  to  the 
reading  of  Sir  Thomas  Eliot  his  Governour,  .Stur- 
mius  De  Frincipibus  Institueridis,  Orosius 
de  Principibus  Instituendis,  Clerk  de  Aulico, 
Mulcaster  his  Positions,  More's  Principles, 
the  Institidion  of  a  Gentleman,  Mr.  Braith- 
wait's  English  Gentleman,  rjpiu-iraiBtia,  or  the 
Institution  of  a  Young  Gentleman  by  James  Cle- 
land,  Pctrus  Truellius  de  Xoutechnia,  Possevinus 
de  Cidtura  Ingeniorum,  Hcroick  Education; 
which  books,  well  weighed  and  digested,  will 
enable  an  ordinary  genius  to  find  out  the  best 
way  and  method  for  the  teaching  of  this  book 
or  any  other;  unto  which,  and  their  own 
parts,  I  leave  them.  The  last  sort  are  those  of 
meaner  parts,  learning,  abilities,  and  experience, 
unto  whom  the  direction  ensuing  may  be  of 
great  use."  (Brookbank  then  proceeds  to  give 
good,  practical,  detailed  rules  of  learning  the 
books.)  In  addition  to  this  work,  Brookbank 
also  published  class  textbooks  on  spelling 
{An  English  Syllabary,  London,  1651)  and 
directions  on  the  use  of  this  book  and  A 
Breviate  of  our  King's  whole  Latin  Grammar, 
Vulgarly  called  Lillie's,  etc.,  1660. 

Brookbank  gives  detailed  directions  for  using 
his  Breviate.  He  mentions  Two  books  to  be 
read  with  the  Breviate  "  for  the  perfecting  (of 
pupils)  in  Quae  Genus  and  the  Syntaxis,  let 
them  learn  to  say  without  book,  and  to  con- 
strue and  parse  Mr.  Leech's  Dialogues  at  the 
end  of  his  Grammar  Questions  or  in  Mr.  Clark's 
Dux  Grammaticus,  whereby  they  may  be  per- 
fected, in  the  understanding  and  practice  of  all 
that  they  have  learned  in  grammar,  and  in  the 
whole  Syntaxis."  Brookbank  has  not  been 
given  the  attention  which  is  merited  by  his 
importance  as  a  textbook  writer  and  his  in- 
terest in  school  education.  F.  W. 

Reference  :  — 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 


BROOKLYN,  CITY  OF.  —  Formerly  an 
independent  city,  but  now  a  part  of  the  City 
of  Greater  New  York  (q.r.).  Church  and  pri- 
vate schools  were  established  here  early  by 
the  Dutch.  In  1813,  public  school  district, 
No.  1  was  organized,  and  in  1816  a  Lancas- 
terian  school  was  opened.  Other  districts  were 
organized,  and  by  1843,  10  districts  had  been  organ- 
ized. In  that  year  the  legislature  consolidated 
these  districts,  and  established  a  Board  of 
Education  for  the  city  of  Brooklyn.  In  1853, 
a  city  superintendent  of  schools  was  elected. 
In  1854,  the  city  of  Williamsburg  and  the 
village  of  Bushwick  were  consolidated  with 
Brooklyn,  and  the  Board  of  Education  was 
increased  to  45  members.  In  1898  Brook- 
lyn united  with  New  York  City  to  form  the 
Borough  of  Brooklyn  in  the  City  of  Greater 
New  York. 


References:  — 

Auiuial  Reports,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  to 
the  Board  of  Education  of  llic  City  of  Brooklyn, 
1854-1S97. 

Palmer,  A.  E.  The  New  Yorlc  Public  School,  chs.  23- 
29.      (New  York,  1905.) 

BROOKLYN  INSTITUTE  OF  ARTS  AND 
SCIENCES,  THE.  —  Founded  and  incor- 
porated by  the  legislature  of  the  state  in  1824, 
under  the  name  of  the  Brooklyn  Apprentices' 
Library  Association.  On  July  4,  1825,  the 
cornerstone  of  the  first  building  owned  by  the 
Association  was  laid  by  General  Lafayette,  at 
the  junction  of  Henry  and  Cranberry  streets. 
In  1835  the  Association  changed  its  quarters 
to  a  more  commodious  building  in  Washington 
Street.  Its  scope  was  broadened  under  an 
amended  charter  in  1S43,  and  the  name  hence- 
forward was  the  Brooklyn  Institute.  Among 
the  speakers  from  its  platform  were  heard 
"  such  eminent  scientific  men  as  Agassiz, 
Dana,  Gray,  Henry,  Morse,  Mitchell,  Torrey, 
Guyot,  and  Cooke;  such  learned  divines  as 
Doctors  McCosh,  Hitchcock,  Storrs,  and  Bud- 
dington;  and  such  defenders  of  the  liberties  of 
the  people  as  Phillips,  Sumner,  Garrison,  Emer- 
son, Everett,  Curtis,  King,  Bellows,  Chapin, 
and  Beecher."  From  1843  to  1867  the  work 
of  the  Institute  was  brilliant  and  remarkable, 
being  largelj-  expanded  by  two  important 
donations  from  Mr.  Augustus  Graham.  From 
1867  to  1887,  however,  the  work  of  the  Institute 
was  unfortunately  crippled  for  want  of  funds, 
so  that  "  the  most  that  it  was  able  to  do  was 
to  circulate  its  library,  to  keep  up  its  classes 
in  drawing,  and  to  provide  for  the  annual  ad- 
dresses on  the  22nd  of  February."  The  debt 
was  finally  paid  in  1887;  when  the  assets  of 
the  Institute  amounted  to  a  value  of  S136,000 
and  a  library  of  12,000  volumes. 

During  the  year  1887-1888  the  new  policy 
was  adopted  of  forming  an  Institute  of  Arts 
and  Sciences  worthy  of  the  wealth  and  culture 
of  Brooklyn;  and  by  the  unions  of  learned 
bodies  with  the  Institute,  and  in  other  ways, 
there  were  formed  in  1888-1889  the  depart- 
ments of  microscopy,  astronomy,  entomology, 
photography,  physics,  chemistry,  botany, 
mineralogv,  geologv,  zoology  and  archaeology. 
In  1888-1889  were  added  the  departments  of 
architecture,  electricity,  geography,  mathe- 
matics, painting,  philology,  political  science, 
and  jjsychology;  and  in  1891-1892  the  scope 
of  the  Institute  work  was  still  further  broad- 
ened by  the  establishment  of  the  departments 
of  music  and  pedagogy.  The  rapid  growth  of 
the  new  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  which 
was  completelv  amalgamated  with  the  old 
Brooklyn  Institute  in  1891-1892,  may  be  indi- 
cated bv  the  fact  that  its  membership  grew 
from  350  in  1888-1890  to  3457  in  1893-1894; 
while  in  1908  it  stood  at  6703.  The  number 
of  lectures  and  meetings  open  to  all  members 
in  1907-1908  was  488,  and  the  total  attend- 
ance for  the  year  amounted  to  497,445.     The 


452 


BROOKLYN  POLYTECHNIC 


BROUGHAM 


receipts  of  the  Institute  for  the  same  3'ear,  in- 
cluding only  moneys  available  for  the  payment 
of  current  expenses  and  the  purchase  of  objects 
for  the  museum,  amounted  to  $209,894  ;  while 
the  permanent  funds  stood  at  S388,541. 

The  ramifications  of  the  work  of  the  Institute 
are  so  many  and  various  that  it  is  impossible 
to  enumerate  them.  The  motto  of  the  insti- 
tution is  "  For  the  people  by  the  people  "; 
and  it  endeavors  to  be  to  Brookl3'n  what 
the  Lowell  Institute,  Society  of  Natural  His- 
tory, and  Art  Museum  are  to  Boston,  what  the 
Franklin  Institute,  Academy  of  Science,  and 
Gallery  of  Fine  Arts  are  to  Philadelphia,  what 
the  Metropolitan  Museum  and  the  American 
Museum  are  to  New  York.  P.  R.  C. 

BROOKLYN  POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE, 
BROOKLYN,  N.Y.  —  An  institution  founded 
in  lS5:j,  which  gives  college  preparatory  train- 
ing and  a  college  engineering  course.  The 
latter  course  is  given  during  the  day  and 
evening,  and  affords  a  training  for  engineers 
and  chemists.  About  12  points  of  high 
school  work  are  required  for  admission;  cer- 
tificates of  proficiency  from  the  public  high 
schools  of  New  York  and  other  accredited 
schools  are  accepted  in  lieu  of  examinations. 
Courses  are  given  in  chemistry,  chemical,  me- 
chanical, civil,  and  electrical  engineering,  lead- 
ing to  appropriate  degrees.  A  graduate  depart- 
ment is  also  maintained.  There  is  a  faculty  of 
14  professors,  and  27  instructors  and  assistants. 
Fred  W.  Atkinson,  Ph.D.,  is  the  president. 

BROOKS,  CHARLES  (1795-1872).  —  One 
of  the  coworkers  of  Horace  Mann  (g.v.)  in 
the  revival  of  the  Massachusetts  school  sys- 
tem, was  born  at  Medford,  Mass.,  Oct.  30, 
1795.  He  was  educated  in  the  common 
schools  of  Massachusetts  and  at  Harvard 
College,  and  engaged  in  the  work  of  the  minis- 
try. He  became  acquainted  with  the  sy.stem 
of  normal  schools  in  Prussia,  and  devoted 
several  years  to  the  attempts  of  James  G. 
Carter  (q.v.)  and  others  to  secure  the  necessary 
appropriations  from  the  legislature  of  Massa- 
chusetts to  establish  such  institutions.  For 
several  years  he  was  professor  of  natural  his- 
tory in  New  York  University,  and  he  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Education  iq.i'.).  He 
was  the  author  of  two  textbooks  on  ornithol- 
ogy. Peace,  Labor,  and  Education  in  Europe, 
and  .several  pamplilets  on  normal  schools. 
He  died  at  Lancaster,  Mass.,  on  the  7th  of 
July,  1872.  W.  S.  M. 

BROOKS,  NATHAN  COVINGTON  (1819- 
189S).  —  Educator  and  author  of  textbooks, 
graduated  from  St.  John's  College  in  1837; 
l)rincipal  of  the  Baltimore  High  School  (1839- 
1848)  and  first  president  of  the  Baltimore 
Female  College  (1848);  author  of  a  number  of 
Latin  and  Greek  textbooks.  W.  S.  M. 


453 


BROOKS,  PHILLIPS  (1835-1893).  —Noted 
divine  and  preacher,  educated  at  the  Boston 
Latin  School  and  at  Harvard  College;  instruc- 
tor in  the  Boston  Latin  School  (1855-1860); 
entered  the  ministry  and  became  Bisho]j  of 
Massachusetts  in  1891;  author  of  Oldest  School 
in  America  and  of  several  theological  works. 

W.  S.  M. 
Reference :  — 

Allen,  A.  \'.  G.     Biography  of  Phillips  Brooks.     (New 
York,  1901.) 

BROUGHAM,  HENRY,  BARON 
BROUGHAM  AND  VAUX,  1778-1868.  —  Lord 
Chancellor  and  educational  reformer;  born  in 
Edinburgh  of  an  English  North  Country  family; 
educated  at  Edinburgh  High  School  and  Uni- 
versity; one  of  the  founders  of  the  Edinburgh 
Review.  In  1805  Brougham  came  to  London 
and  studied  law.  He  was  an  active  writer  in 
the  Whig  interest.  He  became  M.P.  for  Camel- 
ford  in  1810,  and  quickly  won  a  great  reputa- 
tion as  a  Parliamentary  orator.  In  1816  he 
secured  the  appointment  of  a  Parliamentary 
Committee  on  the  education  of  the  lower 
orders  in  the  metropolis,  the  Report  of  which 
drew  public  attention  to  the  educational  desti- 
tution of  London  and  prepared  the  way  for 
subsequent  Parliamentary  action.  In  1818, 
on  the  reappointment  of  the  Committee,  he 
extended  its  inquiry  into  the  administration  of 
educational  charities,  provoking  bitter  resent- 
ment, but  paving  the  way  for  later  reorgani- 
zation of  charitable  endowments  by  a  state 
department.  Brougham  was  untiring  in  his 
advocacy  of  adult  education  for  workingmen 
by  means  of  mechanics'  institutions.  For 
many  years  he  took  a  leading  part  in  Parlia- 
ment in  pressing  questions  of  educational  re- 
form upon  the  thoughts  of  the  nation.  In 
1820,  basing  his  proposals  upon  the  results  of 
his  Committee's  investigations,  he  introduced 
a  bill,  the  object  of  which  was  to  establish 
elementary  schools  wherever  needed,  to  give 
the  magistrates  the  right  to  establish  schools 
the  cost  of  which  was  to  fall  upon  local  rates, 
to  secure  efficient  teachers,  to  establish  religious 
instruction  upon  a  nondenominational  basis, 
and  to  utilize  obsolete  charities  in  aid  of  ele- 
mentary education.  The  bill  was  opposed  by 
Nonconformists  and  Roman  Catholics,  who 
thought  that  their  interests  were  imperiled  by 
it. 

In  1825  Brougham  published  his  Observations 
upon  the  Education  of  the  People,  which  ran 
through  20  editions  in  one  year.  In  1833  he 
recanted  in  the  House  of  Lords  his  former 
views  in  favor  of  compulsory  education.  In 
1835  he  addressed  the  House  of  Lords  on  the 
education  of  the  people,  and  urged  that  the 
elementary  schools  then  in  existence  were  too 
few  in  number  and  that  they  gave  a  kind  of 
instruction  exceedingly  scanty  and  imperfect. 
In  order  to  relieve  the  educational  destitution 
of  the  large  towns,   he  urged  that  the  State 


BROWTs^  GEORGE 


BRO\\'N,  JOHN 


should  furnish  funds,  but  should  apply  its  aid 
in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 
exertions  of  individual  zeal  or  to  cut  off  the 
supplies  of  private  munificence.  He  recom- 
mended that  government  grants  should  be 
offered  on  condition  that  they  were  met  by 
an  equal  amount  of  local  contributions.  He 
strongly  urged  the  establishment  of  infant 
schools  and  a  reform  of  the  treatment  of 
juvenile  offenders,  fie  advocated  state  aid  to 
normal  seminaries  for  training  teachers,  and 
reforms  in  the  administration  of  educational 
charities  bj'  means  of  the  establishment  of  a 
Hoard  of  Commissioners  to  be  appointed  by 
Parliament.  All  Brougham's  recommenda- 
tions were  subsequently  adopted  by  the  gov- 
ernment, though  after  considerable  delay.  He 
was  a  man  of  nervous  temperament,  vain,  elo- 
quent, profoundly  convinced  of  the  need  of 
educational  reform,  but  distrusted  by  his  con- 
temporaries on  the  ground  of  defects  of  char- 
acter and  some  instability  of  political  judg- 
ment. He  stands  out,  however,  as  one  of  the 
great  advocates  of  educational  improvement 
in  England  during  the  years  1816-1835,  and 
on  the  whole  his  policy  was  sound  in  view  of 
the  complex  conditions  of  English  life.  His 
early  experience  of  Scotland  had  convinced 
him  of  the  value  of  popular  education;  his 
knowledge  of  Continental  systems  made  him 
realize  how  indispensable  was  the  action  of 
the  State  in  any  extensive  development  of 
popular  education;  but  he  appreciated  the 
services  which  the  clergy  of  the  Church  of 
England  and  the  various  religious  bodies  had 
rendered  to  English  education  and  saw  that 
it  was  necessary  to  secure  their  continued  co- 
operation in  any  plan  designed  for  the  further 
development  of  educational  work  among  the 
poor.  M.  E.  S. 

References  :  — 
Brodgh.\-M,  H.    Life  and  Times  of  Henry.  Lord  Brougham, 

written  by  him.self.      (3  vols.,  1S71.) 
Dictionary  of  Xational  Biography. 
Montmorency,    J.    E.    G.    de.     State   Intervention   in 

English  Education.      (Cambridge,  1902.) 

BROWN,  GEORGE  (1823-1891).  —  Edu- 
cator, attended  Phillips  Academy  at  Andover, 
the  University  of  Vermont,  and  Jefferson  ]\Iedi- 
cal  College;  organized  a  private  school  for 
feeble-minded  children  at  Barre,  Alass.,  18.51, 
and  conducted  it  for  40  years;  active  in  the 
movement  for  providing  schools  for  feeble- 
minded and  idiotic  children,  and  the  author  of 
several  addresses  and  pamphlets  on  the  care 
and  training  of  the  feeble-minded.    W.  S.  M. 

BROWN,  GEORGE  PLINY  (1836-1910).  — 
Superintendent  of  schools  at  Richmond,  Ind., 
from  1860  to  1871;  principal  of  the  high  school 
at  Indianapolis  during  the  next  3  years, 
and  superintendent  of  schools  at  Indianapohs 
from  1874  to  1879.  During  the  next  7 
years  he  was  principal  of  the  Indiana  state 
normal   school   at   Terre   Haute.     From    1887 


until  his  death  he  was  the  editor  of  School  and 
Home  Education  (formerly  the  Public  School 
Journal).  He  was  the  author  of  a  textbook 
on  grammar  and  numerous  essays  on  the 
philosophy  of  education.  W.  S.  M. 

BROWN,  GOOLD  (1791-1857).  —  School- 
man and  textbook  writer,  educated  in  the 
public  and  private  schools  of  Rhode  Island; 
teacher  in  the  Friends'  schools  (lSlO-1813); 
principal  of  a  private  school  in  New  York  City 
(1813-1833);  author  of  a  long  series  of  gram- 
matical textbooks,  including  Institutes  of  Eng- 
lish grammar,  Fir.H  Lines  of  English  Grammar, 
and  Grammar  of  English  grammars.    W.  S.  M. 

BROWN,  JOHN  (171.5-1766).  — Son  of  a 
clergyman  in  Northumberland;  educated  at 
Wigton  Grammar  School  and  St.  John's,  Cam- 
bridge; in  1756  became  rector  of  Great  Horkes- 
Icy  near  Colchester.  Brown  pubhshed  in  1757 
An  Estimate  of  the  Manners  and  Principles  of 
the  Times.  In  1765  he  published  Thoughts  on 
Civil  Liberty,  on  Licentiousness  and  Faction. 
In  tliis  work  he  advocated  the  establishment 
of  a  national  system  of  education  under  the 
authority  of  the  State.  He  argued  that  "  For 
want  of  a  prescribed  code  of  education  to  which 
all  the  members  of  the  community  should 
legally  submit,  the  manners  and  principles  upon 
which  alone  the  State  can  rest  are  in  England 
ineffectually  instilled,  and  are  vague,  fluctuat- 
ing, and  self-contradictory."  In  an  appendix 
to  this  essay,  Brown  made  more  detailed  pro- 
posals for  a  code  of  education,  defining  it  as 
"  a  system  of  principles,  religious,  moral,  and 
pohtical,  ...  to  be  instilled  effectually  into 
the  infant  and  gromng  minds  of  the  com- 
munity for  the  great  end  of  pu'olic  happiness." 
These  proposals  indicate  the  existence  of  a 
body  of  opinion  in  England  at  that  time  favor- 
able to  the  establishment  by  the  State  of  a 
system  of  national  education  analogous  to 
those  set  up  in  different  parts  of  Germany 
during  this  period  of  philanthropic  monarchy. 
In  England,  however,  the  existence  of  the  Non- 
conformist interest,  unflinchingly  opposed  to 
the  inculcation  of  Anglican  doctrines  by  means 
of  a  S3'stem  of  state  schools,  prevented  the 
realization  of  Brown's  hopes,  and  caused  the 
social  and  educational  development  of  England 
to  be  entirely  different  from  that  of  the  Ger- 
man states.  Brown's  pamphlet  derives  its 
great  importance  in  the  history  of  English 
education  from  the  fact  that  it  provoked 
Joseph  Priestley  iq.v.)  to  write  and  publish  in 
the  same  year  (1765)  his  Remarks  on  a  Pro- 
posed Code  of  Education,  in  which  he  states 
with  passion  the  arguments  against  any  attempt 
to  organize  education  by  government.  Priest- 
ley's essay  is  the  locus  classicus  in  English 
literature  of  the  eighteenth  century  for  Non- 
conformist arguments  against  national  organi- 
zation of  education  by  the  State  acting  in 
concert  with  the  Established  Church. 


454 


BROWN,  MATTHEW 


BROWN   UNIVERSITY 


In  the  last  years  of  his  Hfe  Brown,  in  corre- 
spondence with  Dr.  Dumaresque,  who  had  been 
consulted  about  the  provision  of  a  school  sys- 
tem for  Russia,  submitted  to  him  an  ambitious 
plan  for  the  civilization  of  Russia.  This  was 
laid  before  the  Empress,  Catharine  II,  who 
suggested  Brown's  undertaking  a  journey  to 
St.  Petersburg  for  consultation.  At  the  last 
moment,  in  fear  of  the  Russian  climate.  Brown 
canceled  the  arrangements. 

Brown  suffered  constitutionally  from  severe 
depression  of  spirits,  and  in  September,  17G6, 
committed  suicide.  M.  E.  S. 

References:  — 

Brown,  John.  Thoughts  on  Civil  Liberty,  with  an  Ap- 
pendix relative  to  a  proposed  Code  of  Education. 
(1765.) 

Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

Priestley,  Joseph.  Essay  on  a  Course  of  Liberal  Edu- 
cation for  Civil  and  Active  Life,  to  which  are  added 
Remarks  on  a  Code  of  Education  proposed  by  Dr. 
Brmim  in  a  late  Treatise.     (London,  1765.) 

BROWN,  MATTHEW  (1776-1853).  — 
Educator,  graduate  of  Dickinson  College; 
teacher  in  the  schools  of  Pennsylvania  (1794- 
1796);  instructor  in  Washington  College  (1S05- 
1S1.5);  president  of  Jefferson  College  (1822- 
1S45).  W.  S.  M. 

BROWN,  SAMUEL  OILMAN  (1813-1885). 
—  Educator  and  author,  educated  in  private 
schools  and  at  Dartmouth  College;  teacher 
in  the  high  school  at  Ellington,  Conn.  (1832- 
1834) ;  principal  of  Abbot  Academy  at  Andover 
(1835-1838);  professor  in  Dartmouth  College 
(1840-1867);  president  of  Hamilton  College 
(1867-1881);   author  of  Spirit  of  the  Scholar. 

W.  S.  M. 

BROWN    UNIVERSITY,     PROVIDENCE, 

R.I.  —  An  institution  chartered  under  the 
name  of  Rhode  Island  College,  by  the  General 
Assembly  of  Rhode  Island  in  1764,  and  owing 
its  foundation  to  a  proposal  made  in  1762  to 
the  Philadelphia  Baptist  Association  by  the 
Rev.  Morgan  Edwards,  pastor  of  the  First 
Bapti.st  Church  in  Philadel])hia,  looking  toward 
the  establishment  of  a  Baptist  college.  Rhode 
Island  was  selected  as  the  location  because  it 
recognized  religious  liberty  and  was  Baptist  in 
origin  and  attachment.  The  president,  8  of 
12  members  of  the  Board  of  Fellows,  and  22  of 
tiie  36  members  of  the  Board  of  Trustees, 
must  be  niemijers  of  Baptist  churclies;  4  tru.s- 
tees  must  belong  to  Congregational  churches, 
and  5  each  to  the  Episcopal  Church  and  to  the 
Society  of  Friends.  The  Chancellor,  Secre- 
tory, and  Treasurer,  however,  are  chosen  with- 
out denominational  restriction;  in  adminis- 
tration the  university  is  strictly  nonsectarian. 
Both  governing  boards  are  self-perpetuating. 
There  is  a  .sentiment  among  the  alumni  in 
favor  of  removing  the  denominational  provi- 
sions from  the  charter. 

The    first    president    was    the    Rev.    James 


Manning,    elected   Sept.   4,    1765,   a   graduate 
of  Princeton  (1762).     In  1769  the  first  class  of 
Rhode  Island  College  was  graduated  at  Warren; 
in  1770  the  present   University  Hall,  modeled 
after  Nassau  Hall,  Princeton,  was  erected  on 
the  college  grounds  in  Providence,  chiefly  by 
subscriptions  from  residents  of  that  city.     The 
first  college  funds,  amounting  to  $4500,  were 
collected  in  England  and  Ireland  in  1767-1768. 
In    1804    the    name    was    clianged    to    Brown 
University,  in  honor  of  Nicholas  Brown,  1786, 
a    benefactor.     The    successors    of    president 
Manning,  all  of  them  Baptist  clergymen,  have 
been:      Jonathan     Maxcy,     1792-1802;      Assa 
Messer,   1802-1826;    Francis  AVayland,   1827- 
1855;    Barnas  Sears,   1855-1867;    Alexis  Cas- 
well, 1868-1872;    Ezekiel  G.    Robinson,  1872- 
1889;     ElLsha    B.    Andrews,    1889-1898;     and 
William     H.     P.     Faunce,     1S99-.     President 
Wayland  reorganized  the  studies  on  an  elective 
basis,  established  a  3-year  course  for  the  bacca- 
laureate,   encouraged    graduate   research,    and 
made  the  sciences  prominent  in  the  curriculum. 
During  the    administration   of    President  An- 
drews, the  number  of  students  increased  from 
286  to  860,  the  number  of  graduate  students 
rose  from  3  to  101,  all  the  old  departments  were 
reorganized  and  new  departments  added,  the 
funds  reached  §1,125,685,  and  important  addi- 
tions were  made  to  the  buildings  and  grounds. 
One  year  after  the  inauguration  of  President 
Faunce,    the    endowment    was    increased   by 
$1,000,000,  a  second  million  being  added  a  year 
later.     The  sudden  increase  in  the  number  of 
students  coincident  with  the  accession  of  the 
new  president  made  both  internal  and  external 
reorganization    necessary.     In    the    10    years 
since  1899,  the  faculty  has  been  reorganized; 
6  new  chairs  of  instruction  have  been  created 
and  filled,  and  the  number  of  courses  offered 
has  increased  from  83  to  119.     The  graduate 
department    has    been    fully    organized.     The 
departments   of   Civil   and    Mechanical    Engi- 
neering have  been  installed  in  a  fully  equipped 
engineering   building.     A   summer   experiment 
station  for  biological  study  has  been  opened 
at    Warwick,    R.I.      Under    an    arrangement 
with    the    Rhode    Island    School    of    Design, 
the  university   sends   its   art  students   to  the 
School   of   Design   for   instruction   in   drawing 
and  painting,  in  return  for  which  privilege  the 
School  of  Design  uses  the  university's  machine 
shops.     A     system     of     visiting     committees, 
similar  to  that  in  force  at  Harvard  University, 
involves  the  appointment  of  about   150   men 
from  business  or  professional  life,  5  to  10  for 
each    department,    who   annually   inspect   the 
courses  of  study,  laboratories,  and  equipment. 
Brown  University  maintains  undergraduate 
courses   for   men,    in   arts,    pure   science,    and 
electrical  and  mechanical  engineering,  leading 
to  the  appr()])riate  degrees;    admis.sion  is  by 
examination    and    certificate    from    approved 
high  school.     The  university  is  a  member  of 
the  College  Entrance  Examination   Board,  of 


455 


BROWN   UNIVERSITY 


BRUSSELS   UNIVERSITY 


the  New  England  Certificate  Board,  and  of 
the  New  England  Association  of  Colleges  and 
Prcparatorj'  Schools  (see  College  Entrance 
Boards).  Graduate  courses  for  men  and 
women  lead  to  the  doctor's  and  master's  de- 
grees. In  October,  1891,  a  women's  college  was 
founded,  which  at  fir.st  gave  only  admission  to 
university  examinations  and  awarded  certificates 
of  proficiency;  in  June,  1892,  all  degrees  and 
graduate  courses  were  opened  to  women,  and 
the  college  was  designated  the  Women's  College 
of  Brown  University.  The  Women's  College 
is  housed  in  a  separate  building;  there  are  also 
a  women's  dormitory  and  a  gymnasium.  This 
college  is  separately  endowed  with  about 
$85,000.  A  system  of  student  self-government 
is  maintained.  All  teaching  in  the  Women's 
College  is  by  members  of  the  instructing  staff 
of  the  university.  E.xtension  courses  enrolling 
annually  from  2.50  to  400  teachers  are  given  in 
the  university  buildings,  and  give  credit  toward 
a  university  degree.  A  medical  school  was 
established  in  1811,  which  existed  until  1828 
and  had  87  graduates. 

Student  life  at  Brown  partakes  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  both  the  traditional  "  small  col- 
lege "  and  the  large  university;  this  state  of 
affairs  is  due  to  the  rapid  growth  of  the  student 
body.  The  fraternities  are  an  important  ele- 
ment, and  still  occupy  a  position  somewhat  like 
that  which  they  hold  in  smaller  New  England 
colleges.  Their  membership  includes  a  large 
proportion  of  the  students,  and  their  life  centers 
in  chapter  houses,  5  of  which  have  been  erected 
or  leased  in  recent  years,  a  development  which 
has  been  criticized  as  tending  to  draw  men  from 
college  dormitories  and  refectories.  The  fol- 
lowing fraternities  have  chapters  at  Brown: 
Alpha  Delta  Phi,  Delta  Phi,  Psi  Upsilon,  Beta 
Theta  Pi,  Delta  Kappa  Epsilon,  Zeta  Psi, 
Theta  Delta  Chi,  Chi  Psi,  Delta  Up.silon,  Phi 
Delta  Theta,  Alpha  Tau  Omega,  Chi  Phi  (local). 
Delta  Tau  Delta,  Phi  Kappa  (organized  by 
Roman  Catholic  students,  local).  Kappa  Sigma, 
Phi  Gamma  Delta,  Phi  Kappa  Psi,  and  Kappa 
Alpha  Theta  (women).  In  1889  the  old  play- 
ground of  the  university,  now  known  as  Lin- 
coln Field,  was  graded  for  athletic  purposes; 
in  1898  a  new  athletic  field  was  laid  out  on 
Camp  Street,  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  uni- 
versity. The  Brown  Union,  a  social  club  for  a 
majority  of  the  students,  occupies  a  building 
in  which  are  the  headquarters  of  all  the  student 
enterprises.  There  is  a  Supervisor  of  Athletics; 
stringent  eligibility  rules  have  been  established 
by  the  faculty,  but  all  other  questions  concern- 
ing athletics  are  settled  by  the  students  them- 
selves. 

The  library  dates  from  1767.  In  1842  it 
contained  1000  volumes;  it  has  now  (1909) 
about  100,000  volumes.  In  June,  190S,  there 
were  enrolled  6681  graduates  of  the  university, 
of  whom  457  were  women  and  617  had  received 
honorary  degrees.  In  April,  1908,  the  funds  of 
Brown  University,  exclusive  of  those  pertaining 


to  the  John  Carter  Brown  Library,  amounted 
to  $.':!, 305, 390.  The  average  salary  of  a  pro- 
fessor is  $2680.  There  are  (1909)  91  members 
on  the  instructing  staff,  of  whom  29  arc  full 
professors.  The  students  number  967,  divided 
as  follows:  undergraduate  men,  681;  Women's 
College,  183;  graduate  students,  111.      C.  G. 

References:  — 

General  Catalogue  for  1908-1909  (historical  sketch). 

Guild,  R.  A.  History  of  Brown  i'niversilu.  (Provi- 
dence, 1S97.) 

History  of  Brown  University  in  the  biographies  of  ita 
presidents,  in  National  Cyclopedia  of  Biography. 
Vol.  VIII,  pp.  20-26. 

BRUNI,     LEONARDO    D'AREZZO.  —  A 

humanist  of  the  fourteenth  century,  born  at 
Arezzo,  whence  he  was  known  as  Aretino.  He 
studied  civil  law  at  Forence  and  Ravenna. 
While  at  Florence  he  was  attracted  to  the  new 
movement  by  Chrysoloras  (q.v.),  and  became 
an  ardent  student  of  Greek.  He  translated 
Plato,  Aristotle,  Demosthenes,  and  Plutarch. 
He  also  wrote  Hisloriannn  Florentiarum,  Libri 
XII,  and  lives  of  Dante  and  Petrarch.  He  was 
Papal  Secretary  under  four  popes,  and  at 
Florence  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  the  Medici. 

BRUNSWICK,  DUCHY  OF,  EDUCATION 

IN.  —  See    German    Empire,    Education    in. 

BRUSH  WORK.— See  Art  in  the  Schools; 

Design. 

BRUSSELS,      UNIVERSITY      OF.  —  This 

institution  for  higher  learning  owes  its  origin 
to  the  faculties  established  at  Brussels  under 
the  control  of  the  Imperial  University  (1806), 
although  the  university  as  such  was  not  created 
till  1834.  The  university  is  independent,  and  is 
not  an  incorporated  body.  It  is  maintained 
by  nmnicipal  grants  and  the  liberal  gifts  of 
wealthy  manufacturers.  Among  the  special 
schools  supplementing  the  work  of  the  four 
faculties  (law,  science,  medicine,  and  philosophy) 
are  several  scientific  institutions  with  ample 
laboratory  facilities,  a  higher  commercial  school, 
and  the  school  of  political  and  social  sciences. 
The  last  named,  created  in  1889,  soon  after 
took  possession  of  the  Solvay  Institute,  the 
gift  of  the  citizen  whose  name  it  bears,  a  unique 
structure  admirably  arranged  for  the  researches 
carried  on  by  the  professors  and  students  of  the 
specialties  to  which  it  pertains.  The  activity 
of  this  free  center  of  learning  and  research  is 
indicated  by  the  Revue  de  rUniversite,  the  organ 
of  the  institutions,  the  Union  des  ancicns 
Etudianls,  which  extends  aid  to  young  and  needy 
students,  and  the  university  extension  work,  of 
which  Brussels  is  the  inspiring  center.  In 
1907-1908  the  students  were  distributed  as 
follows:  philosophy  and  letters,  128;  law,  188; 
sciences,  224;  medicine,  297;  special  schools, 
353. 

See  Belgium,  Education  in. 


456 


BRYN  MAWR  COLLEGE 


BUCHANAN 


BRYN  MAWR  COLLEGE,  BRYN  MAWR, 

PA.  —  A  college  for  women  situated  in  the 
suburbs  of  Philadelphia,  founded  by  Dr.  Joseph 
W.  Taylor  in  ISSO.  The  college  was  opened 
for  instruction  in  the  autumn  of  ISSo.  The 
college  grounds  cover  52  acres,  on  which  are 
located  3  buildings,  which  include  the  library, 
lecture  rooms  and  laboratories.  Six  dormi- 
tories are  provided  for  the  students.  The 
students  are  divided  into  3  classes  —  graduate, 
undergraduate,  and  hearers.  A  large  number 
of  fellowships  and  scholarships  are  offered  in 
the  graduate  school.  For  entrance  into  the 
undergraduate  department  candidates  must 
pass  the  matriculation  examination  of  the 
college,  the  requirements  for  which  are  equiva- 
lent to  17.5  units.  The  examination  of  the 
College  Entrance  Examination  Board  (q.v.) 
is  accepted  as  an  equivalent.  Courses  are 
offered  leading  to  the  degree  of  B.A.,  but  candi- 
dates must  elect  their  courses  in  accordance 
with  the  Group  System  (g.v.).  The  hearers 
are  admitted  to  the  courses  under  certain  condi- 
tions, but  may  not  proceed  to  a  degree.  In 
1909-1910  there  was  an  enrollment  of  425 
students,  of  whom  88  were  graduates.  The 
faculty  includes  10  professors,  14  associate 
professors,  and  33  associates,  readers,  lecturers, 
and  demonstrators.  The  president  is  M.  Carey 
Thomas,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

BUCHANAN,  GEORGE  (1506-1582).— 
A  humanist  and  educationist  of  eminence,  who 
was  placed  by  his  contemporaries  in  the  very 
front  rank  as  a  scholar  and  a  poet.  Born  at 
Killearn  in  the  county  of  Stirling,  Scotland,  he 
became  at  the  age  of  14  a  student  at  the 
University  of  Paris,  and  his  life  from  that  time 
till  its  end  was  devoted,  almost  without  a 
break,  to  education  and  letters.  He  responded 
at  an  early  period  to  the  new  spirit  that  was 
fa.st  spreading  over  Western  Europe,  and  as  a 
humanist  attacked  the  barren  teaching  of  the 
schoolmen  and  the  ignorance  and  superstition 
of  the  Roman  priesthood.  His  native  country 
was  unaffected  by  the  Renaissance,  and  even 
the  Univcrsitj'  of  Paris,  to  which  he  returned 
after  spending  a  few  years  (1522-152())  in  Scot- 
land, was  dominated  by  scholasticism.  Bu- 
chanan, however,  introduced  genuine  classical 
studies  into  the  College  of  Ste.  Barbe,  of  which 
he  was  regent,  and  signalized  his  rupture  with 
the  Church  of  Rome  by  writing  three  satires 
on  her  clergy,  the  Somnium,  Pnlinodia,  and 
Franciscatius.  He  also  advocated  in  his  De 
Jure  Rcgni  the  rights  of  subjects,  and  hold  that 
kings  who  ruled  tyrannically  should  be  de- 
throned. Buchanan's  humanism  did  not  take 
the  form  of  mere  verbal  scholarship.  He  used 
the  Latin  tongue  as  a  man  of  letters  to  convey 
to  educated  p]urope  his  views  on  public  affairs 
and  his  criticisms  on  human  life.  His  real  work, 
however,  was  that  of  an  educationist.  This 
was  not  so  clearly  recognized  by  his  contempo- 
raries, who  were  impressed  chiefly  by  his  scholar- 


ship and  his  poetic  gifts.  But  it  is  now  gener- 
ally admitted  that  tiie  impetus  which  he  gave 
to  the  cause  of  education  in  Scotland  has  been 
of  more  value  to  his  countrymen  than  his  great 
reputation  as  a  poet.  The  chief  business  of  his 
life  from  his  twentieth  year  to  his  death  was  the 
teaching  of  youth.  He  was  a  professor,  suc- 
cessively, at  the  College  of  Ste.  Barbe,  Paris; 
the  College  de  Guyenne,  Bordeaux;  again  in 
Paris  in  the  College  du  Cardinal  Lemoine; 
and  in  the  LIniversity  of  Coimbra  in  Portugal. 
His  last  scholastic  appointment  was  the  prin- 
cipalship  of  St.  Leonard's  College,  St.  Andrews, 
Scotland.  He  acted  also  as  tutor  to  the  son  of 
the  Earl  of  Cassillis,  to  an  illegitimate  son  of 
James  V  of  Scotland,  to  the  son  of  the  famous 
Mar6chal  de  Brissac,  and  to  King  James  VI  of 
Scotland.  This  last  post  he  nominally  held 
till  his  death  in  1582,  for  in  his  Testament 
dative  he  is  described  as  "  preceptour  to  ye 
Kinge's  majestye  the  tyme  of  his  deceis,"  so 
that  he  may  be  said  to  have  died  teaching. 
This  indeed  is  literally  true,  for  James  Melville 
records  that  visiting  him  in  his  last  illness, 
along  with  his  uncle  Andrew  Melville,  and 
Thomas  Buchanan,  they  found  him  sitting  in 
his  chair  "  teaching  his  young  man  that  scrvit 
him  in  his  Chalmer  to  spell  a,  b,  ab;  e,  b,  eb; 
&c.  After  salutation  Mr.  Andro  sayes,  '  I  sie, 
sir,  ye  are  nocht  ydle.'  '  Better  this,'  quoth 
he,  '  nor  stelling  shicp  or  sitting  ydle  quilk  is 
alsill.'  "  Indeed,  it  is  the  spirit  that  underlies 
this  act  and  pervades  these  words  that  has  done 
more  for  education  in  Scotland  than  any  special 
scheme  of  reorganization  of  school  or  university 
teaching  with  which  Buchanan's  name  may  be 
associated.  It  is  true  that  he  translated  Li- 
nacre's  Latin  grammar  and  was  one  of  the  Com- 
missioners appointed  to  prepare  a  plan  for  the 
reconstruction  of  St.  Andrews  Lhiiversit.y.  He 
was  also  instrumental  in  securing  several  bene- 
fits for  Glasgow  University,  but  his  enduring 
worth  as  an  educationist  after  all  lies  in  the 
inspiration  which  he  gave  to  Scottish  youth  and 
in  presenting  to  them  an  ideal  in  the  world  of 
literature  and  learning  which  it  has  been  their 
aim  to  realize.  D.  McM. 

References  :  — 

Autobiography  included  in  his  History. 

Brown,  P.  H.  George  Buchanan,  Humanist  and  Re- 
former.     (Edinburgh,  1S90.) 

Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

Irving.  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  George 
Buchanan.     2d  ed.      (Edinburgh,  1817.) 

Macmill.vn,  D.  Life  of  George  Buchanan.  (London, 
1906.) 

Millar,  D.  A.  George  Buchanan,  A  Memorial.  (Lon- 
don, 1907.) 

Quartcrccntenar\-  Studies :  George  Buchanan,  Glasgow. 
(GlasKow,  1906.) 

Sandys,  J.  E.  .4  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  Vol. 
II.      (Cambridge.  1908.) 

Wallace,  R.,  and  Smith,  J.  C.  George  Buchanan. 
(New  York,  1900.) 

BUCHANAN,  JAMES.  —  The  firstr  teacher 
of  the  first  infant  school  in  Great  Britain.  Al- 
though a  poor  weaver  who  at  first  could  scarcely 


457 


BUCHAREST 


BUDAPEST 


read,  write,  or  spell,  Robert  Owen  {q.v.)  selected 
him  in  1815  to  take  charge  of  the  infant  school 
at  New  Lanark  on  account  of  his  love  of  children 
and  his  readiness  to  be  instructed.  In  ISIS 
Buchanan  was  appointed  by  a  committee  of 
the  most  prominent  leaders  of  the  time  in  Eng- 
land, including  Lord  Brougham  and  James  Mill, 
to  take  charge  of  a  similar  school  in  London. 
But  removed  from  the  influence  of  Owen  he 
failed.  In  1S40  he  left  for  South  Africa,  where 
two  of  his  children  were  infant  teachers.  It  is 
very  probable  that  Wilderspin  ((j.v.),  who  came 
to  be  regarded  as  the  leader  of  this  infant  school 
movement,  gained  his  inspiration  from  Bu- 
chanan. 
See  Infant  Schools. 

References:  — 

Owen,  Robert.     Life. 

Salmon,  D.,  and  Hindshaw,  W.    Infant  Schools.    (Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1904.) 


BUCHAREST,     UNIVERSITY     OF. 

RouM.\.\i.\,  Education  in. 


See 


BUCHTEL    COLLEGE,     AKRON,    OHIO. 

—  A  coeducational  institution,  founded  in  1870 
by  the  Ohio  Universalist  Convention,  and 
opened  in  1872.  Academic,  collegiate,  and  fine 
arts  departments  are  maintained.  In  the 
college  classical,  scientific,  and  philosophic 
courses  are  offered,  leading  up  to  the  appropriate 
degrees.  The  requirements  for  admission  are 
15  units.  Admission  is  by  certificate  from  an 
approved  high  school  or  academy  or  by  exami- 
nation. The  college  stands  on  a  campus  com- 
prising 6  acres,  on  which  there  are  8  buildings, 
valued,  together  with  the  equipment,  at  about 
$130,000.  There  are  on  the  faculty  10  profes- 
sors and  12  instructors  and  assistants.  There 
were  enrolled  in  1909-1910,  132  students  in  the 
college,  120  in  the  academy,  and  57  in  the  fine 
arts  department.  Rev.  A.  B.  Church,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  is  the  president. 

BUCKNELL  UNIVERSITY,  LEWISBURG, 

PA.  —  Incorporated  as  a  nonsectarian  insti- 
tution in  1846.  The  administration  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  self-perpetuating  board  of  trustees. 
The  property  of  the  institution  exceeds  one 
million  dollars,  and  the  productive  investment 
amounts  to  over  .5700,000.  This  money  is 
largely  the  gift  of  several  hundred  persons. 
An  academy,  an  institute  for  young  women, 
and  a  school  of  music  are  maintained  in  addi- 
tion to  the  college.  Pupils  are  admitted  to 
the  institute  for  young  women  at  the  age  of 
12,  and  receive  courses  extending  over  5 
years,  at  the  end  of  which  they  are  admitted 
to  the  sophomore  year  in  the  college.  Students 
are  admitted  to  the  college  either  on  certificate 
from  approved  high  schools,  Pennsylvania 
state  normal  schools,  the  College  Entrance 
Examination  Board,  and  New  York  State 
Board  of  Regents,  or  by  examination.  The 
requirements  for  admission  are  approximately 


15  units.  The  college  offers  8  courses, 
each  of  4  years,  leading  to  the  appropriate 
degrees.  The  buildings  of  the  college  proper 
are  9  in  number.  The  enrollment  in  1909- 
1910  was  527.  There  are  21  professors,  2 
assistant  professors,  and  11  instructors  and 
lecturers.  John  Howard  Harris,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
is  the  president. 

BUDiEUS,  OK  BUDE,  GUILLAUME  (14fi7- 
1540).  —  Probably  the  most  renowned  French 
scholar  of  his  time,  and  largely  instrumental  in 
the  revival  of  interest  in  the  study  of  the  Greek 
language  and  literature  in  Paris.  He  not  only 
wrote  extensively  on  philology,  philosophy,  and 
jurisprudence,  but  was  also  a  man  of  public 
affairs  under  Louis  XII  and  Francis  I.  The 
foundation  of  the  College  dc  France  was  largely 
the  result  of  Buda^us'  continued  pleadings  with 
Francis  I,  and  it  was  doubtless  at  his  suggestion 
that  his  friend  Erasmus  was  invited  to  come  to 
Paris  as  director  of  that  institution.  Most  im- 
portant works:  Annotatioiics  in  XXIV  libros 
pandectorum  (1508);  De  asse  et  partibits  ejus 
(1514),  a  treati.se  upon  ancient  coins;  and  the 
Commentarii  linguae  graerae  (1519).  His  con- 
tribution to  pedagogy  was  a  French  treatise,  De 
rinstitutioii'du  Prince,  written  in  1516,  but  not 
printed  until  1547  in  order  to  avoid  comparison 
with  a  similar  work  by  Erasmus.  Besides  the 
Renaissance  plea  for  humanistic  learning,  the 
work  is  remarkable  for  the  emphasis  attached 
to  the  importance  of  a  study  of  history. 

F.  E.  P. 

References:  — 
BuDE,  E.  DE.     Vie  de  GuiUaume  Bude.     (Paris,  1884.) 

Lcttrcs  inediles.     (Paris,  1S87.) 

8.\NDTS,  .1.  E.     A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  Vol. 

II.      (C'ambridgi'.  1903.) 
Woodward,   W.  H.      Studies  in  Education  during  the 
Age  of  the  Renaissance.     (Cambridge,  1906.) 

BUDAPEST,  THE  ROYAL  HUNGARIAN 
UNIVERSITY  OF. —  The  lineal  descendant 
of  the  institution  established  at  Ofen  in  1390, 
which  had  a  somewhat  checkered  career.  It 
was  disorganized,  reestablished  at  Tyrnau  in 
1635,  moved  back  to  Ofen  in  1777,  removed 
to  Pest  in  1783,  and  finally  placed  on  a  level 
with  the  other  Austrian  universities  in  1850. 
The  university  includes  the  four  traditional 
faculties  of  theology,  in  which  instruction  is 
given  in  Latin,  law  and  political  science,  medi- 
cine, and  philosophy.  The  city  also  boasts  of 
a  technological  school,  including  among  others 
departments  of  mechanical  engineering,  archi- 
tecture, and  chemistrj'.  Other  institutions  of 
the  city  are  a  school  of  veterinary  medicine, 
founded  in  1786,  the  Reformed  Theological 
Academy  (1855),  the  Jewish  Theological  Semi- 
nary (1877),  the  Hungarian  Academy  of  Science 
(1825),  the  Royal  Hungarian  Geological  Insti- 
tute (1869),  the  Hungarian  National  Museum 
(1869),  etc.  The  library  of  the  latter  institution 
contains  over  400,000  volumes,  16,000  manu- 
scripts, and  500,000  documents,  while  the  uiii- 


458 


BUDDHA  AND  BUDDHISM 


BUDDHA  AND  BUDDHISM 


versity  library,  established  in  1635,  contains 
275,000  volumes  and  over  2000  manuscripts. 
The  annual  budget  amounts  to  about  $500,000, 
half  of  which  sum  is  approi)riated  by  the  govern- 
ment. About  7000  students  and  796  auditors 
were  in  attendance  on  the  university  during  the 
winter  semester  of  1909-1910.  R.  T. 

See  AusTRiA-HuNG.\RY,  Education  in. 

BUDDHA  AND  BUDDHISM.  —  The  word 
"  Buddha  "  means  "  the  Enlightened  One," 
and  was  used  in  ancient  India  as  a  religious 
title.  Buddhists  call  a  Buddha  him  who  has 
solved  the  i)roblem  of  existence,  who  knows 
and  preaches  the  truth,  and  thereby  becomes 
the  teacher  and  the  savior  of  mankind.  Hav- 
ing attained  the  highest  goal  of  life.  Nirvana, 
he  is  no  longer  born  again,  and  his  death  is 
called  a  final  entry  into  Nirvana,  leaving 
behind  nothing  mortal  of  a  continued  bodily 
existence. 

According  to  the  statements  in  the  Buddhist 
Sacred  Books,  Buddhas  appear  from  time  to 
time,  and  their  doctrine  flourishes  for  a  certain 
period,  but  when  its  light  has  been  dimmed  a 
new  Buddha  ri.ses  who  preaches  the  self-same 
eternal  truth  that  is  briefly  formulated  in  the 
Dhammapada  thus:  "  Not  to  do  wrong,  but 
to  do  good,  and  to  keep  the  heart  pure.  That 
is  the  religion  of  all  Buddhas." 

There  is  but  one  historical  Buddha,  the 
founder  of  Buddhism  as  it  now  exists  in  Burma, 
Ceylon,  Siam,  Tibet,  China,  and  Japan.  His 
name  is  Siddhartha  Gautama  of  the  Shakya 
tribe,  a  son  of  Shuddhodhana  and  his  wife  Maya. 
All  previous  Buddhas  are  legendary.  It  has 
been  calculated  that  Gautama  was  born  622 
B.C.,  attained  to  Buddhahood  in  588,  and  died 
in  his  eightieth  year,  in  543  B.C.  Buddhist 
chronology  counts  the  years  after  the  Bud- 
dha's Nirvana,  543  b.c. 

Religious  zeal  has  so  overlaid  Buddha's  life 
with  legend  that  Professor  Wilson,  of  Oxford, 
and  later  on  Senart,  found  suflScient  argument 
for  the  theory  that  Siddhartha  Gautama  had 
never  existed  and  that  Buddha's  life  was  origi- 
nally a  solar  myth.  This  hypothesis  has  never 
been  taken  very  seriously  by  scholars,  and  the 
rclial)ility  of  Buddhist  tradition,  leaving  out 
the  obvious  accretions  of  myths,  has  rather 
been  strengthened  with  increasing  information 
througii  the  discovery  of  ancient  monuments, 
relics,  and  inscriptions. 

The  Shakya  constituted  a  small  republican 
state  of  Indo-Scythians  who  had  settled  at  the 
foot  of  the  Ncpalese  Himalaya.  Shuddhodhana 
api)('ars  to  have  been  a  wealthy  and  powerful 
nobleman,  a  chief  or  even  rajah  of  the  Gautama 
clan,  and  Siddiiartha  enjoyed  a  good  educa- 
tion. He  was  married  to  his  cousin,  Yasho- 
dhara  of  Koli,  who  bore  him  a  son  whom  they 
named  Rahula,  i.e.  "  fetter,"  because  the  child 
was  likely  to  serve  as  a  tie  which  would  bind 
Siddhartha  to  the  worldly  interests  of  life. 

Siddhartha  was  of  a  religious  turn  of  mind, 


459 


and  (as  tradition  most  dramatically  tells), 
having  beheld  the  sight  of  the  three  ills  of  life 
to  which  all  flesh  is  heir,  —  disease,  old  age, 
and  death,  —  he  left  his  comfortable  home  and 
renounced  the  world.  He  first  sought  salva- 
tion in  the  ways  of  Brahman  philosophy  and 
asceticism.  But  he  rejected  the  traditional 
doctrines,  the  authority  of  the  Vedas  and  the 
means  of  salvation  by  prayer  and  sacrifice, 
and  founded  a  school  of  his  own  which  rapidly 
developed  into  a  powerful  religious  movement 
distinguished  by  the  rare  combination  of  philo- 
sophical depth  and  a  popular  mode  of  presen- 
tation. 

The  canonical  books  of  Buddhism  are  written 
in  Pali,  a  language  which  bears  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  older  Sanskrit  that  Italian  bears 
to  Latin.  However,  during  the  first  century 
of  the  Christian  era,  at  a  time  when  Buddhism 
began  to  assimilate  some  of  the  most  popular 
traditions  of  the  past,  Sanskrit  came  into 
vogue  again,  and  almost  simultaneously  a  dis- 
tinction was  made  between  this  new,  the 
broader  and  more  popular  church,  the  Maha- 
yana,  i.e.  the  "  large  vessel  "  (viz.  of  salvation) 
and  the  older  and  more  austere  school,  now 
called  Hinayana  (or  "  small  vessel  ").  At 
this  juncture  Buddhism  spread  over  Tibet, 
China,  and  Japan,  and  so  it  happened  that  in 
Northern  Buddhism  the  terms  and  names 
assume  the  Sanskrit  form,  while  in  Southern 
Buddhism  the  original  Pali  prevails. 

According  to  the  dualistic  notions  of  ancient 
India,  all  material  existence  was  deemed  evil, 
and  the  soul,  called  atman,  or  self,  was  supposed 
to  be  a  being  by  itself.  Deeply  religious  people 
therefore  sought  salvation  through  self-morti- 
fication, which  should  serve  as  a  means  for  the 
liberation  of  the  soul  from  the  body,  and  for 
the  attainment  of  Nirvana,  the  state  of  perfect 
spiritual  bliss. 

Nirvana  is  characterized  as  a  state  of  perfect 
peace  where  there  is  no  pain,  no  sorrow,  no 
tormenting  desires,  nor  wants,  and  this  was 
to  be  attained  by  extinguishing  or  blowing 
out  the  flame  of  passion  —  hence  the  name 
for  Nirvana  (Pali,  Nibbana)  means  "  extinc- 
tion." 

Among  the  Western  people  the  notion  pre- 
vails that  Nirvana  means  "  annihilation,"  and 
this  view  was  originally  held  also  by  Professor 
Max  Muller  until  he  investigated  the  question 
and  settled  it  by  collecting  all  the  passages  in 
the  Buddhist  books  which  refer  to  Nirvana, 
when  he  discovered  to  his  own  astonishment 
that  there  was  not  one  passage  which  described 
this  state  of  highest  bliss.  Nirvana,  as  annihi- 
lation. His  book  on  the  subject,  entitled 
Nirvana  (first  edition,  1869)  should  have  put 
an  end  to  the  dispute,  and  j-et  even  such 
scholars  as  Oldenberg  are  found"  upholding  the 
old  view.  The  difficulty  lies  in  the  inability 
of  some  people  to  comprehend  the  significance 
of  Buddhist  [ihilosophy  and  psychology. 

Buddhists   distinguish   between   two   states: 


BUDDHA  AND  BUDDHISM 


BUDDHA  AND  BUDDHISM 


Samsara,  which  is  the  restless  and  stormy  ocean 
of  life  with  its  troubles,  and  Nirvana,  the  hliss 
of  eternal  rest.  The  former  is  pictured  as  a 
wheel,  the  eternal  circuit  of  which  consists 
of  the  twelve  Nidanas,  —  a  chain  of  twelve 
links.  Nirvana  is  called  the  immortal,  the 
uncreate,  the  refuge,  the  happy  island,  etc. 
Buddha  taught  that  Nirvana  can  be  attained 
in  this  life,  and  its  attainment  constitutes 
Buddhaliood. 

Buddha's  main  doctrine  is  the  nonexistence 
of  the  atinan  (self).  Since  there  is  no  separate 
ego-being,  there  is  no  soul-transmigration.  In 
its  place  Buddha  teaches  the  doctrine  of 
rebirth  or  reincarnation  based  on  the  observa- 
tion of  the  persistence  of  life  forms.  As  the 
banana  seed  changes  into  a  tree  and  finally 
reappears  in  the  ripe  fruit,  so  the  character 
of  men  is  preserved  and  transmitted.  There 
is  no  entity  that  migrates,  but  the  type  persists. 
There  is  no  alman  (self),  but  there  is  mana 
(mind).  The  translation  of  atman  by  "  soul  " 
has  given  rise  to  the  idea  that  Buddha  teaches 
the  nonexistence  of  the  soul.  His  conception 
is  monistic,  not,  like  that  of  the  Brahnians, 
dualistic. 

Buddha's  explanation  of  the  problem  of 
existence  is  dynamical.  While  the  existence 
of  the  ego  is  an  illusion,  he  teaches  the  persist- 
ence of  action,  or  Karma.  Every  creature 
is  the  product  of  its  previous  Karma,  and  its 
Karma  will  continue  according  to  the  law  of 
causation.  Karma  therefore  is  the  root  of 
existence,  of  particularity,  and  of  individuality, 
and  Karma  is  perpetuated  by  clinging  to  one's 
individuality.  The  result  is  suffering,  but  he 
who  has  attained  enlightenment  cuts  off  the 
thirst  for  existence  (tanha).  He  lives  in  the 
world,  but  he  clings  no  longer  to  his  self.  When 
the  ego  is  recognized  as  a  sham,  egotism  loses 
its  meaning.  These  views  are  formulated  in 
the  four  noble  truths:   (1)  existence  is  suffering; 

(2)  the   cause   of  suffering   is   desire    (tanha); 

(3)  the  cessation  of  suffering  is  brought  about 
by  cutting  off  desire  (clinging  to  individual 
existence);  and  (4)  the  cessation  of  suffering 
is  brought  about  by  the  eightfold  noble  i)atli 
which  consists  of  (1)  right  comprehension, 
(2)  right  resolution,  (3)  right  speech,  (4)  right 
acts,  (.5)  the  right  way  of  earning  a  livelihood, 
(6)  right  efforts,  (7)  right  thoughts,  and  (8) 
the  right  state  of  a  peaceful  mind. 

Truth,  or  religion,  or  the  doctrine  of  religion, 
is  called  Dharma,  and  the  congregation  of  the 
followers  of  Buddha,  the  brotherhood,  is  called 
Sangha.  Thus  the  formula  which  is  repeated 
three  times  upon  joining  the  Buddhist  faith, 
reads:  "  I  take  my  refuge  in  the  Buddha;  I 
take  my  refuge  in  the  Dharma;  I  take  my 
refuge  in  the  Sangha." 

There  is  no  prayer  in  Buddhism;  but  there 
are  vows,  and  all  Buddhists  are  expected  to 
avoid  the  ten  evils,  which  are  three  of  the  body, 
four  of  the  tongue,  and  three  of  the  mind: 
(1)  killing,  (2)  stealing,  (3)  impurity;   (4)  lying. 


(5)  slander,  (6)  abuse,  (7)  gossip;  (<S)  greed, 
(9)  malice,  and  (10)  ignorance.  Five  trades  are 
forbidden  to  monks:  (1)  traffic  in  arms,  (2)  the 
slave  trade,  (3)  traffic  in  flesh,  (4)  the  sale  of 
licjuors,  and  (5)  the  sale  of  poisons. 

Further,  there  arc  five  precepts  for  laymen: 

(1)  not  to  destroy  life,  (2)  not  to  take  what  is 
not  given,  (3)  not  to  tell  lies,  (4)  not  to  drink 
intoxicating  liquors,  (5)  not  to  commit  adultery. 
And  there  are  three  adilitional  precepts  for 
monks:  (1)  not  to  eat  food  at  night,  (2)  not 
to  use  perfumes,  (3)  not  to  sleep  in  high  beds 
but  on  mats. 

A  remarkable  institution  is  the  Uposatha  or 
confession,  which  is  however  not  to  be  made 
privately  to  a  imtcr  confefisor  (as  in  the  Ronnin 
Catholic  Church),  but  publicly  before  the  as- 
sembled brotherhood. 

There  are  indications  that  in  the  day  of 
Buddha  there  were  several  teachers  who  taught 
more  or  less  different  ways  of  salvation,  but 
Siddhartha  Gautama  is  the  one  who  alone  is 
called  the  Buddha.  He  eclipsed  all  others,  and 
his  formulation  of  the  doctrine  pro\ed  fittest 
for  survival.  We  know  that  Buddha's  cousin 
and  disciple  Devadatta  tried  to  form  a  schism 
by  outdoing  Buddha  in  severity,  but  he  failed. 
Outside  of  Buddhism  a  certain  Mahavira 
preached  the  doctrine  of  the  Jainas  and  founded 
a  religion  which  is  still  in  existence,  though 
limited  to  a  small  community  of  followers. 
While  Buddha's  religion  indicates  a  strong 
monistic  tendency,  Mahavira  was  a  dualist 
who  claimed  to  have  conquered  materiality 
and  all  evil,  and  was  therefore  worshiped  by 
his  disciples  as  the  Jaina  or  conqueror.  The 
title  Jaina  was  an  equivalent  for  the  name 
Buddha,  and  is  still  used  bj^  Buddhists  as  a 
synonym  for  Buddha. 

While  other  religious  teachers  limited  their 
field  of  activity  to  their  immediate  disciples, 
to  monks  who  had  retired  from  the  world, 
Buddha  spread  the  seeds  of  his  religion  broad- 
cast, and  accepted  also  lay  disciples  who  did 
not  renounce  the  world,  but  remained  with  their 
families  and  carried  on  their  trades. 

Buddha  is  called  Bhagavat,  the  Blessed  One; 
or  Shakyamuni,  the  Sage  of  the  Shakya;  or  the 
Tathagata,  a  term  not  quite  clear.  It  is 
mostly  translated  the  "  Perfect  One,"  and  has 
been  explained  to  signify  one  who  has  fulfilled 
all  the  requirements  of  being  a  Buddha. 

Buddha  was  an  educator  of  the  first  rank. 
His  personality  must  have  been  possessed  of 
an  unusual  imprcssiveness,  and  most  of  the 
doctrines  held  by  Buddhists  to-day  were 
formulated  by  himself;  nor  is  it  improbable 
that  he  composed  many  of  the  verses  of  the 
Dhammapada.  He  has  impressed  his  spirit 
upon  a  good  half  of  mankind,  and  may  be 
called  a  reformer  on  the  largest  scale  possible. 
How  did  he  succeed?  (1)  He  lived  the  religion 
which  he  taught  and  set  the  example  to  others. 

(2)  He  endeavored  to  make  every  one  of  his 
disciples   independent,    claiming   no   authority 


460 


BUDDHA  AND   BUDDHISM 


BUDGET 


except  that  of  a  teacher  and  adviser.  "  Be 
ye  lamps  unto  yourselves,"  he  said  in  his  fare- 
well address  to  his  disciples.  (3)  He  was 
clear  in  his  statements,  and  practiced  the 
method  of  enumerating  the  several  points 
he  wanted  to  impress  on  his  followers.  (4)  He 
illustrated  his  doctrines  bj'  allegories,  parables, 
and  stories.  (5)  Though  he  rejected  the  Brah- 
man doctrines  (belief  in  the  Vedas  as  inspired 
books,  the  Brahman  ritual,  sacrifice,  praj'er, 
and  the  caste  sj'stem),  he  did  not  antagonize 
either  Brahmanism  or  any  other  religion. 
Certain  criticisms  of  Brahmanism  have  been 
attributed  to  Buddha,  one  in  which  the  Brah- 
mans  are  compared  to  a  string  of  blind  men 
(not  unlike  Christ's  parable  of  blind  leaders  of 
the  blind),  and  another  ridiculing  the  preten- 
sions of  the  god  Brahma  to  omniscience  and  om- 
nipotence, but  even  these  are  more  humorous 
than  satirical.  (7)  Buddha  points  out  error 
and  its  consequences,  but  he  does  not  chide,  nor 
does  he  assume  the  authorit}'  of  a  Lord.  In 
this  sense  even  the  code  of  moral  precepts  are 
not  called  the  ten  commandments,  but  "  avoid- 
ing the  ten  evils."  (8)  He  thrilled  his  hearers 
by  pointing  out  the  blessedness,  the  beauty, 
and  the  glory  of  his  ethics.  He  called  his 
religion  the  "  glorious  doctrine  "  (an  analogy  to 
the  Christian  "  gospel  ").  (9)  He  presented 
the  truths  he  taught  in  poetical  form,  which 
added  the  euphony  of  Pali  verse  to  a  convincing 
appeal  to  truth. 

The  many  striking  similarities  between 
Buddhism  and  Christianitj'  suggest  historical 
connections,  but  the  influence  of  Buddhism  on 
Christianity  must  have  been  indirect;  there 
was  no  direct  borrowing.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  influence  of  the  Christian  Xestorians  on 
the  formation  of  Lamaism  (the  hierarchic 
Buddhism  of  Tibet),  is  undeniable.  A  most 
curious  coincidence  is  the  accidental  similarity 
in  sound  of  names,  such  as  Maria  —  Maya, 
Johannes  —  Ananda,  Petros  —  Shariputra,  Ju- 
das —  Devadatta,  etc. 

The  literature  on  Buddhism  is  very  extensive. 
The  ancient  canonical  books  are  collected  in  a 
library  called  Tripitaka,  the  "  three  baskets," 
consisting  of  the  Dharina  (doctrine),  the  Vinaya 
(precepts  and  rules),  and  the  Ahhidharma 
(philosophy). 

The  best  known  and  most  characteristic 
books  of  the  Buddhist  canon  are  the  Dham- 
mapada,  a  book  of  stanzas,  religious  poems  of 
deep  earnestness;  the  Sutla  Nipala,  a  collec- 
tion of  discourses;  the  Dhamma-Chakka-Pra- 
valana  Sutla,  or  the  Foundation  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Righteousness,  and  the  Mahaparinibbana 
Sulta,  a  story  of  the  last  days  of  Buddha. 

Further  there  are  several  biographies.  The 
Buddhacharita  is  a  life  of  Buddha  by  Ash- 
vaghosha.  Another  life  of  Buddha,  in  the 
original  Sanskrit,  has  been  lost,  but  exists  still 
in  a  Chinese  translation  under  the  title  Fo  Sho 
Hing  Tsan  King.  The  best  known  of  the  later 
biographies  and   the   most  fantastic   story   of 


Buddha's  life  is  the  Lalila  Vistara.  The 
Jataka,  or  "  birthstories,"  contain  the  folklore 
of  Buddhism.  They  are  popular  tales  with  a 
moral.  P.  C. 

References:  — 

Ar.N'OLD,  E.     Light  of  Asia.      (London,  1882.) 

Buddhism.      (Rangoon.) 

C.\RUS,  P.     Dharma.     (Open  Court,  Chicago,  1907.) 
The  Gospel  of  Buddha. 

Clarke,  J.  F.  Nineteenth  Century  Questions.  (Bos- 
ton, 1897.) 

Davids,    T.    W.    Rhys.     Buddhism,    Its    History    and 
Literature.     (New  York,  1896.) 
Buddhist  Birth  Stories.      (London,  1899.) 

MoNiER-WiLLi.uiis,  Sir  Monier.  Buddhism  and  Its 
Conneetion  with  Brahmanism.     (London,   1S8S.) 

MxJller,  F.  Max.  Buddhist  Nihilism.  (London, 
1869.) 

Oldenberg.  Buddha,  Sein  Leben,  Seine  Lehre,  etc. 
(Berlin,  1897,  3d  ed.)  Tr.  by  W.  Hoey.  (Lon- 
don, 1882.) 

Pali  Text  Society.  Publications,  ed.  by  T.  W.  Rhys 
Davids.      (London.) 

Senart.  Essai  sur  la  legendc  de  Bouddha.  (Paris, 
1882.) 

The  Mahabodhi  Journal.      (Calcutta.) 

The  Buddhist.     (London.) 

Warren.  Buddhism,  In  Translations.  (Cambridge, 
Mass.,  1896.) 

BUDE.  —  See  Bud.bus. 


BUDGET,  SCHOOL. —  National.  —  The  lack 

of  any  national  educational  plan  and  the 
absence  of  any  direct  federal  control  of  or- 
ganized public  education  in  the  United  States 
serves  to  reduce  education  to  a  position  of  very 
minor  importance  as  a  factor  in  the  federal 
budget.  Nevertheless,  each  of  the  executive 
departments  of  the  national  government  directs 
and  carries  on  enterprises  of  an  educational  or 
quasi-educational  character,  the  expenditures 
for  which  are  authorized  and  approved  by 
Congress.  Consequently,  while  the  annual 
amount  of  such  expenditures  is  insignificant 
in  comparison  with  the  total  national  outlay  for 
all  purposes,  it  does  contain  items  of  signal 
importance  to  the  educational  welfare  of  the 
nation.  The  appropriations  of  the  Sixtieth 
Congress  (1907)  in  behalf  of  education  may  be 
citecl  as  typical  of  the  existing  fiscal  position  of 
education  as  a  federal  undertaking.  The  total 
assembled  from  the  several  departmental 
budgets  amounted  to  more  than  fourteen  and 
one  half  millions  of  dollars.  This  included 
funds  for  the  pubhc  schools  of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the 
Library  of  Congress,  international  scientific 
congresses,  military  and  naval  academies  and 
training  institutions,  Indian  education.  Bureau 
of  Education,  and  the  continuing  appropria- 
tions for  colleges  of  agriculture  and  mechanic 
arts.  Excepting  the  last-named  item,  the 
appropriations  were  in  every  case  for  the  benefit 
of  special  institutions  and  for  extraordinary 
purposes  having  little  or  no  relation  to  the 
general  system  of  public  schools.  Numerous 
proposals  have  been  made  in  Congress  for  the 
enlargement  of  the  sphere  of  federal  influence 


4G1 


BUDGET 


BUDGET 


through  appropriations  to  the  several  states  for 
various  general  educational  purposes,  the  most 
significant  of  which  have  been  those  providing 
for  national  appropriations  in  aid  of  element- 
ary and  secondary  industrial  and  commercial 
schools.  Until,  however,  there  is  a  more  logical 
organization  of  the  educational  activities  carried 
on  under  national  auspices,  the  importance  of 
education  in  the  federal  budget  will  be  uncertain 
and  varying.  (See  Federal  Aid  to  Educa- 
tion.) 

State.  —  The  fiscal  administration  of  pubHc 
education  in  the  different  states  of  the  Union 
presents  the  greatest  diversity.  Practically 
speaking,  elementary  and  secondary  schools 
receive  their  major  support  from  local  taxation, 
supplemented  by  an  animal  apportionment 
from  the  income  of  permanent  state  funds 
established  for  schools  by  general  state  taxes, 
and  by  various  special  aids.  (See  articles  on 
Apportionment;  Funds;  Taxation.)  Higher 
and  professional  institutions,  and  schools  for 
special  classes,  being  administered  directly  by 
state  boards  and  officers,  arc  dependent  entirely 
upon  the  state  as  a  supportmg  unit.  Very 
frequently  the  state  constitution  renders  it  man- 
datory upon  the  legislature  to  maintain  these 
institutions.  They  are,  therefore,  of  consider- 
able importance  in  general  state  finance. 

Two  general  policies  are  to  be  observed  with 
reference  to  the  ordinary  support  of  special 
state  educational  institutions.  Under  the  first, 
a  more  or  less  stable  amount  of  support  is 
granted  to  each,  through  either  continuing 
appropriations,  or  specified  state  taxes.  As 
typical  of  ^he  principal  different  budgetary 
methods  whereby  a  fixed  portion  of  support 
is  attempted  may  be  cited  such  instances  as 
the  special  state  taxes  levied  in  California, 
Colorado,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kentucky,  Michigan, 
Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Ohio,  and  Wisconsin, 
for  the  university,  agricultural  colleges,  normal 
schools,  etc.;  the  special  state  tax  (one  mill) 
in  North  Dakota  (apportioned  as  follows: 
thirty-three  one  hundredths  of  a  mill  to  the 
state  university  and  school  of  mines,  twenty 
one  hundredths  of  a  mill  to  the  agricultural 
college,  fifteen  one  hundredths  of  a  mill  to  one 
state  normal  school  and  thirteen  to  another, 
six  one  hundredths  of  a  mill  to  the  state  school 
for  the  deaf,  two  one  hundredths  of  a  mill  to  the 
state  school  of  forestry, /ot(r  one  hundredths  of  a 
mill  to  the  academy  of  science,  seven  one  hun- 
dredths of  a  mill  to  state  industrial  school) ;  and 
the  general  education  fund  in  Tennessee,  con- 
sisting of  25  per  cent  of  the  gross  revenue  of 
the  state  (61  per  cent  for  general  apportion- 
ment to  local  communities  for  elementary  and 
secondary  education;  10  per  cent  for  special 
apportionment  to  local  communities;  8  per 
cent  for  special  aid  to  county  high  schools; 
I  per  cent  for  school  libraries;  13  per  cent  for 
state  normal  schools;  and  7  per  cent  for  the 
university).  These  fixed  funds  are  usually 
augmented  through  appropriations  for  build- 


ings and  sundry  special  purposes  at  each  legis- 
lative session. 

Under  the  second,  and  more  widely  adopted, 
policy,  the  responsibility  of  providing  for  the 
support  of  the  several  state  educational  insti- 
tutions and  interests  is  committed  to  each 
annual  or  biennial  legislative  session.  In 
practically  every  instance  controlling  boards 
and  officers  are  required  to  i)resent  at  the  close 
of  each  financial  period  (annual  or  biennial) 
proper  reports  containing  among  other  things 
an  account  of  fiscal  operations.  These  pub- 
lished reports  become  the  medium  of  direct 
communication  between  institutions  and  legis- 
lature. Theoretically  they  are  the  basis  for 
the  legislative  determination  regarding  sup- 
port for  the  next  fiscal  period.  Practically, 
however,  the  needs  and  claims  of  the  institu- 
tions are  presented  by  their  officers  directly, 
or  indirectly  through  special  committees  of  the 
legislature,  to  the  legislative  budget  committee 
(committee  on  finance,  committee  on  claims), 
which  is  under  the  necessity  of  adjusting  the 
total  of  appropriations  to  the  estimated  rev- 
enues. While  this  second  policy  is  the  more 
flexible,  and  enables  the  readier  adaptation  of 
financial  means  to  educational  needs,  it  un- 
doubtedly leads  to  competition  among  institu- 
tions for  financial  preferment,  and  frequently 
permits  the  sacrifice  of  education  in  the  interests 
of  party  expediencj'.  The  contemporary  trend 
is  toward  the  first  policy  in  order  to  insure  to 
institutions  a  support  consistent  with  normal 
development  and  to  remove  the  details  of  this 
feature  of  public  finance  from  the  uncertain 
action  of  political  forces. 

Whichever  of  the  foregoing  policies  as  to 
ordinary  financial  support  of  special  and  higher 
institutions  is  followed,  two  methods  are  em- 
ployed for  the  general  legislative  control  of 
expenditures.  Bj'  the  one,  the  limit  of  expen- 
diture for  each  purpose  —  salaries,  repairs, 
library,  etc.  —  is  specifically  indicated;  by  the 
other,  no  detailed  prescriptions  are  imposed, 
the  distribution  and  expenditure  of  the  appro- 
priations being  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
controUing  boards. 

Originally  the  financial  policy  of  the  states 
toward  higher  and  special  schools  was  one  of 
decentraUzation;  that  is,  each  was  treated 
independently  of  the  other.  The  marked 
tendency  of  the  last  decade  has  been  to  bring 
public  expenditures  for  these  purposes  more 
and  more  within  the  control  of  special  admin- 
istrative boards,  thus  preventing  to  a  large 
degree  unnecessary  institutional  competition 
and  duplication  of  effort,  and  establishing  a 
basis  for  the  best  development  in  so  far  as  this 
is  dependent  upon  support.  The  well-defined 
movement  for  the  more  thorough  auditing  of 
the  finances  of  all  public  institutions  has  also 
introduced  a  factor  calculated  to  produce  more 
economical  financial  administration. 

From  a  fiscal  point  of  view,  the  relation  of  the 
state  to  local  systems  of  elementary  and  sec- 


462 


BUDGET 


BUDGET 


ondary  schools  is  of  much  larger  significance 
than  that  involved  in  the  mere  mechanical 
distribution  of  state  school  funds.  The  appor- 
tionment of  general  state  taxes  for  education 
and  the  distribution  of  the  income  from  per- 
manent school  funds  are  made  in  accordance 
with  some  general  plan  that  assumes  to  dimin- 
ish to  some  extent  the  differences  in  educational 
facilities  existing  between  local  communities, 
especially  differences  primarily  due  to  the  in- 
sufficiency of  the  local  sources  of  support. 
The  establicshment  of  the  various  forms  of 
special  aids  aims,  in  addition,  to  stimulate 
localities  to  larger  effort  in  behalf  of  education. 
In  consequence,  the  state  jilays  a  not  unimpor- 
tant part  in  the  making  of  the  local  educational 
budgets;  chiefly  through  the  attachment  of 
conditions  to  the  funds  distributed  and  apjior- 
tioncd.  The  requirement  that  local  communi- 
ties shall  raise  by  taxation  for  the  support  of 
their  common  schools  a  sum  proportional  to 
that  received  from  the  state  is  quite  uniformly 
found  in  constitutions  or  statutor.y  enactments. 
The  acceptance  of  special  aids  commonly 
imposes  proportional  financial  obligations  upon 
the  community.  As  further  channels  of  in- 
direct state  influence  upon  local  finances  may 
be  mentioned  the  prescriptions  of  maximum  or 
minimum  tax  levies  for  schools,  the  segregation 
of  certain  proportions  of  funds  for  special 
purposes  (California,  60  per  cent  of  county 
school  money  exclusively  for  the  payment  of 
teachers'  salaries  in  elementary  schools),  and 
minimum  salary  laws. 

Local.  —  In  those  states  in  which  the  district 
is  the  unit  for  local  educational  administration, 
the  details  of  fiscal  policy  are  largely  prescribed 
to  the  local  board  of  control  by  the  electors 
at  the  annual  meeting,  at  which  the  amount  of 
the  local  tax  is  determmed  and  levied,  expendi- 
tures authorized,  and  accounts  audited  for  the 
preceding  fiscal  period.  All  of  the  financial 
powers  and  duties  of  the  district  meeting  are 
exercised  and  performed  within  the  general 
provisions  of  the  state  code.  If  the  district 
meeting  should  fail  to  comply  with  the  state 
prescriptions  concerning  school  support  and 
funds,  authority  for  such  compliance  is  usually 
delegated  to  the  district  school  officers.  The 
question  of  the  issuance  of  bonds  or  certificates 
of  indebtedness  must  be  submitted  to  the  elec- 
tors of  the  district  for  decision.  Under  the 
township  and  county  system  of  school  control 
the  financial  affairs  are  under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  the  town  or  county  school  officers. 

Tlie  expansion  of  the  accepted  duties  and 
functions  of  government  in  recent  years  has 
multiplied  many  fold  the  expenditures  for  pub- 
lic purposes.  This  increase  has  been  most 
noticeable  in  the  budgets  of  urban  communi- 
ties. Of  the  items  responsible  for  the  increase 
that  for  public  education  has  been  conspicuous. 
Traditionally  the  democratic  conception  of 
education  has  impelled  local  governments  to 
provide,  if  not  generously,   at  least  first,  for 


the  support  of  the  public  school.  The  double 
position  occupied  by  the  public  school  System 
of  the  city  (a)  as  the  instrument  of  the  state 
in  carrying  out  the  state  policy,  (6)  as  the 
means  for  the  satisfaction  of  local  needs  and 
the  realization  of  community  ideals,  compli- 
cates in  many  ways  such  questions  as  those 
involved  in  the  budget  and  the  conduct  of 
financial  operations.  To  the  extent  that  it 
shares  in  the  apportionment  of  .state  school 
funds  and  the  allotment  of  special  aids  to 
education,  the  city  falls  within  the  scope  of  the 
general  control  of  the  state.  These  appor- 
tionments and  aids  constitute  but  a  relatively 
small  part  of  the  necessary  resources  for  the 
public  schools.  The  supporting  funds,  to  a 
much  larger  extent  than  in  the  case  of  non- 
urban  areas,  are  derived  from  voluntary  local 
property  taxation  and  various  forms  of  special 
taxes  and  licenses.  On  this  account,  the 
agencies  and  methods  for  the  control  of  revenues 
and  expenditures  are  of  immense  importance. 
Fiscally,  American  cities  may  be  divided  into 
two  principal  classes:  those  in  which  the  local 
board  of  school  control  possesses  (within  the 
limitations  imposed  by  the  State  through 
charter  or  general  statute)  authority  over  the 
raising  and  expending  of  funds  necessary  to 
carry  on  the  public  schools  and  other  activities 
under  its  control,  independent  of  the  general 
municipal  government;  and  those  in  which  the 
board  of  school  control  is  treated  as  a  depart- 
ment of  the  municipal  government  and  conse- 
quently mu.st  submit  its  annual  financial  esti- 
mates for  approval  and  revision  to  that  au- 
thority of  the  municipal  government  (board  of 
estimate  and  apportionment,  or  council)  which 
ultimately  determines  the  budget.  Evidence 
based  upon  the  experience  of  cities  in  different 
sections  of  the  country  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  each  of  these  financial  methods  has  its 
advantages.  By  reason  of  the  distinctive 
character  of  education  as  a  municiiial  function, 
and  in  order  to  safeguard  the  puljlic  schools 
from  those  partisan  influences  that  have  in  the 
past  characterized  municipal  government  in 
the  United  States,  the  quite  uniform  judgment 
of  those  competent  to  pass  upon  the  situation 
is  that  municipal  boards  of  education  should 
have  the  power  to  make  tax  levies,  within  the 
limits  set  by  the  State,  without  being  subject 
to  review  or  supervision  by  other  municipal 
authority.  (See  City  Bo.\rds  of  Education  ; 
City  School  Admi.nlstration.) 

The  magnitude  of  the  public  expenditures 
for  the  various  social  undertakings  of  the 
modern  citj'  is  causing  not  only  a  careful 
scrutiny  of  the  various  factors  that  make  up 
the  total  annual  outlay  for  the  .system  of 
public  schools,  but  also  a  scientific  comparison 
of  this  outlay  with  those  for  other  public  pur- 
poses. Obviously,  cities  will  present  wide 
differences  with  respect  to  the  educational 
budget.  Diversity  in  the  various  state  sy.s- 
tems  of  education,  as  well  as  difference  in  size 


463 


BUDGET 


BUFFALO 


and  in  environmental  conditions  render  difficult 
the  standardization  of  urban  expenditures. 
On  the  other  hand,  public  welfare  requires 
the  application  of  those  iirinciplcs  of  financial 
procedure  that  contribute  most  directly  to  the 
efficiency  as  well  as  the  economical  adminis- 
tration of  municipal  enterprises.  This  pre- 
supposes a  scientific  analysis  of  the  public 
budget;  such  an  analysis  as  has  not  yet  been 
made.  American  cities  do  not  know  within  an 
even  reasonable  certainty  the  real  cost  of  their 
public  schools.  No  reliable  measurements  have 
yet  been  made  to  determine  the  actual  cost  of 
elementary  education,  secondary  education, 
and  the  several  forms  of  special  education. 
The  numerous  published  statistics  of  per  capita 
cost  of  public  education  are  valueless  as  a 
basis  for  administrative  procedure.  In  so  far 
as  the  facts  are  known,  and  considering  all 
cities  in  the  United  States  having  a  popula- 
tion of  30,000  and  above,  from  6  to  46  per 
cent  of  the  total  amount  annually  expended 
for  the  maintenance  and,  operation  of  all  mu- 
nicipal activities  is  devoted  to  public  schools. 
The  central  tendency  is  that  25  per  cent  of 
the  total  annual  budget  goes  for  education. 
That  this  wide  variability  is  due  in  some 
degree  to  the  present  inadequate  systems  of 
public  accounting  there  can  be  no  doubt.  In 
the  main,  however,  it  may  be  attributed  to  the 
influences  of  differing  municipal  ideals  of  the 
importance  of  the  educational  function.  Fur- 
ther and  more  detailed  investigations  are 
needed  as  a  basis  for  determining  the  proper 
budgetary  position  of  public  education. 

Trustworthy  conclusions,  concerning  the  eco- 
nomic effectiveness  of  urban  expenditures  for 
education  arc  made  impossible,  owing  to  the 
wide  differences  among  cities  in  the  methods 
of  accounting  and  reporting  resources  and 
expenditures.  These  differences  preclude  ready 
comparison  and  the  establishment  of  normal 
units  of  expenditures.  Efforts  have  been 
made  to  bring  about  greater  uniformity  in  the 
financial  reports  of  city  school  systems.  The 
principal  recent  movements  in  this  direction 
were  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Uniform 
Financial  Reports  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  in  1899,  and  the  reports  of  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  since 
1907.  The  studies  by  Strayer  (see  bibliography) 
on  the  school  budgets  of  cities  indicate  not  only 
the  method  of  analysis,  but  the  need  of  con- 
tinued investigation.  E.  C.  E. 

See  City  School  Administration  ;  City 
Boards  op  Education;  Cost  of  Education 
and  the  various  articles  on  National  School 
System.s. 

References :  — 

Eliot,  C.  W.  More  Money  for  the  Public  Schools. 
(New  York,  1903.) 

Elliott,  E.  C.  .Some  Fiscal  Aspects  of  Public  Education 
in  Ameriain  Cities.     (New  York,  190.5.) 

National  Education  -Association.  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Uniform  Financial  Reports,  Proceedings, 
1899,  pp.  344-352. 


Report  of  Committee  of  Twelve  on  Rural  Schools 
—  Sub-Coniniittce  on  School  Maintenance,  Pro- 
cccdiuas,  1897.  pp.  399—134. 

RowE,  L.  S.  The  Financial  Relation  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education  to  the  City  Uovcrnment,  An. 
Am.  Acad,  of  Pol.  aiul  Soc.  Science,  Vol.  XV,  pp. 
186-203. 

Snehden,  D.S.,  and  Allen,  W.  H.  School  Reports  and 
School  Efficiency.     (New  York,  1908.) 

Stbayer,  G.  D.  City  School  Expenditures.  (New 
York,   1905.) 

United  States  (Commissioner  of  Education.  Report, 
1909.     Statistical  Summary,  pp.  1327-1349. 

buena  vista  college,  storm  lake, 

lA.  —  Opened  in  1891  under  the  ausjiices  of 
the  Synod  of  Iowa  as  a  coeducational  institu- 
tion. Academic,  normal,  and  business  depart- 
ments are  maintained.  Admission  is  by  cer- 
tificate from  an  accredited  high  school  or 
examination  requiring  about  12  units  of  work. 
Degrees  are  conferred.  There  are  13  profes- 
sors and  4  assistants. 

BUENOS  AIRES,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  See 

Argentine  Republic,  Education  in  the. 

BUFFALO,  CITY  OF.  —  The  second  largest 
city  in  the  state  of  New  York,  and  the  chief 
commercial  city  of  western  New  York.  Incor- 
porated as  a  city  in  1832.  In  1900  the  city 
had  a  population  of  352,387,  and  its  estimated 
population  in  1909  was  396,535.  Of  the  total 
population  of  1900,  30  per  cent  were  foreign 
born,  and  but  one  half  of  1  per  cent  were  of 
the  colored  race.  Of  the  foreign  born  in  1900, 
36  per  cent  were  Germans,  23  per  cent  English 
and  English  Canadians;  19  per  cent  Poles; 
11  per  cent  Irish;  and  6  per  cent  Italians. 
The  school  census,  4  to  18  years  of  age,  was 
90,515  in  1909,  and  the  total  school  enrollment 
was  62,217  in  day  schools,  and  7874  in  evening 
schools.  In  addition,  23,510  were  enrolled  in 
private  schools. 

History.  —  The  first  schoolhouse  was  built 
in  Buffalo  in  1806.  The  first  school  tax  was 
levied  in  1818,  to  rebuild  the  schoolhouse, 
which  had  been  burned  in  the  fire  of  1813. 
At  the  time  of  the  incorporation  of  the  city 
in  1832,  there  were  6  school  districts,  each 
with  one  small  schoolhouse  and  one  teacher. 
In  1836-1837  a  law  was  passed  authorizing  the 
appointment  by  the  City  Council  of  a  Super- 
intendent of  Schools  for  the  city,  to  act  under 
the  direction  of  the  Council.  As  there  were 
but  7  school  districts,  with  one  teacher  each,  at 
the  beginning  of  1836,  the  duties  of  this  super- 
intendent must  have  been  but  nominal. 

The  free  school  system  of  Buffalo  practically 
originated  in  1838,  in  a  general  movement  of 
prominent  citizens  to  consider  the  educational 
welfare  of  the  city.  At  that  time,  the  district 
and  private  schools  together  failed  to  reach 
one  half  the  children  of  the  city.  Public  meet- 
ings were  held,  much  interest  was  awakened, 
and  a  committee  of  5  was  appointed  "  to 
inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  schools,  both 
pubhc  and  private;    to  ascertain  the  number 


464 


BUFFALO 


BUFFALO 


of  cliildren  who  attend  school,  and  the  expenses 
attending  their  education;  and  to  report  the 
same,  together  with  some  phin  for  the  improve- 
ment of  our  schools."  The  report,  when  pre- 
sented, was  discussed  at  length,  adopted,  and 
sent  to  the  Council.  It  recommended  that  the 
Council  "take the  necessary  steps  to  cause  the 
city  charter  to  be  so  amended  .  .  .  as  to  enable 
them  to  carry  into  full  effect  the  recommenda- 
tions of  the  report  of  the  committee,"  .  .  .  viz.: 
"  an  entire  free  school  system,  under  the  au- 
thority and  government  of  the  Common  Coun- 
cil." The  report  also  recommended  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  central  high  school,  as  soon  as 
the  resources  of  the  city  would  permit.  On 
Feb.  14,  1839,  the  city  charter  was  amended 
by  the  legislature  so  as  to  contain  substantially 
what  the  citizens'  report  had  recommended, 
and  the  free  school  system  of  Buffalo  had  its 
beginning.  The  school  districts  were  sub- 
divided so  as  to  increase  the  number  to  15 ; 
schools  were  ordered  established  in  each  dis- 
trict; and  tuition  was  ordered  to  be  free  to  all. 

In  1843  primary  and  higher  departments 
were  provided  for,  and  in  1846  a  "  Third 
Department  "  was  organized,  which,  in  1853, 
became  the  "  Central  School."  In  1853-1854 
the  city  charter  was  revised.  The  control  of 
the  schools  of  the  city  by  the  City  Council  was 
continued.  Colored  children  were  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  any  school,  but  one  colored  school 
must  be  maintained.  The  cost  of  sites  and 
schoolhou.ses  was  to  be  paid  by  each  school 
district,  but  the  expense  for  maintenance  was 
to  be  paid  by  general  taxation.  The  city 
Superintendent  was  to  be  elected  by  the  people 
of  the  city,  on  the  general  city  ticket,  and  for 
a  2-year  term,  instead  of  being  appointed  by 
the  City  Council. 

In  1873  the  city  Superintendent  endeavored 
to  secure  the  pa.ssage  of  a  law  providing  for  a 
city  Board  of  Education,  who  should  manage 
the  schools,  but  the  plan  elicited  little  popular 
favor,  and  the  bill  failed  to  pass.  In  1891  a 
revised  charter  was  granted  by  the  legisla- 
ture, which,  in  addition  to  reauthorizing  the 
previous  form  of  government  of  the  schools, 
provided  for  the  appointment  of  a  Board  of 
Examiners  to  examine  teachers  and  to  inspect 
the  schools.  In  1895  an  amendment  increased 
the  term  of  the  Superintendent  of  Education 
to  4  years.  A  committee  is  now  (1909)  at 
work  on  a  complete  revision  of  the  charter,  and 
may  change  the  form  of  educational  organiza- 
tion for  the  city. 

For  many  years  no  marked  progress  was 
made  in  the  schools,  the  city  suffering  largely 
from  the  lack  of  leadership  in  educational 
matters.  Since  1893,  however,  when  the  present 
Superintendent  was  first  elected  to  office,  much 
has  been  done  toward  bringing  the  schools  of 
the  city  up  to  a  modern  standard.  New 
modern  buildings  have  been  erected,  and  the 
use  of  rented  rooms  decrea.sed.  Two  new  high 
schools  have  been  opened,  and  have  been  filled 


VOL.  I — 2  H 


to  overflowing  almost  from  the  first.  Since 
1893  manual  training,  sewing,  and  domestic 
science  have  been  introduced;  kindergartens 
established;  and  the  grammar  school  course 
reduced  from  10  years  to  9,  and  the  ninth  year 
made  virtually  a  high  school  year.  Educational 
standards  for  admission  to  the  examinations 
for  teachers'  certificates  have  been  set  up; 
teachers'  meetings  have  been  introduced;  and 
a  training  class  for  future  teachers  established. 
Supervisors  have  been  employed  to  assist  the 
Superintendent  in  the  introduction  of  the 
special  branches;  antiquated  textbooks  have 
been  discarded;  a  new  course  of  study  has 
been  adopted;  free  textbooks  and  supplies 
have  been  provided;  promotions  have  been 
made  more  flexible;  and  a  truant  school  has 
been  established. 

Present  School  System.  —  There  is  no  Board 
of  Education  in  Buffalo,  the  nearest  approach 
to  it  being  the  Committee  on  Schools  of  the 
Board  of  Aldermen.  The  functions  of  this 
committee  are  to  consider  and  report  on  ordi- 
nances relating  to  the  public  education  in  the 
city.  All  matters  relating  to  education  not 
determined  by  the  general  law  of  the  state 
are  fixed  by  the  city  charter  or  by  ordinances 
of  the  Council.  Such  matters  as  changes  in 
textbooks  have  to  be  approved  by  the  Coun- 
cil, and  it  is  also  within  their  power  to  deter- 
mine the  Course  of  Study.  All  executive 
functions  are  given  to  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  for  the  city,  who  is  elected 
by  the  people  for  4-ycar  terms.  He  recom- 
mends the  Course  of  Study,  changes  in  text- 
books, salary  schedules,  and  other  legislation; 
selects  new  teachers  and  appoints  them  for  the 
period  and  at  the  salary  determined  by  the 
Council;  may  dismiss  teachers  by  preferring 
charges,  and  after  a  hearing  before  and  with 
the  approval  of  the  Mayor;  and  prescribes  the 
subjects  and  the  nature  of  the  examinations 
for  teachers'  certificates.  He  appoints  the 
Secretary  of  the  department,  who  must  be 
educated  in  the  German  language,  and  who 
also  acts  as  supervisor  of  the  teaching  of  Ger- 
man in  the  schools.  The  Superintendent  is 
further  assisted  by  a  Supervisor  of  Primary 
Grades,  and  a  Supervisor  of  Grammar  Grades. 

The  Mayor  appoints  a  city  Board  of  E.x- 
aminers  of  5,  1  being  appointed  each  year 
and  for  a  5- year  term.  They  conduct  all 
examinations  for  the  position  of  teacher  in  the 
schools,  which  are  in  the  nature  of  Civil  Service 
tests.  Certain  educational  prerequisites  have 
recently  been  laid  down  for  admission  to  these 
tests,  and  four  grades  of  city  certificates  pro- 
vided. Those  who  pass  are  arranged  in  order 
on  eligible  lists  by  the  Board  of  Examiners, 
and  the  Superintendent  can  appoint  teachers 
only  from  these  lists.  This  board  and  its 
work  stands  as  a  check  on  political  pressure. 
The  Board  of  Examiners  acts  also  as  a  Board 
of  Visitors,  being  required  to  visit  each  school 
in  the  city  at  least  once  each  year,  and  to  re- 


465 


BUFFALO,   UNIVERSITY  OF 


BUGENHAGEN 


port  on  its  educational,  hygienic,  and  material 
condition. 

The  school  system  consists  of  1  city  normal 
training  class,  3  high  schools,  elementary 
schools,  and  kindergartens.  In  1908-1909  the 
city  employed  79  supervisory  officers,  1399 
teachers  in  day  schools,  and  92  teachers  in 
evening  elementary  and  high  schools.  A  term 
of  192  days  was  provided  in  day  schools  and 
62  evenings  in  evening  schools;  27  kindergarten 
teachers  were  employed.  The  total  expense 
for  day  schools  was  $1,537,414.  E.  P.  C. 

References :  — 

Annual  Reports,  Superintendent  Public  Instruction  to  the 
City  Council,  1838-datc.  The  36(/i  AnmmlReport 
(1873)  contains  a  history  of  the  Central  School, 
pp.  73-100. 

Jewett,  F.  R.  Public  School  System  of  Buffalo,  in 
Education.  Vol.  24.  pp.  596-602.      (June,  1904.) 

BUFFALO,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  MEDICAL 
DEPARTMENT,  BUFFALO,  N.Y.  —  Opened 
in  lS4(i.  A  4-year  medical  course  is  given. 
Candidates  are  admitted  under  the  regulations 
contained  in  the  laws  of  Xew  York,  1893,  and 
as  amended  to  June  1,  1906,  providing  for  the 
preliminary  education  of  medical  students. 
There  is  a  faculty  of  38  professors  and  69  in- 
structors. 

BUFORD  COLLEGE,  NASHVILLE,  TENN. 

—  A  proprietary  institution  for  the  higher  cul- 
ture of  young  women.  Collegiate  and  fine 
arts  departments  and  schools  of  journalism 
and  library  training  are  maintained.  There 
are  no  definite  requirements  for  admission. 
Degrees  are  conferred. 

BUGENHAGEN,  JOHANNES  (1485-1558). 

—  A  German  reformer  and  friend  of  Luther 
and  Melanchthon,  called  also  Dr.  Pomeranus. 
He  was  born  in  Wollin,  and  educated  at 
the  University  of  Greifswald.  He  entered 
the  priesthood  and  became  at  the  age  of  20 
rector  of  the  town  school  in  Treptow,  where 
his  excellent  humanistic  teaching  widely  at- 
tracted attention.  He  became  deeply  interested 
in  biblical  study  and  delivered  lectures  on  the 
various  books  of  the  Bible  and  on  the  Church 
Fathers,  which  were  attended  by  the  towns- 
people and  the  clergy.  Inspired  with  the  zeal 
of  the  Reformation  through  the  writings  of 
Luther,  he  went,  in  1521,  to  Wittenberg,  where 
he  soon  was  api)ointed  professor  in  the  uni- 
versity, as  well  as  pastor  of  the  city  church. 
One  of  his  first  actions  in  this  capacity  was 
the  restoration  of  the  town  school,  which  had 
fallen  into  decay.  Bugenhagen'.s  most  im- 
portant activity,  however,  began  when  he  was 
called  to  the  north  of  Germany  to  establish 
the  Reformation  and  to  regulate  the  affairs  of 
churches  and  schools.  In  1528  he  drew  up  a 
church  and  school  constitution  for  the  city  of 
Brunswick,  in  1529  for  Hamburg,  in  1530  for 
Liibeck,  in  1534  for  his  native  Poqierania ;  and 


these  church  constitutions  became  the  models 
of  many  others.  In  1537  he  was  called  by 
King  Christian  III  to  Denmark,  where  he  was 
-received  with  great  honors  and  remained  until 
1539,  being  occupied  with  the  reorganization 
of  the  University  of  Copenhagen  and  of  the 
Danish  church.  The  last  years  of  his  life 
were  embittered  by  political  and  theological 
strife;  he  became  partially  blind,  and  died  at 
Wittenberg,  where  he  is  buried  in  the  city 
church.  Bugenhagcn  mu.st  he  considered  as 
one  of  the  foremost  men  of  the  German  Refor- 
mation. His  importance  for  the  religious  and 
educational  development  of  the  north  of  Ger- 
many is  equal  to  that  of  Melanchthon  for  the 
south.     But  while  Melanchthon's  interest  was 


Johannes  Bugenhagen. 

chiefly  directed  toward  the  higher  schools, 
Bugenhagen's  work  was  especially  fruitful  in 
the  field  of  popular  elementary  education,  both 
for  boys  and  girls.  He  was  the  first,  not  only 
to  insist  upon,  but  actually  to  introduce,  ele- 
mentary schools  in  cities  and  villages  in  which 
all  children  should  receive  instruction  in  cate- 
chism and  in  the  reading  and  writing  of  the 
mother  tongue.  Thus  he  maj'  be  called  the 
father  of  the  Protestant  Volks.'ichuk,  especially 
of  the  rural  elementary  school.  His  interest  in 
female  education  is  especially  remarkable.  He 
considered  the  training  of  mothers  the  most 
effective  means  for  the  moral  elevation  of  the 
people.  He  did,  however,  a  great  deal  also  for 
higher  education,  and  even  planned  a  system 
of  adult  education  in  the  so-called  Lektorien,  a 
kind  of  people's  universities.  In  all  his  work 
Bugenhagen  showed  great  tact,  a  genius  for 


466 


BUILDING  MATERIALS 


BULGARIA 


organizing,  and  practical  insight  into  the  real 
needs  of  the  people.  F.  M. 

References:  — 
Hering.     Doktor  Pomeranus,  Johannes  Bugenhagen,  ein 

Lebensbild  aua  der  Zeit  der  Reformation.     (Halle, 

1888.) 
Mertz.     Das  Schulwescn  der  d<  ulnrlirn  Reformation  im 

leien  Jalirhundert.      (Hoid.-llicrs;,  1902.) 
RosT.     Die      pddagogische      Bedeutintg      BugenJiagens. 

(Leipzig,  1S90.) 

BUILDING  MATERIALS  FOR  SCHOOL- 
HOUSES.  —  See  Architecture,  School. 

BUILDINGS,  SCHOOL. —  See  Architec- 
ture, School. 

BULGARLA,  education  in.  —  Bulgaria, 

constitutional  monarchy:  area  including  Ea.stcrn 
Runielia,  38,080  square  miles;  population, 
4,035,623;  capital  Sofia,  population  82,621; 
divisions  for  local  administration,  districts,  12 
in  number. 

Historical.  —  In  1878  when  Bulgaria  entered 
upon  its  career  as  an  autonomous  jirincipality 
under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan,  the  functions 
of  government  and  nearly  all  other  activities 
of  a  modern  state  were  yet  to  be  organized. 
Education  formed  an  exception,  for  although 
the  Turk  had  exploited  the  country,  the  work 
of  instruction  as  carried  on  by  Christian 
churches  was  not  interfered  with.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  Greek  Church,  which  comprises 
about  80  per  cent  of  the  population,  was  over- 
powering, and  its  ecclesiastics  had  long  con- 
trolled local  institutions  of  every  kind  in  Bul- 
garia. Thus  a  system  of  clerical  schools  existed 
which  was  national  in  extent.  But  within  the 
Church  were  two  antagonistic  elements:  on 
the  one  side,  the  Greeks,  numbering  le.ss  than 
70,000  people;  on  the  otlier,  the  Bulgarians,  a 
peasant  people  forming  the  great  majority  of 
the  population.  The  small,  compact  body  of 
Greeks,  superficial  but  brilliant  and  proud  of 
their  historic  culture,  monopolized  the  higher 
offices  of  the  Church  and  controlled  the  schools. 
They  regarded  the  sturdy  natives  as  barbarians, 
and  eliminated  their  language  from  the  school 
programs;  thus  pupils  were  taught  the  Greek 
exflusively.  and  through  the  insidious  influence 
became  converts  to  Hellenism. 

The  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  Bulgarians  to 
free  themselves  from  Turkish  rule  awakened 
also  the  desire  for  national  expression  through 
social  institutions,  and  the  movement  for 
liberty  was  marked  from  the  beginning  liy 
efforts  to  free  education  from  the  moral  in- 
fluence of  the  Greeks.  To  the  few  Bulgarian 
schools  that  had  escaped  destruction  other.s 
were  added,  in  which  at  first  only  the  merest 
elements  of  the  native  language  and  history 
were  taught.  In  1835  two  wealthy  Bulgarian 
merchants  founded,  at  Gabrovo,  a  small  city 
in  the  Balkans,  a  secondary  school  of  the 
modern  European  type,  and  furnished  with 
modern  appliances,  globes,  maps,  etc.       This 


school  became  the  center  from  which  similar 
schools  that  came  later  into  existence  drew  their 
teachers.  These  Bulgarian  schools,  primary 
and  secondar}',  depended  wholly  upon  private 
resources,  and  had  not  really  the  sanction  of 
law  for  their  existence.  Each  school  had  to 
secure  a  special  license  from  the  authorities, 
and  although  the  applications  were  seldom 
refused,  the  institutions  were  under  constant 
surveillance  and  were  closed  on  the  slightest 
pretext.  It  was  in  these  schools,  maintained 
at  great  sacrifices  and  in  the  face  of  bitter 
opposition,  that  the  national  spirit  was  formed 
which  supported  the  patriot  leaders  in  their 
final  struggle  for  freedom. 

The  constitution  of  1878  recognized  primary 
education  as  an  essential  factor  in  the  State, 
and  declared  it  to  be  obligatory  and  gratuitous. 
A  ministry  of  public  instruction  was  created; 
but  no  provision  was  made  for  the  support  of 
the  schools.  A  law  of  1881,  the  first  dealing 
with  primary  instruction,  left  the  matter  en- 
tirely to  the  individual  communes,  which  re- 
tained as  a  lasting  effect  of  Turkish  rule  an 
inherent  passion  for  autonomy.  Only  in  the 
case  of  very  poor  communes  was  the  State 
authorized  to  aid  in  the  support  of  schools. 

Under  the  leadership  of  Ferdinand  I,  who 
was  ambitious  to  create  a  solid  and  permanent 
nation,  the  policy  with  respect  to  primary 
education  was  completely  changed.  In  the 
first  year  of  his  reign,  1887,  the  state  expendi- 
ture for  this  interest  was  doubled,  and  the 
next  year  it  was  still  further  increased.  In 
1891  the  organic  law  of  public  instruction  was 
passed  which  gave  the  supreme  control  in  this 
matter  to  the  State. 

Present  System.  —  The  direction  of  all  public 
enterprises  having  for  their  purpose  the  moral 
and  intellectual  development  of  the  people  was 
confided  to  the  minister  of  public  instruction, 
and  an  administrative  system  was  created  after 
the  model  of  the  French  system,  though  less 
elaborate.  Two  departments  were  formed  in 
the  ministry,  the  one  pertaining  to  primary,  the 
other  to  secondary,  education,  and  each  underits 
own  chief  or  director.  The  minister  is  assisted 
by  a  corps  of  general  inspectors  who  are  his 
personal  representatives  in  their  circuits;  in 
each  district  there  are  subordinate  inspectors. 
The  official  authorities  are  completed  by  dis- 
trict councils,  which  exercise  advisory  and 
judicial  functions  in  regard  to  education,  and 
l)y  local  school  committees.  These  committees 
are  formed  by  election,  and  women  may  be  in- 
cluded in  the  number,  provided  they  have  taken 
the  course  of  secondary  instruction.  The  com- 
mittees have  direct  charge  of  the  schools,  select 
the  sites  and  arrange  for  the  buildings  and 
equipments,  and  nominate  the  teachers,  who 
must,  however,  be  approved  by  the  minister. 

The  State  supplies  two  thirds  the  amount  re- 
quired for  the  support  of  the  schools;  the  com- 
munes furnish  the  balance.  The  school  pro- 
grams and  the  qualifications  for  admission  to 


467 


BULGARIA 


BULGARIA 


the  teaching  service  are  regulated  by  official 
orders.  Thus,  without  destroying  the  cherished 
local  autonomy,  the  State  enters  as  a  regulat- 
ing and  supporting  factor  into  the  work  of 
national  education.  Not  only  has  the  spirit 
of  local  independence  been  safeguarded  in  the 
organization  of  the  schools,  but  the  present 
interests  and  capacities  of  the  people  are  care- 
fully considered  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
school  programs.  Besides  the  native  language 
and  literature,  the  primary  school  course  in- 
cludes religion,  the  history  and  geography  of 
Bulgaria,  elements  of  natural  science,  and  in- 
dustrial training.  The  industrial  training  is 
of  the  most  practical  character;  the  girls  are 
taught  to  sew  and  to  cut  and  make  garments; 
the  boys  learn  the  use  of  ordinary  tools.  As 
agriculture  is  the  chief  industry  of  the  people, 
a  special  law  provides  for  the  support  of  school 
gardens,  of  which  more  than  500  were  main- 
tained the  present  year,  all  cultivated  by 
school  children. 

The  course  of  study  for  the  primary  schools 
is  restricted,  as  the  period  of  compulsory  school 
attendance  is  very  brief,  comprising  only  4 
years,  the  age  limits  being  8  to  12.  The 
annual  school  term  is  10  months  in  the  cities, 
reduced  to  6  months  in  the  country.  The 
minister  has  therefore  authorized  the  establish- 
ment of  complementary  courses  of  3  years, 
and  in  many  places  these  are  already  organized. 
Continuation  classes  are  also  maintained  in 
cities  and  villages.  These  are  conducted  in  the 
evening  and  on  Sunday,  and  offer  to  young 
people  and  adults  a  chance  to  review  ele- 
mentary subjects  and  even  to  extend  their 
knowledge. 

The  greatest  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the 
practical  development  of  this  system  of  primary 
instruction,  which  has  been  carefully  planned 
to  meet  the  present  condition  of  the  people, 
are:  (1)  the  lack  of  schoolhouses;  (2)  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  competent  teachers. 

Many  villages  have  no  schoolhouses,  and  re- 
course is  had  to  old  mosques  and  barns;  often 
even  this  poor  accommodation  is  wanting. 
The  government  has  therefore  authorized  com- 
munes to  contract  for  loans  to  meet  the  ex- 
pense of  providing  the  necessary  school  build- 
ings. 

As  regards  teachers,  it  can  be  readily  under- 
stood that  those  who  were  employed  in  the 
Bulgarian  schools  maintained  by  private  effort 
before  1878,  had  been  taken  without  regard  to 
any  special  preparation  for  the  work.  In  its 
early  endeavor  to  create  a  system  of  primary 
instruction,  the  government  left  all  arrange- 
ments in  respect  to  teachers  to  the  individual 
communes  (cities  and  villages).  But  as  a  rule 
these  were  not  fitted  to  meet  this  responsibility. 
By  the  law  of  1891  the  State  took  upon  itself 
the  payment  of  three  fourths  of  the  annual 
salary  of  teachers,  and  subsequently  assumed 
the  entire  charge  of  this  particular.  As  a  con- 
sequence, the  salaries  are  paid  promptly,  and 


have  also  been  considerably  augmented.  In 
1887  the  average  annual  salary  was  only  $120, 
at  present  it  ranges  from  S264  to  $384. 

While  it  has  not  been  possible  to  maintain 
definite  standards  of  ([uahfication  for  primary 
teachers,  this  purpose  is  kept  steadily  in  view. 
Normal  schools  have  been  established,  5  for 
boys  and  4  for  girls,  having  a  4  years'  course 
of  study.  The  number  of  normal  students  is 
rapidly  increasing;  but  the  graduates  do  not 
yet  suffice  for  the  needs  of  the  service,  and  the 
one  test  that  can  be  universally  applied  to 
candidates  for  employment  is  that  of  a  very 
simple  examination;  the  great  improvement 
that  has  taken  place  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  whereas,  in  1878,  of  the  whole  body  of 
teachers  employed,  93  per  cent  had  only  re- 
ceived a  primary  education ;  in  the  present  year 
(1910)  only  12  per  cent  represent  this  low 
stage  of  attainment.  Moreover,  the  teachers 
show  great  enthusiasm  in  their  work,  they 
carry  on  evening  classes  for  illiterate  adults; 
organize  popular  lectures;  interest  themselves 
in  local  industries,  and  are  especially  active  in 
promoting  improved  agricultural  processes. 

Where  complementary,  or  higher,  primary 
schools  are  established,  the}'  have  developed  a 
tendency  toward  technical  training,  and  thus 
form  a  basis  for  higher  trade  and  industrial 
schools;  among  schools  of  this  special  class 
may  be  noted  a  commercial  school  at  Sofia; 
there  are  also  reported  high-grade  agricultural 
schools,  and  4  industrial  schools  in  which 
theoretic  instruction  is  combined  with  voca- 
tional   training. 

Statistics.  —  According  to  the  official  statis- 
tics, there  were  45S1  primary  schools  in  1907, 
with  8771  teachers  and  400,308  pupils;  of 
these  251,937  were  boys;  148,371  girls.  The 
number  of  children  of  the  compulsory  school 
age  was  436,000,  and  of  these  328,000,  or  75  per 
cent,  were  enrolled  in  the  schools;  in  1903  the 
corresponding  proportion  was  onlj'  51  per  cent. 
A  bill  is  now  pending  which  provides  for  the 
stricter  enforcement  of  the  compulsory  school 
law.  This  is  a  matter,  however,  depending 
largely  upon  the  supply  of  school  buildings,  and 
hence  the  communes  are  urged  and  assisted  by 
the  government  to  provide  this  fundamental 
condition. 

Secondary  Education.  —  In  the  endeavor  to 
create  a  system  of  public  education  as  the 
source  of  national  strength  and  perpetuity,  the 
first  efforts  of  the  government  were  directed  to 
the  primary  school,  which  alone  affects  the 
entire  population.  But  the  importance  of 
the  higher  orders  of  education,  and  especially 
the  need  for  infusing  into  them  the  national 
spirit,  have  not  been  ignored.  In  20  years  the 
state  expenditure  for  secondary  education  has 
increased  threefold.  There  were  3  state 
gymnasia  in  1878;  at  present  there  are  11. 
Meanwhile  there  has  been  marked  increase  in 
the  number  of  incomplete  gymnasia  maintained 
by  the  communes  with  the  aid  of  the  State. 


468 


BULGARIA 

Instead  of  the  full  7  years'  course,  the 
schools  of  this  inferior  order  have  2,  3  or  more 
classes.  The  entire  registration  in  secondary 
schools  has  tripled  during  the  last  20  years. 

Of  still  greater  importance  than  the  mcrease 
in  numbers  is  the  improvement  in  the  teaching 
service:  whereas  in  1888  only  27  per  cent  of 
the  professors  in  the  secondary  schools  had 
received  a  university  education,  at  present  the 
proportion  is  above  50  per  cent.  As  a  rule 
these  men  have  studied  in  German  universi- 
ties; consequently  they  have  introduced  Ger- 
man methods  and  standards  in  the  secondary 
schools  of  their  ovm  country.  At  the  sanie 
time  the  spirit  of  the  Bulgarian  people,  which 
is  eminently  practical,  has  determined  the 
general  trend  of  secondary  education.  The 
German  realschule  has  been  taken  as  the 
model  rather  than  the  German  gymnasium. 
Thus  the  classics  have  little  place  in  the  second- 
ary programs;  in  fact,  they  are  taught  only  in 
5  "out  of  the  11  gymnasia,  and,  even  in  this 
number,  to  a  limited  extent.  In  their  present 
stage  of  development  Bulgarians  have  more 
need  of  practical  chemists  and  engineers  than 
of  highly  accomplished  scholars.  The  modern 
spirit  of  the  new  secondary  education  is  em- 
phasized by  contrast  with  that  of  the  older 
Greek  schools  which  still  maintain  the  hu- 
manistic studies. 

The  bill  for  the  further  development  of  the 
system  of  public  instruction,  which  was  intro- 
duced into  the  legislature  in  1909,  provides  for 
a  complete  revision  of  the  scheme  of  secondary 
education.  Under  the  proposed  plan  three  types 
of  secondary  schools  would  be  recognized: 
schools  offering  Latin  and  Greek;  Latin  only; 
and  neither  Latin  nor  Greek.  The  scheme  in 
detail  indicates  the  purpose  of  the  government 
to  maintain  classical  studies  and  high  scholastic 
standards  in  the  state  schools. 

One  of  the  most  important  measures  of  the 
present  government  has  been  the  creation  of 
secondary  education  for  young  women.  This 
work  is  still  in  an  experimental  stage;  the 
programs  are  rather  feeble  copies  of  those  in- 
tended primarily  for  the  schools  for  young 
men,  and  the  instruction  is  committed  to  men 
professors,  pending  the  preparation  of  women 
for  this  service.  But  the  work  has  begun,  and 
the  subject  of  its  improvement  and  proper 
adaptation  engages  earnest  consideration. 


s: 

Teachers 

PnpiLS 

Schools 

a 

a 
1 

a 

3 

o 

1 

— 
O 

•a 

Gymnasia  .... 

20 

518 

129 

647 

6393 

5925 

12318 

Lower  middle 

schools    .... 

li)» 

7»H 

i;i6 

!)2!l 

15087 

6685 

21772 

Special     and 

Technical    .     .     . 

Hh 

H« 

HI 

1X6 

3.'i32 

2S23 

6357 

Other  schooU      .     . 

86 

165 

63 

228 

2567 

1176 

3743 

BULLOKAR 

The  official  statistics  for  1907  give  the  fol- 
lowing particulars  under  the  general  head  of 
secondary  education  without  distinction  be- 
tween public  and  private  institutions  :  — 

Higher  Education.  —  The  University  of  Sofia 
comprises  a  faculty  of  history  and  philosophy, 
organized  in  1888;  faculty  of  mathematics  and 
physical  science,  organized  in  1889;  and  faculty 
of  law,  organized  in  1902.  In  1908  the  univer- 
sity was  attended  by  1589  students,  of  whom 
248  were  hearers  only.  A  few  women  are 
registered  annually. 

There  is  no  provision  as  yet  for  medical 
studies,  and  theology  is  left  to  denominational 
seminaries. 

The  expenditure  by  the  State  for  public  in- 
struction amounted  in  1908  to  11,878,947  leva, 
equivalent  to  $2,292,637  United  States  cur- 
rency. A.  T.  S. 

References :  — 

Files  of  the  Bulletin  Mensuel  de  la  Direction  generate  de 
Statistique  du  Royaume  de  Bulgarie. 

Golly,  Stephane.  L'instruction  publique  en  Bulgane. 
Revue  Pedagogique,  T.  LVI,  No.  2  (15th  Feb.), 
1910,  pp.  155-171. 

La  reforme  de  I'enseignement  en  Bulgarie.  Revue  Iri- 
ternational  de  I'enseignement,  Feb.  15,  1909,  pp. 
124-126. 

Official  correspondence  relative  to  Bulgaria,  Bosnia- 
Herzegovina,  and  Croatia-Slavonia. 

BULKLEY,  JOHNW.  (1802-1888).— School- 
man, educated  in  the  common  schools  of  Con- 
necticut and  at  Hamilton  College;  teacher 
and  principal  of  schools  at  Troy  (1832-1838); 
principal  of  schools  at  Albany  (1838-1851); 
principal  of  the  Williamsburgh  schools  (1851- 
1855);  superintendent  of  schools  at  Brooklyn 
(1855-1873);  assistant  superintendent  at  Brook- 
lyn (1873-1885) ;  active  in  the  early  educational 
associations  in  the  United  States.      W.  S.  M. 

BULLETINS,  SCHOOL.  —  Official  publica- 
tions appearing  periodically,  sometimes  called 
"  teachers'  bulletins."  Bulletins  are  usually 
issued  by  normal  schools  and  city  school  systems. 
They  are  designed  to  diffuse  intelligence  as  to 
the  methods  and  materials  to  be  utilized  in 
teaching  according  to  the  courses  of  study  laid 
down  in  the  particular  locality.  They  repre- 
sent one  of  the  means  for  the  supervision  and 
improvement  of  teaching.  See  Supervision 
OF  Tb.ichers.  H.  S. 

BULLOKAR,  WILLIAM.  — A  phonetist 
who  served  in  the  army  in  Queen  Mary  I's 
reign,  studied  agriculture  and  law,  and  engaged 
in  teaching.  He  then  became  convinced  of  the 
necessity  of  phonetics  as  a  basis  for  teaching 
English!  and  in  1580  published  his  book  with 
the  astoundingly  long  title:  BuUokar's  Booke 
al  large,  for  the  Amendment  of  Orthographic 
for  English  Speech;  wherein  a  mod  perfect 
supplie  is  made,  for  the  irantes  and  double  munde 
of  letters  in  the  aide  Orthographic,  with  Examples 
for  the  same,  icith  the  easie  conference  and  vsc 
of  both  Orthographies  to  save  expences  in  Bookes 


469 


BULOW-WENDHAUSEN 


BURGERSCHULE 


for  a  time,  uiitill  this  amendment  grow  to  a  generall 
use,  for  the  eiisie,  speedie,  and  perfect  reading  and 
writing  of  English,  (the  speech  not  changed,  as 
some  untruly  and  maliciously  or  at  least  ignorant- 
lie  blowe  ahroade)  by  the  which  amendment  the 
said  Authour  hath  also  framed  a  ruled  Grammar, 
to  be  imprinted  hereafter,  for  the  same  speech, 
to  no  small  cominoditie  of  the  English  Nation, 
not  only  to  come  to  easie,  speedie  and  perfect 
use  of  our  oicne  Language,  but  also  to  their  easie, 
speedie  and  readie  entrance  into  the  secretes  of 
other  Languages,  and  easie  and  speedie  pathway 
to  all  Striiungers,  to  use  our  Language,  heretofore 
very  hard  unto  them,  to  no  small  profile  and 
creditc  to  this  our  Nation  and  stay  thereunto  in 
the  weightiest  causes.  There  is  also  imprinted 
irith  this  Orlhographie  a  short  Pamphlet  for  all 
learners  atid  a  Primer  agreeing  to  the  same,  and 
as  learners  shall  go  forward  therein,  other  neces- 
sarie  Bookcs  shall  speedily  he  provided  with  the 
same  Orthographic.  Hereunto  are  also  joyned 
written  copies  icith  the  same  Orthographic. 

Give  God  the  praise,  thai  teaclteth  alwaies. 
When  truth  trielh,  errour  fliclh. 

Seene  and  allowed  according  to  order.  (Imprinted 
at  London  by  Henrie  Denham,  1580  (4to,  59 
pp.).  . 

This  treatise  is  of  unusual  importance  not 
only  for  its  advocacy  of  phonetics  and  a  perfect 
Alphabet,  but  also  for  BuUokar's  experience 
with  regard  to  the  teaching  of  his  own  children, 
making  the  book  a  pioneer  work  in  language 
study  and  also  in  the  method  of  child  study. 
William  Bullokar  also  published:  /E.sop's 
Fables  in  tru  Ortography  with  Grammar  notz 
(translated  into  English  from  a  Latin  Text), 
1595. 

John  Bullokar,  possibly  a  son  of  above,  a 
doctor  of  physics  of  Chichester,  published  an 
English  dictionary,  entitled.  An  English  Ex- 
positor; teaching  the  interpretation  of  the  hardest 
words  used  in  our  Language,  1616.  F.  W. 

See  Phonetics;  Spelling. 

Reference  :  — 

Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

BULOW-WENDHAUSEN,  BERTHA  VON. 

—  See  M.\RENTHOLTZ-BuLow- Wendhausen, 
Bertha  von. 

BULWER,  JOHN.  —  A  physician  in  the 
time  of  Charles  I,  who  styled  himself  Christo- 
pher. He  wrote  his  Chirologia  in  1644.  This 
he  explains  as  "  the  natural  language  of  the 
hand,  composed  of  the  speaking  motions  and 
discoursing  gestures  thereof."  In  the  same 
volume,  he  adds  Chironomia,  or  "  the  art  of 
manual  rhetoricke,  consisting  of  the  natural 
expressions  digested  by  art  in  the  hand,  as  the 
chiefest  instrument  of  eloquence."  In  1648 
Bulwer  published  his  Philocoph  us,  or  the  Deaf  and 
Dumb  ^Ian's  Friend.  In  this  important  trea- 
tise Bulwer  proves  that  a  man  born  deaf  and 
dumb  may  be  taught  to  "hear  the  sound  of 


words  with  his  eye,  and  thence  learn  to  speak 
with  his  tongue."  Bulwer  says  he  had  made 
the  subject  his  "  darling  study."  He  discourses 
of  "  ocular  audition,"  and  suggests  "  the  model 
of  a  New  Academy  for  those  originally  deaf  and 
dumb,  with  an  edifice  and  gymnasium,  and  all 
kinds  of  materials  reciuisite."  Bulwer  plain- 
tively remarks  that  when  he  mentioned  the 
idea  to  some  "  rational  men,"  they  only  re- 
garded it  as  so  "  paradoxical,  prodigious,  and 
hyperbolical,"  that  they  professed  they  must 
renounce  their  reason  "  before  they  could  have 
faith  to  assist  such  an  undertaking."  Bulwer 
claims  that  he  was  the  first  to  make  the  subject 
a  close  study.  He  was  not,  however,  the  first 
to  draw  attention  to  the  possibiUty  of  training 
the  deaf  and  dumb.  It  had  been  suggested  in 
the  De  Invenlione  Dialectica  of  Rudolph  Agri- 
cola  iq.v.)  (died  1485),  by  Juan  Luis  Vives  (q.v.) 
in  his  Dc  Anima  (1539),  and  in  1590  Franciscus 
Vallesius  in  his  Philotiophia  Sacra  mentions  that 
his  friend  Petrus  Pontius,  a  Benedictine  monk 
in  Spain,  had  taught  the  deaf  to  speak.  J.  P. 
Bonnet  in  1620,  printed  at  Madrid  in  Spanish 
an  account  of  the  method  of  Pontius,  and  Sir 
Kenelm  Digby,  an  Englishman,  gave  an  account 
of  what  he  had  seen  of  Pontius'  method  in 
Spain,  when  he  returned  from  that  country 
after  accompanying  the  Prince  Charles  in  1620. 
See  Deaf,  Educatio.n  of.  F.  W. 

Reference :  — 

Sir  William  Hamilton.  Essay  on  the  History  of  the 
Institutions  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  in  his  Discis- 
sions on  Philosophy  and  Education,  1853. 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION,  UNITED 
STATES.  —  See  Commissioner  op  Education, 

United  States. 

BURGERSCHULE,  —  A  term  which  was 
used  at  an  early  period  in  Germany  to  denote 
schools  maintained  b.y  municipalities.  (See 
Middle  Ages,  Education  in.)  The  signifi- 
cance of  the  term  changed  somewhat  in  the 
last  century,  and  was  applied  to  a  tj'pe  of  school 
"  which  aims  to  educate  those  classes  of  citizens 
who  without  being  scholars  should  still  be 
cultured."  (Mager,  K.,  1810-1858.)  Under  the 
term  hohere  Biirgerschide  such  schools  afforded  a 
higher  Latinless  education.  When  the  different 
types  of  higher  Latinless  schools  were  differ- 
entiated, the  need  for  another  class  of  schools 
in  which  the  education  of  children  up  to  15 
could  be  carried  on  was  felt,  and  led  to  the 
establishment  in  Prussia  and  Austria  of  what 
came  to  be  known  under  the  special  term  of 
Biirgerschule  or  Mittelschulc  {q.v.).  These 
schools  treat  the  subjects  of  the  elementary 
schools  more  completely  and  broadly,  in  some 
cases  adding  French.  They  are  usually  main- 
tained by  municipalities  and  tuition  fees,  and 
receive  no  state  aid.  Nor  arc  there  specific 
state-regulated  curricula,  so  that  local  adap- 
tation is  possible.  The  teachers,  however, 
must  have  passed  special  state  examinations. 


470 


BURGH   SCHOOLS 


BURSAR 


The  Bilrgcrschule  is  thus  a  school  which  stands 
out  independently  from  the  rest  of  the  state 
system.  Frequently  the  lower  grades  in  a 
complete  middle  school  of  this  type  are  pre- 
paratory to  the  higher  schools,  particularly 
when  these  are  overcrowded. 

See    Germany,    Educational    System    of; 
jMittelschule. 


BURGH  SCHOOLS. 

CATION    IN. 


-  See  Scotland,  Edu- 


BURKE,  EDMUND  (1729-1797).  —  States- 
man and  writer  on  political  philosophy;  son 
of  a  Dublin  attorney;  his  father  being  a  Protes- 
tant, his  mother  a  Roman  Catholic,  a  circum- 
stance which  led  him  to  sympathize  with  the 
older  traditions  of  religious  life,  and  to  cherish 
them  as  a  factor  in  national  well-being.  He 
was  educated  at  a  school  kept  by  Abraham 
Shackleton,  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
at  Ballitore,  County  Kildare,  and  ever  afterwards 
spoke  in  the  warmest  terms  of  the  training  he 
had  received  there.  He  afterwards  was  entered 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  studied  there 
1743-1748.  Burke's  political  career  does  not 
fall  within  the  purview  of  this  notice;  but  his 
influence  is  important  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion because  of  his  eloquent  defense  of  the 
ancient  educational  institutions  of  England 
against  Jacobinical  attacks.  He  interpreted 
to  Englishmen  the  significance  of  their  own 
traditional  forms  of  higher  education,  and 
showed  how  closely  intertwined  they  were  with 
the  social  and  political  institutions  of  the 
country.  The  most  striking  passage  on  this 
subject  is  found  in  the  Reflections  on  the  Revo- 
lution in  France.  Burke  impressed  his  point 
of  view  upon  the  most  thoughtful  among  con- 
servatively minded  Englishmen,  and  caused 
them  to  see  that,  in  order  to  secure  the  safety 
of  the  older  institutions  of  learning,  it  was 
necessary  to  bring  about  searching  reform  from 
within.  Burke's  influence,  together  with  the 
lessons  drawn  from  the  French  Revolution, 
may  be  traced  in  the  work  of  Cyril  Jackson, 
Dean  of  Christ  Church,  to  whom  was  chiefly 
due  the  reform  of  studies  at  the  University  of 
O.xford  in  tiie  year  ISOO.  Burke  was  also  the 
I)rogenitor  of  the  view  of  national  education 
taken  by  Wordsworth,  S.  T.  Coleridge,  and  Dr. 
Thomas  Arnold  of  Rugby  (q.v.).         M.  E.  S. 

References;  — 
BuiiKK.     KuMfND.      RrJIcclions    on    the    Revolution    in 

Frnncc.      (IT'.IO.) 
Dielionary  of  National  Biographij. 
MoHi.KY,    .loiiN.      Edmund    Burke.      (English    Men    of 

I.ittiTS  SiTics.  1,S70.) 

BURLESON  COLLEGE,  GREENVILLE, 
TEX.  — •  A  coeducational  in.stitution  belong- 
ing to  the  Baptists  of  Texas.  Preparatory, 
normal,  collegiate,  musical,  and  commercial 
departments  are  maintained.  The  college 
courses,  which  are  liased  on  approximately  5 
points  of  high  school  work,  lead  up  to  degrees. 


There  is  no  division  into  classes  by  years,  but 
the  certificates,  diplomas,  and  degrees  are  given 
for  actual  work  done.  There  is  a  faculty  of  9 
instructors. 

BURR,  AARON  (1716-1757).  —  Educator, 
graduated  at  Yale  College  1735;  principal  of 
private  school  at  Newark,  (1737-1748);  presi- 
dent of  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (now  Prince- 
ton) from  1748  to  1757;  author  of  the  Newark 
Grammar.  W.  S.  M. 

BURRITT  COLLEGE,  SPENCER,  TENN.  — 
A  proprietary  coeducational  in.stitution.  Pri- 
mary, intermediate,  preparatory,  and  collegiate 
courses  are  given.  'The  last  course  is  based  on 
approximately  4  points  of  high  school  work. 

BURRITT,  ELIHU  (1811-1879).  —  Self-edu- 
cated, and  devoted  a  large  part  of  his  life  to 
movements  intended  to  promote  self-education; 
active  in  the  American  L.yceum  and  other 
popular  educational  movements;  author  of 
numerous  works  calculated  to  aid  in  self-educa- 
tion. W.  S.  M. 

BURROWES,  THOMAS  HENRY.  —  School- 
man and  author,  born  at  Strasburg,  Lancaster 
Co.,  Pa.,  Nov.  16,  1805;  educated  by  private 
tutors  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  Yale 
College;  private  tutor;  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  in  Pennsylvania  (1860-1863); 
superintendent  of  the  Soldiers'  Orphans  Schools 
in  Pennsylvania  (1864-1869) ;  president  of  the 
Pennsylvania  State  College  (1869-1871) ;  author 
of  Pennsylvania  School  Architecture,  and  editor 
of  the  Pennsylvania  School  Journal  (1851-1870). 

W.  S.  M. 

BURSAR,  BURSARY.  —  A  term  derived 
from  the  Greek,  originally  "  hide,"  Latin  bursa, 
English  purse.  The  word  soon  took  on  the 
meaning  of  a  "  chest  "  or  box  where  money  was 
deposited  for  the  support  of  students.  Such 
sums  of  money  were  applied  to  the  maintenance 
of  halls  of  residence  at  the  University  of  Paris 
and  the  German  universities.  The  halls  were 
known  as  Bursch  and  the  students  living  in 
them  as  hursarii  or  hoursiers.  The  halls  of 
residence  were  under  the  charge  of  a  Rector 
bursae.  The  term  bursarii  came  to  be  applied 
to  all  students  who  received  support  from  the 
university  chest.  In  the  monasteries  the 
monk  who  had  charge  of  financial  matters  was 
called  bursarius.  Both  meanings  have  been 
retained  in  the  modern  use  of  the  word  bursar. 
In  universities  and  colleges  in  England  and  the 
United  States  the  official  who  has  charge  of  the 
financial  management  is  called  a  bur.<<ar.  In 
Scotland,  however,  the  bursar  is  a  scholar  at 
school  or  at  the  university  who  holds  a  bur.'iary 
or  scholarship,  although  it  was  only  until 
recent  times  that  bursaries  were  restricted  to 
poor  scholars  and  not  thrown  open  for  compe- 
tition.    In  England  the  terms  bursar  and  bur- 


ill 


BURSCHENSCHAFT 


BURY 


sary  have  recently  been  introduced  in  the 
Scotch  sense  to  refer  to  "  those  boys  or  girls 
who  intend  to  become  in  the  future  elementary 
school  teachers  and  arc  attending  full  time  at 
a  secondary  school  .  .  .  but  require  assistance 
in  order  to  render  their  continuance  at  the 
School  financially  possible." 

See  Scholarships  and  Fellowships;  Train- 
ing OF  Teachers  in  England. 

Keferences:  — 

Barnard,  H.  Superior  Instruction  in  Different  Coun- 
tries, 1.S7.3,  pp.  32,  IfiO. 

Board  of  Education,  EiiRlaiid.  Regulations  for  the  Pre- 
limintiry  Education  of  Elementary  School  Teachers. 
§  2,  190'.). 

Rashdall,  H.  Universities  of  Europe.  See  Index. 
(Oxford,  1895.) 

BURSCHENSCHAFT.  —  The  name  of  a 
student  organization  in  German  universities. 
It  was  formed  in  Jena  in  1815  in  opposition  to 
the  Corps  {q.v.)  or  Landsmannschafkn,  which 
had  got  into  bad  repute  through  their  luxury 
and  excesses.  Its  aim  was  to  establish  a 
Christian,  national  character  in  the  universities 
of  Germany.  The  Burschenschaften  quickly 
won  favor  with  a  large  section  of  the  professors 
and  students,  and  spread  to  other  universities. 
Politically  these  organizations  rallied  to  the 
call  of  Fichte  and  Jahn  for  a  national  revival. 
They  opposed  the  foreign  influences  in  Germany 
at  that  time  and  the  police  control.  This  op- 
position found  expression  at  the  festival  on  the 
Wartburg  in  commemoration  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, 1807.  As  a  result  of  this  meeting  the 
Allgemeine  deulschen  Burschenschaften  was 
formed  in  1818.  The  political  activity  of  some 
irresponsible  members  brought  down  the  sus- 
picion of  the  government  and  led  to  such  ex- 
treme measures  as  press  censorship,  the  disso- 
lution of  student  associations,  and  supervision 
of  the  universities  (Karlsbad  Decree).  But 
.  the  associations  continued  in  secret  or  un- 
der different  names.  In  1840  the  Burschen- 
schaften were  split  into  two  sections,  —  the 
Arminia  and  the  Germania  —  the  one  stand- 
ing only  for  national  freedom,  the  other  for 
larger  political  activity.  Since  1848  these  asso- 
ciations have  had  a  good  influence  in  fostering 
national  feeling  among  the  students  in  the 
universities.  A  third  division  was  formed  — • 
the  Teutones  —  which  combined  the  principles 
of  the  Burschenschaften  and  the  Landsmann- 
schaften.  In  1874  the  Allgeriieine  Deputierten- 
Konvent  was  formed  as  a  central  executive 
body  for  the  Burschenschaften.  Since  1883 
another  student  society  has  developed  under 
the  title  of  Die  deutschc  Burschenschaften  to 
put  down  excessive  luxury  and  dueling  among 
the  students.  The  central  executive  body  for 
this  organization  is  the  Allgemeine  deutsche  Bur- 
schenverband. 

As  distinguished  from  the  Landsmann- 
schaften,  the  Burschenschaften  recruit  their 
members  from  the  masses  of  the  student  body, 
and  nominally  are  not  so  narrow  or  exclusive 


as  the  older  organization.  The  service  of  the 
Burschenschaften  has  been  to  abolish  the  un- 
clean and  dissipated  student  life  of  the  early 
nineteenth  century  and  to  develop  a  strongly 
loyal  and  patriotic  body  among  the  educated 
classes. 
See  Corps. 

References:  — 
Barnard,    H.     Atneriean   Journal   of   Education,    1859, 

pp.  161  S. 
Hendbr.son,  E.  F.     a  Short  History  of  Gertnany.     (New 

York,  1908.) 
Meter's     Konvcrsations-Lexicon.     (Leipzig,   1908.) 
Paulsen,   F.     The  German   Universities.     (New    York, 

1900.) 

BURTON,  ROBERT  (1577-1640).  —  Author 
of  the  Anatomy  of  Melancholy.  Educationally 
this  book  is  remarkable  not  only  as  a  storehouse 
of  classical  learning,  but  as  an  indication  of  the 
state  of  knowledge  and  attitude  toward  modern 
subjects  which  prevailed  at  Oxford,  long  the 
home  of  the  author.  There  is  displayed  a  good 
acquaintance  not  onl.y  with  the  early  but  the 
contemporary  foreign  geographers  and  cartog- 
raphers. On  geography  as  a  subject  —  "  to 
charm  the  mind  with  sweet  delight,  to  stir  it 
by  the  incredible  variety  and  pleasantness  of 
the  world  to  a  fuller  knowledge  of  itself  "  —  he 
grows  eloquent.  Burton  shows  equal  enthu- 
siasm, and  displays  an  equal  amount  of  knowl- 
edge of  the  contemporary  state  of  biology  and 
mathematics.  A  man  of  wide  interests  he  is 
well  described  by  Anthony  a  Wood  as  "  an 
exact  mathematician,  a  curious  calculator  of 
nativities,  a  general  read  scholar,  a  thorough- 
paced philologist,  and  one  that  understood  the 
surveying  of  land  well." 

References:  — 
Burton's    Anatomy    of    Melancholy,    ed.    by    Shilleto. 

(London,  1893.) 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

WAT.SON.  Foster.     The  Beginnings  of  the  Teaching  of 
Modem  Subjects  iti  Englarui.     (London,  1909.) 

BURTON,  WARREN  (1800-1866).  —  Ac- 
tive worker  in  the  lyceum  and  other  popular 
educational  movements;  was  graduated  from 
Harvard  College  in  1821.  He  was  directly 
interested  in  the  notions  of  domestic  educa- 
tion advocated  by  Pestalozzi.  Author  of 
District  School  as  it  Was  and  Helps  to  Home 
Education.  W.  S.  M. 

BURY,  RICHARD  DE  (1281-1345).  —  Born 
at  Bury  St.  Edmonds,  the  son  of  Sir  Richard 
Aungerville,  in  1281,  this  sole  English  repre- 
sentative of  humanism  in  the  early  Renaissance 
adopted  as  his  name  the  name  of  his  birthplace. 
His  intellectual  gifts  marked  him  out  for  orders 
and  for  great  distinction.  He  passed  from 
Oxford  to  Durham,  when  he  became  a  Benedic- 
tine monk.  He  was  selected  as  tutor  for  the 
prince  who  was  to  become  King  Edward  III. 
On  the  accession  of  his  pupil  he  received  many 
honors,  was  ambassador  to  Pope  John  XXII  in 


472 


BURY 


BUSBY 


1333,  was  made  Dean  of  Wells,  Bishop  of  Dur- 
ham, and  (in  1336)  High  Chancellor  and 
Treasurer  of  England.  He  traveled  largely 
in  France  and  Germany  as  English  ambassador. 
But  he  managed  to  carry  out  his  episcopal 
duties  with  great  assiduity,  and  his  Chancery 
Rolls  at  Durham  (the  earliest  e.xtant)  show 
him  to  have  been  capable,  good,  and  a  father  of 
the  poor.  But  above  all  things  he  was  a  lover 
of  books  (though  not  a  great  scholar)  and  a 
patron  of  learning.  He  surrounded  himself 
with  learned  men,  such  as  Thomas  Bradwardine 
(subsequently  Archbishop  of  Canterbury)  and 
Fitzralph,  and  he  possessed  more  books  than 
were  owned  by  all  the  other  bishops  together 
{quam  omnes  Ponlijices  Angliae,  Surtees  Society, 
Vol.  9,  Historiae  Dunelmensis,  p.  130).  He 
overhauled  the  neglected  monastic  libraries,  and 
saved  many  priceless  Mss.  from  destruction. 
He  founded  a  library  at  Durham  College, 
O.xford,  and  drafted  rules  for  the  library  based 
on  those  of  the  Sorbonne  at  Paris.  He  w.ns  a 
successor  of  the  school  of  Greek  and  Hebrew 
learning  created  by  Grosseteste  and  Bacon,  and 
provided  his  Oxford  library  with  Greek  and 
Hebrew  grammars.  We  may  surmise  that 
these  were  the  grammars  written  by  Roger 
Bacon.  He  laid  great  stress  on  the  literary 
side  of  education,  and  declared  that  he  preferred 
literary  studies  to  the  study  of  law  and  he  urged 
the  reading  of  the  poets.  He  is  known  to 
literature  by  his  great  work,  Philobihlon,  which 
was  completed  on  his  birthday,  Jan.  24,  1345. 
Less  than  three  months  later  he  died.  This  was 
his  famous  work,  "  written  as  a  sort  of  hand- 
book to  his  library  at  Durham  College.  It  is  an 
admirable  treatise  in  praise  of  learning,  at  times 
rhetorical,  i)ut  full  of  genuine  fervor.  '  No  one 
can  serve  books  and  Mammon,'  he  exclaims, 
and  he  urges  the  refining  influence  of  study. 
He  gives  an  interesting  description  of  the 
means  by  which  he  collected  his  library;  he 
examines  the  state  of  learning  in  England  and 
France.  He  speaks  of  books  as  one  who  loved 
them,  and  gives  directions  for  their  careful  use. 
('  They  are  masters  who  instruct  us  without  rod 
or  ferule.  If  you  approach  them  they  are  .  .  . 
not  asleep ;  if  j-ou  inquire  of  them,  they  do  not 
withdraw  themselves;  they  never  chide,  when 
you  make  mistakes;  they  never  laugh  if  you  are 
ignorant.')  Finally,  he  explains  his  rules  for 
the  management  of  the  library  which  he 
founded.  The  work  is  an  admirable  exhibi- 
tion of  the  temper  of  a  book  lover  and  a  libra- 
rian "  (Creighton).  Toward  the  end  of  the  work 
he  declares  that  he  had  long  "  clierished  the 
fixed  resolve  of  founding  in  perpetual  .charity 
a  hall  in  the  revered  University  of  Oxford,  the 
chief  nursing  mother  of  all  liberal  arts,  and  of 
endgwing  it  with  the  necessary  revenues,  for 
the  maintenance  of  a  number  of  scholars,  and, 
moreover,  to  furnish  the  hall  with  the  treasures 
of  our  books."  He  never  fvilfilied  this  purpo.se, 
hut  he  built  a  library  for  his  books,  and  this  sur- 
vived the  Tudor  destruction  of  the  monastic 


CoUege  of  Durham,  and  still  remains  beside  the 
Trinity  College  that  arose  on  the  ruins  of  Dur- 
ham College.  At  the  Dissolution  "  some  of  the 
books  went  to  the  Bodleian,  some  to  Balliol  Col- 
lege, and  some  to  Dr.  George  Owen  of  Godstow, 
who  purchased  Durham  College  from  Edward 
VI."  (See  Camden's  Britannia,  1772,  p.  310.) 
The  catalogue  has  not  survived.  Richard  de 
Bury  died  Apr.  14,  1345,  before  the  Black  Death 
{q.v.)  had  come  to  revolutionize  English  educa- 
tion; but  his  life  and  scholarly  ambitions  show 
that  even  before  the  Black  Death,  in  days  when 
the  Anglo-Norman  dialect  (q.v.)  was  still  the 
medium  of  instruction  in  the  schools,  education 
had  passed  out  of  the  purely  medieval  stage  and 
was  bending  toward  humanism  and  general 
culture.  Unless  we  appreciate  the  intellectual 
attitude  of  Richard  de  Bury,  we  shall  fail  to 
appreciate  the  later  tendencies  of  medieval 
education  in  Europe.  J.  E.  G.  de  M. 

References: — • 
Creighton,  Bishop.    Art.  Bury,  R.  de,  in  Dictiotmry  of 

National  Biography. 
Sandys.  Dr.    Art.  in  Cambridge  History  of  English  Lit- 
erature, Vol.  II.,  pp.  213-216. 

BUSBY,  RICHARD  (1606-1695).  —  Head- 
master of  Westminster  School;  the  great 
schoolmaster  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He 
was  born  at  Sutton,  Lincolnshire,  Sept.  22,  1606. 
His  father  removing  to  Westminster  soon  after, 
he  went  to  Westminster  School,  and  was  elected 
thence  to  a  studentsliip  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  where  he  matriculated  Feb.  10,  1625- 
1626.  His  parents  were  evidently  poor,  as  when 
he  took  his  B.A.  degree  in  1628,  the  vestry 
of  St.  Margaret's  gave  him  £5  toward  his 
expenses,  and  another  £6.  13.  4  to  enable  him 
to  take  his  M.A.  degree  on  June  18,  1631.  He 
spent  some  7  years  as  a  tutor  at  Christ  Church. 
In  1638  he  was  appointed  temporarily  Master 
of  Westminster  by  the  canons  to  fill  the  place 
of  Osbaldiston,  deprived  for  calling  Archbishop 
Laud  "  a  meddling  Hocus-pocus."  On  Dec.  14, 
1640,  he  was  confirmed  in  "  the  office  and  room 
of  Schoolmaster  "  with  £20  a  year  stipend  and 
20  marks  (£13.6.8)  in  lieu  of  "  diet,"  that  is, 
his  commons  at  the  common  table  of  the 
"  College  "  of  Westminster.  In  this  office 
Busby  staj'cd  for  no  less  than  55  years.  He 
duly  conformed  to  all  the  changes  of  regime 
and  religion  which  the  Civil  War,  the  Restora- 
tion, and  the  Great  Revolution  of  1689  produced. 
He  must  have  taken  the  Presbyterian  Cove- 
nant in  1644  and  the  Engagement  to  the 
Commonwealth  in  1649,  and  nmst  have  been 
more  than  passively  Parliamentarian  in  his 
utterances,  or  he  would  not  have  kept  his  place. 
For  in  1642  the  Chapter  was  sequestered.  An 
ordinance  of  Nov.  18,  1645,  made  a  joint  com- 
mittee of  Lords  and  Commons  governors  of  the 
school  in  place  of  the  Chapter;  and  when  the  Com- 
monwealth was  established  an  Act  of  Parliament 
of  Sept.  26,  1649,  incorporated  a  Governing 
Body  of  56  persons.     It  was  during  the   Com- 


473 


BUSINESS  ADMINISTR.\TION 


BUSINESS  IVIANAGEMENT 


monwealth,  thanks  probably  to  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  Chapter,  that  Busby  raised  the 
numbers  and  prestige  of  the  school  to  heights 
unknown  before.  Tlie  earliest  known  school 
list  of  Westminster  is  that  for  Ifioo-UioO,  and 
shows  241  boys,  though  the  statutes  restricted 
the  school  to  120.  Busby,  having  no  less  than 
170  under  himself,  set  up  the  first  assistant 
master,  besides  the  usher,  at  £40  a  j'ear,  and 
gave  him  the  fourth  form  to  teach.  The  in- 
sufficiencj-  of  stipend  was  made  up  by  fees  from 
boarders,  of  whom,  the  statutory  ma.ximum 
being  4,  Busby  had  40.  One  of  his  account 
books,  which  has  been  preserved,  shows  that 
he  made  some  £1200  a  year;  an  enormous 
sum  for  those  days.  His  reputation  seems  to 
have  been  due  rather  to  the  intellectual  activity 
he  awoke  in  the  boys  and  to  their  social  status 
than  to  any  system  of  teaching.  "  He  had 
the  power,"  says  Steele,  "  of  raising  what  the 
lad  had  in  him  to  the  utmost  height  in  what 
nature  designed  him.  .  .  .  His  scholars  were 
the  finest  gentlemen  or  the  greatest  pedants  in 
the  age."  A  famous  contemporary  master, 
Charles  Hoole  (q.p.),  reports  that  Westminster 
scholars  made  orations  and  verses,  not  only  in 
Hebrew,  but  in  Arabic  and  other  oriental 
languages.  A  list  of  13  bishops  educated  by 
him  has  been  produced;  and  Dryden,  Locke, 
Atterbury,  and  Prior  were  his  pupils.  His 
reputation  as  a  mighty  flogger  rests  on  no  very 
sure  foundation.  He  left  few  writings  behind 
him:  a  Greek  grammar  wh'ich  long  held  sway, 
a  Hebrew  grammar  published  after  his  death, 
and  an  Arabic  grammar  never  published.'  The 
general  public  still  know  his  name  because  of 
the  story  of  his  refusal  to  uncap  in  the  presence 
of  Charles  II,  when  visiting  the  school,  because 
it  would  never  do  to  let  the  boys  believe  there 
was  a  greater  man  in  the  world  than  himself. 

A.  F.  L. 
References:  — 

Barkb;r,  G.   F.   Russell.     Memoir  of  Richard  Busby. 

(lS9o.) 
Hoole,    Charles.     Xew  Discovery   of  the  Old  Art    of 

Teaching  School.    (1660.) 

BUSINESS      ADMINISTRATION.  —  See 

CoM.MERci.\L  Education. 

BUSINESS    COLLEGES.  —  See    Commer- 
cial Education. 


BUSINESS     EDUCATION. 

mercial  Education. 


See      CoM- 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  AND  MANA- 
GER. —  The  office  of  Business  Manager  in 
our  city  school  systems  is  one  of  relatively 
recent  creation,  and  one  that  has  arisen  because 
of  the  absolute  inability  of  Boards  of  Education 
properly  to  attend  to  the  city  school  business, 
which  has  developed  as  our  cities  have  increased 
in  size.  School  Board  committees,  no  longer 
able  to  handle  the  business  of  the  system  in  an 
acceptable  manner,  are  being  forced  by  neces- 


sity to  delegate  it  to  officers  selected  becau.sc  of 
expert  ability.  The  Superintendent  of  Instruc- 
tion, too,  to  whom  business  affairs  were  fre- 
quently delegated,  has  seen  a  great  increase 
in  his  duties  along  the  educational  side,  and 
can  no  longer  look  after  business  interests, 
except  at  a  great  educational  sacrifice. 

A  Secretary,  or  Clerk  for  the  Board,  is  usually 
the  first  appointment  in  small  cities,  and  he 
assists  both  the  Board  and  the  Superintendent. 
In  a  number  of  our  larger  cities  good  business 
methods  have  been  introduced  into  the  man- 
agement of  the  school  system,  and  a  differen- 
tiation of  official  functions  has  taken  place 
within  recent  years  which  has  resulted  in  the 
appointment  of  a  number  of  new  officials. 
To  these  officials  have  been  assigned  definite 
executive  functions;  they  have  been  paid  a 
good  salary,  and  they  have  been  placed  under 
heavy  l)onds  for  the  faithful  performance  of 
their  duty.  The  Board  of  Education  has  then 
withdrawn  from  the  work  of  management,  and 
has  become  a  legislative  rather  than  an  execu- 
tive body.  Under  these  new  conditions,  the 
Board  decides  ])olicy,  fixes  appropriations,  and 
determines  lines  of  action.  Once  this  has  been 
done,  it  is  then  the  duty  of  the  different  officials 
to  follow  the  line  of  procedure  or  policy  deter- 
mined upon  by  the  Board.  This  makes  the 
Board  of  Education  a  unifying  legislative  body, 
and  delegates  the  executive  work  to  officials 
selected  because  of  special  ability  along  those 
lines. 

The  Business  Manager  is  one  of  the  new 
officials  evolved.  To  the  Business  Manager,  or 
Business  Agent,  is  usually  assigned  the  duty  of 
keeping  a  complete  set  of  books  or  accounts,  and 
an  itemized  record  of  all  income  and  expendi- 
tures; of  issuing  all  warrants  for  the  payment 
of  regular  employees,  and  for  all  labor  and 
materials  furnished;  of  approving  all  requisi- 
tions for  supplies  and  material;  and  of  classify- 
ing and  recording  all  expenditures  of  whatever 
kind.  Under  close  direction  of  the  Board,  he 
acts  as  its  financial  agent,  and  is  permitted  to 
incur  a  limited  indebtedness,  and  to  act  in 
emergencies  without  previous  authorization. 
Where  no  other  officials  exist  for  the  special 
purpose,  he  handles  the  purchase  and  distribu- 
tion of  all  school  supplies;  emploj-s  and  over- 
sees the  janitor  and  engineering  force  in  the 
care  and  management  of  the  school  property; 
executes  all  contracts  for  the  Board;  and  over- 
sees the  construction  and  repair  of  school 
buildings. 

The  original  Cleveland  Plan  (q.v.)  was  for 
the  Business  Manager  (there  called  School 
Director)  to  appoint  all  other  officials  and 
employees,  even  including  the  Superintendent 
of  Instruction  and  the  recommendation  of  the 
Chicago  Educational  Commission  (g.v.)  was  that 
the  Business  Manager  should  appoint  and 
control  all  employees  except  the  members  of  the 
Department  of  Instruction.  The  plan  followed 
within  recent  years,  in  the  reorganization  of 


474 


BUSINESS  OFFICER 


BUTLER 


city  school  systems,  however,  has  been  for  the 
Board  of  Education  to  appoint  all  heads  of 
departments,  define  the  duties  of  each,  and  then 
hold  each  responsible  for  efficient  and  coopera- 
tive service.  The  result  of  the  creation  of  these 
new  executive  officials  is  that  the  Board  of 
Education  has  been  freed  from  all  executive 
functions,  and  now  acts  much  as  a  board  of  di- 
rectors for  the  management  of  a  large  corpora- 
tion. The  Superintendent  of  Instruction  and 
his  assistants,  too,  have  been  freed  from  all 
business  affairs,  and  now  have  only  the  educa- 
tional work  of  the  schools  to  look  after. 

The  separate  articles  on  the  different  city 
school  systems  in  cities  of  100,000  inhabitants 
or  over,  as  well  as  the  article  on  City  School 
Organization  (q.v.),  give  detailed  information 
as  to  the  differentiation  of  functions,  and  the 
officers  provided,  in  the  different  cities.  See, 
in  particular,  the  articles  on  Boston,  Cleve- 
L.\.\D,  Chic^vgo,  and  St.  Louis,  and  on  City 
School  Admi.'^istr.\tion.  E.  P.  C. 

References:  — 

Re/m-l  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen,  National  Educational 

Association,  Part  III.    (1895.) 
Report   of  the   Educational   Commission   of    the   City   of 

Chicago,  ch.  ii.      (Chicago,  1899.) 
Rules  and  Regulations  of  Various  City  School  Systems. 


BUSINESS     OFFICER.  —  See 

M.\X.\GE.ME.\T  AND    MANAGER. 


Business 


BUSS,  FRANCES  MARY  (1827-1S95).— 
A  leader  in  the  movement  for  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  girls  and  women  in  England.  Like  Miss 
Beale  (q.v.),  with  whom  she  had  much  in  com- 
mon, she  contributed  to  an  awakening  in  the 
education  of  girls,  departing  from  the  tradition 
then  prevailing  of  teaching  only  "  the  accom- 
plishments." To  her  the  ideal  education  for 
girls  was  to  include  the  same  subjects  as  were 
taught  to  boys.  Miss  Buss  began  teaching  at  a 
very  early  age  as  a  pupil  teacher.  At  the  age 
of  18  she  assisted  her  mother  in  a  private  school 
which  they  opened  in  partnership.  She  con- 
tinued to  teach  and  study  in  day  and  evening 
classes  at  Queen's  College,  London,  which  was 
opened  in  1848.  The  school  grew  rapidly  in 
numbers,  and  developed  into  the  North  London 
Collegiate  School  for  Ladies.  In  1865  through 
the  efforts  of  Miss  Buss,  girls'  .schools  were  per- 
mitted to  take  the  papers  set  for  the  Cambridge 
Local  Examinations,  which  were  thrown  open 
to  girls  in  1807.  Miss  Buss'  success  was  recog- 
nized by  her  election  in  1873  to  an  honorary 
fellowship  in  the  College  of  Preceptors.  In 
1874  she  became  the  first  president  of  the  Head 
Mistresses'  Association.  Miss  Buss  took  an 
active  part  in  the  movement  to  establish  kinder- 
gartens and  training  colleges  for  women  for 
secondary  sciiools.  In  the  establishment  of 
Girton  and  Newnham  Colleges  at  Cambridge, 
she  took  a  strong  interest,  and  many  of  the 
students  there  came  from  her  scliool.  She  was 
influential  in   securing  permission  for  women 


to  proceed  to  degrees  in  the  University  of  Lon- 
don. In  1870  she  surrendered  the  property  in 
her  school,  which  was  placed  in  trust  as  a  public 
foundation.  The  new  institution  received  the 
title  of  the  North  London  Collegiate  and 
Camden  School  for  Girls,  including  two  schools, 
an  upper  and  lower,  the  latter  charging  lower 
fees  and  only  carrying  the  pupils  up  to  16 
years  of  age.  In  all  contemporary  movements 
for  the  higher  education  and  emancipation  of 
women  Miss  Buss'  influence  was  felt.  Miss 
Buss  was  a  woman  of  great  personahty  and 
untiring  energy,  endowed  with  remarkable 
organizing  ability.  Like  Miss  Beale  her  influ- 
ence on  education  of  girls  in  England  was  exer- 
cised through  the  number  of  headmistresses 
who  came  from  her  school  and  the  readiness 
with  which  she  was  ever  ready  to  advise. 

Reference:  — 
Ridley,  Annie  E.      Frances  Mary  Buss   and  her  Work 
for  Education.     (London  and  New  York,   1895.) 

BUSY  WORK.  —  A  term  applied  by  ]5ri- 
mary  teachers  to  the  activities  assigned  to  one 
group  of  young  children,  still  incapable  of 
reading  or  writing,  during  the  period  when  the 
teacher  is  busily  engaged  in  teaching  another 
group.  The  work  is  usually  designed  to  keep 
the  children  pleasantly  engaged  until  the 
teacher  is  able  to  reassume  personal  direction  of 
them.  The  need  for  "  busy  work  "  occurs  in 
large  "receiving  "  or  "  first  grade  "  classes,  and 
usually  consists  of  some  form  of  activity  at  the 
desks,  such  as  drawing,  arranging  of  blocks  or 
forms,  selecting  familiar  words,  word  building, 
etc.  The  term  is  less  used  now  than  formerly. 
It  is  becoming  more  clearly  recognized  that 
profitable  educative  activities  may  be  assigned 
to  the  youngest  children,  hence  there  is  less  need 
for  mere  "  bu.sy  work."  H.  S. 

BUTLER,  CHARLES.  —  An  English  school- 
master and  grammarian  w-ho  was  the  master 
of  Basing,stoke  Grammar  School,  1593-1600, 
and  afterwards  master  of  the  Song  School  of 
IMagdalen  College,  Oxford.  His  Rhetoricae  Duo 
Llbri  (Oxford,  1598),  though  written  in  Latin, 
introduced  specimens  of  English  verse  from 
S])enser's  Faerie  Qiteene.  Butler's  Rhetoric 
was  written  for  the  use  of  schools,  and  ran 
through  11  editions.  He  wrote  in  English, 
Principles  oj  Music  for  Singing  and  Setting; 
with  the  twofold  vse  thereof  { Ecclesiasticall 
and  Civic)  (London,  1636).  In  the  Dedication 
to  Prince  Charles  he  considers  grammar  and 
music  should  never  be  separated  in  the  teaching 
of  children,  for  each  needs  the  other.  Butler, 
further,  wrote  the  English  Grammar  (O.xford, 
1633),  which  is  of  particular  interest  from  the 
etvmology  of  the  index.  The  book  is  a  genuine 
accidence"  of  the  English  Language.  He  main- 
tains that  the  uncertainty  of  our  writing  in 
English  is  due  to  the  imperfection  of  our  alpha- 
bet. He  utilizes  Anglo-Saxon  signs  for  the 
475 


BUTLER  COLLEGE 


BUTZBACH 


different  sounds  of  (/miiuI  makes  other  innova- 
tions. He  quotes  a  passage  from  Sir  John 
Price,  Remains,  tiiat  four  secretaries  writing  in 
EngHsh  from  dictation  differed  in  the  letters 
used,  while  the  same  number  of  Welshmen 
"  varied  not  in  any  letter."  In  1609  Butler 
had  published  a  book  at  Oxford  on  the  Feminine 
Montirchie,  or  a  Treatise  concerning  Bees.  In 
1034  this  was  reproduced  so  as  to  illustrate  the 
phonetic  spelling  advocated  in  the  English 
Grammar  of  16.'53:  the  Feminin  '  Monarciu' 
or  the  Histori  of  Bees,  etc.  In  1029  Butler 
published  Oratoriae  Libri  duo  (Oxford)  for  the 
use  of  schools.  This  was  reprinted  in  1033, 
and  in  a  new  dedication  it  is  stated  that  Butler's 
Rhetoric  was  used  in  the  chief  schools  of  the 
kingdom.  F.  W. 

BUTLER  COLLEGE,  INDLA.NAPOLIS.  IN- 
DIANA. —  A  coeducational  institution,  founded 
as  the  Northwestern  Christian  University,  and 
legally  styled  Butler  University,  chartered  by 
the  Indiana  legislature  Jan.  15,  1850,  and 
opened  Nov.  1,  1855.  The  original  funds 
were  subscribed  by  members  of  the  ilenomina- 
tion  known  as  the  Disciples  of  Christ,  the 
"  Christian  Church,"  or  "  Campbellites."  The 
institution  at  first  occupied  the  buildings  of  the 
old  Northwestern  Christian  University,  Indian- 
apolis. The  College  of  Liberal  Arts  has  had 
an  uninterrupted  existence;  other  schools  have 
from  time  to  time  been  affiliated  \nth  Butler 
University  or  established  by  its  directors. 
Butler  University  (the  corporate  name)  is  a 
stock  company  controlled  by  a  Board  of  Direc- 
tors, the  21  members  of  which  are  elected 
by  the  stockholders.  The  trustees  elect  their 
president  from  their  own  number,  and  choose 
a  secretary  and  a  treasurer  either  from  among 
themselves  or  from  the  stockholders.  In  1875 
the  institution  was  removed  to  Irvington,  a 
suburb  of  Indianapolis;  the  name  was  changed 
on  Feb.  28,  1877,  from  "  Northwestern  Christian 
Universitv  "  to  the  present  title,  in  recognition 
of  the  benefactions  of  Ovid  Butler.  By  resolu- 
tion of  the  Board  of  Directors  the  name  "  Butler 
College  "  was  adopted  Apr.  8,  1S9G,  to  designate 
the  undergraduate  department.  In  connection 
with  this  school,  there  are  maintained  a  prepara- 
tory department,  courses  in  music  and  art,  a 
summer  session  (established  1908),  a  Teachers' 
Training  Course  (1909),  extension  courses  for 
teachers,  and  graduate  courses  leading  to  the 
degree  of  M.A.  The  institution  plans  to 
establish  a  Graduate  Divinity  School;  mean- 
while, a  number  of  courses  of  importance  to 
ministers  are  grouped  under  the  head  of  a 
"  School  for  Ministerial  Education."  Asso- 
ciated with  Butler  College  are  the  Indiana  Law 
School  and  the  Indiana  Dental  College,  both  in 
Indianapolis.  In  1898  Butler  College  affiliated 
with  Chicago  University,  the  latter  institution 
granting  privileges  to  students  of  the  college, 
candidates  for  a  Chicago  degree;  this  affilia- 
tion will  be  dissolved  in  1910.     Benefactions 


recently  (1909)  received  are:  from  Mr.  Joseph 
I.  Irwin,  §100,000;  from  Mr.  Marshal  T. 
Reeves,  .S25,000;  from  Mr.  Charles  T.  Whit- 
sett,  .?12,500;  and  from  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie. 
.S25,000,  this  last  donation  completing  the  fund 
of  .§250,000  called  for  by  the  conditions  of  Mr. 
Whitsett's  gift.  In  1900,  the  grounds,  buildings, 
and  equipment  were  valued  at  8227,000.  The 
total  annual  income  is  519,702.  The  average 
salary  of  a  professor  is  .§1250.  There  are 
(1909)  25  members  on  the  instructing  staff, 
of  whom  13  are  full  professors.  The  students 
number  507,  divided  as  follows:  college,  190; 
graduate  students,  6;  sub-freshmen  and  spe- 
cials, 32;  extension,  141;  department  of  Art, 
26;  Teachers'  Training  Course  28,  Summex 
Session    101.     Thomas   Carr   Howe,   A.M.,   is 


president. 


C.G. 


BUTZBACH,  JOHANN  (1477-1526).  — 
Prior  of  the  monastery  at  Laach.  He  was 
born  in  1477  at  ]\Iiltenberg,  whence  he  called 
himself  Piemontanus.  At  an  early  age  he 
joined  a  wandering  student  (q.v.)  as  an  A-B-C 
shooter  (q.v.)  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  an  edu- 
cation in  that  way.  His  ambitions  were,  how- 
ever, frustrated,  and  although  he  gained  con- 
siderable worldly  experience  from  his  wander- 
ings and  hardshi])s  in  Bohemia  and  the  south 
of  Germany,  he  failed  to  learn  anything.  After 
returning  to  his  home  he  turned  his  attention 
to  tailoring.  On  entering  the  monastery  at 
Johannisberg  as  tailor,  his  desire  for  knowl- 
edge was  again  kindled,  and  he  was  sent  at  the 
age  of  21  to  the  famous  school  at  Deventer  iq.v.), 
where  he  made  very  rapid  progress.  At  the 
request  of  the  Abbot  of  Laach  he  was  with  some 
other  pupils  recommended  to  enter  the  monas- 
tery there,  which  he  did  in  1500.  Butzbach 
is  "chiefly  of  interest  for  a  delightfully  naive 
account  of  his  wanderings  and  his  life  up  to  the 
time  of  his  entry  into  the  monastery  at  Laach. 
The  Hodoporicon,  or  Little  Book  of  Wandering, 
like  the  Autobiography  of  Thomas  Platter  (q.v.), 
gives  an  excellent  picture  of  the  life  of  the 
wandering  student,  and  differs  from  it  in  the 
simplicity  of  the  descriptions  of  the  country, 
people,  and  manners  ^nth  which  Butzbach 
came  into  contact.  Butzbach  was  a  prolific 
writer  in  prose  and  verse,  but  with  exception  of 
the  Hodoporicon,  the  majority  of  his  works  have 
remained  unedited  in  the  Bonn  Library. 
Among  his  other  works  is  an  Atictuarium  (or 
Supplement)  to  the  De  Scriptoribus  Eccle.'<ias- 
ticis  of  Abbot  Trithemius  of  Sponheim,  con- 
taining 1155  biographies. 

See  B.\ccHANTS. 

References  :  — 

Becker,  D.  I.  Chronica  eines  fahrenden  Schiilers  oder 
Wandcrhuchlein  des  Joltattnes  Butzhacti.  (Regeiis- 
bcrg.  l.SfiO.)  . 

Whitcomb.  M.  Source-book  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy 
and  Germany:  contains  some  extracts  in  English 
from  Butzbach's  Hodoporicon.  (Philadelphia, 
1S99-1900.) 


476 


CABANIS 


C^SAR 


CABANIS,    PIERRE    JEAN    GEORGE   — 

A  distiiiKuished  French  physician,  psychologist, 
and  poUtician,  born  at  Cosnac  in  the  year  1757, 
died  at  ]\leulan  in  180S.  As  a  youth  he  was 
dismissed  from  the  College  of  Brives  on  account 
of  his  independent  spirit.  Later  he  studied 
at  the  University  of  Paris.  After  spending 
two  years  as  a  private  secretary  at  Warsaw 
he  returned  to  Paris  and  devoted  himself  to 
literature,  but  at  the  request  of  his  father 
renounced  his  literary  aml)ition  and  took  up 
the  study  of  medicine.  In  17S9  he  was  ap- 
pointed administrator  of  hospitals  in  Paris,  and 
later  Professor  of  Hygiene,  and  in  1797  Pro- 
fessor of  Clinical  Medicine.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1796.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  and 
later  a  member  of  the  Senate. 

His  chief  work,  Rapports  (hi  physique  et  du 
moral  de  I'homme,  was  in  reality  a  treatise  on 
physiological  psychology.  All  higher  intel- 
lectual activities  he  derived  from  sensation, 
which,  in  turn,  was  dependent  on  physiological 
and  physical  conditions. 

Among  the  papers  of  his  intimate  friend, 
Mirabeau,  was  found  the  manuscript  of  a 
Travail  sur  rinstruction  publique,  which  expert 
opinion  has  attributed  to  Cabanis,  by  whom 
it  was  also  edited  and  published.  There  are 
four  discourses  in  the  collection.  The  first 
treated  of  public  instruction  and  the  organi- 
zation of  the  corps  of  teachers;  the  second 
concerned  public  festivals,  civil  and  military; 
the  third  discussed  the  estaljlishment  of  a 
national  Lycee;  the  fourth  dealt  with  the 
education  of  the  heir  to  the  crown.  Cabanis 
favors  general  education  under  state  authority, 
but  does  not  go  so  far  as  to  make  education 
compulsor\f  or  gratuitous.  Instruction  in  the 
national  Lycee,  or  university,  might  be  free 
to  a  limited  number  of  chosen  youth.  There 
should  be  a  clas.sical  secondary  school  in  each 
department,  with  instruction  in  Greek,  Latin, 
oratory,  science,  and  philosophy.  These  propo- 
sitions were  made  at  a  time  when  France  had 
no  system  of  public  instruction.  The  later 
years  of  the  Revolution  brought  forth  plans  of 
a  much  more  radical  character.  S.  W. 

CAEN,  UNIVERSITY  OF. —Founded  in 
1432  b}'  Henry  \T,  when  Normandy  was  under 
English  control,  in  opposition  to  the  L'^niver- 
sity  of  Paris.  The  faculties  which  were  gradu- 
ally established  were  in  law,  theology,  and 
medicine.  The  Papal  bull  was  obtained  in 
1437,  in  spite  of  much  opposition  from  Paris. 
A  new  charter  was  received  from  Charles  VII 
in  1452,  giving  the  same  privileges  as  those  en- 
joyed by  Paris.  The  history  of  the  university 
down  to  the  Revolution  was  one  of  decline,  and 
at  that  period  it  was  closed.  It  was  reestab- 
lished in  1894,  and  received  the  status  of 
state  university  in  1890.  At  present  the  uni- 
versity includes  faculties  of  law,  letters,  sci- 
ences,  and  a  preparatory  school  of  medicine 


and  pharmacy.     In   1909  there  were  enrolled 
719  students,  of  whom  384  were  in  the  faculty 
of  law. 
See  France,  Education  in. 

CiESAR,  GAIUS  JULIUS.— The  greatest  of 
the  Romans,  the  "  perfect  man,"  according  to 
Mommsen's  exaggerated  tribute,  is  famous  as 
a  warrior,  a  statesman,  and  a  man  of  letters. 
As  a  warrior  he  conquered  and  added  to  the 
Roman  dominion  the  province  of  Gaul,  which 
he  subdued  so  thoroughly  that  it  remained  an 
integral  part  of  the  Roman  Empire  without 
disturbance  for  centuries.  He  also  in  the 
civil  war  against  the  dominant  parties  at  Rome 
obtained  the  headship  of  the  Roman  world,  and 
made  himself  the  founder  of  a  dynasty  which 
in  various  forms  lasted  for  a  thousand  years. 
As  a  statesman  he  reorganized  a  moribund 
government  and  laid  the  foundations  for  mod- 
ern civilization.  As  an  author  he  wrote  an 
account  of  his  campaigns  in  Gaul  and  in  the 
civil  war  which  have  taken  rank  as  important 
historical  sources  and  one  of  which  at  least  has 
been  one  of  the  chief  reading  books  in  schools 
for  centuries. 

The  life  of  Csesar  was  written  by  Suetonius 
in  his  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Cwsars  and  bj''  Plu- 
tarch. There  are  also  numerous  references 
to  him  in  the  literature  of  his  period  and  later. 
On  these  sources  modern  discussions  of  the 
events  of  his  life  have  been  based.  The  most 
available  and  practical  for  teachers  is  that  by 
Warde  Fowler  (New  York,  1892).  The  sketch 
by  Froude  (New  York,  1884)  suffers  from  the 
faults  of  Froude's  historical  method,  but  is 
well  worth  reading.  A  short  sketch  by  TroUope 
(New  York,  1885)  adds  nothing  to  the  subject. 
Baring-Gould's  chapter  (The  Tragedy  of  the 
Cffisars,  New  York,  1907)  is  popular,  but  not 
of  great  value.  There  are,  of  course,  other 
treatments  in  French  and  German,  etc.  An 
analysis  of  his  character  is  given  also  in  IMomm- 
sen's  History  of  Rome  and  in  IMerivale's  History 
of  the  Romans,  both  of  which  are  well  worth 
careful  study.  Those  who  are  interested  in  the 
military  side  of  Caesar's  career  will  find  this 
treated  at  great  length  in  Colonel  Dodge's 
Coesar  (New  York,  1892).  To  the  compre- 
hension of  his  work  in  Gaul  much  has  been  con- 
tributed by  the  work  carried  on  under  the 
auspices  of  Napoleon  III,  entitled  Histoire  de 
Jules  Cesar  (Paris,  1865).  This  great  work  is 
particularly  valuable  for  the  detailed  surveys 
and  plans  of  the  various  battlefields,  and  has 
rendered  further  investigations  in  this  line 
almost  superfluous,  though  occasional  studies 
have  since  been  made  of  individual  campaigns. 
The  subjugation  of  Gaul  has  been  made  the 
subject  of  a  very  extensive  study  l\v  Holmes. 
Ca:sar's  Conquest  of  Gaul  (London,  1899), 
which,  in  addition  to  a  paraphrase  of  the  narra- 
tive of  the  Gallic  War,  contains  in  a  series  of 
appendices  exhaustive  treatment  of  all  ques- 
tions of  ethnology,  trustworthiness,  and  mihtary 


477 


C^SAR 


CAIRD 


management.  This  book  has  been  supple- 
mented for  Britain  l)y  a  similarly  exhaustive 
treatment  by  the  same  author,  entitled  Ancient 
Britain  and  the  Invasion  of  Julius  Cwsar 
(Oxford,    1907). 

During  the  la.st  two  centuries  the  Gallic  War 
has  Iseen  a  household  word  anions  all  who  have 
had  the  advantages  of  a  high  scliool  or  college 
education.  This  is  due  to  tlie  fact  that  accord- 
ing to  the  .system  of  in.struction  in  vogue  during 
this  period  the  Commentaries  on  the  dallic 
War  have  been  the  first  Latin  work  with  which 
students  of  Latin  have  become  acciuainted. 
This  was  not  always  the  case,  for  in  the  improve- 
ment in  teaching  which  began  with  the  Revival 
of  Learning  when  Latin  was  studied  as  a  living 
tongue,  the  chief  model  of  .style  was  Cicero,  and 
outside  of  Cicero  only  authors  of  a  distinctly 
literary  character,  such  as  Vergil,  Horace, 
Terence,  Seneca,  were  read.  Ca>sar  was  read 
in  courses  in  history,  which  need  not  surprise 
us  when  we  remember  that  in  the  Middle  Ages 
most  of  the  textbooks  on  all  subjects  were 
written  in  Latin.  In  the  course  of  time  other 
authors  than  Cicero  came  to  be  used  in  the 
schools,  but  it  was  not  until  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  that  Caesar  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  main  author  for  early  reading. 
The  first  actual  mention  of  Csesar's  Commen- 
taries in  the  statement  of  requirements  for 
admission  to  college  is  found  in  the  announce- 
ment of  Columbia  College  for  the  year  1786, 
where  it  is  provided  that  the  candidates  for 
admission  must  be  able  to  render  into  English 
CiEsar's  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  War,  4 
orations  of  Cicero  against  Catiline,  the  first  4 
books  of  Vergil's  Mneid.  In  the  requirements 
for  admission  to  Princeton  in  1794  we  find 
Sallust  and  Caesar's  Commentaries  substituted 
for  Tally's  Orations.  Since  that  time  the 
curriculum  in  Latin  has  fluctuated  more  or  less, 
but  Cajsar's  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  War 
have  held  their  place. 

The  early  editions  of  C^sar  were  not  dis- 
tinguished particularly  for  critical  accuracy. 
The  commentaries  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  later 
turned  particularly  on  matters  of  content. 
Tlie  first  attempt  to  settle  the  text  of  Ceesar  on 
a  scientific  basis  was  made  by  Nipperdey  in  his 
edition  (Leipzig,  1847).  In  an  exhaustive 
study  of  the  various  manuscripts  of  Csesar,  Nip- 
perdey discovered  evidences  of  two  families  of 
Mss.  which  had  come  by  separate  transmission 
from  an  archetype  of  perhaps  the  third  or  fourth 
century.  We  have  no  manuscripts  of  Cajsar 
earlier  than  the  ninth  or  tenth  centuries,  but 
we  have  a  large  number  of  good  ones  from  this 
period.  Nipperdey  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  altogether  the  manuscripts  of  one  family 
(a.)  were  to  be  preferred  to  those  of  the  other  {(3), 
and  this  view  was  dominant  until  the  edition 
of  Meusel  (Berlin,  1894).  Meusel,  after  another 
exhaustive  study  of  the  manuscripts,  eame  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  second  family  of  manu- 
scripts (j8)  was  the  more  trustworthy,  and  his 


authority  was  regarded  as  preeminent  for 
some  years.  In  the  edition  of  the  Oxford 
t(  xt  by  Du  Pontet  (O.xford,  1900),  however,  we 
find  the  first  family  again  regarded  as  the  more 
important.  Practically  both  families  are  of 
e(iual  value,  and  in  a  ditTercnce  of  reading  it  is 
often  im]30.ssiblc  to  i)refcr  the  one  to  the  other. 

The  fact  that  during  the  last  two  centuries 
Caesar  has  been  read  particularly  in  the 
schools  has  probably  been  the  reason  why  no 
extensive  editions  of  the  Commentaries  with 
notes  have  appeared.  Stock'.s  edition  of  the 
Gallic  War  (Oxford,  1898)  has  a  pretentious 
but  not  very  valuable  introduction,  and  a  poor 
commentary.  Numerous  school  editions  have 
been  published  in  all  the  European  languages, 
and  great  efforts  have  been  made  to  ini])rove 
these  editions  by  maps  and  illustrations  of 
every  conceivable  variety.  The  majjs  have  been 
taken  largely  from  Napoleon,  the  illustrations 
from  Trajan's  column,  but  often  photographs 
of  the  battlefields  as  they  appear  to-day  have 
been  inserted.  Oehler's  Bilder  Atlas  (Lei|)zig, 
1890)  is  important  in  this  connection,  as  well 
asGurlitt's  Anschauungstafeln  (Ocharts;  Gotha), 
while  the  best  collection  of  lantern  slides  (about 
400  in  number)  may  be  obtained  from  George  R. 
Swain,  Bay  City,  Mich.  A  small  but  serviceable 
book  is  Judson's  Ccesar's  Army  (Bo.ston,  1894). 

The  language  of  Ca'sar  has  been  made  the 
subject  of  careful  study,  particularly  in  the  lexi- 
cons of  Meusel  (Berlin,  1887),  Merguet  (Jena, 
1886),  Mcnge,  and  Preuss  (Leipzig,  1885). 
Studies  in  the  syntax  from  the  point  of  view  of 
teaching  have  been  made  by  Heynacher  (Bcr- 
Un,  1886). 

A  complete  bibliography  may  be  found  in  the 
books  above  quoted  and  in  Teuffcl's  History  of 
Latin  Literature  (translation  by  Warr,  London, 
1891).  For  Methods  of  teaching  Caesar,  see 
Latin,  Teaching  of.  G.  L. 

CiESAREA,  SCHOOLS  OF.  —  See  Cate- 
chetical Schools. 

CAGLLARI,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  Founded 
by  Papal  bull  in  1606,  receiving  the  sanction 
of  Philip  of  Spain  in  1620.  It  was  inaugurated 
in  1626.  The  institution  met  with  very  little 
success  until  it  was  restored  in  1764  by  the 
rulers  of  the  House  of  Savoy.  Its  statutes  have 
been  frequently  revised  since  then.  Faculties 
of  law,  medicine,  and  pharmacy,  and  sciences 
are  maintained.  In  1908-1909  there  were  in 
attendance  24.5  students,  almost  half  the  number 
being  in  the  faculty  of  law. 

See  Spain,  Education  in. 

CAIRD,  EDWARD.  —  Born  at  Greenock, 
Scotland,  1835,  and  died  at  Oxford,  England, 
1908.  After  being  a  Fellow  at  Balliol  and  at 
Merton  colleges,  he  was  appointed  to  the  profes- 
sorship of  moral  philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Glasgow.  After  27  years'  service  at  this 
post,  he  succeeded,  in  1893,  Benjamin  Jowett 


478 


CAIUS 


CALCULATE 


as  Master  at  Balliol.  Ill  health  led  to  his 
resignation  in  1907.  His  whole  life  was  devoted 
to  the  educational  interests  in  teaching  and 
writing,  representing  the  full  claims  of  modern 
idealism.  He  early  began  a  study  of  the  specu- 
lative philosophy  of  the  Continent  of  a  century 
ago.  He  philosophized  for  himself  by  inter- 
preting and  criticizing  the  views  and  systems 
of  others.  In  seeking  to  make  secure  the  foun- 
dation of  an  idealistic,  spiritual  conception  of 
the  world,  he  became  one  of  the  sharpest  critics 
of  recent  empiricism  in  English  thought.  His 
intellectual  powers  were  tempered  by  the  uni- 
versal element  of  fairness  which  ever  sought 
to  bring  to  light  the  truths  which  might  lie 
imbedded  in  the  views  of  those  he  criticized. 
He  also  wrote  on  religion,  literature,  and  politics. 
As  a  teacher  as  well  as  an  author  he  sought  for 
an  expression  of  a  philosophy  which  would 
reconcile  and  unify  all  the  aspects  of  experience. 
His  chief  works  are  The  Philosophy  of  Kant 
(1878),  Hegel  (1883),  Social  Philosophy  and 
Religion  of  Cointe  (1885),  Critical  Philosophy 
of  Immanuel  Kant  (1889),  Evolution  of  Reli- 
gion (1893),  Fundamental  Ideas  of  Christianity 
(1899),  and  Evolution  of  Theology  in  the  Greek 
Philosophers  (1903).  E.  F.  B. 

CAIUS.  —  A  learned  priest  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  a  disciple  of  Irenceus,  born  about 
A.D.  180.  At  a  time  when  there  was  but 
little  learning  in  the  Roman  Church  he  won  a 
high  reputation  as  an  eloquent  and  erudite 
teacher  of  religious  truth.  For  information 
about  his  life  and  work  we  are  dependent  al- 
most entirelj'  upon  the  Ecclesiastical  History 
of  Eusebius  (II,  25  and  VI,  20).  Like  the 
other  leaders  of  the  Roman  Church  in  his  day, 
he  wrote  in  Greek.  His  chief  literary  work  was 
The  Disputation,  a  dialogue  in  which  he  argued 
with  Proclus,  the  leader  of  the  Phrygian  heresy. 
Fragments  of  this  have  been  preserved  by  Euse- 
bius, a  tran.slation  of  which  is  given  in  the 
Ante-\icene  Fathers,  Vol.  V.  He  also  com- 
bated the  JNIillenarian  theories,  but  his  writings 
on  this  subject  have  been  lost.  To  him  has 
been  ascribed  the  authorship  of  the  celebrated 
Muratorian.  Fragmerd,  discovered  in  the  Ambro- 
sian  Library  at  Milan  in  1740,  and  of  great  value 
as  a  summary  of  the  opinion  of  the  Western 
Church  on  the  Canon  of  Holy  Scripture  shortly 
after  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  It 
is  translated  in  Vol.  V  of  the  Ante-  Nicene 
Fathers,  and  the  original  is  given  (with  valuable 
critical  comments)  in  Westcott  on  the  Canon, 
pp.  521-538.  To  him  also  were  formerly  attrib- 
uted tlu'ee  works —  .1  Treatise  Against  all  Here- 
sies, The  Little  Labyrinth,  and  A  Treatise  on 
the  Universe  —  but  these  are  now  assigned  by 
almost  universal  consent  to  his  contemporary, 
Hippolytus.  W.  R. 

References:  — 
Farrar,  F.  W.     Lives  of  the  Fathers.     (New  York,  1907.) 
Roberts,    A.,    and    Donaldson,    J.     The    Anle-Nicene 
Fathers,  Vol.  V.     (New  York,   1890-1897.) 


CAIUS,  JOHN  (1510-1573).  — Physician 
and  scholar.  After  studying  at  Gonville  Hall, 
Cambridge,  he  became  fellow  of  that  institu- 
tion. At  first  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  theology,  but  later  changed  his  mind  and  went 
to  Padua  in  1539,  where  he  studied  medicine. 
In  1541  he  lectured  at  the  University  of  Padua 
on  the  logic  and  philosophy  of  Aristotle.  After 
leaving  Padua  he  traveled  in  Italy,  and  in  his 
work  De  Libris  propriis  Liber  he  gives  an 
account  of  the  educational  conditions  of  the 
time  and  of  the  libraries.  He  also  traveled  in 
France  and  Germany,  collating  Mss.  of  Galen 
and  Hippocrates.  As  a  result  of  his  investiga- 
tions he  added  to  the  Cambridge  controversy 
on  the  question  a  work  De  Pronuntiatione 
Graecae  el  Latinae,  supporting  the  old  school. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  gained  eminence 
as  a  physician  in  London,  Norwich,  and  Shrews- 
bury. He  was  royal  phj'sician  to  Edward  VI, 
Mary,  and  Elizabeth.  In  1557  he  devoted  his 
wealth  to  the  endowment  and  refoundation  of 
his  old  college,  which  came  to  be  known  as 
Gonville  and  Caius  College.  In  1559  he 
became  Master  of  the  institution,  but  was 
never  happy  there,  owing  to  friction  with  his 
colleagues.  Always  suspected  of  adherence  to 
Catholicism,  he  could  not  survive  the  burning 
of  vestments  and  ornaments  which  were  found 
in  his  rooms.  Caius  took  a  deep  interest  in 
everything  that  affected  his  university  and 
college.  For  the  former  he  entered  into  a 
controversy  with  an  Oxford  namesake  on  the 
comparative  antiquity  of  the  two  universities, 
and  published  in  1568  De  Antiquitate  Caidabrigi- 
ensis  Academiae,  libri  duo,  and  in  1574  he  wrote 
Historiae  Cantabrigiensis  Academiae  ab  urbe 
condita,  libri  duo.  He  also  wrote  the  Annals 
of  Gonville  and  Caius  College  from  the  founda- 
tion, but  this  is  only  preserved  in  Ms. 

References:  — 

Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

Venn,      J.     Caius     College.      (Cambridge     University 
College  Series.     (London,  1901.) 

CALCOTT,  LADY  MARY  (1785-1842).— 
Wife  of  Sir  Augustus  Wall  Calcott,  the  painter. 
In  addition  to  descriptions  of  her  many  travels, 
which  included  India,  South  America,  and 
Southern  Europe,  she  is  best  known  for  her 
children's  books.  The  most  famous  of  these 
is  Little  Arthur's  History  of  England,  1835. 
In  1841  she  published  The  Little  Bracken- 
burners  and  Little  Mary's  Four  Saturdays. 
While  in  Valparaiso  she  acted  as  tutor  to 
Donna  Maria,  who  later  became  Queen  of 
Portugal. 

CALCULATE.  —  From  the  Latin  calculare, 
to  compute;  from  calculus,  a  pebble,  pebbles 
being  used  by  the  Romans  in  computation  on 
the  abacus  (q.v.).  The  word  is  used  in  elemen- 
tary teaching  particularly  with  reference  to 
mensuration,  as  to  calculate  the  volume  of  a 
cylinder.     It  has  of  late  been  replaced  in  the 


479 


CALCULI 


CALCULUS 


schools  by  the  simpler  word  "  find,"  although 
the  latter  is  not  so  expressive  of  the  numerical 
work  to  be  done.  D.  E.  S. 

See  also  Calculus. 

CALCULI.  —  See  Abacus. 

CALCULUS.  —  The  Latin  word  for  pebble, 
used  Ijy  the  Romans  to  designate  the  small 
counters  used  on  the  abacus  (q.v.).  At  pres- 
ent it  is  loosely  used  to  mean  various  methods 
of  analysis,  but  is  commonly  taken  to  desig- 
nate the  differential  and  integral  calculus,  a 
branch  of  mathematics  that  has  developed  from 
the  infinitesimal  calculus  founded  chiefly  by 
Newton  and  Leibnitz. 

Differential  and  Integral  Calculus.  —  That 
branch  of  analysis  which  studies  differentials 
and  integrals.  If  a  function  of  x  be  given,  as 
y  =  fix),  and  if  we  take  some  arbitrary  value 
of  X  as  Xo,  we  have  yo  =  f  (xo)-  If,  now,  we  let 
Xo  take  an  increment  Ax,  we  may  say  that 
Xo  +  Ax  =  x'.  Then  y'  will  equal  /(x'),  and 
we  shall  have  ?/  =  2/o  +  ^  !/•  Then  1/0  +  A;/ 
=  /(xo  +  ^x),  whence,  by  subtracting  and  di- 
viding, 

^y  ^f(xo+  A.t)  -/(xn) 
Ax  Ax 

Then  as  Ax  approaches  0  as  a  limit,  we  shaU  have 

bmit  of  ^  =  limit  of  -^-^^-^ t^ — 1±-^, 

Ax  Ax 

and  this  limit  is  called  the  derivative  of  y  with 
respect  to  x  and  is  written  /),?/.  From  this  is 
derived  the  relation  dy  =  D^y  dx,  in  which  dy 
is  the  differential  of  y  and  dx  is  the  differential 
of  X. 

It  is  impossible  within  reasonable  limits  to 
give  any  satisfactory  description  of  the  subject. 
For  this  the  reader  must  refer  to  standard 
works  on  the  calculus. 

The  following  is  a  typical  problem  in  maxima 
and  minima,  as  solved  by  the  calculus:  Find 
the  most  advantageous  length  for  a  lever  by 
means  of  which  to  raise  a  weight  of  100  pounds, 
if  the  distance  of  the  weight  from  the  fulcrum 
is  2  feet  and  the  lever  weighs  3  pounds  to  the 
foot.  If  the  weight  of  the  lever  is  not  considered, 
the  longer  the  lever  the  less  the  power  recpiired, 
but  soon  the  lever  becomes  too  heavy  to  be 
used  advantageously.  ■  The  result  is  found  by 
the  calculus  to  be  11.4  feet,  the  power  then  being 
34.6  pounds.     (Osgood.) 

The  reverse  of  differentiation  is  called  inte- 
gration.    That  is,  if  the  differential  of  x"  is  2  x  dx, 

then  the  integral  of  2x  dx,  written  \2xdx,  is  x', 
or  X-  +  some  constant.  The  following  is  a 
typical  problem  in  the  integral  calculus:  A 
water  main  6  feet  in  diameter  is  half  full  of 
water.  Find  the  pressure  on  the  gate  that 
closes  the  main.     The  pressure  is  found  to  be 

*  Jo  ^^  9  ~  2;^  dx,  where  k  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic 


foot  of  water.     The  result  is  found  to  be  1120 
pounds.     (Osgood.) 

The  general  nature  of  the  calculus  as  now 
considered  is  that  of  a  particular  form  of  analy- 
sis dealing  with  differentials  (the  differential 
calculus)  and  integrals  (the  integral  calculus). 
Of  these  the  former  is  usually  considered  first, 
although  a  kind  of  integral  calculus  historically 
preceded  the  differential.  Teachers  often  find 
it  economical  to  take  n\>  the  simplest  forms  of 
integration  along  with  differentiation,  reserv- 
ing the  more  difficult  cases  until  later  in  the 
course.  The  tendency  at  the  present  time  is  to 
make  much  more  of  the  applications  of  the 
calculus  than  was  formerly  the  case,  owing  to 
the  extensive  demands  of  technical  education 
and  the  corresponding  increase  in  apijlied  prob- 
lems. This  movement  owes  much  to  the  works 
of  Perry  and  Greenhill  in  England,  Autenhcimer, 
Nernst,  and  Schonflies  in  Germany,  and  Osgood 
in  the  United  States. 

History.  —  An  initial  step  may  be  said  to 
have  been  made  in  the  calculus  when  Antiphon 
(c.  420  B.C.)  attempted  to  find  the  area  of  a 
circle  by  considering  it  as  the  limit  of  a  regular 
inscribed  polygon  of  n  sides  as  n  is  indefinitely 
increased.  Bryson  of  Heraclea,  his  contem- 
porary, proceeded  in  an  analogous  fashion,  and 
to  these  writers  is  due  the  ancient  method  of 
exhaustions,  the  exhausting  of  the  difference  in 
area,  for  example,  between  a  rectilinear  and  a 
curvilinear  figure,  which  is  essentially  what  is 
done  in  quadrature  problems  in  the  integral 
calculus.  About  the  same  time  Democritus 
(460-c.  370  B.C.)  suggested  the  atomistic  philos- 
ophy and  hinted  at  the  infinitesimal  in  mathe- 
matics. Archimedes  (q.v.),  in  the  third  century 
B.C.,  extended  the  method  of  exhaustions  and 
applied  it  to  the  quadrature  of  the  parabola. 
Practically  no  steps  were  taken  in  the  calculus 
from  this  time  until  about  1600,  when  Kepler 
(q.v.)  laid  down  his  principle  of  continuity  in 
geometry  and  suggested  the  use  of  infinitesi- 
mals, as  in  the  considering  of  a  circle  as  a  poly- 
gon of  an  infinite  number  of  sides.  He  was 
followed  by  an  Italian  writer,  Cavalicri  (1598- 
1647),  who  developed  his  method  of  indivisibles 
in  1629,  and  published  it  in  1635.  In  this  he 
considered  a  fine  as  composed  of  an  infinite 
number  of  points,  a  surface  as  composed  of  an 
infinite  number  of  lines,  and  a  solid  as  com- 
posed of  an  infinite  number  of  planes.  Al- 
though he  subsec|uently  improved  his  theory, 
the  foundation  was  not  solid  enough  for  perma- 
nence. The  theory  is  interesting  as  a  connect- 
ing link  between  the  Oreek  method  of  exhaus- 
tions and  the  calculus  of  Newton  and  Leibnitz. 
It  influenced  men  like  Wallis  and  Barrow  in 
England,  and  Fermat,  Roberval,  Pascal,  and 
Descartes  in  France,  to  consider  the  possibili- 
ties of  using  the  infinitesimal  in  mathematical 
investigation. 

Newton  (1642-1727,  q.v.)  was  a  pupil  of 
Barrow's,  and  was  by  him  made  acquainted  with 
the  work  of  his  predecessors.     He  sought  to 


480 


CALCULUS 


CALENDAR 


justify  the  use  of  the  infinitesimal,  but  by  a 
different  line  of  approach.  He  considered 
X,  and  y  as  flowing  quantities,  and  x  and  y  as 
their  velocities,  and  called  the  new  science  by 
the  name  of  Fluxions.  He  worked  out  his 
theory  about  166.5,  but  published  nothing  upon 
it  until  considerably  later. 

Meantime  Leibnitz  (1646-1716)  (?.v.)  had 
probably  heard  of  Newton's  efforts,  if  not  of  his 
method.s  in  detail,  and  had  set  to  work  upon  the 
same  problem.  He  developed  a  theory  that 
was  independent  of  Newton's,  and  suggested 
the  notation  dx   and    \xdx.      His  theory  was 

worked  out  by  1676,  and  he  published  it  in 
1684,  thus  antedating  Newton's  publication. 

It  is  now  generally  considered  that  Newton 
worked  out  his  theory  of  Fluxions  (essentially 
the  calculus  based  upon  the  theory  of  rates)  at 
least  10  years  before  Leibnitz  worked  out  his; 
that  Leibnitz  knew  that  Ne%vton  had  developed 
a  theory;  that  Leibnitz  worked  out  a  new 
theory  with  a  new  symbolism,  publishing  his 
results  before  Newton.  The  Leibnitz  notation 
finally  supplanted  the  Newtonian,  and  the 
foundations  of  both  theories  have  been  replaced 
by  the  works  of  later  writers.  The  subsequent 
development  of  the  subject  has  led  to  making 
the  fundamental  principles  more  secure,  to 
improving  the  symbolism,  and  to  increasmg  the 
range  of  applications. 

Methods  of  Presenting.  —  There  are  four  gen- 
eral methods  of  presenting  the  calculus.  The 
first  is  the  Method  of  Infinitesimals,  which 
started  with  Kepler  and  Cavalieri  and  culmi- 
nated in  the  work  of  Leibnitz.  This  assumes  that 
dx  is  a  very  small  quantity,  not  zero,  such  that 

dr 

-j-  is  measurable,  but  such  that  dx  is  negligible 
dy 

with  respect  to  x,  and  that  f/.r  dy  is  negligible 
with  respect  to  ydy.  This  method,  while  hav- 
ing the  advantage  of  simplicity  of  treatment, 
has  generally  been  discarded  as  entirely  lack- 
ing in  mathematical  rigor. 

The  second  general  method  is  that  of  Flux- 
ions, due  to  Newton,  which  has  developed  into 
the  Method  of  Rates.  This  defines  a  differ- 
ential of  a  function  or  variable,  at  any  value, 
as  what  would  be  its  increment  m  any  interval 
of  time,  if  at  that  value  its  change  became  uni- 
form. One  of  the  leading  American  exponents 
of  this  method  is  the  textbook  of  Rice  and 
Johnson.  The  method  is  not,  however,  as 
popular  as  the  one  ne.xt  mentioned,  although 
it  has  certain  advantages  in  the  way  of  con- 
creteness. 

The  third  method  is  what  is  now  called  the 
Method  of  Limits,  suggested  by  Newton  and 
used  by  him  in  his  work  on  the  quadrature  of 
curves.  This  is  the  method  used  in  the  intro- 
duction of  this  article,  and  is  the  one  generally 
followed  in  modern  textbooks. 

A  fourth  method,  suggested  by  Lagrange  in 
his  Thiorie  des  Fonctions  (1813),  depends  upon 
the  expansion  of  a  function  into  a  power  series. 


This  offers  a  number  of  obstacles,  however,  in 
the  matter  of  convergence,  and  has  not  been 
considered  usable  for  beginners. 

Bibliography.  —  Such  an  extensive  subject 
should  be  investigated  by  reference  to  the 
literature.  An  excellent  bibliography  is  given 
in  an  article  by  Meyer  in  the  Encyklopddie  der 
matheinatischen  Wis.^en.'ichaften,  \''ol.  II  (Leip- 
zig, 1900).  The  best  history  of  the  rise  of  the 
calculus  is  given  in  Cantor,  Geschichte  der 
Mathematik,  Vols.  Ill  and  IV  (Leipzig,  1908), 
and  in  Zeuthen,  Geschichte  der  Mathematik  im 
16.  and  17.  Jahrhundert  (Leipzig,  1903). 

CALCUTTA  UNIVERSITY.  —  See  India, 
Education  in. 

CALDWELL  COLLEGE,   DANVILLE,   KY. 

—  An  educational  institution  for  young  women. 
Chartered  in  1854  as  the  "  Henderson  Female 
Institute  ";  the  present  title  adopted  in  1904, 
though  the  work  is  chiefly  preparatory  in 
character.  The  school  is  under  the  control  of 
the  Second  Presbyterian  Church.  Degrees 
are  conferred.  There  are  23  instructors  on  the 
faculty  of  the  institution. 

CALDWELL,  JOSEPH  (1773-1835).  —  Edu- 
cator, graduated  at  Princeton  in  1791  and  was 
4  years  a  tutor  in  that  institution.  He  was 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
North  Carolina  from  1795  to  1804,  and  presi- 
dent of  that  institution  from  1814  to  1835. 
In  1824,  he  made  an  educational  tour  through 
Europe,  and  in  1827  he  built  an  astronomical 
observatory  for  the  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina, the  first  of  its  kind  in  the  United  States. 
Author  of  Elementary  Geometry  (1822)  and  of 
addresses  on  educational  subjects.   W.  S.  M. 

CALDWELL,  MERRITT  (1806-1848).  — 
Educator  and  textbook  writer,  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1828.  He  was  principal 
of  the  Wesleyan  Seminary,  Me.,  for  4  years, 
and  professor  in  Dickinson  College  for  14 
years.  He  was  the  author  of  textbooks  on 
grammar  and  elocution  and  of  numerous 
essays  on  religious  subjects.  W.  S.  M. 

CALDWELL,  SAMUEL  LUNT  (1820-1889). 

—  Was  graduated  from  Waterville  College  (now 
Colby  University)  in  1839.  He  was  several 
years  principal  of  academies  in  New  Hamp- 
shire and  Massachusetts,  and  was  president  of 
Vassar  College  from  1878  to  1889.      W.  S.  M. 

CALENDAR.  —  The  computation  of  the 
calendar  played  a  very  important  part  in 
medieval  ecclesiastical  education.  (See  Com- 
putus.) The  word  is  from  the  Latin  Kalen- 
darium,  a  list  of  interest  payments  due  upon 
the  kalends  {kaknd(s)  of  every  month.  The 
Romans  did  not,  therefore,  use  the  term  in 
the  present  sense,  using  Fasti  to  indicate  a  list 
of  days  in  which  the  holidays  were  marked. 


VOL.  I  ■ 


-2i 


481 


CALENDAR 


CALIFORNIA 


In  medieval  Europe  Fasti  was  changed  to 
Kalendarium,  and  the  Spanish- Arabic  Almanac 
(q.v.)  was  also  used  in  the  same  sense.  The 
earliest  known  Christian  calendar  dates  from 
354  A.D.,  and  the  comimting  of  this,  as  of  other 
reUgious  calendars,  expressed  the  higlu^st  mathe- 
matical attainments  of  the  early  religious 
schools. 

The  primitive  unit  of  time  was  the  day,  and 
this  was  doubtless  looked  upon  by  early 
peoples  as  unvarying.  With  the  development 
of  the  race,  however,  various  kinds  of  day 
were  distinguished.  First  from  the  standpoint 
of  invariability  came  the  sidereal  daj',  the 
length  of  time  of  revolution  of  the  earth  as 
shown  by  observations  on  the  fixed  stars,  23 
hours,  56  minutes,  4.09  seconds  of  our  common 
time.  First  from  the  standpoint  of  the  casual 
observer  was,  however,  the  true  solar  day,  the 
length  of  time  between  two  successive  passages 
of  the  sun  across  the  meridian,  varying  51 
seconds  with  the  change  of  seasons,  but  answer- 
ing the  purposes  of  the  world  for  thousands  of 
years,  and  measured  by  the  dial.  As  clocks 
of  one  kind  or  another  came  into  use,  a  third 
kind  of  day  became  recognized,  the  mean  solar 
day,  equal  to  24  hours,  3  minutes,  56.56  seconds, 
of  sidereal  time,  and  still  other  kinds  of  day 
are  recognized  by  writers  on  chronology.  The 
next  obvious  division  of  time  was  the  month, 
originally  the  period  from  one  new  moon  to 
the  next.  This  served  as  the  greater  unit  for 
a  long  time,  but  with  increased  accuracy  of 
observation  it  was  seen  that  there  were  several 
kinds  of  month  as  well  as  several  kinds  of  day. 
Thus  the  sidereal  month  has  27  days,  7  hours, 
43  minutes,  12  seconds,  while  the  synodical 
month,  from  one  conjunction  of  the  sun  and 
moon  to  the  next  one,  averages  29  days,  12 
hours,  44  minutes,  3  seconds.  The  next  longer 
period  is  naturally  the  year,  a  period  observ- 
able only  about  j^  as  often  as  the  month  and 
only  j^5  as  often  as  the  day,  and  hence  not 
so  easily  fixed.  It  took  the  world  a  long  time 
to  find  the  length  of  the  year  with  any  accuracy, 
and  the  struggle  of  the  mind  to  harmonize  the 
reckoning  of  time  by  days  and  months  and 
years  has  given  rise  to  as  many  different 
calendars  as  there  have  been  different  races 
and  religions,  and  has  rendered  the  subject  a 
difficult  one  for  the  schools  to  treat.  There 
are  several  kinds  of  year,  the  sidereal  of 
365.256358  days,  the  tropical  of  365.242204 
days  (in  1800),  the  anomalistic,  about  26 
minutes  longer  than  the  tropical,  the  lunar 
year  of  12  .synodical  months,  and  so  on. 
In  addition  to  these  obvious  periods  there  is 
the  cycle,  as  in  the  lunar  cycle  of  19  years, 
the  solar  cycle  of  28,  and  so  on,  besides  the 
longer  unit  of  the  "  period,"  compounded  of 
cycles  or  other  units.  An  artificial  unit  is  also 
the  era,  the  Byzantine  beginning  Sept.  1, 
5509  B.C.,  the  Alexandrian  in  5502  B.C.,  the 
era  of  the  Exodus  in  1486  b.c,  the  Olympiad 
era  in  779  B.C.,  the  Roman  in  753  B.C.  (Varro) 


or  752  B.C.  (Cato  Censorius),  and  many  others. 
The  Christian  era  was  introduced  by  the  Abbot 
Dionysius  Exiguus,  c.  500  a.d.,  recognized  by 
the  Church  in  the  sixth  century,  and  brought 
into  general  use  largely  through  the  influence 
of  Bede  in  the  eighth  century. 

In  elementary  textbooks  the  two  calendars 
usually  mentioned  are  the  Julian  and  the 
Gregorian.  The  first  derives  its  name  from 
Julius  Ciesar,  who  reformed  the  Roman  calen- 
dar by  decreeing  that  the  year  46  b.c.  should 
have  445  days  (the  annus  confusionif:),  and 
that  subsequent  years  should  have  365  days, 
with  one  leap  year  in  every  four.  He  changed, 
or  attempted  to  change,  the  old  custom  of 
having  the  year  begin  with  March,  a  custom 
that  accounts  for  such  names  as  September, 
and  for  the  names  Quintilis  (the  fifth  month, 
changed  to  JuHus  because  C»sar  was  born  in 
that  month),  and  Sextilis  (afterward  changed 
by  Augustus).  The  Julian  calendar  remained 
in  u.se  in  Christendom  until  its  reformation 
under  Gregory  XIII  in  1582,  and  is  still  in 
use  by  the  Greek  Church,  including  the  Rus- 
sian branch.  The  Julian  calendar  now  differs 
from  the  Gregorian  by  13  days. 

The  development  of  printing  and  the  easy 
distribution  of  almanacs  naturally  led  to  drop- 
ping the  study  of  the  calendar  from  the  schools 
and  monasteries,  although  the  adoption  of  the 
Gregorian  calendar  in  England  in  1752  necessi- 
tated the  retention  of  the  chapter  upon  the 
subject  in  the  arithmetics  until  the  new  system 
became  generally  understood.  That  it  per- 
sisted in  the  American  arithmetics  for  a  century 
after  it  had  served  this  purpose,  until  well 
toward  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
is  an  illustration  of  the  conservatism  of  the 
schools  and  of  the  effect  of  tradition. 

D.  E.  S. 

CALHOUN,  WILLIAM  BARRON  (1796- 
1865).  —  Statesman,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1814. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American 
Institute  of  Instruction  (q.v.)  (for  7  years  its 
president),  and  was  prominently  associated 
with  Horace  Mann  (q.v.)  in  the  reform  move- 
ment in  Massachusetts.  W.  S.  M. 

CALIFORNIA  COLLEGE,  OAKLAND, 
CAL.  —  Organized  in  1870  at  Vacaville  and 
transferred  to  its  present  position  in  1887.  It 
is  under  the  auspices  of  the  Baptists  of  Cali- 
fornia. Sub-academic,  academic,  collegiate, 
fine  arts,  and  business  departments  are  main- 
tained. The  college  courses  are  based  on  about 
12  points  of  high  school  work.  Degrees  are 
conferred.  Very  few  of  the  students,  however, 
remain  for  the  college  course.  There  is  a  fac- 
ulty of  5  professors  and  2  assistants. 

CALIFORNIA,  STATE  OF.  —  Acquired  by 
conquest  from  Mexico,  and  admitted  to  the 
Union  in  1850  as  the  31st  state,  and  without 
any   previous   organization   or   existence   as   a 


482 


CALIFORNIA 


CALIFORNIA 


territory.  It  forms  a  part  of  the  Western 
Division,  and  has  a  land  area  of  156,172  square 
miles.  In  size  it  is  the  second  largest  state  in 
the  Union,  is  about  three  fifths  of  the  area  of 
Texas,  and  about  as  large  as  the  New  England 
states.  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  New 
Jersey  combined.  For  administrative  pur- 
poses the  state  is  divided  into  58  counties,  and 
these  are  in  turn  di\-ided  into  cities,  towns, 
and  school  districts.  In  1900  California  had 
a  population  of  1,485,053,  or  about  one  half 
that  of  the  state  of  Massachusetts,  and  a  den- 
sity of  population  of  9.5  persons  per  s(iuare 
mile.  Its  estimated  population  in  1910  was 
1,756,708. 

Educational  History.  —  Under  the  Mexican 
occupation  the  few  schools  which  existed  were 
church  or  mission  schools.  The  foundation  of 
the  public  school  system  was  laid  in  the  first 
constitutional  convention,  held  at  Monterey 
in  1849,  when,  after  a  long  debate,  the  500,000 
acres  of  new  land,  granted  to  the  states  for 
internal  improvement  by  Congress,  was  set 
aside  for  education  by  a  majority  of  one  vote. 
The  legislature  was  then  directed  to  provide 
for  a  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion; to  encourage  "  intellectual,  scientific, 
moral,  and  agricultural  improvement  '";  to 
devote  to  schools  the  proceeds  of  all  gifts  of 
lands;  to  provide  for  a  3  months'  school  in 
every  school  district  in  the  state:  and  to 
protect  and  preserve  the  lands  given  for  the 
support  of  a  university.  The  first  school  in 
the  state,  other  than  mission  schools,  had  been 
organized  in  San  Francisco  the  year  before. 
In  1847  a  schoolhouse  had  been  ordered  to  be 
built  by  the  town  council,  and  in  1848  a  school 
board  was  elected  and  a  teacher  employed. 
The  school  was  a  tuition  school,  under  public 
control,  and  was  free  only  to  indigent  pupils. 
This  school  began  with  6  pupils,  soon  increased 
its  numbers  to  37  pupils,  and  then,  after  the 
discovery  of  gold,  dwindled  to  8  pupils  and 
was  closed.  In  1850  the  first  school  ordinance 
in  California  was  passed,  and  the  first  free 
public  school  was  opened  in  San  Francisco  under 
its  provisions.  The  first  state  school  law  was 
enacted  in  1851.  It  ordered  a  survey  of  the 
school  lands;  the  apportionment  of  the  interest 
on  the  school  fund  to  the  counties  on  the  basis 
of  the  school  census,  and  to  districts  on  actual 
attendance;  and  provided  for  the  establish- 
ment of  schools,  and  the  making  of  school 
reports.  Religious  and  sectarian  schools,  as 
well  as  almshouses  and  orphan  asylums,  were 
to  share  in  the  school  fund  distribution  on  the 
sani("  basis  as  other  schools.  The  first  schools 
organized  under  the  new  law  were  those  of 
San  Francisco,  which  at  once  provided  for  a 
City  Hoard  of  Education  and  a  Superintendent 
of  Schools,  and  organized  a  town  school  system. 

In  1852  a  revised  school  law  was  adopted, 
which  contained  the  main  outlines  of  the  i)res- 
ent  system.  A  State  Board  of  Education  was 
provided   for;    constables    were   appointed   as 


school  census  marshals;  the  duties  of  County 
Superintendents  were  laid  down;  a  state  school 
tax  of  5  cents  on  the  SI 00  was  ordered,  and 
all  state  money  was  directed  to  be  used  only 
for  teachers'  salaries;  an  optional  countj' 
school  tax  of  3  cents  and  an  optional  city 
school  tax  of  3  cents  were  allowed;  and  aid  to 
denominational  and  sectarian  schools  was  for- 
bidden. In  1853  county  Assessors  were  di- 
rected to  act  ex  officio  as  County  School  Super- 
intendents; the  county  school  tax  was  changed 
from  optional  to  mandatory  and  raised  to  5 
cents;  and  the  limit  of  taxation  for  cities,  and 
the  prohibition  of  aid  to  sectarian  and  de- 
nominational schools,  were  removed.  In  1855 
County  Superintendents  of  Schools,  City  Super- 
intendents of  Schools,  and  City  Boards  of 
Education  were  provided  for  in  the  law;  and 
aid  to  denominational  and  sectarian  schools 
was  finallj'  cut  off.  In  1860  the  State  Board 
of  Education  was  authorized  to  adopt  a  series 
of  textbooks,  and  in  1870  this  series  was  made 
uniform  for  the  whole  state.  State  and  County 
Boards  of  Examination  were  also  provided  for. 

In  1861  the  question  of  what  to  do  with  the 
16th  and  the  36th  section  school  lands  was 
finallj'  settled  by  ordering  them  to  be  sold 
and  the  proceeds  to  be  jjaid  into  the  state 
school  fund.  In  1862  the  first  .state  normal 
school  was  established,  and  in  1869  the  state 
university  was  established.  In  1863  state  aid 
for  teachers'  institutes  w-as  provided;  new 
regulations  were  made  regarding  the  certifica- 
tion of  teachers;  and  the  funding  of  the  state's 
debt  to  the  school  fund  was  begun.  In  1864 
the  county  school  tax  was  changed  to  the  new 
basis  of  not  less  than  S2  per  census  child,  and 
a  5  months'  school  ordered.  By  1865  more 
than  half  of  the  schools  were  free  from  "  rate- 
bills,"  and  in  1867  the  "  rate-bill  "  was  defi- 
nitely abandoned  and  the  schools  made  free 
to  every  child.  In  1866  the  state  school  tax 
was  raised  to  8  cents  and  the  county  school 
tax  to  S3  per  census  child,  and  in  1874  the 
state  school  tax  also  was  changed  to  the  new 
basis  and  made  not  less  than  $7  per  census 
child.  In  1884  the  county  school  tax  was 
further  raised  to  $4  per  census  child;  in  1893 
to  .S6;   and  in  1905  to  $7. 

In  1879  a  new  and  a  reactionary  state  con- 
stitution was  adopted,  the  educational  section 
of  which  did  away  with  the  State  Board  of 
Education  and  the  Boards  of  Examiners,  and 
provided  for  County  Boards  of  Education,  with 
power  to  certificate  all  teachers  and  to  adopt 
all  textbooks  for  the  schools  of  the  county. 
This  soon  proved  unsatisfactory,  and  in  1884 
an  amendment  to  the  state  constitution  was 
submitted  and  adopted  which  provided  for  an 
ex-officio  State  Board  of  Education,  and  made 
it  their  duty  to  edit  and  compile  a  state  series 
of  textbooks,  and  to  have  them  printed  and 
published  by  the  state.  Beyond  this  the  new 
board  was  given  no  duties  of  any  consequence. 
State  authorship  proved  so  extremely  unsati.s- 


483 


CALIFORNIA 


CALIFORNIA 


factory  that  it  was  finally  abandoned  in  1903 
for  the  purchase  of  copyrights,  though  state 
publication  is  still  retained. 

The  first  high  school  in  the  state  was  organ- 
ized in  San  Francisco  in  1858,  but  the  num- 
ber of  high  schools  had  increased  to  only  12 
by  1885,  and  few  others  were  organized  up  to 
1891.  The  constitution  of  1879  had  included 
high  schools  as  a  part  of  a  possible  state  school 
system,  but  had  forbidden  the  use  of  any  part 
of  the  state  school  fund  for  their  support.  In 
1891  the  Union  High  School  Act  was  pa.sscd, 
whereby  a  number  of  districts  might  unite  to 
maintain  a  free  high  school  for  their  children, 
and  after  the  pas.sage  of  this  act  the  develo])- 
ment  of  high  schools  was  rapid.  In  1902  the 
state  constitution  was  amended  and  a  state 
high  school  fund  created,  to  be  raised  by  general 
taxation.  Since  1903  the  high  schools  of  the 
state  have  been  placed  on  a  good  financial 
basis.  The  inspection  and  accrediting  of  the 
high  schools,  begun  by  the  state  university  in 

1884,  has  done  much  to  stimulate  and  stand- 
ardize the  schools.     From   12  high  schools  in 

1885,  the  number  rose  to  24  in  1890,  98  in 
1895,  105  in  1900,  143  in  1903,  and  187  in  1909. 

Present  School  System.  —  The  school  system 
of  California  as  at  present  organized  is  as 
follows:  At  the  head  is  a  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  and  a  State  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. The  superintendent  is  elected  by 
popular  election  for  a  4-year  term,  and 
receives  a  salary  of  .S5000.  He  has  general 
oversight  of  the  schools  of  the  state;  prepares 
all  blanks;  apportions  all  state  school  money 
to  the  counties;  visits  the  schools  of  the  state; 
hears  appeals  from  the  decisions  of  the  County 
Superintendents  and  County  Boards;  and  com- 
piles a  biennial  report.  He  is  also  ex  officio  a 
member  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  the 
Board  of  Regents  of  the  state  university,  and 
of  the  different  boards  of  trustees  of  the  5 
state  normal  schools.  The  State  Board  of 
Education  consists,  ex  officio,  of  the  Governor, 
State  Superintendent,  president  and  professor 
of  education  in  the  state  university,  and  the 
presidents  of  the  5  state  normal  schools. 
The  chief  functions  of  this  board  are  to  adopt 
a  series  of  uniform  textbooks  for  the  schools  of 
the  state;  to  determine  the  credentials  upon 
which  certificates  to  teach  in  the  high  schools 
may  be  issued;  to  accredit  normal  schools  in 
other  states  for  teachers'  certification;  to 
designate  an  educational  journal  for  the  state; 
and  to  grant  life  diplomas  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  County  Boards  of  Education. 

For  each  county  there  is  a  County  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools,  devoting  all  of  his  time  to 
the  work,  and  a  County  Board  of  Education. 
The  County  Superintendent  superintends  the 
schools  of  his  county;  is  required  to  visit 
every  school  at  least  once  a  year;  apportions 
all  school  money  to  the  districts;  passes  on  all 
requisitions;  conducts  an  annual  teachers' 
institute;    approves  all   plans  for  new  school 


buildings;  issues  temporary  certificates  to 
teach;  fills  all  vacancies  in  boards  of  district 
trustees;  and  makes  an  annual  report  to  the 
State  Superintendent.  Each  County  Board 
of  Education  consists  of  the  County  Superin- 
tendent as  secretary,  and  4  others  appointed 
by  the  Board  of  County  Supervisors,  a  majority 
of  whom  mu.st  be  experienced  teachers.  This 
board  is  paid  S5  per  person  per  day  and 
mileage  for  its  services.  It  examines  all  can- 
didates for  teachers'  certificates;  grants  certi- 
ficates to  teach  to  those  who  are  successful, 
and  to  those  who  present  proper  credentials; 
adopts  rules  and  regulations  and  a  course  of 
study  for  the  schools  of  the  county;  deter- 
mines what  books  and  apparatus  district  boards 
of  trustees  may  purchase,  and  fixes  the  prices 
that  may  be  paid  for  the  same;  and  examines 
the  schools  of  the  county  and  issues  diplomas 
of  graduation  to  the  pupils. 

Cities  are  governed  by  Boards  of  Education, 
as  provided  for  in  their  charters,  but  in  other 
respects  are  governed  l)y  the  provisions  of  the 
general  school  law  of  the  state.  Each  employs 
a  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  as  provided 
for  by  law,  for  a  4-year  term.  For  a  more 
detailed  statement  as  to  the  form  of  city  school 
government,  see  special  articles  on  Los  An- 
geles, 0-\KLAND,  and  San  Francisco. 

School  districts,  of  whatever  size,  are  gov- 
erned by  boards  of  3  school  trustees,  elected 
by  the  people  of  the  districts  for  3-year 
terms.  The  powers  of  school  tru.stecs  in  dis- 
tricts, and  of  Boards  of  Education  in  cities, 
are  about  the  same,  and  include  the  emjjloy- 
ment  of  teachers;  the  building  and  repairing 
of  schoolhouses;  the  preparation  of  an  annual 
school  census;  the  admission  and  exclusion  of 
certain  children;  furnishing  free  textbooks  to 
indigent  children;  and  making  an  annual  re- 
port to  the  County  Superintendent  of  Schools. 
Neither  board  can  employ  as  teachers  any 
one  not  regularly  certificated  by  the  County 
Board  of  Education,  acting  in  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  the  state.  Cities  may  make  their 
own  course  of  study,  may  examine  and  pro- 
mote their  own  children,  and  are  exempt  from 
county  supervision,  but  school  districts  under 
boards  of  district  trustees  do  not  have  such 
privileges. 

Kindergartens,  evening  schools,  high  schools, 
and  technical  schools  are  definitely  incorporated 
by  the  state  constitution  as  a  part  of  the  state 
school  system,  and  provision  has  recently  been 
made  in  the  law  for  careful  and  thorough 
health  supervision,  though  all  of  these  special 
advantages  are  as  yet  provided  only  in  the 
larger  cities.  The  school  system  of  the  state 
is  essentially  a  series  of  county  systems,  as  the 
County  Boards  of  Education  possess  large 
powers,  while  the  State  Board  of  Education 
and  the  State  Superintendent  possess  little 
real  power.  At  the  same  time  the  county 
system  is  as  yet  only  imperfectly  developed, 
as  the  school  districts  still  retain  large  powers. 


484 


CALIFORNIA 


CALIFORNIA 


The  publication  of  school  textbooks  by  the 
state,  which  is  a  feature  of  the  California 
system,  has  proved  to  be  a  very  expensive 
undertaking,  and  has  never  been  satisfactory 
to  the  schoolmen  of  the  state. 

School  Support  and  Expenditure.  —  The 
state  originally  received  from  Congress  for 
schools  the  500,000  acres  of  land  granted  to 
new  states,  and  in  18.5.3  was  granted  in  addition 
the  IGth  and  the  36th  sections,  amounting  to 
6,719,324  acres  of  land  for  schools.  All  of  this 
was  devoted  to  education,  but  so  far  has 
brought  in  but  little  to  the  state,  the  fund 
amounting  to  but  .81, 737, .500  in  1876,  and  to 
but  85,314,050  at  the  time  of  last  report. 
The  large  increase  in  the  fund  within  recent 
years  has  been  due  to  the  receipt  of  about  one 
million  of  dollars  from  Congress  in  1907,  in 
payment  of  the  5  per  cent  of  sales  of  j)ublic 
land  within  the  state.  The  annual  state  fund 
for  the  maintenance  of  elementary  schools 
within  the  state  comes  from  the  interest  on 
this  permanent  fund;  the  proceeds  of  a  general 
state  tax,  which  must  be  equal  to  not  less 
than  .S7  per  census  child,  5-17  years  of  age; 
about  $250,000  received  annually  from  the 
collateral  inheritance  taxes;  and  all  poll  taxes. 
All  of  this  must  be  used  only  for  the  payment 
of  teachers'  salaries  in  elementary  schools. 
High  schools  are  maintained  out  of  separate 
funds,  partly  derived  from  local  taxation,  and 
partly  from  an  additional  state  tax,  which 
must  be  equal  in  amount  to  .S15  per  pupil  in 
average  daily  attendance  in  the  high  schools 
of  the  state  during  the  preceding  year.  About 
53  per  cent  of  all  school  money  expended  comes 
from  state  sources.  The  elementary  school 
fund  is  apportioned  to  the  counties  on  the 
basis  of  S250  for  every  teacher  allowed  to  the 
districts,  towns,  and  cities  by  the  County 
Superintendent,  and  the  balance  (.S10.13  per 
census  child  in  1908-1909)  on  the  school  census. 
The  high  school  tax  is  distributed  to  the 
different  approved  high  schools  by  first  divid- 
ing ^  of  the  total  amount  equally  among  the 
schools,  irrespective  of  size  (.S639.90  in  1908- 
1909),  and  then  the  remaining  f  of  the  total 
on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  pupils  in  average 
daily  attendance  in  the  high  schools  during  the 
preceding  year  (89.37  in  1908-1909). 

Each  county  must  also  raise,  in  addition,  a 
county  tax  for  elementary  schools  of  not  le.ss 
than  $7  per  census  child.  In  making  the 
county  apportionment  of  elementary  school 
funds  to  the  different  districts,  the  California 
plan  is  particularly  noteworthy  in  that  it  en- 
sures a  good  school  in  every  school  district  in 
the  state,  and  in  that  it  favors  the  small  and 
needy  district.  The  state  and  the  county 
school  money,  for  elementary  schools,  are  added 
together,  and  are  then  apportioned  by  the 
County  Superintendent  to  the  cities,  towns, 
and  districts  on  the  basis  of  8550  for  every  70 
school  census  children,  or  fraction  thereof  of 
20  or  more  (this  is  called   the  teacher  appor- 


tionment) ;  and  the  remainder  is  then  appor- 
tioned to  all  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of 
children  in  average  daily  attendance  during  the 
preceding  year.  The  result  of  this  apportion- 
ment plan  is  that  California  can  pay  good 
salaries  to  the  teachers  in  all  of  its  schools, 
has  an  8  months'  school  practically  every- 
where, and  no  better  rural  schools  are  to  be 
found  in  any  state  in  the  Union.  Local  taxa- 
tion is  employed  for  both  elementary  and  high 
schools  to  secure  any  additional  funds  that  may 
be  needed.  About  40  per  cent  of  all  school 
money  expended  comes  from  state  sources, 
about  55  per  cent  comes  from  county  taxation, 
and  the  remainder  from  local  taxation.  There 
are  no  township  or  county  permanent  school 
funds  in  the  state,  all  having  been  placed  in 
the  state  fund. 

The  total  expended  for  all  kinds  of  public 
schools  in  1908-1909  was  815,985,2.56.  Based 
on  the  total  population  of  the  state  this  was 
equal  to  a  per  capita  expenditure  of  88.47  as 
again.st  87.49  for  the  Western  Division,  and 
84.27  for  the  United  States  as  a  whole.  The 
average  daily  expenditure  per  pupil  was  8.303, 
and  the  yearly  expenditure  per  pupil  in  aver- 
age daily  attendance  was  854.93,  expenditures 
which  were  exceeded  only  by  Montana  and 
Nevada.  Nevada  and  Washington  alone 
among  the  states  raise  more  money  (.832.34) 
per  child  (.5-18  years  of  age)  in  the  population, 
but  so  great  is  the  per  capita  wealth  of  Cali- 
fornia that  $.62  from  each  adult  male  will 
produce  $1  for  each  census  child,  as  against 
an  average  of  8.71  for  the  Western  Division 
and  $1.02  for  the  United  States  as  a  whole. 
The  total  expenditures  for  all  purposes  are 
large.  Only  60.5  per  cent  of  the  total  expense 
is  for  teachers'  salaries,  yet  salaries  in  California 
are  comparatively  high. 

Educational  Conditions.  —  Of  the  total  popu- 
lation of  1900,  24.7  per  cent  were  foreign  born, 
these  being  distributed  widely  among  the 
different  nationalities.  Japanese  and  Chinese 
constituted  4  per  cent.  Of  the  total  population, 
but  22.8  per  cent  are  children  between  the 
ages  of  5  and  18  years,  California  ranking  with 
New  England  in  this  respect.  By  sex,  55.3  per 
cent  are  males.  Less  than  1  per  cent  of  the 
population  are  of  the  colored  race,  so  that  the 
state  has  no  negro  problem  to  deal  with. 
While  agriculture  is  one  of  the  great  resources 
of  the  state,  only  47.6  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion live  in  country  districts,  and  43.8  per  cent 
live  in  cities  of  8000  inhabitants  or  over. 

The  average  length  of  term  provided  was 
172  days  in  elementary  schools  and  194  days 
in  high  schools;  the  average  for  all  schools  was 
183  days.  Both  the  percentage  of  the  school 
population  enrolled  in  the  schools  (89.68  per 
cent)  and  the  percentage  of  attendance  based 
on  enrollment  (75.43  per  cent)  arc  high.  This 
was  equal  to  an  average  daily  attendance  of 
122.4  days  per  year  for  each  child  between  5  and 
18  years  of  age  in  the  state,  and  136.5  days  for 


485 


CALIFORNIA 


CALIFORNIA 


each  child  enrolled,  as  against  76.1  and  100. S 
for  the  United  States  as  a  whole.  The  long 
term  provided  is  a  result  of  the  wise  taxation 
and  school  apportionment  laws  of  the  state, 
hut  the  attendance  is  due  to  the  quality  of  the 
schools  and  to  the  strong  sentiment  in  favor 
of  education  which  exists  among  the  peoi)le, 
as  the  state  has  as  yet  practically  no  means  of 
enforcing  its  compulsory  attendance  laws. 
Parental  schools  are  provided  for  in  the  laws, 
but  they  have  as  yet  been  established  in  only  a 
few  cities.  The  cities  generally  have  local 
truant  officers,  and  juvenile  courts  and  pro- 
bation officers  exist  in  a  few  of  the  larger 
cities.  The  state  has  a  good  child-labor  law, 
which  is  well  enforced,  the  school  principals 
issuing  the  permits  to  work,  and  the  inspection 
of  factories  and  packing  establishments  being 
under  the  charge  of  the  state  labor  bureau. 
There  is  little  illiteracy  in  the  state,  except 
among  the  foreign-born  population.  The  total 
illiteracy  for  the  state  in  1900  was  4.8  per  cent, 
of  which  1  per  cent  was  among  the  native 
whites  (mostly  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  ele- 
ments) and  the  remainder  among  the  foreign- 
born  whites. 

In  material  conditions  the  schools  make  an 
excellent  showing.  The  school  property  of  the 
state  was  estimated  as  worth  about  .$38,666,761 
in  1909,  and  the  estimated  average  value  of 
the  schoolhou.ses  is  about  $10,000  each.  Many 
of  the  town  elementary  school  buildings,  and 
nearly  all  of  the  high  school  buildings,  are  the 
best  of  their  kind.  The  rural  schools  are  well 
graded,  and  are  taught  by  good  teachers.  A 
good  school  librarj^  everywhere  is  a  feature  of 
the  California  school  system.  Nature  study 
in  some  form  is  taught  in  nearly  all  of  the 
schools,  agriculture  in  many  of  the  rural 
schools,  manual  training  and  domestic  science 
in  the  city  schools,  and  manual  training  in 
many  of  the  town  schools.  Kindergartens  and 
evening  schools,  and  special  cla.sses  for  the 
instruction  of  the  deaf,  are  to  be  found  in  the 
cities.  Health  and  development  work,  under 
the  care  of  trained  men,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
larger  cities.  Little  has  been  done  as  yet 
toward  the  consolidation  of  rural  schools, 
though  this  has  been  authorized  by  law, 
chiefly  because  the  state  has  as  yet  so  few 
people  per  square  mile.  All  schools  of  the 
state  are  equally  open  to  negro  children, 
though  in  cities  Boards  of  Education  may 
establish  separate  schools  for  Indian  and  Mon- 
golian children.  Under  this  provision  San 
Francisco  maintains  separate  schools  for  the 
Chinese,  and  has  tried  to  establish  them  for 
the  Japanese. 

Secondary  Education.  —  The  State  assists  in 
the  maintenance  of  an  excellent  system  of 
high  schools,  of  which  there  were  187  entitled 
to  receive  aid  in  1909.  To  be  entitled  to 
receive  state  aid  a  school  must  have  a  reason- 
ably good  equipment  of  building,  laboratories, 
and  library;  must  employ  at  least  2  teachers; 


must  maintain  a  4-years'  course  of  instruc- 
tion, and  for  at  least  9  months;  and  must  have 
had  at  least  20  pupils  in  average  daily  attend- 
ance during  the  preceding  year.  Provision  has 
recently  been  made  by  law  for  2-year  and 
for  6-year  high  schools.  In  addition  to  the 
public  high  schools,  49  private  high  schools 
and  academies  are  reported,  though  most  of 
these  are  small  in.stitutions.  The  universities 
of  the  state  depend  directly  upon  the  high 
schools,  and  do  not  maintain  preparatory 
departments. 

Teachers  and  Training.  —  The  state  em- 
ployed 10,737  teachers  in  190S-1909,  of  whom 
about  13.5  per  cent  were  men.  Of  this  number 
179  were  employed  in  kindergartens,  and  1480 
in  high  schools.  The  average  monthly  salary 
paid  to  teachers  in  high  schools  is  about  SI  10, 
and  in  elementary  schools  about  -580  per  month, 
for  a  term  of  194  and  172  days  respectively. 

Of  the  teachers  cmplo3'ed  in  the  elementary 
schools  of  the  state,  47  per  cent  arc  graduates 
of  a  California  normal  school  or  of  some  normal 
school  accredited  as  of  equivalent  rank,  and 
about  15  per  cent  of  all  the  teachers  employed 
are  graduates  of  some  college  or  imiversity. 
Something  of  the  training  required  of  teachers 
may  be  ascertained  from  the  requirements  for 
teachers'  certificates.  For  a  kindergarten  cer- 
tificate the  applicant  mu.st  have  had  a  high 
school  training,  and  be,  in  addition,  a  graduate 
of  some  kindergarten  training  school.  For  a 
grammar  grade  certificate  (the  only  certificate 
issued  for  elementary  work)  the  applicant  must 
be  a  graduate  of  a  California  state  normal 
school,  which  requires  graduation  from  a  4- 
years'  high  school  course  for  admission,  and 
2  years  of  training;  must  possess  similar 
credentials  from  some  accredited  normal  school 
elsewhere;  or  must  take  an  examination  lasting 
5-6  days,  held  semi-annually,  and  embracing 
all  of  the  elementary  school  subjects,  most  of 
the  high  school  subjects,  and  professional  sub- 
jects. For  a  high  school  certificate,  which  is 
required  of  all  teachers  in  any  kind  of  a  high 
school,  the  applicant  mu.st  be  a  graduate  of  a 
college  or  university  requiring  8  j'cars  of  high 
school  and  college  work,  and  in  addition  must 
spend  1  year  in  graduate  work  in  one  of  the 
two  large  California  universities,  or  in  some 
university  elsewhere  accredited  as  of  equal 
rank.  For  normal  graduates  and  teachers  of 
sufficient  experience  half  of  the  graduate  year 
is  waived.  All  certificates  are  valid  for  6  years, 
and  credentials  of  graduation  from  normal 
schools  and  universities,  upon  which  certifi- 
cates may  be  granted,  are  valid  until  revoked 
for  cause. 

For  some  years  the  state  has  maintained 
5  normal  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers, 
located  at  San  Diego,  Los  Angeles,  San  Jos^, 
San  Francisco,  and  Chico;  and  in  1909  it  estab- 
lished a  sixth  school  at  Santa  Barbara  for  the 
training  of  teachers  in  manual  training  and 
domestic  science  and  art.      The  state  also  fuUy 


4S6 


The  Hearst  Greek  Theater  at  the  University  of  California. 


View  of  University  of  C'amfokma  and  of  Berkeley  looking  towards  the  Golden  Gate. 


CALIFORNIA 


CALIFORNIA 


accredits  the  work  done  in  about  60  normal 
schools  located  elsewhere  in  the  United  States 
and  in  Canada.  The  two  large  universities 
act  as  training  schools  for  high  school  teachers 
for  the  state,  though  the  state  also  equally 
accredits  the  work  done  in  about  20  institutions 
of  high  rank  in  the  United  States.  In  the 
matter  of  interstate  recognition  of  credentials 
and  certificates,  California  is  one  of  the  most 
liberal  states  in  the  Union,  and  offers  an  ex- 
ample to  other  states  well  worthy  of  imitation. 
Higher  and  Technical  Education.  —  The 
University  of  California  at  Berkelej^  opened 
in  1869,  stands  as  the  culmination  of  the  public 
school  system  of  the  state.  The  agricultural 
and  mechanical  college,  provided  for  by  the 
Morrill  Act,  is  combined  with  the  state  uni- 
versity. The  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University, 
located  near  Palo  Alto  and  opened  in  1891, 
though  endowed  by  private  funds,  shares  the 
work  of  higher  technical  and  professional  in- 
struction with  the  state  university,  and  may 
be  classed  as  a  semi-public  institution.  Be- 
sides these  two,  both  of  which  are  coeducational, 
there  are  a  number  of  colleges  in  the  state, 
nearly  all  denominational,  which  offer  collegiate 
instruction,  as  follows :  — 


COLLEOB 

Location 

Control 

Opened 

For 

Univ.  of  the 

Pacific  .    , 

San  Josfi 

Meth. 

1S51 

Both  sexes 

Santa    Clara 

College 

Santa  Clara 

E.G. 

1851 

Men 

St.     iKiiatiua 

ColloEe 

San  Francisco 

R.  C. 

1855 

Men 

St.       Mary's 

CoIlcRe     _ . 

Oakland 

R.  C. 

1863 

Men 

St.  Vincent's 

Colleiie      . 

Los  Angeles 

R.  C. 

1865 

Men 

California 

College 

Oakland 

Bapt. 

1870 

Both  sexes 

Mills  College 

Oakland 

Non-Sect. 

1871 

Women 

Univ.  of  So. 

California 

Los  Angeles 

Meth. 

1880 

Both  sexes 

Occidental 

CollcKe 

Los  Angeles 

Presb. 

1888 

Both  sexes 

Pomona  Col- 

lege      .     . 

Claremont 

Congr. 

1888 

Both  sexes 

Throop  Poly- 

technic Inst. 

Pasadena 

.Non-Sect. 

1891 

Both  sexes 

The  state  also  maintains,  in  addition  to  the 
work  of  the  state  university,  an  agricultural 
and  mechanical  high  school  at  San  Luis 
Obispo,  known  as  the  California  Polytechnic 
School.  This  institution  was  established  in 
1901  "  to  contribute  to  the  industrial  welfare 
of  tlic  State  of  California."  A  farm  school, 
connected  with  the  state  university,  was  estab- 
lished in  190G  at  Davis,  a  farm  of  700  acres  being 
purchased,  with  the  intention  of  developing  a 
large  agricultural  experimental  farm  and  school. 
The  state  also  maintains  the  Institution  for  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb,  at  Berkeley;  the  Whittier 
State  (reformatory)  School,  at  Whittier;  the 
Preston  School  of  Industry  (for  boys  only;  re- 
formatory), at  lone;  and  the  California  Home 
for  the  Care  and  Training  of  Feeble-minded 
Children,  at  Eldridge.  E.  P.  C. 


References  :  — 

Monographs  on  Education  in  California.  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 1904.)  Four  monographs  on  the  history  and 
present  status  of  the  California  schools,  as  follows  : 

1.  SwETT,    John.     The    Elementary    Schools    of 
California,  16  pp. 

2.  McChesney,  J.  B.     Secondary  Education  in 
California,  2S  pp. 

3.  Van  Liew,  C.  C.     The  California  System  of 
Training  Elementary  Teachers,  23  pp. 

4.  OvERSTREET,  H.  A.     The  University  of  Cali- 
fornia, 20  pp. 

Numbers  1-3  reprinted  in  Rep.  Supl.  Pub.  Instr.  Cal., 

1903-1904. 
Faulkner,  R.  D.    The  California  State  Text-hook  Sys- 
tem ;    Educ.    Rev.,    Vol.    XX,    pp.  44-bO.      (June, 

1900.) 
Reports  of   the  Superintendent  of   Public  Instruction  of 

California,    Annual,    1852-1863  ;     biennial,    1864- 

1865  to  1907-1908. 
School  Law  of  California,  1909  ed. 
Shinn,     Chas.     H.     Spanish-California     Schools ;      in 

Educ.  Rev.     (June,  1893.) 
Sweet,  John.     History  of  the  Public  School  System  of 

California,     (San  Francisco,  1876.) 
Statistics  based  on  Rep.   U.  S.  Com.  Educ,   1909,  and 

Rep.  Supt.  Pub.  Inst.,  1910. 


CALIFORNIA,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  BERKE- 
LEY, CAL.  —  A  state  university  forming 
part  of  the  system  of  education  of  the  state 
of  California.  The  university  is  the  out- 
growth of  two  inistitutions,  one  the  College  of 
California,  established  in  1855  in  a  suburb 
of  Oakland,  which  later  received  the  name  of 
Berkeley,  and  the  other  the  Agricultural,  Min- 
ing, and  Mechanical  Arts  College  projected  by 
the  state  in  1866  in  accordance  with  the  re- 
quirements of  the  Morrill  Act  {q.v.),and  located 
a  httle  to  the  north  of  the  College  of  California. 
As  the  result  of  an  agitation  to  establish  an 
institution  of  broader  scope  than  the  Agricul- 
tural College,  the  College  of  California  in  1867 
agreed  to  cede  its  property  to  the  state  for 
the  foundation  of  an  institution  "  at  least 
equal  to  those  of  eastern  colleges  and  universi- 
ties." The  proposal  was  accepted,  and  the  legis- 
lature passed  an  act  to  organize  the  Univer- 
sity of  California  in  1868  in  accordance  with 
the  requirements  of  the  constitution.  The 
union  of  the  two  institutions  thus  afforded  a 
means  of  providing  a  thorough  general  educa- 
tion in  the  humanities,  and  courses  of  instruc- 
tion in  accordance  with  modern  professional 
and  industrial  needs.  The  university  was 
opened  in  1869,  and  instruction  was  given  tem- 
porarily at  Oakland  until  new  buildings  were 
completed  in  1873  at  Berkeley.  No  tuition 
fees  were  charged,  and  in  1870  the  institution 
was  made  coeducational.  Professor  Durant 
was  the  first  president,  and  was  succeeded  in 
1872  by  President  Daniel  Coit  Gilman.  The 
maintenance  of  the  university  is  derived  from 
income  from  invested  funds  obtained  from  the 
sale  of  lands,  private  endowment,  and  state 
appropriations  of  2  cents  on  each  $100 
of  taxable  property.  In  1896  an  open 
competition  was  announced  for  plans  for  a 
system  of  buildings  to  be  erected  at  Berkeley, 
the  cost  of  which  was  borne  by  Mrs.  Hearst. 


487 


CALIGRAPHY 


CALISTHENICS 


The  first  prize  in  the  competition  was  awarded 
to  M.  Emile  B6nard  of  Paris,  and  a  beginning 
was  at  once  made  to  carry  out  the  plans. 
The  first  structure  was  an  open-air  Greek 
Theater,  the  gift  of  Mr.  W.  R.  Hearst.  Four 
other  buildings  were  added  within  the  next  few 
years. 

The  government  of  the  university  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  of 
California.  The  university  comprises  10  de- 
partments at  Berkeley,  —  colleges  of  letters, 
social  sciences,  natural  sciences,  commerce, 
agriculture,  mechanics,  mining,  civil  engineer- 
ing, chemistry,  and  the  first  2  years  of  a 
medical  department.  Five  other  institutions 
more  or  less  closely  affiliated  with  the  univer- 
sity are  located  at  San  Francisco.  At  Mount 
Hamilton  is  situated  the  Lick  Astronomical 
Department,  with  the  famous  Lick  Observatory. 
The  university  was  one  of  the  earliest  in  the 
country  to  introduce  in  188-1  a  system  of  ac- 
crediting high  schools,  which  in  1908  numbered 
147.  A  highly  important  part  of  the  work  of 
the  university  is  carried  on  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  University  Extension  in  Agriculture, 
which  assists  farmers  through  visits,  bulletins, 
advice,  and  instruction.  The  university  has  a 
farm  of  775  acres  for  purposes  of  experiment  in 
agriculture.  In  1908,  70,000,000  pages  of 
literature  were  published  by  the  agricultural 
department  for  the  instruction  of  farmers,  and 
15,000  personal  letters  were  written  in  answer 
to  inquiries. 

Students  are  admitted  by  passing  the  ex- 
amination of  the  university  or  the  College 
Entrance  Examination  Board,  or  on  recom- 
mendation from  an  accredited  high  school. 
The  undergraduate  course  is  divided  into 
lower  and  upper  divisions.  A  junior  certifi- 
cate is  given  on  the  completion  of  the  work 
of  the  lower  division,  after  which  they  con- 
tinue the  work  of  the  upper  division  over  at 
least  2  years,  except  in  the  College  of  En- 
gineering, which  requires  3.  A  graduate 
school  is  maintained  granting  the  higher  degrees 
on  the  completion  of  the  appropriate  courses 
to  candidates  who  hold  the  bachelor's  degrees. 
In  the  year  1908-1909  there  were  enrolled  3396 
students  in  the  university,  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: letters,  sciences,  and  engineering  graduate 
students,  396;  undergraduate,  2680;  San  Fran- 
cisco Institute  of  Art,  139;  Hastings  College 
of  Law,  100;  medical  and  dental  departments, 
88;  California  College  of  Pharmacy,  67.  The 
officers  of  instruction  and  administration  in 
1908  numbered  525.  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler, 
Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  is  the  president. 

Reference:  — • 

Slossox,   E.   E.     University  of  California.     The  Inde- 
pendent, May  6,  1909. 

CALIGRAPHY.  —  See  Writing. 

CALISTHENICS  (Gr.  koAXo?,  beauty + 
arOivo^,  strength).  —  A  term  originally  applied 


to  forms  of  exercise  designed  to  impart  grace  of 
movement  and  physical  strength.  This  term 
is  now  applied  to  practically  all  forms  of  free 
movements  of  arms,  neck,  trunk,  and  legs, 
executed  with  or  without  hand  ajjparatus.  In 
modern  phj'sical  education,  calisthenic  exer- 
cises are  used  to  impart  not  only  grace  of  move- 
ment and  muscular  strength,  but  also  good 
posture  and  organic  vigor. 

These  objects  are  not  attained  uniformly  and 
in  equal  proportions  from  the  practice  of  calis- 
thenics. The  specific  effects  produced  are 
determined  by  selection  of  movements  and  the 
method  of  their  execution.  Grace  of  move- 
ment is  secured  mainly  from  rhythmic  move- 
ments executed  to  the  accompaniment  of 
music;  muscular  strength  is  acquired  most 
quickly  from  vigorous  localized  contractions 
of  muscular  groups  against  the  resistance  of 
antagonistic  muscles  or  weight  —  either  of  the 
body  alone  or  augmented  by  holding  weights 
in  the  hands;  good  posture  results  from  the 
execution  of  selected  movements  with  emjihasis 
upon  intermediate  and  terminal  positions; 
organic  vigor  is  gained  in  greater  or  less 
measure  from  all  kinds  of  body  activity  —  the 
degree  of  organic  vigor  gained  being  propor- 
tional to  the  number  of  large  muscles  brought 
into  play  and  the  quantity  of  work  done. 

In  Greek  physical  education  calisthenics 
were  practiced  in  the  form  of  free  movements 
and  poses  in  connection  with  dancing  and  sing- 
ing at  the  feasts  of  Apollo.  Plato  advocated 
calisthenics  in  preference  to  athletic  exercises 
because  of  their  sesthetic  value. 

Calisthenics,  like  other  kinds  of  formal 
physical  training,  were  neglected  entirely  during 
the  long  period  between  the  fall  of  Athenian 
education  and  the  beginning  of  modern  physical 
education  in  Europe  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  and  the  opening  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  To  Salzmann  (q.v.),  Guts 
Muths  iq.v.),  and  Jahn  (q.v.)  in  Germany;  Ling 
(q.v.)  in  Sweden;  Amoros  in  France;  and  Clias 
in  Switzerland,  is  due  the  credit  of  restoring 
physical  training  to  a  place  in  educational 
procedure. 

The  methods  developed  by  these  pioneers 
were  based  very  largely  upon  the  old  Greek 
exercises  and  games,  such  as  running,  jumping, 
throwing,  riding,  and  wrestling;  they  also 
introduced  new  forms,  such  as  fencing,  dancing, 
ball  games,  vaulting,  and  climbing.  Calis- 
thenics occupied  a  very  small  place  in  these 
early  methods  of  physical  training,  except  in 
the  Swedish  system  originated  by  Peter  Henry 
Ling,  which  accords  a  prominent  place  to  free 
movements. 

Organized  physical  training  was  first  intro- 
duced in  American  schools  about  1823  by  a 
German,  Dr.  Follen,  who  taught  jum))ing, 
climbing,  and  gymnastic  feats  on  the  horse, 
parallel  and  horizontal  bars  at  the  Round 
Hill  School,  Northampton,  Mass.  A  few 
schools  and  colleges  followed  the  example  of 


488 


CALISTHENICS 


CALVIN 


the  Round  Hill  School,  but  the  interest  was  of 
short  duration. 

The  real  beginning  of  the  modern  physical 
education  movement  in  the  United  States 
occurred  in  1848,  when  a  group  of  German 
political  exiles  introduced  Jahn  gymnastics  in  a 
number  of  colleges.  This  method  consisted 
in  the  main  of  jumping,  vaulting,  and  exercises 
on  the  wooden  horse,  parallel  and  horizontal 
bars,  usually  described  as  heavy  gymnastics. 
These  exercises  were  suited  best  to  robust 
young  men,  and  for  that  reason  did  not  find  a 
place  in  the  schools. 

In  1860  Dr.  Dioclesian  Lewis,  a  school 
teacher  and  physician  born  in  New  York  State, 
developed  a  simple  system  of  calisthenics  and 
opened  a  gymnasium  in  Boston. 

In  August,  1860,  Dr.  Lewis  was  invited  to 
explain  and  illustrate  his  new  system  of  physi- 
cal training  before  the  convention  of  the  Ameri- 
can Institute  of  Instruction  {q.v.)  at  Boston,  Mass. 
At  this  meeting  attention  was  drawn  to  Dr. 
Lewis'  methods,  and  a  committee  was  appointed 
to  visit  his  gymnasium.  The  report  of  the 
committee  was  entirely  favorable.  Dr.  Lewis 
was  also  invited  to  give  an  illustration  of  his 
system  before  the  Institute.  A  resolution  was 
passed  advocating  the  introduction  of  his 
system  into  general  use  in  schools. 

In  1861  Dr.  Lewis  established  the  Normal 
Institute  for  Physical  Education  in  Newton, 
Mass.  President  Cornelius  C.  Felton,  of 
Harvard  College,  readily  consented  to  serve  as 
its  president,  and  continued  to  take  an  active 
interest  in  the  enterprise  until  his  death,  a  year 
later.  The  Institute  graduated  421  men  and 
women  teachers,  in  about  equal  numbers,  dur- 
ing the  7  years  of  its  existence. 

The  influence  of  Dr.  Lewis  in  securing  recog- 
nition for  physical  training  in  the  school  curric- 
ulum is  shown  in  a  letter  from  Weld  to  Henry 
Barnard,  which  was  published  in  the  Arnerican 
Journal  of  Education  for  June,  1865.  After 
giving  expression  to  his  changed  view  regarding 
the  manual  labor  system,  he  speaks  as  follows: 
"  That  systematic  physical  training  should  be 
made  a  part  of  the  daily  routine  of  every  school 
is  with  me  an  abiding  conviction,  and  tliat  this 
should  not  be  made  optional,  but  be  made 
imperative.  The  change  in  public  opinion  during 
the  last  thirty  years  is  a  most  hopeful  sign  of  the 
times.  The  introduction  into  hundreds  of 
schools  of  Dr.  Lewis's  Light  Gjmmastics  is 
already  achieving  large  results,  and  its  promise 
for  the  future  is  most  auspicious." 

During  the  30  years  following  their  introduc- 
tion into  public  and  jirivate  schools,  calisthenics 
constituted  practically  all  that  was  attempted 
in  school  physical  training.  Since  the  early 
90's,  physical  education  has  developed  very 
rapidly;  trained  specialists  are  employed  to 
teach  the  subject  in  nearly  all  city  schools;  and 
gymnasiums  are  being  provided  in  new  school 
buildings.  Calisthenics  still  occujiy  a  very  large 
place    in    the    physical    education  curriculum. 


although  other  forms  of  exercise,  such  as  gym- 
nastics on  apparatus,  athletics  (q.v.),  and  danc- 
ing iq.v.),  are  now  considered  essential  in  any 
complete  scheme  of  physical  education. 

G.  L.  M. 
References: —  • 

Be.^le,  Alfred.  Calisthenics  and  Light  Gym?iastics. 
(New  York,  1888.) 

Beecher,  Catherine  E.  Physiology  and  Calisthenics. 
(New  York,  1858.) 

Bornheim,  Carol.  Song  and  Calisthenic  Roundel  for 
Girla  of  Eight  Years.  Mind  and  Body,  August, 
1903. 

De  Graff,  E.  V.  Calisthenics  and  Disciplinary  Exer- 
cises.    (Syracuse,  New  York,  1884.) 

Gill,  G.      Calisthenic  Song  Book.      (Boston.) 

CjRIFfin,  Lillian  B.  New  Calisthenics  for  Children. 
Puritan  Magazine,  1900. 

Lewis,  Dio.  The  New  Gymnastics  for  Men,  Women, 
and  Children.      (Boston,  1868.) 

NoAKES,  Sergeant-Major,  S.  G.  Free  Gymnastics  and 
Liglil  Dumb  Bells.      (London,  189.3.) 

PAR.SONS,  F.  T.     Calisthenic  Songs.     (New  York.) 

Pratt,  Dr.  M.  L.  AVhj  Calisthenic-Manual  of  Health 
and  Beauty.     (Boston  and  New  York,  1889.) 

Watson,  J.  M.  Handbook  of  Calisthenics  and  Gym- 
nastics.    (New  York,  1882.) 

CALKINS,     NORMAN    ALLISON     (1822- 

1895).  —  Schoolman,  born  at  Ciainesville,  N.  Y., 
on  Sept.  9,  1822.  He  was  educated  in  the  dis- 
trict schools  and  at  local  academies.  He  was 
for  several  years  teacher  in  the  schools  of 
Gainesville,  and  later  Superintendent.  He 
became  interested  in  the  natural  science  move- 
ment which  had  been  introduced  in  America  by 
the  New  Harmonj^  community  and  the  Lyceum 
Association,  and  for  many  years  he  lectured  on 
object  teaching  at  teachers'  institutes  in  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  Connec- 
ticut, at  the  same  time  editing  the  Student  and 
Schoolmaster.  In  1862  he  became  assistant 
superintendent  of  schools  in  New  York  City, 
which  position  he  held  until  the  time  of  his 
death.  He  was  greatly  interested  in  the 
scientific  study  of  educational  subjects,  and 
for  20  years  he  conducted  Saturday  teachers' 
classes  in  New  York  City.  He  was  active  in 
educational  a.ssociations,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  N.E.A.  Author  of  Primary 
Object  Lessotis  (1861),  Phonic  Charts  (1869), 
Manual  of  Object  Teaching  (1881),  From  Black- 
board to  Books  (1883),  and  (jointly  with  Henry 
Kiddle  and  Thomas  F.  Harrison)  How  to  Teach. 
He  died  in  New  York  City,  Dec.  22,  1895. 

W.  S.  M. 

CALVERT  HALL  COLLEGE,  BALTIMORE, 

MD. —  See  Christian  Brothers,  Schools  of 

THE. 

CALVIN,  JOHN  (1509-1564).— Although 
he  called  himself  "  a  man  of  the  people," 
Calvin  shared  in  the  home  life  of  the  noble 
famih'  of  Hangest,  with  whose  children  he 
attended  school  at  Noyon  and  the  University 
of  Paris.  His  father,  who  had  married  into  one 
of  the  best  burgher  families  of  Noyon,  devoted 
his  income  from  lucrative  positions  of  tru.st  in 
church  and  commune  to  the  education  of  his 


489 


CALVIN 


CALVIN 


sous.  At  14  Calvin  came  under  the  sound 
graniiuatical  training  of  Cordier  (q.v.).  After 
liis  course  in  arts  (chiefly  at  the  college  of  Eras- 
mus and  Loyola),  he  took  his  degree  in  law 
after  3  years  at  Orleans  and  Bourges  under  de 
I'Estoile  and  Alciati  {q.v.),  meanwhile  studying 
Greek  witii  Wolniar.  His  father's  death  left 
him  free  to  follow  his  preference  for  humanistic 
studies.  His  first  book,  a  commentary  on 
Seneca's  De  dementia,  displayed  keen  interest 
in  morals  and  classics.  In  1532  or  1533, 
through  God's  "  secret  providence,"  Calvin 
experienced  "  a  sudden  conversion,"  "  received 
some  taste  and  knowledge  of  true  piety,"  and 
turned  to  the  study  of  theology.  When  barely 
26    he    completed    his    Institutio     Christianae 


John  Calvin  (1509-1569). 

Tteligioyiis,  thenceforth  the  textbook  of  Protes- 
tant theology  and  arsenal  for  opponents  of  loose 
discipline  or  arbitrary  government.  His  fun- 
damental premises  from  which  all  his  teachings 
sprang  were  the  absolute  sovereignty  of  God 
and  the  authority  of  his  "  Word."  A  brilliant 
and  laborious  student,  winning  distinction  in 
debate  and  lecture  room  in  the  university,  he 
early  acc|uircd  habits  of  labor  at  Paris,  where 
he  was  bred  to  1 1  hours  of  school  work,  and  at 
Orleans,  where  after  a  light  supper  he  studied 
until  midnight,  waking  early  to  think  over  what 
he  had  learned  the  previous  day.  Genius  and 
incessant  labor  enabled  him  to  accomplish  a 
prodigious  amount  of  statecraft  and  writing, 
his  printed  Opera  filling  59  ciuarto  volumes. 
Calvin  and  his  followers  had  no  sympathy  for 
"idle  bellies  who  chirp  sweetly  in  the  shade." 
Obedient  to  "  the  calling  laid  upon  him  by 


490 


God,"  he  twice  abandoned  scholarly  life  to 
remodel  Protestant  but  unrcformed  Geneva. 
The  Articles  of  1537  submitted  by  Farel  and 
Calvin  to  the  magistrates  outline  the  states- 
manlike program  of  a  reformer  working  on  long 
lines.  The  "  Word  of  God  "  rather  than  the 
canon  law  should  be  observed.  The  Church 
has  a  right  to  scriptural  creed,  worship,  and  its 
own  organization,  involving  discii)line  and 
excommunication.  Children  must  be  carefully 
trained  "  to  give  a  reason  for  their  faith  "  and 
pass  an  examination  on  a  catechism.  Calvin's 
French  catechism  (1537),  briefly  restating  the 
teaching  of  the  Institutes,  formed  the  basis  of 
the  Sunday  noon  catechism  which  every  child 
nmst  attend  punctually  under  civil  penalties 
imposed  upon  parents,  who  were  also  obliged 
to  train  their  children  at  home.  Revised 
(1542)  in  the  form  of  question  and  answer, 
it  went  through  70  editions  in  nearly  all 
languages  of  Europe  (14  in  English)  before 
1630,  and  was  among  the  four,  one  of  which 
was  required  of  all  Oxford  undergraduates 
in  1578.  ■  The  children  were  trained  in  sing- 
ing the  psalms  an  hour  daily  in  school,  that 
under  their  lead  the  whole  congregation 
might  learn  to  "  lift  their  hearts  to  God." 
Calvin's  successful  insistence  upon  trained 
congregational  singing,  his  use  of  stirring  melo- 
dies, and  the  translation  of  psalms  by  himself, 
Beza  (q.v.),  and  Marot  introduced  an  invaluable 
democratic  and  emotional  clement  into  public 
worship.  On  Jan.  12,  1538  (before  Sturm's 
Stra.ssburg  program),  Calvin,  Cordier,  and 
Saunicr  published  a  prospectus  of  the  Genevan 
elementary  schools,  marked  by  three  progressive 
features:  careful  grammatical  drill  before 
rhetorical  display;  a  substantial  place  for 
teaching  the  vernacular  and  practical  arith- 
metic; training  for  civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical 
leadership.  The  principle  that  "  the  liberal 
arts  and  good  training  are  aids  to  a  full  knowl- 
edge of  the  Word,"  reasserted  in  Calvin's 
Ecclesiastical  Ordinances  adopted  by  Geneva 
in  1541,  necessitated  instruction  in  "  languages 
and  humane  sciences  "  and  "  the  organization 
of  a  college  for  instructing  the  children  to  pre- 
pare them  for  both  the  ministry  and  civil  govern- 
ment." Education  was  a  logical  necessity  for 
both  layman  and  minister  in  Calvin's  Piijlical 
Commonwealth,  and  Calvin  was  both  teacher 
and  pastor.  He  began  his  work  at  Geneva  as 
"  Professor  of  Sacred  Letters,"  lectured  in 
theology  throughout  his  ministry,  sometimes 
to  an  audience  of  a  thousand  (Opera,  XIX,  20), 
and  worked  out  his  programs  of  1538  and  1541 
into  a  unified  .system  of  primary,  secondary,  and 
university  education  through  the  College  and 
University  (Academic)  established  in  1559, 
which  served  as  a  training  school  and  model 
for  Protestants,  and  whose  laws,  as  Richer  and 
Kampschulte  have  shown,  were  utilized  by  the 
Jesuits  in  their  Ratio  Studiorum.  The  stren- 
uous moral  training  of  the  Genevese  and  the 
peoples  who  studied  Calvin's  Institutes  and  his 


CALVIN 


CALVINISTS  AND   EDUCATION 


Genevan  institutions  was  an  essential  part  of 
Calvin's  work  as  an  educator.     All  were  trained 
to  respect  and  obey  laws  based  upon  Scripture, 
but  enacted  and  enforced  by  representatives 
of    the    people,    without    respect    of    persons. 
How  fully  the  training  of  children,  not  merely 
in   sound   learning   and   doctrine,  but   also   in 
manners,  "  good  morals,"   and  common  sense 
was  carried  out  is  pictured  in  the  delightfully 
human    Colloquies    of    Cordier,    Calvin's    old 
teacher,  whom  he  twice  established  at  Geneva. 
Luminous  and  majestic  in  his  theology,  con- 
vincing in  his  reasoning,  if  we  grant  his  prem- 
ises, Calvin  was  far  more  than  a  theologian. 
Even  the  Institutes,  especially  in  the  remark- 
able book  on  civil  government,  suggest  the  wide 
range  of  his  activity.     Calvin's  memorials  to 
the  Genevan  magistrates,  his  drafts  for  civil 
law  and  municipal   administration,  his   corre- 
spondence  with   reformers   and  statesmen,  hia 
epoch-making  defense  of  interest    taking,   his 
growing  tendency  toward  civil,   religious,  and 
economic  liberty,  his  development  of  primary 
and  university  education,  his  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  the  dialect  and  ways  of  thought  of  the 
common  people  of  Geneva,  and  his  broad  under- 
standing of  European  princes,  diplomats,  and 
politics  mark  him  out  as  a  great  political,  eco- 
nomic, and  educational  as  well  as  a  religious 
reformer,  a  constructive  social  genius  capable 
of  reorganizing  and   molding  the  whole  life  of 
a  people.     He  had  the  intense  aggressiveness 
of  the  unflinching  reformer.     Though  he  won 
the  undying  affection  of  those  who  really  knew 
him,  his  temperament  was  essentially  masculine, 
and  there  was  a  lack  of  sentiment,  humor,  and 
those  gentler  qualities  which  win  the  affections 
of  the  world.     In  St.  Peter's  and  the  consis- 
tory, in  the  city  hall  and  the  streets  of  Geneva, 
he  was  the  terror  of  evil-doers  and  heretics,  the 
prophet  of  righteousness,    with   a   majesty  of 
conviction  and  a  clearness  of  sound  reasoning 
which  convinced  magistrate  and  common  man, 
and  won  their  awe  and  admiration,  if  not  their 
affection.     However    men    may  differ  in  their 
estimates  of  the  theologj'   and   personality   of 
John  Calvin,  the  outstanding  facts  regarding 
his  historic  work  are  not  its  narrowness,  but  its 
breadth  of  range  and  its  fecundity  of  influence 
in  two  continents.  H.  D.  F. 

References:  — 

B.iu.M.  J.  W.,  CuNiTZ.  E.,  Reuss,  E.,  loannis  Cahini 
Opera  quae  supersunt  omnia.  (59  Vols.  Braun- 
schwciE,  1803-1900.)  Especially  Vols.  I-IV. 
Insliiutio  ;  Vol.  VI,  CalSchisyne  el  Forme  desprihes 
el  chants  ecclexiasliqiirs ;  Vol.  X,  Artiehs.  1.^37, 
Ordonnaiiees,  1.541,  Lrr/ef  Academiae,  1559,  etr.  ; 
Vol.  XXI.  Annates  Calviniani.  extracts  from  docu- 
ments maiiil.v  from  Genevan  Rcgistres  du  Conseil. 

Caloin's  Works,  Calvin  Translation  Societj-.  (52  vols., 
Edinburgh,  1843-1855.) 

Bo.v.VET,  J.  Letters  of  John  Calvin.  (Translated  in 
part.  2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1854;  4  vols.,  Pliilad.l- 
phia,  1858.) 

Don.MERaUE.  E.  Jean  Cahin:  les  hommes  et  les 
choses  de  son  temps.  (To  be  complete  in  5  vols., 
3  vols.  [iul>lished,  1899,  1902,  1905,  Lausanne.) 
The  fullest  life  ;   by  an  ardent  admirer  of  Calvin. 


401 


Foster,  H.  D.  Geneva  before  Calvin,  the  antecedents 
of  a  Puritan  State.  Anier.  Hist.  Review,  Vol.  VIII, 
pp.  217-240.  Calvin's  Programme  for  a  Puritan 
State  in  Geneva,  1536-1541.  Harvard  Theological 
Review,  Vol.  I,  pp.  391^34. 

Herminj.\rd,  a.  L.  Corrcspondance  des  reformateurs 
dans  les  pays  de  langue  frauQaise.  (19  vols.  1512- 
1544,  Geneva,  1866-1S97.)  School  program  of 
Jan.  12,  1538,  is  in  Vol.  IV,  pp.  455-460  (cf.  F.  Buis- 
son,  Sebastien  Castellion,  \  ol.  I,  pp.  145-149). 

Kampschdlte,  F.  W.  Johann  Cahin,  seine  Kircke  nnd 
sein  Staat  in  Genf.  (2  vols.  Leipzig,  1869,  1899). 
On  Jesuits'  indebtedness  to  Calvin,  Vol.  II,  p.  337 
foll.i  cf.  Richer,  Obsletrir    Animorum.ch.  vi,  p.  80. 

Lefranc,  a.     La  Jennesse  de  Cahin.     (Paris,  1888.) 

Walker,  W.  John  Cahin.  (New  York,  1906.)  The 
best  brief  life  of  Calvin  and  the  most  judicious. 
Contains  a  discriminating  bibliography. 

CALVINISTS   AND    EDUCATION,— One 

of  the  fairest  and  most  permanent  influences  of 
Calvinists  in  Geneva,  France,  Holland,  Scotland, 
England,  and  America  was  their  contribution 
to  education.  Calvin  and  his  followers  empha- 
sized intellect  and  ■will  more  than  feeling  in  the 
religious  and   moral   life. 

1.  Calvin's  Institutes  taught  that  "  God 
has  furnished  the  soul  of  man  with  a  mind 
capable  of  discerning  good  from  evil  and 
just  from  unjust;  and  of  discovering,  there- 
fore, by  the  light  of  reason  what  ought  to 
be  pursued  or  avoided.  ...  To  this  he  has 
annexed  the  will"  (I,  xv,  8).  Reason,  "  being 
a  natural  talent,  could  not  be  totally  de- 
stroyed but  is  partly  debilitated,"  and 
"  smothered  by  ignorance."  Yet  "  not  only 
the  Divine  Word  but  also  the  experience  of 
common  sense"  enables  us  to  "perceive  in 
the  mind  of  man  some  desire  of  investigating 
truth."  The  capacity  for  such  investigation 
was  especially  strong  in  "  civil  polity,  domestic 
economy,  all  the  mechanical  arts  and  liberal 
sciences."  (II,  ii,  12,  13).  Calvin  in  his  inter- 
pretation of  "  the  Word  of  God  "  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  appeal  to  reason  and  equity.  In  his 
epoch-making  refutation  of  the  Mosaic  prohibi- 
tion of  interest,  he  held  that  "  the  law  of  Moses 
(Dcut.  x.xiii,  19)  is  political,  and  constrains  us 
no  further  than  is  demanded  by  equity  and 
human  reason  "  {Opera,  X,  246).  Calvin  did 
more  than  make  the  appeal  to  reason;  his 
Institutes  and  catechism  are  marvellously  cogent 
pieces  of  reasoning  which  taught  the  Protestants 
of  western  Europe  and  the  colonists  of  America 
to  test  and  revise  Calvin's  own  premises  in  the 
effort  toward  a  larger  freedom  of  thought  than 
he  dreamed  of.  "  Although  we  yield  the  first 
place  to  the  Word  of  God,  we  do  not  reject 
good  training  .  .  .  the  Word  of  God  indeed  is 
the  foundation  of  all  learning,  but  the  liberal 
arts  are  aids  to  the  full  knowledge  of  the  Word 
and  not  to  be  despised."  With  these  premises, 
^Tz. :  the  light  of  reason,  man's  desire  and  capac- 
ity for  investig.ating  truth,  the  need  of  training 
and  the  arts  to  understand  the  Word  and  the 
fundamental  authority  of  that  Word,  the  Cal- 
vinist,  with  his  logical  temjier,  saw  that  learning 
was  not  merely  possible  and  desirable  as  "  an 
ornament  and  no  small  private  gain,"  but  also 


CALVINISTS  AND   EDUCATION 


CALVINLSTS  AND   EDUCATION 


a  public  noRossity  in  order  to  secure  "  political 
ailinini^tration,  sustain  the  church  unharmed, 
and  maintain  humanity  among  men."  The 
quotations  in  the  two  preceding  sentences,  taken 
from  the  school  program  drawn  up  for  Geneva 
by  Calvin,  Cordier  Iq.v.),  and  Saunier  in  1538, 
are  typical  of  the  aims  and  reasoning  of  the 
Calvinist.  This  education  was  moreover  for 
laymen  as  well  as  for  ministers.  Calvinism 
with  its  teaching  of  the  political  rights  and 
duties  of  "  popular  magistrates  "  appealed  to 
peoples  who  believed  in  representative  govern- 
ment. Its  emphasis  of  the  rights  of  laymen 
in  the  Church,  and  its  systematic  provision  for 
the  exercise  of  these  rights  through  local  con- 
sistory or  kirk  session,  provincial  synod  and 
national  assembly,  not  only  trained  .James  I's 
"  Jack  and  Tom,  and  Will,  and  Dick,"  Mornay, 
Aldegonde,  or  William  the  Silent,  in  the  exercise 
of  judicial  and  legislative  and  administrative 
functions,  but  also  showed  them  the  need  of 
education  in  order  to  train  up  an  intelligent 
laity  to  serve  in  "  church  and  commonwealth." 

2.  Added  to  his  intellectual  love  of  premise 
and  conclusion,  the  Calvinist  developed  a 
strength  of  will,  moral  intensity,  and  practical 
temper  which  compelled  him  to  put  principle 
into  practice,  to  enforce  his  ideals  upon  himself 
and  others  and  embody  them  in  concrete  work- 
ing institutions.  "  It  is  stupid  to  feel  in  one's  self 
the  capacity  to  do  something  well  and  not  to 
seek  out  the  means  of  doing  it,"  wrote  Mornay, 
leader  of  the  Huguenots,  counselor  of  Henry  IV, 
and  founder  of  the  University  of  Saumur. 
"  We  dar  and  will,"  was  the  spirit  of  Melville, 
reorganizer  of  Glasgow  and  St.  Andrews  Uni- 
versities. "  One  of  the  next  things  we  longed 
for  and  looked  after  was  to  advance  learning  and 
perpetuate  it  to  posterity,"  wrote  one  of  those 
Puritans  who  were  the  founders  of  Harvard  and 
the  New  England  common  schools.  Not  to 
be  content  to  feel  or  long  for  things,  but  to 
dare,  to  will,  to  seek  out,  to  look  after  things, 
these  were  characteristics  of  the  Calvinists 
which  impelled  them  to  found  school  and 
college. 

3.  The  funds  for  maintaining  education  were 
forthcoming  through  a  productive  economic 
policy  and  habit  of  giving  based  on  a  sense  of 
social  obligation.  "  He  who  will  not  work 
shall  not  eat  "  was  the  motto  of  Geneva  and  of 
Calvinists  of  all  lands.  Six  days  of  productive 
labor  was  quite  as  much  a  part  of  the  Fourth 
Commandment,  according  to  the  Calvinist,  as 
resting  on  the  seventh.  His  catechism  taught 
the  Calvinist  that  one  object  of  Sunday  rest 
was  "  to  get  men  into  the  habit  of  working  the 
rest  of  the  time  "  {Opera,  XXII,  41). 

God  himself,  according  to  the  Calvinistic 
teaching  of  Providence,  is  "  not  idle  and  almost 
asleep,  but  vigilant,  efficacious,  operative  and 
engaged  in  continual  action  "  (7«.s/.  I,  xvi,  3). 
"  Christianity  is  a  busy  trade,  the  estate  of  a 
Christian  is  a  working  estate,"  wrote  the 
Puritan  Sibbes,  widelv  read  and  honored  in  old 


and  New  England,  whose  books  went  from 
•John  Harvard  to  the  founding  of  Harvard 
College.  In  Geneva,  "  everj'  one  was  obliged 
to  work  without  observing  holidays,  save  on 
Sunday."  In  England,  Christopher  Goodman 
and  Robert  Fills,  former  exiles  in  Geneva,  the 
authors  of  the  Admonition  to  Parliament, 
William  Crawshaw  of  the  Virginia  Company 
(1609),  Cromwell's  Major-Generals,  and  in  Plym- 
outh Governor  Bradford  illustrate  the  Puri- 
tan objection  to  idleness  on  both  scriptural  and 
economic  grounds.  Baird  has  shown  that  the 
HugiTcnot's  non-observance  of  ecclesiastical  holi- 
days gave  him  an  advantage  of  about  one  day  a 
week  over  his  Catholic  neighbor.  "  Some 
handycraft,"  "some  trade,"  "some  verteousc 
industrie,"  "  learning  and  labor,"  "  idleness 
and  lack  of  education,"  —  these  phrases  from 
the  records  of  school  legislation  among  Scotch, 
Huguenots,  and  New  England  Puritans  suggest 
the  close  relation  between  education  and  indus- 
try which  lay  in  the  minds  and  the  jiolicy  of 
Calvinists.  The  teaching  of  the  lawfulness  of 
interest  spread  by  Calvin,  Francis  Junius  of 
Leyden,  William  Perkins  of  England,  James 
Spottiswoode  of  Scotland,  and  Salmasius, 
Huguenot  teacher  of  Leyden,  and  by  Huguenot 
synods,  gave  Dutch,  Huguenots,  Scotch,  Eng^ 
lish,  and  American  coloni-sts  a  great  advantage 
over  peoples  who  still  clung  to  the  canon  law 
prohibition  of  interest.  The  Calvinist's  firm 
belief  in  Providence  increased  his  economic 
efficiency,  because  it  lessened  his  worry  about 
his  future,  which  lay  in  God's  hands,  and  in-, 
creased  his  devotion  to  his  daily  task,  his, 
"  calling,"  which  equally'  with  his  future  life  was, 
a  part  of  God's  plan. 

4.  With  thrift  and  "  gainful  occupations " 
the  Calvinist  combined  to  a  remarkable  degree 
the  habit  of  generous  giving.  Fortunately 
these  men  who  acquired  and  had  enough  to 
give  had  also  the  sense  of  social  olaligation, 
Genevan,  Scotch,  and  English  Calvinist  offered 
this  "  Prayer  to  be  said  before  a  man  begin 
his  work  "  :  "  Strengthen  us  with  thy  Holy 
Spirit  that  we  may  faithfully  travail  in  our 
state  and  vocation  without  fraud  or  deceit.  .  .  . 
And  if  it  please  Thee,  0  Lord,  to  iirospcr  our 
labor,  give  us  a  mind  to  help  them  that  have 
need,  according  to  that  ability  that  Thou  of 
Thy  mercy  shalt  give  us."  Knit  together  by- 
the  common  allegiance  to  the  higher  law  of  the 
Word  of  God  to  which  high  and  low  were  alike, 
subject,  loyal  to  this  Word  of  their  "  Com- 
mander-in-Chief," "  before  whose  royal  sceptre 
every  head  must  bow  and  every  knee  must 
bend,"  facing  common  dangers,  yielding  com^ 
mon  subjection  to  the  moral  discipline  exer-i 
cised  by  their  own  chosen  representatives, 
acknowledging  daily  to  Divine  Providence  their 
common  responsibilities  as  His  instruments  and 
as  children  of  one  Father,  the  citizen  soldiers 
of  the  Calvinistic  commonwealth,  the  Puritan 
State,  had  a  compelling  sense  of  corporatn 
unity    and    responsibility.     "  I    am    master," 


492 


CALVINISTS  AND   EDUCATION 


CALVINISTS   AND   EDUCATION 


wrote  Calvin  in  his  discussion  of  freeing  ser- 
vants, "but  not  tyrant;  I  am  master,  but  it 
is  on  this  condition  that  I  be  also  brother;  I 
am  master,  but  there  is  a  common  master  in 
heaven  both  for  me  and  for  those  who  are  sub- 
ject to  me:  we  are  all  here  like  one  family" 
(Comm.  on  Deut.  xv,  12,  in  Opera,  XXVII,  351). 
"  This  world,"  said  Paul  Baynes,  Calvin's  in- 
fluential Puritan  follower  in  the  next  century, 
"  is  a  piece  of  God's  household."  Such  a 
commonwealth,  lircd  on  such  teaching,  logically 
demanded  compulsory  common  schools  so  that 
"  neathir  the  sonis  of  the  riche,  nor  yit  the 
sonis  of  the  poore,  may  be  permittid  to  reject 
learnyng;  but  must  be  chargeit  to  continew 
thair  studie,  sa  that  the  Commoun-wealthe 
may  have  some  confort  by  them"  (Buke  of 
Discipline,  Knox,  Works,  II,  211).  Such  a 
social  sense  illuminates  the  records  of  the 
Genevan  councils  and  consistory,  the  synods 
of  the  Huguenots  of  France  and  their  friendly 
societies  in  London,  Dublin,  and  Charleston, 
the  Kirk  Sessions,  presbyteries,  general  assem- 
blies, and  the  burghs  of  Scotland,  the  New 
England  towns,  churches,  general  courts,  and 
"  the  Commissioners  of  the  United  Colonies  of 
New  England,"  with  a  story  of  systematic  and 
self-sacrificing  provision  for  better  social  con- 
ditions, improvement  of  health  and  morals, 
care  of  the  sick  in  hospitals,  fire  protection, 
sewage,  and  notably  for  diffusion  of  knowledge 
and  the  training  of  youth  in  "  knowledge  of 
God  and  his  ways  "  and  in  "  gainful  occupa- 
tions." Intellectual  liberty  and  freedom  of 
inquiry  were  not  the  chief  aims  of  the  Genevan 
reformers  or  their  Puritan  followers,  but  they 
were  tiie  priceless  by-products  of  what  may  be 
called  in  the  larger  sense  of  the  word  the 
Puritan  commonwealths  of  England,  Scotland, 
Holland,  the  American  colonies,  and  of  the 
attempted  Puritan  republic  in  France. 

5.  However  intolerant  toward  what  he 
believed  error,  the  Calvinist  was  "  not  fearful  of 
Knowledge."  He  felt  rather  that  "  the  fearful 
estate  is  to  flee  from  Knowledge."  Therefore 
he  "  did  not  mislike  all  new  inventions  nor  sus- 
pect all  new  discoveries  and  hold  that  what- 
ever is  new  is  nought."  Such  was  the  attitude 
of  the  Puritan  minister,  William  Crawshaw  in 
a  sermon  to  his  fellow  members  of  the  Virginia 
Company  of  London.  Another  Puritan  minis- 
ter, Paul  Paynes,  who  influenced  the  New 
England  clergy  both  directly  and  through 
Siblies  and  Cotton,  wrote  in  a  book  owned  by 
Elder  Brewster:  "  God  hath  not  stinted  us  to 
any  certain  degree  of  knowledge  but  would 
have  us  seeke  to  be  filled  with  all  knowledge 
and  wisdom."  "Truth  is  strong  next  to  the 
Almighty:  she  needs  no  policies,  nor  stratagems 
nor  licensings  to  make  her  victorious  "  was  the 
fine  defense  of  the  liberty  of  the  press  by  the 
Puritan  poet  in  politics.  Most  appropriately 
did  the  first  two  New  England  universities 
take  truth  as  their  mf)tto.  Harvard  with  its 
Veritas,  Yale  with  its  Lux  et  Veritas.     "  \'igor- 


ous  free  thought  "  was  stimulated  by  the  appeal 
to  reason  and  the  consequent  "  desire  to  in- 
vestigate truth."  It  was  applied  and  tested 
because  of  a  strong  will,  moral  sense,  and 
practical  bent.  It  was  possible  to  "  advance 
it  and  perpetuate  it  to  posterity,"  because  of 
the  social  insight  which  founded  and  the 
economic  productiveness  which  maintained 
the  college  and  common  school. 

As  one  follows  the  writings,  statutes,  and 
practices  of  the  Genevans,  Dutch,  Huguenots, 
and  the  Scotch,  English,  and  American  Puritans, 
it  becomes  clear  that  in  their  educational 
system  they  had  a  common  method  and  aim, 
and  a  common  motive  power  behind  these. 
Furthermore,  it  is  clear  that  these  methods, 
aims,  and  motives  were  developed  through  a 
remarkable  international  exchange  of  ideas 
through  books  and  teachers.  The  common 
aim  of  training  men  for  both  civil  and  religious 
service,  for  "  church  and  commonwealth,"  is 
recorded  repeatedly  in  the  enactments  of  aU 
these  Calvinistic  peojiles.  Bourehcnin  has 
shown  that  40  Scotch  teachers  taught  in  the 
Huguenot  institutions:  while  the  men  trained 
in  the  University  of  Geneva  who  went  forth 
to  teach  and  preach  are  numbered  by  the 
hundreds  rather  than  by  the  scores.  The  dis- 
tribution of  Calvinistic  books  was  reniarkalile. 
Of  Calvin's  Institutes  74  full  editions  and  14 
abbreviated  editions  had  been  published  before 
the  Puritan  exodus  to  New  Englantl  in  16.30; 
and  by  the  same  date  77  editions  of  his  cate- 
chism. Each  of  these  works  was  jirinted  in 
9  languages  by  1630.  His  catechism  was 
adopted  by  the  Scotch,  Huguenot,  French- 
Swiss,  and  Walloon  churches,  and  accepted  and 
widely  used  in  Holland,  England,  and  America. 
The  scholarly  editors  of  the  standard  Opera 
noted  394  titles  of  works  by  Calvin  published 
by  1618.  Even  this  is  incomplete.  An  ex- 
amination of  the  Stationers'  Registers  and  of 
Dibdin  reveals  in  the  sixteenth  Centura'  alone 
not  less  than  41  additional  titles  not  included 
by  Calvin's  editors.  Of  Beza's  Latin  text  of 
the  New  Testament  no  fewer  than  a  hundred 
editions  are  said  to  have  been  published.  Of 
Beza  and  Marot's  tran.slation  of  the  Psalms, 
at  least  25  editions  were  published  the  first 
year  and  more  than  60  in  the  first  4  years, 
1561-1565.  Nearly  a  score  of  writers  who  had 
shared  in  the  reform  at  Geneva  or  come  under 
the  influence  of  its  leaders  are  to  be  found  in 
one  or  more  of  the  seven  early  American  libraries 
of  Harvard,  Winthrop,  Bellingham,  Brewster, 
Rev.  John  Goodborne,  and  the  \'irginia  Com- 
pany of  London  and  the  "provincial  library" 
of  Edcnton,  N.C.  To  the  influence  of  Hugue- 
not writers  upon  English  thought  Sidney  Lee 
in  his  recent  Oxford  lectures  has  called  atten- 
tion. The  influence  of  this  intellectual  net- 
work of  Calvinistic  men  and  books  upon  the 
teaching  and  thinking  of  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  is  enormous. 

England.  —  The  educational  activity  of  the 


493 


CALVINISTS   AND   EDUCATION 


CALVINISTS  AND   EDUCATION 


English  Puritans  manifested  itself  in  the  found- 
ing of  colleges  and  the  control  of  the  teaching  of 
the  universities.  Of  the  founding  of  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge,  158-4,  the  Puritan  oak  that 
grew  from  Walter  Mildniay's  acorn,  Fuller  wrote, 
"  Sure  I  am  at  this  day  it  hath  overshadowed 
all  the  University,  —  more  than  a  moiety  of 
the  present  Masters  of  Colleges  being  therein." 
From  this  college  manned  by  the  most  rigor- 
ous Calvinistic  thinkers  in  England  came  about 
50  of  the  first  generation  of  New  England 
clergymen.  Puritans  from  Emmanuel  and  from 
Scotland,  friends  and  probably  i^upils  of 
Andrew  Melville,  the  Scotch  reformer  trained 
in  Geneva,  founded  and  manned  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  which  for  the  first  generation, 
1591-1630,  remained  a  stronghold  of  Puritan- 
ism and  gave  to  the  Church  of  Ireland  a  strong 
and  lasting  Calvinistic  character. 

On  the  university  and  intellectual  life  of 
England  a  strong  influence  was  exerted  through 
exiles,  students,  and  professors  from  Geneva, 
and  through  the  voluminous  writings  of  Calvin, 
Beza,  and  their  Huguenot  and  Dutch  followers 
like  Mornay,  Hotman,  Chevallier,  Scaliger 
(q.v.),  and  Isaac  Casaubon  (q.v.).  Of  the 
exiles  at  Geneva  some  gave  England  the 
Genevan  version  of  the  Bible,  the  version 
which  Carter  has  shown  was  used  by  Shake- 
speare, and  which  was  the  popular  edition  up 
to  the  Puritan  exodus  to  New  England,  over 
100  editions  being  issued  1560-1617.  Four 
exiles  became  heads  of  colleges,  and  two  were 
professors  of  divinity  at  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge. Thomas  Bodley,  son  of  the  printer  of 
the  Genevan  version  and  student  under  Calvin 
and  Beza,  founded  the  Bodleian  (q.v.),  said  to 
have  been  the  first  practically  public  library 
in  Europe.  One  hundred  and  thirty-four  of 
Calvin's  writings  were  issued  in  English 
alone  in  the  last  half  of  the  sixteenth  century 
by  52  English  publishers,  no  fewer  than  40 
in  London.  Of  Beza's  works  at  least  110 
were  issued  in  English  or  in  England  and  Scot- 
land by  1611;  and  on  his  Latin  text  of  the 
New  Testament  the  Genevan  version  in  Eng- 
lish was  largely  based.  Calvin's  Institutes  con- 
tinued to  be  the  ordinary  book  of  divinity  for 
theological  students,  both  Anglican  and  Puri- 
tan, well  into  the  seventeenth  century,  as  was 
testified  by  Sanderson,  Charles  I's  chaplain 
and  the  nominee  of  Laud.  Archbishop  Laud 
studied  it  as  an  undergraduate  at  Oxford,  and 
as  late  as  16.36  felt  it  necessary  to  complain 
to  the  Bishop  of  Winchester  that  "  the  proba- 
tioner fellows  at  New  College  were  examined 
how  diligently  they  had  read  Calvin's  Insti- 
tutes." Moreover  for  over  50  years  (1575- 
1604,  1611-1633),  whatever  may  be  held  as  to 
the  exact  amount  of  Calvinism  in  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles,  the  sympathies  of  the  primates  of  the 
English  church,  Grindal,  Whitgift,  and  Abbot, 
were  with  "  the  Calvinistic  theology "  (Gar- 
diner; cf.  Creighton  on  Grindal,  Diet.  Nat. 
Biog.).  In  the  controversies  of  the  sixteenth  and 


seventeenth  centuries,  Anglican  as  well  as  Puri- 
tan, Whitgift  and  Hooker,  as  well  as  Cartwright 
and  Travers,  quoted  Calvin's  theology  with 
approval.  It  was  over  the  questions  of  disci- 
pline and  worship  that  Anglican  and  Puritan 
differed.  The  remarkable  predominance  of 
Calvinistic  and  Genevan  books  in  England  is 
indicated  in  the  Stationers'  Registers  for  the 
sixteenth  century  and  in  the  list  of  early  gifts 
to  the  Bodleian  (1600-1610),  the  printed  cata- 
logue of  the  Bodleian  for  1605  and  of  Mag- 
dalen College,  Oxford,  for  1611,  the  catalogue 
"of  approvctl  divinity  books  "  for  1655  and  1657, 
and  of  "  the  most  readable  books  in  England  " 
for  1657  and  165S.  By  vote  of  the  University 
of  Oxford  in  1578,  Calvin's  Catechism  and  In- 
stitutes were  included  in  the  list  of  books  which 
had  to  be  studied  by  all  undergraduates.  The 
conclusions  of  Gardiner  and  Sidney  Lee  that 
the  CalvinLstic  theology  was  dominant  not 
only  in  Cambridge,  but  also  in  Oxford,  in  the 
closing  years  of  Elizabeth's  reign  is  corrobo- 
rated by  the  books  owned  or  prescribed  by 
the  university,  and  by  the  views  of  the  profes- 
sors of  divinity  or  heads  of  colleges.  So  far  as 
its  theological  thinking  was  concerned,  Oxford 
was  in  line  with  Cambridge,  Heidelberg, 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  the  Scotch,  Dutch, 
and  Huguenot  universities  well  into  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

Palatinate.  —  The  University  of  Heidelberg 
became  a  strong  Calvinistic  center  in  the 
Rhine  region  under  the  teaching  of  Tremellius, 
Olevianus,  Ursinus,  Pareus,  all  of  whom  had 
come  into  personal  relations  with  Calvin  at 
Geneva,  and  all  of  whom  published  translations 
or  defenses  of  Calvin's  writings.  Of  the  writ- 
ings of  these  four  Heidelberg  Calvinistic 
teachers  there  are  at  least  14  in  the  Bodleian 
Library  catalogue  in  1605;  12  were  in  the 
libraries  of  Elder  Brewster,  Governor  Belling- 
ham  of  Massachusetts,  Rev.  John  Goodborne 
in  Virginia,  and  the  library  of  Harvard  College 
at  its  founding.  English  and  New  England 
Puritans  preserved  also  books  about  the 
Palatinate,  and  evinced  keen  interest  in  its 
fortunes. 

Holland.  —  The  universities  of  Leyden, 
founded  bv  William  of  Orange,  1575,  Gronin- 
gen  (1614)',  Utrecht  (1636),  Amsterdam  (1630), 
and  10  other  universities  or  higher  institutions 
of  learning  in  the  century  following  Lej'den 
had  an  international  reputation,  maintaining 
close  relations  with  Geneva,  France,  and  Eng- 
land, through  teachers  like  Scaliger  and  Junius 
Brutus,  who  had  been  at  Geneva,  or  Salmasius, 
a  Huguenot.  Of  the  list  of  famous  men  of 
Leyden,  published  in  1625,  more  than  one 
fourth  had  been  students  in  the  University  of 
Geneva. 

Popular  education  was  cared  for  by  both 
Church  and  State.  The  Synod  of  Dort  re- 
solved that  "  Schools  in  which  the  young  shall 
be  properly  instructed  in  piety  and  funda- 
mentals of  Christian  doctrine  shall   be  insti- 


494 


CALVINISTS   AND   EDUCATION 


CALVINISTS   AND   EDUCATION 


tuted  not  only  in  cities,  but  also  in  towns 
and  country  places  where  heretofore  none  have 
existed.  The  Christian  magistracy  shall  be  re- 
quested that  honorable  stipends  be  provided 
for  teachers,  and  that  well-qualified  persons 
may  be  employed  and  enabled  to  devote  them- 
selves to  that  function;  and  especially  that 
the  children  of  the  poor  may  be  gratuitously 
instructed  by  them  and  not  be  excluded  from 
the  benefits  of  the  schools."  (Sess.  XVII, 
Nov.  30,  1618.)  The  Synod  also  directed  the 
pastors  to  exercise  careful  supervision  of  schools 
by  frequent  visits,  encouragement  and  examina- 
tion of  religious  instruction,  advice  to  teachers, 
and  report  of  failures  in  their  duties  to  magis- 
trates. Drenthe  (1030)  ordered  that  for  all 
children  over  7  years,  whether  attending  school 
or  not,  a  school  tax  should  bo  paid,  and 
later  endeavored  by  withholding  of  poor  relief 
to  stimulate  school  attendance.  Overyssel 
(1666)  had  an  obligatory  school  tax  for  chil- 
dren between  8  and  12.  Amsterdam  and 
many  other  cities  demanded  an  examination 
of  teachers;  and  Groningen  required  the  pastors 
to  bring  the  children  to  school.  Provision  for  free 
education  of  poor  became  general,  sometimes 
by  special  schools  for  the  poor,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  seventeenth  century.  The  Dutch,  with 
their  native  intelligence  and  thrift  stimulated 
under  Calvinistic  ideas  and  directed  under 
Calvinistic  leadership,  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  founded  noted  univer- 
sities, and  made  elementary  education  acces- 
sible to  the  poor  as  well  as  to  the  rich. 

The  Reformed  Church  of  Holland  sent  minis- 
ters not  only  to  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church 
in  America,  but  also  to  the  German  Re- 
formed Church  in  the  United  States,  made 
up  largely  of  refugees  from  the  Palatinate;  and 
for  the  Germans  in  the  United  States  it  "  raised 
nearly  -560,000  for  the  erection  of  churches  and 
schoolhouses  and  the  support  of  ministers." 
(See  Holland,  Education  i.\.) 

Scotland.  —  The  history  of  the  influence  of 
Calvinism  in  Scotch  education  is  so  nearly 
identical  with  the  educational  history  of  Scotland 
from  the  time  of  the  Reformation  that  only  a 
general  summary  need  here  be  given.  For  a 
detailed  treatment  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
article,  Scotl.\n'd,  Education  in. 

On  Knox's  return  from  Geneva  to  Scot- 
land he  and  his  colleagues  incorporated  in 
the  first  great  nationalized  epitome  of  Calvin- 
ism, The  B like  of  Discipline  (1560),  a  plan  for 
a  comprehensive  national  system  of  compul- 
sory eilucation. 

The  scheme  for  compulsory  national  educa- 
tion could  not  be  carried  out  in  its  entirety, 
because  of  lack  of  funds.  Yet  the  records  of 
the  Calvinistic  church  and  commonwealth 
show  a  notable  development  of  general  educa- 
tion in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 
(1)  The  Church  laid  down  a  program,  giving 
reasons  and  methods  for  the  coinjiulsory  edu- 
cation of  rich  and  poor  alike.     (2)  The  acts  of 


general  assembly,  synods,  presbyteries,  kirk 
sessions,  and  of  the  national  Parliament  show 
that  the  Church  exercised  supervision  over 
schoolmasters,  scholars,  and  schools.  (3)  "  The 
ecclesiastical  records  abound  with  acts  of 
charity  toward  the  sustentation  of  the  ill-paid 
master  and  the  free  education  of  poor  scholars  " 
(Grant,  History  of  the  Burgh  Schools  of  Scot- 
land). (4)  The  Church  not  only  gave  money 
itself,  but  stirred  up  its  various  bodies  to  in- 
cite Crown,  Parliament,  and  town  councils  to 
restore  or  applj'  old  funds,  or  to  create  new 
ones  for  schools. 

In  1641  the  General  Assembly  requested  Par- 
liament to  establish  a  school  for  instruction  in 
reading,  writing,  and  the  rudiments  of  religion 
in  every  parish,  and  a  grammar  school  in  every 
considerable  place  including  all  presbyterial 
seats.  The  assembly  also  appealed  to  Parlia- 
ment for  support  of  the  poor  in  school;  and  it 
directed  all  ministers  to  report  to  their  pres- 
bytery whether  a  school  existed  in  his  parish. 
Five  years  later  Parliament  enacted  that  the 
heritors  of  every  parish  lacking  a  school  should 
provide  a  schoolhouse  and  a  stipend  for  the 
master,  or  it  would  be  done  by  12  men  nomi- 
nated by  the  presbytery  with  power  to  tax 
the  heritors.  In  1696  Parliament  ordered  that 
schools  be  established  and  that  landlords 
should  build  schools  and  master's  house  and 
provide  his  salary,  the  pupils  paj-ing  a  small 
fee.  The  minister  and  landlord  were  to  ap- 
point the  teacher  and  determine  the  fees,  while 
supervision  was  left  to  the  presbyteries,  which 
could  censure  and  dismiss  schoolmasters,  sub- 
ject, however,  to  the  control  of  the  synod. 
Through  the  persistent  efforts  of  ministers, 
assemblies,  synods,  kirk  sessions,  town  coun- 
cils, and  Parliament,  there  was  gradually 
worked  out  in  Scotland  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  a  system  of  education 
which  was  religious,  democratic,  making  edu- 
cation necessary  and  possible  for  rich  and  poor 
alike,  from  elementary  school  to  university, 
and  probably  as  near  to  deserving  to  be  called 
national  as  any  system  of  the  same  period  in  an 
equal  area. 

France.  —  The  Huguenot  educational  insti- 
tutions grew  out  of  (1)  the  logical  need  of 
"  those  of  the  religion  "  for  institutions  to 
give  moral  and  intellectual  training  to  both 
laymen  and  clergymen;  (2)  the  Calvinistic 
spirit  of  putting  principles  into  practice  at 
any  cost;  (3)  the  carefully  knit  organizations 
of  the  reformed  churches  of  France;  (4)  the 
existing  model  at  Geneva. 

Coligny  founded  and  maintained  a  college 
at  Chatiilon  (1.560)  because  he  believed  that 
"  ignorance  of  letters  has  plunged  the  republic 
and  the  church  into  thick  darkness,"  and  that 
education  was  a  "  singular  gift  of  God."  "  In 
order  that  the  youth  of  our  land  may  be  better 
instructed  that  they  may  be  able  to  serve  the 
))ublic  better,"  the  Queen  of  Navarre  founded 
the  Academic  of  Orthez  "  to  teach  letters,  good 


495 


CALVINISTS  AND   EDUCATION 


CALVINISTS  AND  EDUCATION 


morals,  and  discipline  to  the  children  "  (1566). 
"  To  preserve  learning,  the  sure  and  certain 
foundation  of  the  true  religion,"  and  to  "  ad- 
vance the  public  good  "  were  the  motives  for 
the  founding  of  the  Academie  at  Sedan  urged 
upon  the  Duke  of  Bouillon  by  his  Huguenot 
mother.  So  the  church  synods  established 
schools  not  only  "  that  our  churches  may  be 
always  furnished  wnth  a  sufficient  number  of 
pastors,"  but  also  that  they  should  have 
"  other  persons  fit  to  govern  them,"  i.e.  lay- 
men. The  laymen,  who  regularly  formed  a 
majority  of  consistory  and  sometimes  of  the 
synods  (never  being  in  a  minority),  necessitated 
a  high  standard  of  lay  education.  "  The 
Huguenots  will  be  instructed,"  wrote  the 
Catholic  Marquis  d'Aguessau,  governor  of 
Languedoc ;  "  it  is  certain  that  one  of  the 
things  which  hold  them  to  their  religion  is  the 
amount  of  information  they  receive  from  their 
instructors."  Even  a  common  Huguenot  sailor 
like  Tare  Chaillaud  thought  it  folly  to  "  be- 
lieve everything  which  the  church  says  wdth- 
out  informing  yourself  of  other  things  through 
conscience."  The  national  synod  of  1612 
petitioned  their  majesties  "  to  grant  leave  unto 
us,  in  all  cities  and  towns  where  there  be  a 
number  of  families  of  our  Religion,  to  keep 
lesser  schools  for  the  education  of  our  children 
.  .  .  this  being  a  matter  which  can  never  be 
dismembered  nor  severed  from  our  liberty  of 
conscience."  "  Universities  and  colleges  are 
the  workshops  where  the  spirits  of  men  are 
formed  and  fashioned,  the  springs  and  foun- 
tains of  power,  discipline,  and  art  "  (Laws  of 
Montauban,  1600).  "  Virtue  and  learning  are 
the  seeds  and  the  fruits  of  universities;  the 
university  is  the  nursery  of  future  members  of 
society "  (Laws  of  the  University  of  Nimes, 
1582).  "  I  desire  to  excite  myself  to  the  love 
of  virtue  and  the  hatred  of  vice,  and  to  aid  the 
studious  youth  in  the  same  endeavor,  an 
object  which  has  been  too  little  regarded  by 
former  commentators,"  declared  Isaac  Casau- 
bon  iq.i'.),  child  of  Geneva  and  Professor  at 
Montpellier.  The  charmingly  human  and 
naive  "  little  grammarians  "  of  Cordier's  Collo- 
quies show  how  the  boys  were  taught  to  think 
and  practice  a  sound  morality  of  boyhood, 
and  to  prize  "  virtue  and  the  knowledge  of 
honest  things."  The  boy  unfit  for  scholarship 
was  recommended  "  to  learn  some  trade  suit- 
able to  his  capacity  "  (.32d  Colloquy).  Such 
expressions  of  founders,  rectors,  professors,  and 
pupils  reveal  the  purpose  to  give  both  ele- 
mentary and  universitjf  training  not  merely  to 
clergymen,  but  also  to  laymen,  so  that  all 
might  be  brought  up  in  sound  morality  as  well 
as  sound  learning  to  serve  "  the  republic  and 
the  church."  The  education  of  Huguenots 
was  not  merely  ecclesiastical,  but  civil;  not 
only  intellectual,  but  also  moral  and  economic. 
The  Calvinistic  spirit  of  putting  principle 
into  practice,  of  turning  principles  and  possi- 
bilities into  actualities,  enabled  the  Huguenots 


to  carry  out  their  educational  ideals  at  the  cost 
of  groat  sacrifices  on  the  part  of  municipalities, 
churches,  individual  founders,  and  ill-paid 
.rectors  and  professors.  The  Calvinistic  genius 
for  organization  furnished  effective  channels 
for  founding,  maintaining,  and  supervising  edu- 
cation, through  the  consistory  of  the  local 
church,  colloquies  of  neighboring  churches, 
and  the  lay  and  ministerial  deputies  gathered 
in  provincial  and  national  synods.  Elemen- 
tary schools,  teaching  reading,  writing,  the 
catechism,  and  elements  of  arithmetic  founded 
and  supported  by  local  consistory  or  Huguenot 
nobles  were  numerous,  usually  one  for  each 
church  and  evidently  sometimes  more,  for  the 
decree  of  1671  restricted  the  reformed  to  one 
school  in  each  place  where  their  public  worship 
was  tolerated.  Even  the  lower  classes  came 
to  have  an  astonishing  knowledge  of  Scripture. 

Careful  provision  was  made  for  the  education 
of  the  poor.  "  In  every  colloquy  one  poor 
scholar  at  the  least  was  to  be  maintained  .  .  . 
in  the  Universities,  and  rather  than  this  design 
should  miscarry,  the  fifth  penny  of  all  our 
charities  shall  be  set  apart  ...  to  be  employed 
in  this  service,"  was  the  provision  of  the  Hugue- 
not Discipline.  Each  colloquy  was  obhged  to 
report  on  this  matter  "  unto  their  provincial 
synod,  and  the  provincial  synods  shall  give  an 
account  thereof  unto  the  National  "  (Synod, 
1594).  Scholarships  for  poor  scholars  were  also 
established  by  individuals  who  usually  en- 
trusted the  administration  to  the  local  consis- 
tory. Each  province  was  "  to  do  its  utmost 
that  a  college  be  erected  in  each  of  them " 
(Synod,  1596).  This  provision  was  so  well 
carried  out  that  in  each  of  the  15  provinces, 
wdth  the  possible  exception  of  Provence,  one  or 
more  colleges  were  founded  by  municipality, 
nobles,  or  princes  or  churches,  and  supported  by 
endowment,  tuition  fees,  and  subsidies  from  the 
national  or  provincial  synods,  the  "  helping 
hand  "  of  colloquies,  or  grants  from  consistory. 
Thirty-two  of  these  Huguenot  colleges  were  in 
operation  between  the  reform  and  the  Revoca- 
tion of  1685  (Bourchenin,  66  ff.).  The  National 
synods  also  urged  the  founding  of  Academies 
or  universities,  and  granted  funds  for  their 
support.  Eight  of  these  Huguenot  universities, 
with  degree  granting  powers,  were  established 
between  1561  and  1604;  by  consistory  at  Nimes 
and  Montpellier;  by  the  local  church  and  the 
provincial  synod  of  Dauphin^  at  Die;  by  na- 
tional synod  at  Montauban;  by  joint  actions 
of  Duplessis  Mornay  and  the  national  synod 
at  Saumur;  by  the  Queen  of  Navarre  at  Orthez, 
erected  into  a  royal  university  by  her  son  Henry 
IV;  at  Orange  by  Louis  of  Nassau,  who  had 
come  under  the  influence  of  Calvin  and  Beza  at 
Geneva;  by  the  Duke  of  Bouillon  at  Sedan. 
These  universities  (save  Orthez  and  Orange, 
which  were  outside  the  kingdom)  received 
moneys  and  laws  from  the  national  synod. 

The  businesslike  quality  of  the  Huguenot  is 
seen  in  the  handling  of  the  funds.     Each  pro- 


496 


CALVINISTS  AND  EDUCATION 


CALVINISTS  AND   EDUCATION 


vincial  synod  had  to  account  to  the  national 
synod  for  subsidies  for  universities  and  colleges. 
A  province  or  university  tardy  in  its  accounts 
had  its  award  delayed  for  satisfactory  account- 
ing and  auditing.  Each  of  the  synods  from 
1598  to  1644  appropriated  from  3000  to  16,000 
livres  to  the  universities,  the  amount  from  1607 
not  falling  below  12,000  livres  (Tables  in 
Bourchenin,  302-303).  "  Scholars  received  by 
the  Provinces  as  pensioners  shall  give  in  good 
security  for  repaying  the  sums  received  by 
them  ...  in  case  that  through  their  default 
they  do  not  serve  the  church  in  the  ministry 
of   the   Gospel"    (Synod,    1607). 

The  university  councils  "  were  to  see  that 
the  synod's  laws  were  obeyed  "  and  "  that  the 
scholars  do  carry  themselves  with  all  mod- 
esty." In  order  that  "  the  said  statutes  may 
be  better  observed,"  the  national  synod  directed 
the  provincial  synods  to  depute  annually  two 
pastors  to  inspect  the  universities  "  and  make 
enquiry  whether  the  professors  and  scholars 
both  of  them  do  faithfully  and  diligently  intend 
and  mind  their  duties."  The  finding  of  these 
inspectors  was  to  be  reported  by  provincial 
deputies  to  the  national  synod  (Synod,  1617). 
"  These  inspectors,"  says  Loret  (Rev.  Frartc. 
1856,jVol.  VI,  p.  404), "  are  proof  of  a  remarkable 
organization  and  direction  of  the  divers  reformed 
institutions,  not  to  be  found  in  the  Catholic 
universities,  either  Jesuit  or  others."  While 
there  was  in  all  the  Huguenot  universities  and 
colleges  the  same  spirit,  there  was  also,  as 
Bourchenin  has  shown,  a  large  amount  of 
initiative  and  spontaneity  in  each  college. 

The  acts  of  synods  show  that  the  measures  for 
the  education  of  the  poor  were  well  carried  out. 
Education,  as  in  Geneva,  Holland,  and  Scotland, 
was  for  all  classes,  poor  and  rich  alike.  Casau- 
bon  was  struck  in  England  by  the  absence  of 
"  what  we  call  poor  scholars."  Equality  of 
subjection  to  law  was  maintained  for  both  pro- 
fessor and  scholar,  both  of  whom  were  subject 
to  the  annual  inspection.  Cordier's  Colloquies 
suggest  wholesome  relations  between  master 
and  pujiils,  with  a  simple  sort  of  self-govern- 
ment among  monitors  and  boys  who  are  taught 
to  avoid  tale-bearing  and  to  distinguish  be- 
tween serious  faults  and  little  things  honestly 
repented.  According  to  Cordier,  even  in  choice 
of  monitors  the  opinion  of  "  the  better  pupils  " 
was  consulted.  The  discipline  was  careful  and 
rigorous,  and  much  attention  was  jxiid  to  both 
manners  and  morals,  but  apparently  the  regu- 
lations were  tempered  with  some  humor  and 
common  sense.  To  the  English  observer. 
Quick,  the  boys  seemed  to  be  too  little  restricteil 
and  on  too  familiar  terms  with  teachers. 
Pupils  lived  not  in  an  internat,  but  in  homes, 
often  of  regents  or  professors  in  the  city.  They 
were  taught  reverence  for  parents,  and  fathers 
were  corresponded  with  as  to  their  sons'  welfare. 
Neglectful  students  were  dropped  and  posted. 
From  Geneva  tliey  adopted  the  idea  of  censures 
at  the  close  of  daily  session,  and  the  annual 


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497 


examination  for  promotion  at  end  of  year.  Some 
attention  was  paid  to  music,  and  pupils  were 
taught  the  words  and  music  of  Marot  and  Beza's 
translation  of  the  Psalms.  Cordier's  Colloquies 
indicate  that  there  was  some  regard  for  e.xercise 
and  relaxation,  but  the  provision  seems  to  have 
been  less  systematic  than  with  the  Jesuits. 
There  was  more  emphasis  on  the  vernacular, 
arithmetic,  and  Greek,  and  less  prescription  of 
Latin  to  the  exclusion  of  French  than  in  the 
schools  of  Sturm  and  the  Jesuits.  "  M.  Nisard 
says  that  after  the  definitive  triumph  of  Cathol- 
icism in  France,  Greek  became  offensive  as  the 
language  of  heresy.  This  is  perhaps  to  say 
too  much.  But  it  is  certainly  true  that  more 
strenuous  efforts  were  made  at  this  moment  to 
keep  up  Greek  and  Hebrew  in  the  Protestant 
Academies,  poor  as  they  were,  than  in  the 
Catholic  and  Jesuit  Colleges  and  Universities" 
(Pattison,  Co.som6o?!,  p.  113).  Huguenot  colleges 
and  universities,  says  Bourchenin,  put  texts 
more  fully  into  pupils'  hands,  discussed  context 
and  history  more  fully,  and  developed  the  spirit 
of  inquiry  and  investigation  more  than  did 
the  Jesuits.  This  spirit  of  inquiry,  so  essential 
a  characteristic  of  Calvinism,  subjected  Calvin- 
istic  theology  to  reexamination  and  restatement 
after  conflicts.  It  also  gave  a  larger  element  of 
spontaneity  and  progress  to  Huguenot  institu- 
tions. 

The  universities  were  urged  "  to  do  their 
utmost  in  getting  a  public  library,"  and  the 
churches  to  "  get  libraries  for  the  service  of  their 
ministry."  The  synods  followed  up  their 
recommendations,  and  all  the  universities  se- 
cured libraries.  The  library  at  Die  was  created 
by  the  Academic  Council  through  gifts  from 
notables,  synod,  and  candidates  for  degrees; 
at  Nimes  by  the  consistory;  at  Sedan  by  a 
fund  established  by  the  university,  supple- 
mented by  Henry  of  Bouillon;  at  Saumur  by 
Duplessis  Mornay's  gift  of  his  library.  Sedan 
and  Samur  had  collections  of  European  repu- 
tation. 

At  the  opening  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Huguenot  universities,  according  to  the  testi- 
mony of  the  Catholic  historian,  de  la  Fond, 
"  held  their  place  among  the  most  learned  of 
Europe"  (Essai  sur  Loiidun,  93).  The  long 
list  of  famous  teachers  reveals  the  international 
character  of  Calvinistic  teaching:  Gomar  of 
Leyden,  later  the  opponent  of  Arminius,  was 
called  to  Saumur,  1614;  John  Robert  Chouet 
of  Geneva,  an  admirer  of  Bacon  and  a  follower 
of  experimental  research,  the  first  to  teach  the 
philosophy  of  Descartes  in  the  Huguenot  univer- 
sities, professor  of  philosophy  at  Saumur  and 
future  master  at  Geneva  of  Pierre  Bayle; 
Pierre  Viret  and  Nicholas  des  Gallars,  pastors  of 
Geneva,  at  Orthez;  Isaac  Casaubon,  born  and 
educated  at  Geneva,  teacher  there,  at  Mont- 
pellier,  Paris,  and  in  England;  Lambert  Daneau 
of  Geneva  and  Leyden,  at  Orthez;  Tremellius, 
a  converted  Jew,  and  ardent  Calvinist,  teacher 
of  Hebrew  in  Cambridge  and  Heidelberg,   at 


CALVINISTS  AND   EDUCATION 


CALVINISTS  AND   EDUCATION 


Sedan;  Andrew  Melville  of  Geneva  and  Scot- 
land, jirofcssor  of  theology  at  Sedan,  1611-1622; 
John  Cameron  of  Glasgow,  Geneva,  and  Heidel- 
berg, at  Sedan  and  Saumur;  and  nearly  40 
other  Scotchmen  given  by  Bourchenin  (p.  403). 

The  significant  characteristics  of  Huguenot 
education  were:  an  emphasis  on  education  of 
laity;  training  for  "the  republic"  and  "so- 
ciety "  as  well  as  for  the  Church;  insistence 
upon  virtue  as  well  as  knowledge;  the  wide- 
spread demand  for  education  and  a  view  of  it  as 
essential  to  liberty  of  conscience;  a  compre- 
hensive working  system  of  elementary,  college, 
and  university  training  for  all,  poor  as  well  as 
rich;  an  astonishing  familiarity  with  Scripture 
even  among  the  lowest  classes;  utilization  of 
representative  church  organization  for  found- 
ing, supporting,  and  unifying  education;  readi- 
ness to  sacrifice  for  education,  a  spirit  of  carry- 
ing a  thing  through  at  any  cost;  businesslike 
supervision  of  money,  and  systematic  super- 
vision of  both  professors  and  students;  a  notable 
emphasis  on  vernacular,  arithmetic,  Greek, 
use  of  full  texts  and  libraries;  and  finally  a  pro- 
gressive spirit  of  inquiry  and  investigation. 

The  Huguenots  in  e.xile  show  their  character- 
istic care  for  education  and  social  welfare.  In 
London  they  established  a  famous  hospital. 
In  Dublin  they  founded  a  Huguenot  Charitable 
Society  to  educate  poor  children  and  put  them 
out  as  apprentices,  "  being  persuaded  that  idle- 
ness and  the  lack  of  education  are  the  greatest 
of  evils."  The  Huguenot  refugees  established 
schools  also  in  Holland.  England  would  have 
had  schools  for  the  poor  in  every  parish  in  1807, 
had  Parliament  passed  a  bill  supported  by 
Romilly,  a  grandson  of  a  Montpellier  Huguenot 
exile  of  1685,  and  an  observer  himself  of  Gene- 
van and  Swiss  institutions.  (See  France, 
Education  in.) 

America.  —  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable, 
because  the  most  widespread  and  complex, 
illustration  of  its  educational  genius  is  to  be 
found  in  the  American  colonies,  where  the 
various  European  streams  of  Calvinism  so 
converged  that  the  seventeenth-century  colo- 
nists were  predominantly  Calvinists,  not  merely 
the  Puritans  of  New  England,  but  the  Dutch, 
Walloons,  Huguenots,  Scotch,  and  Scotch-Irish, 
with  a  considerable  Puritan  admixture  in 
Anglican  Virginia  and  Catholic  Maryland. 

The  Calvinistic  founders  of  New  England 
who  brought  over  the  Institutes  and  books  of 
Calvin  and  his  followers,  and  who  read,  quoted, 
and  bequeathed  them,  led  the  Puritan  exodus 
with  the  intent  to  establish  a  Biblical  Com- 
monwealth, one  of  whose  logical  corner  stones, 
like  that  of  Geneva  and  Scotland,  was  education. 
"  One  of  the  ne.xt  things  we  longed  for  and  looked 
after  was  to  advance  learning  and  perpetuate 
it  to  posterity,"  wrote  the  Puritan  author  of 
New  England's  First  Fruits.  In  pursuance  of 
this  ideal  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts 
Bay,  composed  entirely  of  members  of  the 
Calvinistic    churches    of    the    colony,    voted 


X'400  for  a  school  or  college  6  years  after  the 
coming  of  the  Puritan  exodus  under  Winthrop. 
Forty  men  educated  in  Cambridge,  England, 
were  in  New  England  in  that  year,  according  to 
Savage.  Dexter  estimates  that  "  of  the  early 
emigrants  to  New  England  about  60  were  from 
Cambridge  and  about  20  from  Oxford  ";  but, 
as  has  been  shown,  even  Oxford  at  the  opening 
of  the  century  was  Calvinistic  in  its  theology, 
and  the  New  England  ministers  were  from  the 
Calvinistic  Puritan  element  in  both  universi- 
ties. Among  the  books  which  went  to  the  found- 
ing of  Harvard  College  library  were  Calvin's 
Institutes  and  his  commentaries  on  26  of  the 
books  of  the  Bible,  and  works  by  seven  other 
Huguenot,  Palatine,  English,  and  Dutch  Calvin- 
ists associated  personally  with  Calvin  at  Geneva. 
Governor  Winthrop  owned  and  gave  to  Har- 
vard Calvin's  Institutes  and  books  by  two 
Geneva-trained  men;  and  Governor  Bellingham 
gave  books  by  four  such  men.  Elder  William 
Brew-ster's  library  contained  7  volumes  of 
Calvin  and  18  by  followers  of  Calvin  who  had 
studied  at  Geneva.  The  remainder  of  the  books 
in  the  libraries  of  these  four  men  were  over- 
whelmingly Calvini.stic.  The  Massachusetts 
Bay  Act  of  1647  requiring  reading  and  wTiting 
schools  in  every  town  of  50  families  and  gram- 
mar schools  preparing  youth  for  the  univer- 
sity in  towns  of  100  families,  reflects  the  same 
premises  and  conclusions  of  the  Calvinist  that 
have  been  noted  among  the  Genevans,  Scotch, 
and  Huguenots.  Not  merely  in  New  England, 
but  wherever  Calvinistic  colonists  settled  in 
America,  they  founded  schools  and  colleges. 
The  earliest  permanent  settlers  of  New  Amster- 
dam, the  Walloons  of  1623,  were  guaranteed  by 
their  leader  as  being  of  la  religion  n'fonnee,  i.e. 
Calvinistic,  and  were  granted  permission  by  the 
States-General  of  Holland  on  this  basis.  Not 
only  the  Puritan  founders  of  Boston  and  New 
Haven,  of  Harvard,  Yale,  Dartmouth,  and 
Brown,  but  also  the  Walloon  and  Dutch  founders 
of  New  York,  Brooklyn,  and  Albany,  and  of 
Rutgers  College,  and  likewise  the  Scotch-Irish 
founders  of  Princeton  and  the  pioneer  schools 
and  colleges  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  South  were 
all  Calvinists,  not  merely  in  dogma  and  disci- 
pline, but  also  in  the  wider  features  of  the 
Calvinistic  program  and  temper.  In  New 
Netherland,  Peter  Minuit,  the  second  Director, 
had  been  a  refugee  from  religious  persecution, 
and  a  deacon  in  a  Walloon  church,  and  became 
an  elder  of  the  church  in  New  Amsterdam. 
Peter  Stuyvesant,  of  wooden  leg  and  tinderlike 
temper,  Director-General  of  the  colony,  had 
married  the  daughter  of  a  Huguenot  clergyman, 
and  became  one  of  the  elders  of  the  Dutch 
Reformed  church  of  New  Amsterdam. 

The  Scotch  and  Irish,  or  "  Scotch-Irish," 
Presbyterians  in  America  developed  the  impetus 
received  from  Knox  and  the  parish  and  high 
schools  of  Scotland  and  from  the  influence 
of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  Wherever  they 
settled  they  established  schools.     Of  317  peti- 


498 


CALVINISTS  AND  EDUCATION 


CALVINISTS  AND   EDUCATION 


tioners  from  North  Ireland  to  Governor  Shute 
in  1718  for  land  in  New  England,  9  ministers 
and  3  others  were  graduates  of  Scotch  univer- 
sities. Four  years  after  they  settled  in  London- 
derry, N.H.,  these  Scotch-Irish  built  a  school- 
house  on  the  Common  near  the  meeting  house, 
and  2  years  later  were  employing  5  school 
teachers  and  expending  £36  4s.  annually.  In 
the  95  years  from  1753  to  1848,  Londonderry 
had  55  college  graduates. 

S.  S.  Green  states  that  the  Scotch  opened  the 
first  classical  school  in  the  central  and  western 
part  of  New  York  (1741),  and  furnished  many 
of  the  schoolmasters  in  provinces  south  of  New 
York  prior  to  the  Revolution.  In  Penn.syl- 
vania,  William  Tennent,  a  graduate  of  Edin- 
burgh, pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church  at 
Neshaminy,  founded  a  log  college  to  prepare 
men  for  the  ministry  (1726).  Pupils  of  Tennent 
established  other  colleges.  Three  other  Pres- 
byterian ministers  started  churches  and  log 
colleges  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  from  which 
developed  Washington,  later  Washington  and 
Jefferson  College.  Scotch-Irish  Presbyterians 
also  established  Princeton,  which  absorbed  the 
forces  of  Tennent's  log  college.  Hampden 
Sidney  (1776),  incorporated  1783,  the  second 
oldest  college  in  the  South,  was  founded  through 
the  e.xertions  of  the  Presbytery  of  Hanover, 
Va.,  which  collected  subscriptions  of  £13,000 
in  1774-1775.  One  of  the  members  of  the  first 
faculty  was  Samuel  Doak,  who  about  1780 
founded  Washington  College,  Tenn.,  "  the  first 
literary  institution  in  the  Mississippi  valley." 
North  Carolina  owed  her  first  classical  schools  to 
the  Scotch-Irish  Presbyterians,  mainly  graduates 
of  Princeton,  itself  a  product  of  Scotch-Irish 
Calvinism.  Missionaries  sent  by  the  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  Presbyterian  Synods  estab- 
lished churches,  and,  says  Foote,  "  wherever  a 
pastor  was  located,  in  that  congregation  there 
was  a  classical  school  "  (Sk-ctches,  N.C.,  513). 
Tate's  Academy,  Wilmington  (1760);  Crow- 
field  Academy,  Aleeklenburgh  County  (1760); 
the  famous  log  cabin  academy  school  and 
seminary  of  David  Caldwell  (pupil  of  Tennent's 
log  cabin),  Guilford  County  (1766-1767);  Alex- 
ander's classical  school  (1767)  at  Sugar  Creek 
Presbyterian  Church,  out  of  which  grew  Queen's 
College  (1770),  later  Liberty  Hall  Academy, 
under  supervision  of  the  Orange  presbytery,  are 
examples  of  such  schools. 

In  South  Carolina  the  most  famous  academy 
was  founded  (1793-1794)  by  Moses  Waddel,  a 
Presljytcriaii  minister,  a  graduate  of  Hampden- 
Sidney  ('oUege,  who  etlucated  a  remarkable 
numijcr  of  South  C\irolinians  eminent  in  na- 
tional affairs,  including  Calhoun,  Crawford, 
and  a  score  or  more  of  senators,  judges,  and 
cal)inet  m('inl)crs. 

The  \'irginia  Company,  while  under  the  con- 
trol of  men  in  symiKithy  with  Puritan  and 
"Genevan  ideas"  (1618-1625),  made  a  vigo- 
rous attempt  to  found  a  college,  unfortunately 
checked  by  the  Indian  massacre  and  James' 


annulling  of  the  company  charter.  Sir  Edwin 
Sandys,  an  admirer  of  Genevan  republican 
ideas,  secured  a  grant  of  10,000  acres  for  an 
Indian  college  and  English  seminary,  and  the 
company  sent  Thorpe  over  to  superintend  them. 

A  detailed  discussion  of  the  educational  ac- 
tivities of  the  American  colonists  is  given  in 
the  article  Coloni.\l  Period  in  American 
Education,  and  further  details  in  the  historical 
section  on  the  educational  system  of  the  several 
original  states.  See  also  the  article  on  Acad- 
emies for  the  educational  influences  of  the  Scotch- 
Irish. 

The  remarkable  development  of  colleges  and 
compulsory  free  schools  among  Calvinists  was 
not  entirely  due  to  any  single  theological  tenet; 
but  the  historic  working  Calvinism  of  Calvin, 
Genevans,  Huguenots,  Scotch,  Dutch,  English 
Puritans  and  the  American  colonists  was  far 
more  than  a  theological  dogma.  Calvin  and 
all  these  Calvinists  had  a  common  program 
of  broad  scope  —  not  merely  doctrinal,  but  also 
political,  economic,  social  —  and  similar  ideals 
and  institutions.  Their  common  program  and 
their  social  insight  demanded  education  of  all  as 
instruments  of  Providence  for  church  and  com- 
monwealth. Their  industrious  habits  and  produc- 
tive economic  life  provided  funds  for  education. 
Their  representative  institutions  in  both  church 
and  commonwealth  not  only  necessitated  general 
diffusion  of  knowledge,  but  furnished  the  or- 
ganization necessary  for  founding,  supervising, 
and  maintaining  in  wholesome  touch  with  the 
common  man  both  elementary  and  higher  insti- 
tutions of  learning.  Their  disciplined  and 
responsive  conscience,  their  consequent  inten- 
sity of  moral  conviction  and  spirit  of  self-sacri- 
fice for  the  common  weal,  compelled  them  to 
realize  in  concrete  and  permanent  form  their 
ideals  of  college  and  common  school. 

H.  D.  F. 
See  also  references  under  articles  on  Calvin, 
and  Geneva,  University  of. 

References  :  — 

England:  — 

Admonition  to  Parliament:  three  editions,  1571  ; 
Thomas  Cartwrijiht,  Second  Admonition  to  Parlia- 
ment, 1572;  Wliit^ift's -liisuier,  1573  :  Cartwright's 
Reply,  1573  ;  Wiiitgift's  Defence  of  his  Answer, 
1573  (Parker  Society) ;  Cartwright's  Second  Reply 
to  WhitgifVs  Second  Ansy^er,  1575,  1577  (two  parts). 

Ames,  Joseph.  Typographieal  Antiquities  .  .  .  Regis- 
ter of  books  Printed,  1471-1600.  etc.  (London, 
1749.)  Augmented  bv  W.  Herbert,  3  vols.  (Lon- 
don, 1785-1790.)  Enlarged,  etc.,  by  J.  F.  Dibdin, 
4  vols.      (London,  1SI0-1S19.) 

Arber,  Edwin.  A  Transcript  of  the  Registers  of  the 
Company  of  Stationers  of  London,  1554-1640. 

Baynes,  Paul.  CoJnmentary  on  Ephesians.  (London, 
1618.)  (Cf.  Mather,  Magnolia,  Bk.  Ill,  ch.  i. 
sec.  5.) 

Carter,  Thomas.  Shakespeare  and  the  Holy  Scripture^ 
with  the  Version  he  used.      (London,  1905.) 

Catalogue  of  Books.     Bodleian  Library,  1605. 

Frere,  W.  H.,  and  Douglas,  C.  E.  Admonition,  re- 
printed in  Puritan  Manifestoes.     (London,  1907.) 

Heyer,  Thom.\s.  Notice  sur  le  Colonic  Anglaise  h 
Geneve,  de  1555  A  1560,-  in  Memoires  et  Documents 
de  la  Soci^t^  d'Histoire  et  d'  Arch^ologie  de  GenHe,  Vol. 
IX,  pp.  337-390.     The  list  of  names  with  notes  also 


499 


CALVmiSTS  AND   EDUCATION 


CAMBRIDGE 


printed  by  A.  F.  M.  in  Livre  des  Anglais  or  Register 
of  the  English  Church  at  Geneva,     (n.d.,  n.p.) 

Ladd,  Archbishop,  William.     Works,  ed.  by  Scott  and 
Bliss.     7  vols.      CO.\ford,  1847-1800.) 
Remains,  ed.  by  Wharton  (Vol.  II,  p.  82).    (London, 
1900.) 

Sanderson,  Robert.  Works,  cd.  by  W.  Jacobson,  with 
Life  by  Izaak  Walton.     0  vols.      (Oxford,  1854.) 

SiBBES,  Richard.  Complde  Works,  ed.  by  A.  B.  Grosart. 
6  vols.    (Edinburgh,  1862-1863.) 

Wilkinson,  H.  Catalogue  of  Books  in  Litirary  of  Mag- 
dalen College,  {Gil. 

Wood,  Anthony  a.  Fasti  or  Annals  of  Oxford,  added 
to  various  eds.  of  Athenae  Oxonienses,  e.g.  1721, 
1813-1820. 

Holland :  — • 

Acta  Synodi  Nationalis  .  .  .  Dordrechti  Habitae  Anno 
MDCXVIII  et  MDCXIX.  Dordrechti,  Bercwout, 
1620,  cum  privilegio.  (,See  especially  session  XVII, 
Nov.  30,  1G18.)  For  acts  of  Synods  see  also  :  A.  H. 
Kuyper,  De  Post  Acta  .  .  .  Dordrecht,  Amsterdam, 
1899;  W.  P.  C.  Knuttcl  (South  Holland),  Hague, 
1908  ;  J.  Reitsman  en  S.  D.  Van  Veen,  8  vols., 
Groningen,  1891-1899 ;  F.  L.  Rutgers  (Marnix 
Vereenigung),  Utrecht,  1889  ;  Livre  synodal  .  .  .  des 
iglises  Wallonnes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1563-1685.  (Hague, 
1896.) 

Prinsterer,  G.  Van.  La  Hollande  et  I'Influence  de 
Calvin.      (Hague  and  Amsterdam,  1864.) 

Vos,  G.  J.  Amstel's  Kerkelijk  Leven.  (Amsterdam, 
1903.) 

WiCKsTEED,  P.  H.  Ecclesiastical  Institutions  of  Hol- 
land.    (London,  1875.) 

Scotland :  — 

Bkown,  p.  Htjme.  John  Knox,  2  vols.  (London, 
1895.)     George  Buchanan.     (Edinburgh,  1890.) 

Extracts  from  burgh  records  of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow, 
Aberdeen,  etc.,  have  been  published  by  the  Scottish 
Burgh  Records  Society  ;  of  Old  Aberdeen  by  the 
New  Spalding  Club  ;  of  Presbytery  Book  of  Strath- 
bogie  and  of  Kirk  Session,  Presbytery  and  Synod  of 
Aberdeen  (1562-1681),  by  the  Spalding  Club; 
Records  of  the  Presbyteries  of  Inverness  and  Dingwall 
in  Vol.  24  of  Scottish  Historical  Society. 

Grant,  James.  History  of  the  Burgh  Schools  of  Scot- 
land.    (London,  1876.) 

Knox,  John.  Works,  ed.  by  David  Laing.  6  vols.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1846-1864.)  For  schools  see  Vol.  II,  pp.  198- 
199,  208-221;  the  Buke  of  Discipline  is  less  accu- 
rately reprinted  in  Calderwood,  History  of  the  Kirk 
of  Scotland,  Vol.  II,  pp.  51  ff. 

Mathieson,  W.  L.  Politics  and  Religion,  a  Study  in 
Scottish  History.    2  vols.      (Glasgow,  1902.) 

Peterkin,  a.  The  Booke  of  the  Utiiversall  Kirk  of 
Scotland,  etc..  Acts  and  Proceedings  of  General 
Assembly,  1560-1616.      (Edinburgh,  1839.) 

Pitcairn,  T.  The  Booke  of  the  Universall  Kirk  of 
Scotland,  Acts,  1638-1842.      (Edinburgh,  1843.) 

.Sprott,  G.  W.,  and  Lelshmann,  T.  TheBook  of  Com- 
mon Order  of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  (Edinburgh, 
1868.) 

The  Acts  of  the  Parliament  of  Scotland,  1421-1707,  Vols. 
II-XI  (1814-1824.) 

Urwick.  William.  Early  History  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  1591-1560.  as  told  in  Contemporary  Records. 
(London,  1892.)  Mahaffy.in  his  History  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  speaks  of  this  as  of  "real  and  in- 
dependent value,"  "a  notable  contribution." 

France:  — 
Aymon,  Jean.      Tous  les  Synodes  Nationaux  des  Eglises 

R6fonnees  de  France.      (La  Haye,  1710.) 
Baird,  C.  W.     Huguenot  Emigrationto  America.    2  vols. 

(New  York,  1885.) 
B.AiRD,  H.  M.     History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Huguenots  of 

France.    2  vols.       (l^Iew  York,  1896.) 
BonRCHENiN,   p.   D.      Etude  sur  les  Academies  Protes- 

iantes    en    France   au    XVIe   et   au    XVIIe   Sihle. 

(Paris,  1882.) 
Bulletin  de  la  Society  de  VHistoire  du  Protestantisme  J^ran- 

Cais:  Vol.  IV,  pp.497ff.,  582ff.,  M.  Nicolas,  rffs  Bcoi&s 

Primaires  et  des  Colleges  chez  les  Protestants  Fran- 


cois, 1538-1685;  Vol.  XV,  pp.  317  fF.,  Journal  d'un 
Marin  Protestant  du  XVIIe  Sihle  (Tarfe  Chaillaud) ; 
Vol.  XVII,  pp.  449  ff.,  J.  Bonnet,  Mathurin  Cordier; 
VoJ.  XXV,  pp.  481  ff.,  M.  J.  Gaufr^s,  Histoircdu  Plan 
d'Eludcs  Protestants;  cf.  also  Gaufrfes  in  ibid.,  Vols. 
XXII,  XXIII.  XXIV. 

Corderii,  Mat.  Colloquiorum  Scholasfieorum  Libri 
IV.  1st  ed.  (Lyons,  1564.)  Frequently  printed 
in  various  countries  ;  29  editions  with  Latin  ac- 
comjiaiiied  by  English  translation  are  noted  in 
the  British  Museum  Catalogue,  the  29th  published 
in  Edinburgh,  1806. 

Plessis  Mornat,  Phillippe  du.  Mimoires  et  Corre- 
spondance.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  497.  12  vols.  (Paris,  1824- 
1825.) 

Quick,  John.  Synodicon  in  Gallia  Reformata,  or  the 
Acts,  etc.,  of  National  Councils  of  the  Reformed 
Churches  in  France  .  .  .  out  of  Ms.  Acts  of  those 
T&n&wned  Synods.     2  vols.      (London,  1692.) 

American  Colonies:  — 

For  references  on  American  Colonies,  see  article  on 
Colonial  Period  in  American  Education. 

CAMBRIDGE,  CITY  OF.  —  A  city  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, fourth  from  the  largest  in  point  of 
size.  Harvard  University  and  Radcliffe  Col- 
lege are  located  in  the  city.  In  1900  Cam- 
bridge had  a  total  population  of  91,886,  and 
in  1909  its  estimated  population  was  101,872. 
Its  school  census,  7  to  14  years  of  age,  was  11, 500 
in  1909;  and  its  total  school  enrollment  was 
17,135  in  day  schools,  and  2652  in  night  schools. 
In  addition  the  enrollment  in  private  and  paro- 
chial schools  was  4014.  Of  the  population  of 
1900,  94  per  cent  were  native  born,  and  the 
foreign  born  were  chiefly  English  and  Cana- 
dians.    The  city  is  essentially  residential. 

History.  —  The  first  school  in  Cambridge 
was  opened  in  1642.  This  was  a  privately 
supported  school  until  1654,  when  a  small 
"  rate  "  was  levied  to  help  to  support  the 
teacher.  For  150  years  after  this  time  the 
schools  in  the  town  had  a  struggle  for  existence. 
During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
a  number  of  schools  was  opened,  and  a  School 
Committee  was  appointed.  In  1840  the  first 
printed  school  report  was  issued.  This  shows 
that  Cambridge  was  one  of  the  earliest  cities  to 
grade  its  schools,  there  being  19  schools  in 
existence,  divided  into  alphabet,  primary, 
middle,  grammar,  and  high  school  grades.  In 
1838  a  central  classical  high  school  was  estab- 
lished, but  this  met  with  much  opposition,  and 
in  1843  it  was  abandoned,  and  3  classical  teach- 
ers were  put  into  3  different  grammar  schools 
in  the  town.  In  1847  the  central  high  school 
was  reestablished,  and  in  1848  the  classical 
teachers  in  the  grammar  schools  were  discon- 
tinued. In  1846  the  city  was  incorporated, 
and  a  School  Committee  of  7  was  provided 
for  in  the  new  city  charter.  In  1858  the  num- 
ber of  committeemen  was  raised  to  10,  and  in 
1868  to  15,  at  which  number  it  remained  for 
40  years.  In  1851-1852  a  private  evening 
school  was  established,  which  in  1868  was  taken 
over  by  the  city.  In  1871  evening  schools  of 
drawing  were  established,  and  in  1889  an  even- 
ing high  school  was  provided.  In  1845  a  super- 
visor of  music  was  employed;  in  1869  drawing 


500 


CAMBRIDGE   PLAN 


CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY 


was  introduced;  and  in  1877  sewnng  was  in- 
cluded in  the  curriculum.  In  1868  the  first 
city  superintendent  of  schools  was  employed; 
and  in  1873  the  first  city  truancy  officers  were 
appointed.  In  1870  a  city  training  school  was 
opened,  which  in  1884  was  transformed  into 
the  present  Wellington  Training  School.  In 
1885  free  textbooks  and  supplies  were  pro- 
vided. In  1886  the  English  and  the  classical 
departments  of  the  high  school  were  divided, 
and  2  high  schools  created.  In  1889  the  kin- 
dergartens of  the  city,  which  had  been  under 
private  control  for  11  years,  were  adopted  by 
the  city  school  department.  In  1896  medical 
inspection  was  introduced.  In  1898  the  Cam- 
bridge Manual  Training  High  School,  estab- 
lished and  equipped  by  Mr.  F.  H.  Ringe,  was 
given  to  the  city  and  became  a  third  high  school 
known  as  the  Ringe  Manual  Training  High 
School.  In  1909  a  reorganization  was  effected 
and  a  new  School  Committee  of  5,  elected  1 
from  each  of  5  wards,  displaced  the  old  Com- 
mittee of  15.  A  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
elected  annually,  acts  as  the  executive  officer  of 
the  new  committee  in  all  matters  of  instruction. 
Present  System.  —  In  1909  the  school  system 
of  Cambridge  consisted  of  52  schools,  and  em- 
ployed 430  teachers  and  25  supervisory  officers. 
Of  these  71  were  in  the  3  high  schools.  Sixteen 
kindergartens  are  maintained,  employing  30 
teachers.  The  city  school  department  employs 
supervisors  of  music,  drawing,  physical  train- 
ing, and  primary  work;  a  corps  of  truant  offi- 
cers; and  a  school  nurse.  The  Wellington 
Training  School,  maintained  by  the  city,  is 
an  apprentice  school  for  future  elementary 
teachers.  Only  graduates  of  approved  high 
schools  and  a  state  normal  school  are  ad- 
mitted. The  term  of  service  is  1  year.  The 
first  7  grades  of  the  school  are  taught  by  the 
apprentice  teachers,  under  the  supervision  of  a 
master  and  3  assistants.  About  one  third  of  a 
regular  teacher's  salary  is  paid  to  an  apprentice. 
The  object  of  the  school  is  to  initiate  new 
teachers  under  conditions  likely  to  insure 
their  becoming  successful  teachers  in  the  schools 
of  Cambridge.  A  school  term  of  188  days  was 
provided  in  1908-1909.  The  8  evening  schools 
employed  93  teachers,  and  enrolled  2780 
pupils.  Four  of  these  were  elementary  schools, 
2  were  drawing  schools,  1  an  industrial  school, 
and  1  an  evening  high  school.  Vacation 
schools  were  opened  in  6  buildings  in  1908. 
Summer  playgrounds,  with  organized  play  and 
occupations,  are  maintained  in  the  schoolyards 
and  public  parks.  The  total  cost  of  maintain- 
ing the  schools  of  Cambridge  in  1908-1909 
was  S499,585.61.  E.  P.  C. 

Reference:  — 

Annual  lii-porU's  of  the  School  Committer,  Cilu  of  Cambridoe, 
l!*40~iy08.  Thp  Atmunl  Report  for  1892  contains 
a  historical  sketch  of  the  school  system. 

CAMBRIDGE   PLAN   OF  ELEMENTARY 
EDUCATION.  —  See  GK.\Dii\G  .\nd  I'uomotio.v. 


CAMBRIDGE,"  UNIVERSITY    OF.  —  The 

early  history  of   the  University  of   Cambridge 
and  that  of  the  town  is  so  closely  interwoven 
that  a  few  words  about  the  latter  are  necessary 
in  order  to  render  the  former  intelligible.     The 
town  of  Cambridge  has  been  proved  by  recent 
research  to  be  of  dual  origin.     (The  view  taken 
by  the  historian  E.  A.  Freeman,  that  the  whole 
town  stood  originally  on  the  northern  bank,  is 
now  abandoned;  the  late  Professor    Maitland 
having  conclusively  proved  the  contrary.     See 
his  Township  and  Borough,  p.  99.)     There  was  a 
town  that  grew  up  round  the  castle  on  the  north 
or  left  bank  of  the  Grant  or  Cam,  and  there  was 
an  older  town  that  had  grown  up  on  the  south 
bank   round   the    church   of   St.    Benet.     The 
latter  church  belonged  to  pre-Norman  times, 
and  from  its  towers  the  townsmen  may  have 
marked,  not  without  misgiving,  the  toil  of  the 
workmen  employed  by  William  the  Conqueror 
to  build  the  castle.     In  the  expanse  that  lay 
between  St.  Benet's  and  the  river,  there  was 
also  a  hospital  of  Augustinian  canons,  dedicated 
to  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  whose  employment, 
as  distinguished  from  that  of  secular  canons, 
was  mainly  to  say  masses  and  to  visit  and  tend 
the  sick.     In  Domesday,  the  town  had  borne 
the  name  of  Grantbrigge,  and,  standing,  as  it 
did,  at  the  point  of  junction  of  two  great  Roman 
roads,  must  always  have  been  a  place  of  some 
importance.     In  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth 
century,  Ely  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
and  as  Cambridge  lay  in  the  newly  created 
diocese,  it  continued  from  that  time  to  be  sub- 
ject to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Ely. 
In  1280,  Hugh  Balsham,  Bishop  of  Ely,  and  a 
distinguished  patron  of  learning,  introduced  into 
the  hospital  a  body  of  secular  scholars,  at  the 
same  time  providing  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
latter   by   an   augmentation   of  the   revenues. 
The  regular  canons  and  the  seculars  proved, 
however,  to  be  incongruous  elements,  and  in 
the  year  1284  (shortly  before  his  death),  Hugh 
Balsham  transferred  his  scholars  to  two  hostels 
near  the  Church  of  St.  Peter,  outside  Truinping- 
ton  Gates,  and  here  the  scholars  held  their  reli- 
gious   services.     The    gates    opened    on    to    a 
bridge   over  what  was  known   as  the   King's 
Ditch,  —  a  narrow  confluent  of  the  Cam  which 
represented    the    southern    boundary    of    the 
town,  —  and  within  the  town,  near  the  gates, 
stood  St.  Botolph's  Church.     St.  Botolph  was 
the  patron  saint  of  the  traveler,  and  in  the 
chapels   of    'the   church   travelers,    on    setting 
out  from  the  town  or  arriving  from  the  south, 
would  offer  up  their  prayers  for  their  protection 
or  their   thanks   for   a  journey  safely   accom- 
plished.    It  is  in  these  primary  conditions  that 
we  have  the  key  to  the  original  relations  be- 

'  The  writer  of  this  artiole  is  under  obligation  to  Pro- 
fessors Sir  Clifford  Allbutt.  Liveing.  Hughes,  James 
Ward,  and  Shiple.v  and  to  Mr.  Rouse  Ball  for  valuable 
assistance  ;  also  to  Messrs.  Longmans  &  Co.  of  Lon- 
don for  permission  to  use  his  own  shorter  History 
of  the  Unicersity  (1888),  now  out  of  print. 


501 


CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY 


CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY 


twoen  the  town  and  the  university,  —  for  it  is 
evident  tliat  tlie  students  of  Peterhouse,  who, 
when  the  gates  at  the  bridge  were  closed  at 
night,  found  themselves  practically  shut  out 
from  communication  with  the  town,  must  have 
considered  the  risks  attendant  upon  a  chance 
attack  by  marauders  in  the  open  preferable, 
on  the  whole,  to  the  chronic  molestation  of  the 
townsmen.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  how- 
ever, we  find  both  the  Franciscan  and  the  Do- 
minican friars  establishing  themselves  within  the 
town  boundaries,  soon  to  be  followed  bj'  the 
Carmelites  and  the  Augustinians.  Then,  in 
1229,  the  student  body  received  a  considerable 
accession  in  the  migration  of  a  number  of  stu- 
dents from  the  University  of  Paris,  and  in  1240 
by  a  like  migration  from  Oxford.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  instances  of  emigration  of  stu- 
dents, as,  for  example,  from  Cambridge  to  North- 
ampton in  1261  and  from  Oxford  to  Stam- 
ford in  1333;  such  secessions,  however,  were 
systematically  discouraged  both  by  the  Crown 
and  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities;  and  no 
third  university  was  actually  founded  until  the 
time  of  Cromwell,  by  whom  the  foundation  of 
Durham  University  (q.v.)  was  sanctioned  in 
1658.  In  Cambridge  itself  collisions  often 
took  place  between  the  students  and  the  towns- 
men, the  hostels  in  which  the  former  lived 
being  frequently  attacked,  and  hence,  partly, 
the  recognized  necessity  for  colleges.  But  even 
colleges  were  not  secure,  and  in  1381  Corpus 
Christi  lost  all  its  books,  charters,  and  other 
writings.  Similar  attacks  about  the  same 
time  were  made  upon  the  house  of  the  Carmel- 
ites, and  also  upon  St.  Mary's  (the  university 
church),  where  the  university  chest  was  rifled 
and  numerous  official  documents  destroyed,  — 
events  whicli  further  attest  the  difficulties  and 
dangers  amid  which  the  university  developed, 
and  to  be  regarded  as  partly  attributable  to 
the  less  stringent  discipline  of  either  the  Friary 
or  the  College,  when  compared  with  that  of 
the  monastery,  where  the  inmates  were  isolated 
from  the  outside  world.  The  rule  of  Peterhouse 
—  as  the  modest  foundation  outside  the  gates 
was  now  called  —  was  little  more  than  a  simple 
adaptation  of  that  given  by  Walter  de  Merton 
to  his  scholars  at  Oxford  (1274),  and  a  better 
model  could  not  have  been  found  in  any  univer- 
sity in  Europe.  Forty  years  later,  Michael- 
house  (afterwards  merged  in  Trinity  College) 
was  founded,  with  statutes  of  its  own;  and  the 
foundations  of  Pembroke  Hall  (see  Col- 
lege; H.\ll),  in  1347,  bj'  Marie  St.  Paul,  a 
warm  friend  of  the  Franciscans,  and  that  of 
Gonvillc  Hall,  in  the  following  year,  by  Ed- 
mund Gonville,  an  equally  warm  friend  of  the 
Dominicans,  afford  satisfactory  evidence  that 
the  college  was  not,  as  yet,  necessarily  regarded 
as  an  institution  hostile  to  the  religious  orders. 
It  is  in  connection  with  Pembroke  that  we  have 
the  earliest  example  (1366)  of  an  original  col- 
lege rule  at  Cambridge,  and  the  statutes  are 
consequently  of  considerable  interest.     Among 


these  we  may  note  that  of  the  30  scholars  for 
which  the  college  was  designed,  6  at  least  were 
required  to  be  in  holy  orders,  and  the  whole 
body  were  to  apply  themselves  to  the  faculty  of 
arts  or  of  theology;  that,  of  the  two  rectors  ap- 
pointed, one  was  a  Franciscan  and  the  other  a 
secular  priest,  both  of  whom  were  required  to 
have  graduated  in  the  university.  A  fellow 
might  be  of  any  nation  or  realm,  but  preference 
was  to  be  given  to  a  native  of  France;  prior  to 
his  admission,  he  was  required  to  pledge  himself 
by  oath  to  vacate  his  fellowship  as  soon  as  he 
was  appointed  to  any  more  lucrative  place; 
and  in  the  choice  of  scholars  on  admission, 
preference  was  to  be  given  to  duly  qualified 
candidates  from  the  parishes  pertaining  to 
the  college  rectories. 

Clare  Hall,  founded  in  1359,  adopted  with 
little  modification  the  rule  of  Walter  de  Merton; 
but  King's  Hall,  founded  in  1337  by  Edward  II, 
was  designed  by  him  to  encourage  the  study  of 
the  civil  and  the  canon  law.  The  execution  of 
his  design,  however,  devolved  upon  Edward 
III,  while  the  statutes  were  given  by  Richard  II. 
With  the  fifteenth  century  other  influences 
come  into  play.  Lollardism,  while  it  had  been 
productive  of  increased  mental  activity,  had 
also  been  a  source  of  much  contention  at  both 
universities,  and  was  now  repressed  by  Arch- 
bishop Arundel  (1396-1413)  with  a  strong  hand. 
By  virtue  of  his  authority  as  metropolitan,  he 
cited  the  chancellors  of  both  universities  be- 
fore him  to  take  the  oath  of  obedience  on  as- 
suming office.  He  was,  however,  confronted 
by  a  display  of  ultramontane  feefing  alike  at 
Oxford  and  at  Cambridge,  which  led  them  not 
only  to  refuse  compliance,  but  to  appeal  to  the 
Roman  pontiff;  and  in  1430  Pope  Martin  V 
was  induced  to  appoint  a  commission  to  in- 
quire into  the  whole  question,  and  the  prior  of 
the  Augustinians  in  Barnwell  (an  ancient 
suburb  of  Cambridge)  acted  as  president. 
Certain  documents  were  produced  in  evidence 
which  were  unquestionably  spurious,  but  which 
the  prior  accepted  as  of  good  authority;  and 
the  chancellor,  accordingly,  was  able  to  obtain 
formal  exemption  from  all  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction within  the  realm,  that  of  the  Bishop 
of  Ely  not  excepted.  The  foundation  of  Eton 
College  and  King's  College  in  1441  by  Henry 
VII  afforded  occasion  for  a  similar  display  of 
church  feeling.  In  each  case  the  endowment 
was  derived  from  the  confiscated  estates  of  the 
alien  priories  (q.v.),  —  "  cells,"  as  they  were 
termed,  of  different  religious  orders  in  Eng- 
land which  represented  dependencies  of  foreign 
monasteries,  —  and  the  revenues  thus  appro- 
priated to  King's  made  it  the  wealthiest  of  all 
the  existing  Cambridge  colleges.  Its  code  was 
little  more  than  a  reproduction  of  that  given 
by  William  of  Wykeham  —  Archbishop  of 
York,  and  a  noted  opponent  of  the  monks  —  to 
New  College,  Oxford;  but  just  as  the  chancellor 
of  the  university  had  been  made  independent 
of  episcopal  authority,  so  the  community  of 


502 


CAMBRIDGE   UNIVERSITY 


CAMBRIDGE   UNIVERSITY 


King's  College  was  declared,  by  papal  bull, 
independent,  not  only  of  the  Bishop  of  Ely,  but 
also  of  the  university  authorities,  in  all  matters 
of  discipline  as  distinguished  from  instruction. 
For  four  centuries,  accordingly,  the  society, 
although  it  remained  subject  to  the  university 
as  far  as  regarded  keeping  of  scholastic  acts, 
exercises,  lectures,  and  disputations,  was  noted 
as  one  in  which  the  primary  designs  of  academic 
life  were,  to  a  great  extent,  ignored. 

Queens'  College,  founded  under  the  name  of 
the  "  Queens'  College  of  St.  Margaret  and  St. 
Bernard,"  and  endowed  in  1448  through  the 
good  offices  of  Margaret  of  Anjou,  remained 
(owing  probably  to  the  Civil  War)  without 
statutes  until  1475,  when  Elizabeth  Woodville, 
the  consort  of  Edward  IV,  took  the  new  society 
under  her  protection  and  gave  it  statutes.  The 
credit  of  creating  the  college  having  been  thus 
shared  by  two  queens,  the  name  is  written 
Queens'  College,  as  distinguished  from  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  founded  by  Queen  Philippa. 
The  statutes  of  St.  Catherine's  Hall,  founded  in 
147.5,  are  chiefly  to  be  noted  for  the  fact  that 
the  society  was  to  be  composed  exclusively  of  the 
secular  clergv.  In  the  three  foundations  of  Jesus 
College  (1497),  Christ's  College  (1505),  and  St. 
John's  (1511),  we  have  successive  illustrations 
of  the  great  revolution  then  in  progress,  —  Jesus 
College  rising  on  the  site  of  the  extinct  nunnery 
of  St.  Rhadegund,  St.  John's  on  that  of  the 
former  hospital  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  while 
Christ's  College  was  the  first  to  represent  the 
learning  introduced  by  Erasmus  (q.v.).  That 
great  scholar,  while  in  Cambridge,  "  kept "  in 
Queens'  College;  and  there  it  was  that  he 
carried  on  his  labors  on  the  Novum  I nstrumen- 
tum  and  on  his  edition  of  Jerome.  Bishop 
Fisher,  his  patron,  was  confessor  to  the  Lady 
Margaret,  the  mother  of  Henry  VII,  and  also  a 
distinguished  benefactor  of  the  university; 
and  he-also  drew  up  successive  codes  of  statutes 
for  Christ's  College  and  St.  John's.  But  while 
the  studies  which  he  especially  patronized  were 
partly  new  —  for  it  was  now  that  Hebrew  and 
Greek  first  began  to  be  recognized  —  his  stat- 
utes cannot  be  defended  from  the  reproach  of 
embodying  much  that  was  becoming  obsolete. 
In  1521  a  translation  of  the  De  Tcmperamentis 
of  Galen  by  Thomas  Linacre  was  printed  apud 
pratdaram  Cantiibriginm,  at  the  press  of  John 
Siberch,  most  probably  a  native  of  Cologne. 
Siberch  printed  also  other  books  about  the  same 
time,  but  it  was  not  until  more  than  half  a 
century  had  elapsed,  in  15S.3,  that  Thomas 
Thomas  was  appointed  University  Printer. 

The  Reformation  ushered  in  a  series  of 
changes  to  which  Cambridge,  from  its  geo- 
graphical position,  was  especially  open,  —  the 
commercial  intercourse  between  Xorthern  Ger- 
many, on  the  one  hand,  and  King's  Lynn,  Nor- 
wich, and  Ipswich,  on  the  other,  being  in  those 
days  already  considerable.  Under  the  auspices 
of  Thomas  Cromwell,  Henry  VIII's  chief 
minister,  the  movement  acquired  great  force  in 


the  university,  which  was,  however,  partly  saved 
from  the  hands  of  the  courtiers  who  sought 
to  plunder  it  by  Henry's  personal  interven- 
tion, an  occasion  on  which  he  is  said  to  have 
observed  that  he  thought  he  had  not,  elsewhere 
in  his  realm,  "  so  many  persons  so  honestly  mayn- 
tayned  in  lyvyng  bi  so  little  lond  and  rent." 
By  the  Royal  Injunctions  of  1535,  provision 
was  further  made  for  instruction  in  logic,  rheto- 
ric, arithmetic,  geography,  and  music;  while  the 
study  of  Aristotle  was  rendered  more  intelli- 
gent by  the  substitution  of  the  commentaries 
of  the  humanists  for  the  obscure  glosses  of  the 
schoolmen.  An  additional  stimulus  was  im- 
parted by  the  presence  of  some  distinguished 
scholars  as  teachers,  —  among  them  Sir  John 
Cheke  {q.v.),  John  Redman,  and  Roger  Ascham 
{q.v.).  Ascham  was  appointed  Reader  in  Greek 
at  St.  John's,  where  he  received  a  liberal  salary, 
and  consequently  was  emboldened  to  make  a 
timely  protest  against  a  crying  abuse,  —  the 
indiscriminate  admission  of  the  sons  of  the 
wealthy,  who  had  come  up  with  no  intention  of 
serious  study  and  with  correspondingly  small 
attainments.  His  protest,  addressed  to  Cran- 
mer,  reached  the  ears  of  Henry  VIII,  and  in  the 
new  statutes  given  to  St.  John's  in  1545,  it  was 
expressly  provided  that  no  pensioner  should  be 
admitted  who  did  not  already  possess  a  suffi- 
cient knowledge  of  Latin  to  enable  him  to  profit 
by  the  course  of  instruction.  This  proviso 
may  be  regarded  as  ushering  in  a  more  general 
and  highly  important  enactment,  whereby  the 
university  formally  renounced  the  function  of 
teaching  "  grammar  "  {i.e.  Latin),  thereby 
recognizing  the  instruction  given  in  the  gram- 
mar schools  throughout  the  country  as  pre- 
paratory to  its  own. 

Magdalene  College,  founded  in  1542,  affords 
another  illustration  of  the  change  in  progress, 
as  it  rose  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  foundation 
designed  by  the  Benedictines  for  the  housing 
of  members  of  their  order  studying  in  the  uni- 
versity. Sir  Thomas  Audley,  the  founder,  — 
himself  enriched  by  the  plunder  of  the  mon- 
asteries, —  provided  an  ample  endowment;  but 
it  was  not  until  the  year  1554,  in  the  reign 
of  Philip  and  Mary,  that  the  college  received 
its  statutes,  which  consequently  reflect  com- 
paratively little  of  that  regard  for  classical 
learning  to  be  noted  in  the  original  statutes  of 
Christ's  and  St.  John's. 

During  the  Reformation,  moreover,  the  li- 
braries throughout  the  university  had  sus- 
tained irreparable  losses.  "  At  the  present 
time,"  says  Dr.  James,  "  only  19  of  the  Uni- 
versity Library  books  are  known  to  exist  out 
of  330.  At  Corpus  Christi,  3  out  of  75;  at 
Queens',  I  believe,  none;  at  King's,  1  out  of  176; 
at  Trinity  Hall,  1 ;  at  St.  Catherine's,  none  out 
of  100."  (See  "The  Foundation  of  Libraries," 
in  Vol.  IV,  pp.  422-425,  of  Cambridge  History  of 
English  Literature,  1909.)  To  Matthew  Par- 
ker (Archbishop  of  Canterbury  1559-1575) 
belongs  the  credit  of  being  almost  the  first  to 


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introduce  into  the  university,  not  only  the  dis- 
crimination of  the  bibliophilist,  but  also  an  ade- 
quate sense  of  the  duties  that  devolve  on  the 
librarian.  On  succeeding  to  the  mastership  of 
Corpus  Christi  College  in  1554,  he  had  drawn 
up  a  series  of  regulations  designed  to  protect 
the  collection  which  he  ultimately  bequeathed 
to  the  college  from  like  spoliation;  and  in  a 
small  chamber  over  the  ante-chapel  the  famous 
Parker  Mss.  were  safely  housed  for  some  250 
years.  As  archbishop,  again,  he  had  the  first 
pick  of  the  whole  of  the  plunder  of  the  libraries 
and  muniment  rooms  of  the  dissolved  religious 
houses;  and  his  suffragans  were  only  too  ready 
to  gain  his  favor  by  almost  forcing  upon  him 
the  treasures  of  the  cathedral  libraries. 

Of  the  transition  from  the  medieval  to  the 
modern  conception  of  education  and  learning. 
Trinity  College  (1546)  affords  a  striking  exam- 
ple. The  original  society  was  composed  exclu- 
sively of  members  of  the  university;  while 
several  distinguished  Greek  scholars  from  St. 
John's  were  among  those  elected  to  the  first 
fellowships.  It  was  also  a  promising  sign, 
that  the  only  limitation  imposed  in  such  elec- 
tions, with  respect  to  counties,  was  that  not 
more  than  3  fellows  at  any  one  time  should  be 
natives  of  the  same  county. 

The  enforced  exile  of  a  large  number  of 
Protestant  scholars,  during  the  reign  of  Mary, 
must  be  looked  upon  as  marking  a  period  of 
reaction;  and  the  burning  of  Cranmer,  Latimer, 
and  Ridley  at  Oxford  and  that  of  John  Hullier, 
a  Protestant  scholar  of  King's  College,  at  Cam- 
bridge, brought  home  to  both  those  com- 
munities the  stern  realities  of  the  religious 
crisis.  The  administrative  changes  that  were 
introduced,  however,  along  with  the  new 
statutes,  given  in  1557,  generally  known  as 
those  of  Cardinal  Pole,  proved  almost  inopera- 
tive; and  from  the  acceptance  of  the  chancellor- 
ship of  the  university  by  Sir  William  Cecil  in 
1559  we  may  date  the  commencement  of  a  new 
era;  but  on  the  other  hand,  the  political  effects 
of  the  rigorous  measures  that  characterized  the 
preceding  reign  were  long  and  severely  felt. 
The  Marian  exiles,  as  they  were  termed,  had 
encountered  abroad  privations  and  sufferings 
which  gave  peculiar  intensity  to  their  sense  of 
wrong;  and  during  their  intercourse  with  the 
Protestant  theologians  of  Germany  and  Swit- 
zerland, they  had  exchanged  views  and  arrived 
at  conclusions  which  materially  modified  their 
own  former  theological  opinions.  On  their 
return  to  England,  many  of  them,  again,  came 
before  long  under  the  influence  of  the  Scotch 
School  of  Presbyterian  doctrine,  and  out  of 
these  several  phases  of  Protestantism,  English 
Puritanism  was,  in  turn,  developed.  Eliza- 
beth, however,  who  had  a  genuine  predilection 
for  the  Anglican  ritual,  was  distinctly  opposed 
to  these  foreign  influences;  and,  assisted  by 
Cecil,  did  her  best  to  hold  the  new  movement 
in  check,  while  it  also  soon  became  evndent 
that  it  was  her  design  and  that  of  most  of  her 


ministers,  at  once  to  make  the  universities  more 
efficient  training  schools  for  the  clergy  and  also 
to  bring  them  into  closer  relations  with  the 
Crown.  It  was  thus  that,  out  of  the  5  faculties, 
of  which  Henry  Xlll  had  founded  professor- 
ships, —  theology,  civil  law,  medicine,  Hebrew, 
and  Greek,  —  only  those  which  subserved  the 
clerical  profession  continued  to  flourish.  The 
study  of  the  civil  law  almost  died  out,  disso- 
ciated as  it  was  alike  from  the  canon  law  and 
from  English  law  ;  wliilc  that  of  medicine,  which 
generally  formed  ])art  of  the  education  of  the 
cleric,  maintained  its  ground,  and  was  adorned', 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  by  names  such  as 
those  of  Dr.  Caius  (q.v.),  Gilbert,  Harvey,  and 
Glisson.  Theology,  however,  remained  the 
predominant  study ;  and  to  train  and  send 
forth  well-equipped  divines,  possessing  a  com- 
petent knowledge  of  the  original  tongues  of  the 
Old  and  the  New  Testament,  adequately  read 
in  the  most  authoritative  Patristic  literature, 
and  fitted  by  practice  in  the  art  of  disputation 
to  hold  their  own  against  the  assailants  of  their 
Church's  doctrines,  became  almost  the  sole  pro- 
fessed aim  of  the  instruction  imparted  and  the 
exercises  required  either  at  Oxford  or  at  Cam- 
bridge. 

Enough,  however,  still  remained  of  Roman 
observance,  ritual,  and  adornment  in  the  serv- 
ices of  the  Church  to  afford  the  Puritan  a 
pretext  for  the  manifestation  of  serious  discon- 
tent; and  the  repression  of  such  feeling  seemed 
to  the  compilers  of  the  Elizabethan  Statutes  of 
1570  a  foremost  necessity.  The  new  Code, 
accordingly,  while  still  retaining  earlier  enact- 
ments (known  as  the  Statuta  Antiqua,  and 
medieval  alike  in  their  conception  and  their 
origin),  also  embodied  new  provisions  with  re- 
spect to  the  constitution  of  the  Cap^il  and  the 
conditions  of  graduation,  which  tended  to  place 
the  administration  of  affairs  in  the  hands  of  a 
virtual  oligarchy.  The  Caput  —  so  called 
from  its  being  composed  exclusively  of  the 
Heads  of  Colleges  —  not  only  became  the 
supreme  authority,  but  the  annually  elected 
Proctors,  who,  from  the  opportunities  they  had 
before  possessed,  had  represented,  to  some 
extent,  the  views  and  aims  of  the  academic 
body  at  large,  were  so  far  deprived  of  their 
privileges  that  their  office  lost  much  of  its 
original  importance.  The  process  of  gradua- 
tion was  not  only  made  more  stringent,  as  re- 
garded the  times  of  "proceeding,"  from  matri- 
culation to  each  subsequent  stage  of  the  aca- 
demic career,  but  the  requirement  of  taking  a 
solemn  oath,  on  each  such  occasion,  served  to 
render  the  ceremony,  afterwards  known  as 
"subscription,"  a  powerful  weapon  in  the  asser- 
tion of  a  spiritual  authority,  owing  to  the  terrors 
with  which  the  guilt  of  perjury  was  in  those 
days  invested. 

The  foremost  promoter  of  the  new  Statutes 
was  John  Whitgift,  master  of  Trinity  College 
(1567-1577),  whose  services  were  recognized  by 
his  promotion  in  1583  to  the  Primacy  of  Can- 


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terbury,  —  an  event  which  roused  the  Puritan 
party  to  renewed  efforts.  His  foremost  oppo- 
nent at  Cambridge  had  been  Thomas  Cart- 
wright,  formerly  Lady  Margaret's  Professor  of 
Divinity,  who  iii  1584  printed  at  the  University- 
Press  a  translation  of  Walter  Travers'  Disci- 
plina,  —  a  treatise  propounding  an  improved 
system  of  Church  discipline,  and  aimed  alike 
at  the  Church  and  at  the  Royal  Supremacy. 
Whitgift  forthwith  caused  the  whole  impression 
to  be  seized  and  burnt ;  but  before  the  year  had 
closed,  the  foundation  of  Emmanuel  College 
gave  significant  proof  of  the  determination  of 
the  Puritan  party  not  to  be  driven  from  the 
university.  Its  founder  was  Sir  Walter  Mild- 
may,  one  of  Elizabeth's  most  trusted  ministers, 
who  was  openly  taxed  by  Elizabeth,  at  the  time 
of  granting  the  charter,  with  the  design  of 
founding  a  Puritan  college.  The  justice  of  the 
royal  comment  was  soon  attested  by  an  agita- 
tion which  took  its  rise  at  Emmanuel;  and 
before  long,  William  Whitaker,  the  eminent 
master  of  St.  John's  (1586-1595),  evinced  his 
sympathy  with  the  movement;  while  the 
foundation  of  Sidney  Sussex  College  in  1596, 
with  .statutes  which  were  little  more  than  a 
transcript  of  those  of  Emmanuel,  proved  an 
additional  accession.  Sidney  is  also  to  be  noted 
as  the  first  Cambridge  college  which  opened 
its  fellowships  to  Scotchmen  and  Irishmen. 

In  1604  both  the  universities  received  the 
right  of  each  returning  two  burgesses  to  Parlia- 
ment, whose  special  function  was  to  be  that 
of  giving  regular  information  to  the  House 
"  of  the  true  state  of  the  University  and  of 
every  particular  College."  The  Caput  who 
made  an  injudicious  effort  to  arrogate  to  them- 
selves the  right  of  selecting  the  candidates  were 
defeated,  —  Sir  Francis  Bacon  (q.v.)  and  Sir 
Miles  Sandys  being  returned  by  a  large  major- 
ity of  the  qualified  voters  in  the  university. 
The  great  name  of  Bacon  thus  stands  associated 
with  the  earliest  assertion  of  the  political  rights 
of  the  academic  body;  of  his  subsequent  loyalty 
to  Cambridge  and  his  zeal  for  her  interests  there 
can  be  no  question.  The  Puritan  movement 
also  continued  to  gather  force,  and  John  Pres- 
ton, who  succeeded  to  the  ma.stership  of  Em- 
manuel (1622-1628),  and  William  Perkins, 
fellow  of  Christ's  College,  alike  famed  as  learned 
divines  and  eloquent  preachers,  gave  powerful 
aid  both  by  their  teaching  and  example.  Laud 
himself  was  so  dissatisfied  with  the  aspect  of 
affairs  that  he  announced  his  intention  of  visit- 
ing the  university  in  his  capacity  of  metropoli- 
tan, —  a  design  which  he  was  never  able  to 
carry  into  effect.  In  April,  1641,  the  House  of 
Commons  resolved  that  a  statute  passed  in 
1603,  imposing  subscription  upon  young  schol- 
ars, should  be  rescinded,  and  that  neither  grad- 
uates nor  undergraduates  should  in  future  be 
called  upon  to  subscribe  the  customary  oaths. 
In  the  meantime  Laud's  coercive  policy,  in 
which  he  was  actively  supported  by  some  of 
the  heads  of  colleges,  drove  not  a  few  distin- 


guished graduates  into  exile  both  on  the  Conti- 
nent and  in  America;  and  the  foundation  of 
Harvard  College  (q.v.)  in  1638,  • —  a  measure 
dictated  by  the  dread  on  the  part  of  the 
founders  of  having  an  illiterate  ministry  in  the 
churches,  —  is  a  well-known  episode  in  the 
history  of  education  in  the  New  World.  As 
the  result,  Massachusetts  can  claim  to  have 
presented  the  earliest  example  of  a  system  of 
public  education  supported  by  the  contribu- 
tions of  the  citizens  and  imposed  as  obligatory 
on  their  children.  It  may  also  be  noted  (a  fact 
less  generally  known)  that  it  was  at  Cambridge 
in  England  that  a  meeting  was  held,  in  1629, 
of  the  ]\Iassachusetts  Company,  which  resulted 
in  their  final  resolve  to  cross  the  Atlantic  and 
settle  in  the  New  World. 

In  the  course  of  the  Civil  War  and  through- 
out the  period  of  the  Commonwealth,  the  domi- 
nation of  the  strictly  Puritan  party  was  super- 
seded by  that  of  the  Presbyterians,  who,  during 
the  Protectorate,  were,  in  turn,  displaced  to 
a  great  extent  by  the  Independents;  and  both 
universities  were  anticipating  further  measures 
of  reform,  especially  in  relation  to  the  colleges, 
when  the  restoration  of  monarchy  took  place. 
With  regard  to  the  state  of  either  university 
during  the  years  1649  to  1660,  it  appears  to 
be  undeniable,  that  the  influence  of  the  aca- 
demic authorities  was  on  the  whole  successfully 
exerted  in  promoting  sound  learning  and  the 
maintenance  of  discipline;  and  even  Claren- 
don, who  succeeded  at  the  Restoration  to  the 
Chancellorship  of  Oxford,  was  fain,  notwith- 
standing his  royalist  sympathies,  to  admit  that 
such  was  the  case.  In  the  great  reaction  that 
accompanied  the  Restoration,  loyalty  to  the 
Crown  and  conformity  to  the  liturgy  of  the 
Church  became,  however,  almost  inseparably 
blended  in  political  theory;  and  in  1662,  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  made  it  imperative  that  all 
those  who  held  office  in  the  university  should 
subscribe  a  declaration  of  compliance  with  the 
principles  enunciated  in  the  said  Act.  At 
Cambridge,  during  the  years  that  immediately 
followed,  the  chief  symptoms  were  those  of 
lethargy  with  regard  to  learning  and  laxity 
with  regard  to  discipline.  The  Cartesian,  or 
"  new  "  philosophy,  as  it  was  termed,  gave  rise 
to  a  considerable  controversy  which  distinctly 
traversed  the  divisions  of  party,  —  John 
Pearson,  master  of  Trinity,  for  example,  being 
among  its  opponents,  and  his  successor,  Isaac 
Barrow  (master,  1673-1677),  one  of  its  sup- 
porters. In  mathematics  it  produced  almost 
a  revolution;  and  it  also  found  favor  with  some 
of  the  leading  "  Cambridge  Platonists,"  who 
hailed  the  prospect  of  attaining  by  its  method 
to  greater  certainty  in  questions  both  of  mental 
and  natural  philosophy  than  could  be  reached 
by  the  mere  dialectician. 

This  remarkable  school,  —  also  designated 
as  the  "  Latitude-men,"  on  account  of  their 
advocacy,  not  only  of  a  less  narrow  standard 
of   religious    orthodoxy   than    that    prescribed 


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by  the  Creed  and  Articles  of  the  Chiireh,  luit 
also  of  the  recognition  of  a  certain  genuinely 
religious  element  in  philosophic  teaching  prior 
to  the  Christian  era  (see,  in  connection  with 
this  subject,  Sihler,  Testimonium  Animae, 
or  Greek  and  Roman  before  Jesus  Christ, 
New  York,  1909),  —  attracted  to  itself  no 
small  attention  both  at  the  university  and 
abroad,  and  continues  still  to  engage  the  notice 
of  investigators  in  the  same  field.  Chief  among 
its  teachers  was  Whichcote,  Provost  of  King's 
College  (1644-1660),  famous  both  as  a  tutor 
and  a  preacher,  but  especially  distinguished 
by  the  catholic  spirit  and  enlightened  jutlgment 
which  characterize  his  celebrated  Aphorisms, 
—  a  collection  of  pregnant  utterances,  —  the 
outcome  of  his  observations  on  some  of  the 
moot  questions  of  his  day,  and  especially  on 
certain  aspects  of  Cambridge  life  and  thought, 
—  still  not  unfrequently  quoted,  and  more 
particularly  the  aphorism  wherein  he  asserts 
that  there  is  nothing  more  unnatural  to  religion 
than  contentions  about  it.  Whichcote,  indeed, 
may  be  best  described  as  the  Socrates  of  this 
new  philosophy;  he  published  nothing;  while 
at  Christ's  College,  which  became  the  center  of 
the  movement,  —  as  originating  partly  in  the 
teaching  of  Joseph  Mede,  a  famous  teacher  of 
that  society,  —  Cudworth,  the  master  (1654- 
16S8),  and  Henry  More,  a  fellow,  were  volumi- 
nous writers.  Other  notable  members  were 
George  Rust,  John  Smith,  and  Nathaniel  Cul- 
verwel  (all  three  distinguished  as  authors), 
and  John  Worthington  (the  master  of  Jesus 
College),  who  undertook  the  labor  of  editing 
Mede's  works. 

The  Cambridge  Platonists  were  by  no  means 
free  from  the  credulity,  the  superstition,  and 
the  mysticism  of  their  age,  but  at  the  same 
time  they  rose  considerably  above  the  average 
standard  of  both  belief  and  sentiment,  and 
were  themselves  united  b}'  one  common  con- 
viction, which  may  be  described  as  the  key- 
note of  their  discourse,  that  the  aims  of 
religion  and  philosophy  being  alike  directed 
toward  the  attainment  of  truth,  it  was  im- 
possible to  believe  that  the  results  of  each  would 
not  ultimately  be  found  in  harmony.  This 
belief  it  was  that  led  them  to  look  with  sym- 
pathy on  the  rise  of  the  Royal  Society  (q.v.), 
which  was  regarded  with  no  little  apprehension 
by  many  of  the  defenders  of  orthodoxy.  The 
society,  although  it  took  its  rise  at  Oxford, 
included  from  the  first  a  considerable  Cam- 
bridge element,  represented  by  the  names  of 
Seth  Ward,  Walter  Pope,  John  Pell,  Lawrence 
Rooke,  William  Croone,  and  Henry  Power. 
By  the  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Pla- 
tonists were  at  first  gladly  hailed  as  virtual 
champions  of  its  cause;  and  Henry  More 
especially  distinguished  himself  by  the  ability 
with  which  he  exposed  the  prevailing  tendency 
to  what  was  then  known  as  "  enthusiasm,"  or 
the  right  of  unrestrained  private  judgment  in 
the   enunciation   and   declaration   of   religious 


belief.  The  multiplication  of  sects  during  the 
Commonwealth  had  in  fact  been  accompanied 
by  so  much  dangerous  speculation  with  regard 
to  the  relations  of  Church  and  State,  and  also 
by  such  sweeping  projects  of  reform  —  includ- 
ing, it  is  to  be  noted,  the  abolition  of  the  uni- 
versities themselves  —  that  More  here  found 
himself  in  sympathy  with  the  great  majority 
of  educated  divines  throughout  the  realm. 
And  down  to  the  time  of  Charles  Simeon  (1759- 
1836)  the  word  "  enthusiasm  "  became  a  cus- 
tomary expression  with  those  who  held  it  to 
be  their  duty  to  discourage  all  attempts  to 
establish  theories  of  theology  as  a  progressive 
science,  or  of  church  history  as  admitting  of  a 
mode  of  treatment  whereljy  it  might  be  ren- 
dered susceptible  of  illu.stration  by  the  study 
of  the  history  of  other  religions,  and  the  Chris- 
tian belief  itself  thus  receive  more  adequate 
application  as  a  rule  of  individual  belief  and 
practice.  "  Religion,"  said  John  Smith,  one  of 
the  ablest  of  the  Platonists,  "  though  it  hath 
its  infancy  yet  it  hath  no  old  age." 

On  the  other  hand,  such  works  as  Pearson 
On  the  Creed  (1662)  and  Tillotson's  Rule  of 
Faith  (1666),  the  latter  written  against  Roman 
Catholicism,  were  designed  to  define  and,  to  a 
certain  extent,  stereotype  the  outlines  of  ortho- 
dox belief,  —  the  suppression  of  "  Dissent  " 
and  of  Catholicism  alike  having  now  become 
a  primary  object  with  the  Church.  In  relation 
to  the  former,  indeed,  the  efforts  of  the  clergy 
were  attended  with  so  much  success  that  in 
some  parts  of  the  country  the  "  meeting  house  " 
almost  disappeared.  In  1681  the  university, 
in  an  address  presented  to  King  Charles  at 
Newmarket,  made  formal  declaration  of  the 
theory  that  the  Kng  derived  his  title,  not  from 
the  people  but  from  God,  "  by  fundamental 
hereditary  right  of  succession  ";  and  when, 
nine  years  later,  a  large  body  of  Episcopalian 
divines  throughout  the  country  refused  to 
violate  the  oath  that  they  had  taken  to  James 
II  by  swearing  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary, 
a  fresh  source  of  contention  and  disunion  was 
created  in  the  university.  At  St.  John's  Col- 
lege no  less  than  20  of  the  fellows  were  ulti- 
mately ejected  as  Nonjurors,  among  whom 
was  Thomas  Baker,  the  antiquary  (1656- 
1740),  who  continued  notwithstanding  to  reside 
in  college,  his  high  character  and  eminent 
services  to  learning  pleading  effectually  in  his 
favor.  During  his  lifetime  he  presented  23 
volumes  of  his  manuscript  collections  to  Har- 
Icy,  Earl  of  Oxford,  which  are  included  in  the 
Harleian  collection  now  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum;  eighteen  others  were  be- 
queathed by  him  to  the  university  library  in 
Cambridge,  and  the  whole  series  is  of  the  highest 
value  in  relation  to  the  hi.story  of  the  uni- 
versity and  the  colleges  at  large.  His  History 
of  St.  John's  College,  edited  by  the  Rev.  Professor 
J.  E.  B.  Mayor  (2  vols.,  1869),  is  especially  to  be 
recommended  to  all  students  of  the  literature 
relating  to  learning  and  education  in  England. 


506 


CAMBRroGE   UNIVERSITY 


CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY 


Although  a  certain  spirit  of  individual  self- 
assertion  and  independence  continued  to  mani- 
fest itself  in  Cambridge,  and  Whiston,  the 
successor  of  Ne\vton  in  the  Lucasian  profes- 
sorship (1702-1710),  and  Conyers  Middleton, 
Bentley's  leading  assailant  at  Trinity  College, 
who  from  1721  to  1750  filled  the  office  of  Pro- 
tobibliothecarius,'  were  distinguished  by  the  bold- 
ness with  which  they  assailed  the  traditions 
of  religious  belief,  after  the  accession  of  the 
Hanoverian  dynasty  the  controversial  spirit 
to  a  great  extent  died  out;  and  throughout  the 
nation  at  large,  as  well  as  in  the  universities, 
the  study  of  theologj'  itself  ceased  to  attract 
the  same  attention.  "Latitudinarianism,"  says 
Lecky,  "had  spread  widely,  but  almost  silently, 
through  all  religious  bodies,  and  dogmatic 
teaching  was  almost  excluded  from  the  pulpit." 
Montesquieu,  indeed,  on  this  very  account, 
commended  the  English  Church  of  his  time, 
as  an  institution  "that  was  divested  of  some  of 
its  worst  prejudices  and  was  the  source  of  many 
practical  advantages."  It  was  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  an  apathy  which  pervaded  the 
nation  should  have  extended  to  the  universities. 

In  the  meantime  the  genius  of  Bentley,  who 
had  succeeded  to  the  mastership  of  Trinity 
College  in  1700,  and  that  of  Isaac  Barrow 
and  of  Isaac  Newton,  served  to  sustain  the 
reputation  of  Cambridge  as  a  seat  of  exact 
learning  and  scientific  research.  In  the 
time  of  Nc\\'ton  and  his  school  the  special 
characteristic  of  Cambridge  mathematics  was 
its  application  to  astronomy  and  phj'sical  prob- 
lems, and  in  the  latter  notably  to  the  theory 
of  light.  In  1747  the  first  examination  for  the 
Mathematical  Tripos  was  held,  and  occupied 
at  first  only  two  and  a  half  days;  while  through- 
out the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  study  itself  made  little  advance.  In  1836, 
however,  the  examination  was  prolonged  to  6 
days,  and  subsequently  to  8.  The  interest  it 
now  excited  invested  mathematics  with  an 
importance  which  cannot  but  be  regarded  as 
excessive,  it  being  required  that  even  candi- 
dates for  classical  honors  should  previou.sly 
have  obtained  the  like  distinction  in  mathe- 
matics, —  Whewell  himself  defending  this  re- 
quirement on  the  ground  that  the  latter  study 
was  "  the  principal  means  in  the  cultivation  of 
the  reasoning  faculty."  On  the  other  hand, 
Adam  Sedgwick  and  Sir  William  Hamilton 
(q.v.)  gave  an  opinion  unfavorable  to  the  main- 
tenance of  the  restriction  thereby  placed  on 
classical  studies,  and  in  1850  it  was  abolished; 
and  since  1885  French  or  German  have  been 
admitted  as  alternatives  in  what  is  known  as 
the  "  Previous  "  or  simple  pass  examination. 
In  the  Tripos  itself,   moreover,    changes  and 

'  An  office  created  on  the  occasion  of  the  presentation 
of  the  magnificent  librarj-  of  Moore,  Hishop  of  Ely,  to 
the  university  by  George  the  First  in  171.5;  as  this 
collection  was  in  itself  more  than  double  the  then 
existing  university  lil)rar>',  another  officer  was  appointed 
to  provide  for  its  adequate  surveillance. 


modifications  have  been  introduced;  and  in 
1906  it  was  generally  admitted  that  the  system 
in  force  was  unsatisfactory,  that  the  subjects 
of  advanced  study  were  not  suitable  for  com- 
petitive examinations,  and  that  it  was  desir- 
able to  give  facilities  to  students  for  first 
pa.ssing  through  a  vigorous  course  on  the 
broad  principles  of  mathematics,  and  then 
passing  an  examination  in  the  same,  —  after 
which  the}'  might  devote  themselves  to  special 
departments  in  mathematics,  or  to  new  sub- 
jects, such  as  physics,  engineering,  and  other 
branches  of  science.  Eventually  the  Tripos 
itself  was  remodeled  for  what  was  essentially 
a  new  system,  the  order  of  merit  in  each  divi- 
sion being  abolished,  and  candidates  being 
allowed  to  take  the  examination  as  early  as 
the  second  term  of  residence,  although  not 
thereby  obtaining  a  degree.  Throughout  the 
greater  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  to  the 
present  time  the  Cambridge  school  has  enjoyed 
a  wide  and  well-deserved  reputation,  adorned, 
as  it  has  been,  in  mathematical  physics  by 
the  names  of  Sir  George  Stokes,  Lord  Kelvin, 
Professor  Clerk-Maxwell,  Lord  Rayleigh,  Sir 
J.  J.  Thomson,  and  Sir  Joseph  Larmor,  —  in 
astronomy  by  Professor  Adams  and  Sir 
George  Darwin,  -^  in  pure  mathematics  by 
Professors  Cayley  and  Sylvester.  In  the  last- 
named  branch  it  has  acquired  greatly  increased 
vigor  within  the  last  twenty  years  under  the 
teaching  of  Professors  Forsyth  and  Hobson 
and   Dr.  Baker. 

As  early  as  1815  examinations  were  held 
for  the  civil  law  classes,  but  were  limited  to  a 
modicum  of  Roman  law.  With  the  institution 
of  the  Downing  Professorship  of  the  Laws  of 
England,  however,  regulations  for  the  Act  in 
Law  were  drawn  up  and  the  degree  of  Master 
of  Laws  instituted,'  and  the  first  Law  Tripos 
list  was  published.  Temporarily  merged  in 
1868  in  a  Law  and  History  Tripos,  this  ex- 
amination was  again  recon.stituted  in  1873  as 
that  of  the  Law  Tripos  only,  —  the  Historical 
Tripos  being  started  as  a  separate  examina- 
tion. In  1800  Downing  College  received  its 
charter  as  designed  for  students  in  "  law, 
physic,  and  other  useful  arts  in  learning"; 
but  at  the  present  time  the  examination  for 
minor  scholarships  is  restricted  to  mathematics, 
law,  hi.story,  and  natural  science.  The  diffi- 
culty presented  in  connection  with  the  new 
Triposes  of  adequately  recognizing  not  only 
their  increasing  literature,  but  also  their  rela- 
tions to  strictly  cognate  fields  of  research, 
gradually  brought  home  alike  to  teachers  and 

'  Down  to  1535,  the  term  legum  denoted  the  Roman 
or  Civil  Law  as  distinguished  from  Canon  Law,  degrees 
at  that  time  being  gi\-eM  in  both;  but  from  15.'15  to  1854, 
although  the  plural  was  retained,  it  denoted  onl>'  the 
Roman  Law  as  the  sole  subject  of  legal  degrees,  a  usage 
defended  by  Sir  Henn,'  Maine,  on  the  ground  that  the 
plura  lefim  is,  in  fact,  equivalent  to  the  singular  ji/s  (in 
which  the  Cambridge  degree  is  conferred),  and  thus 
covers  all  the  law  which  may  be  studied  in  the  univer- 
sitj',  or  any  part  of  it. 


507 


CAMBRIDGE   UNIVERSITY 


CAMBRIDGE   UNIVERSITY 


examiners  the  necessity  of  dividing;  the  Tripos 
itself  into  two  parts,  such  parts  being  distinct 
from  each  other  and  having  different  examiners. 
In  ISSl  the  Classical  Tripos  (which  dated  from 
1824)  was  thus  divided,  —  the  First  Part 
representing  the  original  examination;  the 
Second,  the  cognate  sulajects  of  literature, 
ancient  philosophy,  history,  arclueology,  and 
language  (of  which  only  two  could  be  taken). 
In  the  First  Part  composition  in  Latin  and 
Greek  prose  and  verse  continued,  as  before, 
to  be  obligatory,  and  the  candidate  who  passed 
the  examination  was  thereby  qualified  for  an 
honor  degree.  At  the  same  time  it  was  de- 
clared permissible  for  those  who  had  passed 
in  the  First  Part  of  some  other  Tripos  to  take 
the  Second  Part  of  the  Classical  Tripos;  and 
in  this  manner  candidates  not  possessing  the 
required  competency  in  composition  were  en- 
abled to  obtain  recognition  of  their  attainments 
in  any  two  of  the  five  above-named  sections. 
Thus,  although  in  the  opinion  of  many  there  is 
reason  to  apprehend  a  decline  in  exact  scholar- 
ship, the  recognized  area  of  classical  learning 
has  undoubtedly  received  considerable  exten- 
sion, and  its  utility  in  relation  to  the  history  of 
the  past  has  been  correspondingly  increased. 

The  Moral  Sciences  Tripos,  in.stituted  in 
1851,  mainly  through  the  efforts  of  Dr.  Whewell, 
has  similarly  undergone  material  alteration. 
Originally,  like  the  Law  Tripos,  it  incorporated 
subjects  from  which  it  has  since  been  disso- 
ciated, —  that  of  ancient  philosophy,  which 
now  l)elongs  to  the  Classical  Tripos,  and  that 
of  political  economy,  which  was  transferred  in 
190.5  to  the  Economics  Tripos.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  creation  of  a  lectureship  in  logic 
(1884),  of  a  professorship  of  mental  philosophy 
and  logic  (1897),  and  of  a  lectureship  in  ex- 
perimental psychology,  have  afforded  further 
facilities  for  similar  or  cognate  studies.  In 
1902  a  moral  science  lectureship  was  founded 
in  memory  of  the  late  Professor  Henry  Sidg- 
wick,  a  distinguished  benefactor  to  the  uni- 
versity in  not  a  few  relations.  At  the  present 
time  the  encouragement  held  out  by  the  colleges 
to  the  study  may  be  regarded  as  adequate, 
while  the  standard  of  examination  is  un- 
doubtedly high.  And  although  the  number  of 
students  is  small,  the  number  of  professors  of 
philosophy  at  present  holding  chairs  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  who  have  received  their  edu- 
cation in  Cambridge,  is  at  least  equal  to  that 
of  those  who  have  been  educated  at  Oxford. 

The  recognition  extended  to  history  has 
kept  pace  with  the  great  development  of  the 
conception  and  literature  of  the  subject  during 
the  last  30  years.  Associated  in  the  first 
instance  as  a  Tripos  subject  with  Law,  it  was 
regarded  as  concerned  chiefly  with  institu- 
tions and  with  textbooks  such  as  Waitz  of 
Gottingen,  Stubbs,  Freeman,  and  Sir  Henry 
Maine.  In  1875,  however,  as  the  result  of  a 
series  of  discussions  presided  over  by  the  late 
Henry  Sidgwick,  the  study  was  placed  on  an 


independent  footing;  and  since  that  time  its 
exi)ansion,  both  as  regards  the  number  of  stu- 
dents and  variety  of  studies,  has  been  remark- 
able, and  it  was  found  necessary  to  divide  the 
Tripos  into  two  parts.  In  1908-1909  the  num- 
ber of  those  who  passed  the  examination  had 
risen  to  99  men  and  9  women  (respectively), 
in  Part  I;  and  to  72  men  and  8  women  in  Part 
II.  The  contributions  subsequently  made  to 
historical  scholarship  and  learning  by  not  a 
few  of  those  who  have  thus  acquired  distinc- 
tion, and  the  manner  in  which  some,  both  by 
promise  and  performance,  have  acquitted  them- 
selves in  English  public  life,  is  also  noteworthy 
as  evidence  of  the  value  of  their  training.  It 
is  in  this  connection,  indeed,  that  some  differ- 
ence of  opinion  has  manifested  itself  with  re- 
gard to  the  moot  question  of  the  extent  to 
which  a  university  may,  with  advantage,  adjust 
its  training  so  as  to  render  it  directly  prepara- 
tory for  a  profession;  and  some  exception  has 
been  taken  to  the  bias  imparted  by  the  late 
Sir  John  Seeley  (Regius  Professor,  1869-1895), 
to  his  generally  admirable  teaching,  as  calcu- 
lated to  create  a  school  rather  for  the  training 
of  statesmen  and  pulilic  officials  than  for  stu- 
dents proposing  to  devote  their  energies  to 
prolonged  original  research.  Such  a  tendency, 
however,  has  been  partially  rectified  by  the 
relegation  of  political  science,  political  economy, 
and  international  law  to  Part  II  of  the  Tripos; 
although  a  yet  more  recent  innovation, 
whereby  general  modern  history  has  been 
similarly  deferred,  may  be  regarded  as  at  least 
questionable,  seeing  that  in  England  it  is  not 
often  that  any  public  schoolboy  comes  up  to 
the  university  possessing,  like  a  German 
Abituric7is,  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  outlines 
not  only  of  modern,  but  also  of  ancient  and 
medieval,  history.  The  introduction  of  essaj'S 
in  both  parts  of  the  Tripos  appears  to  have  been 
attended  with  excellent  results. 

In  connection  with  medicine  the  question  of 
the  direct  relevancy  of  university  instruction 
to  professional  practice  forces  itself  still  more 
prominently  on  the  attention.  Somewhat  more 
than  half  a  century  ago  it  began  to  be  argued 
that  a  university,  as  contrasted  with  a  tech- 
nical school,  finds  its  function  in  the  training 
of  the  mind  as  an  instrument,  and  in  the  foster- 
ing and  developing  of  sound  knowledge  from  a 
disinterested  point  of  view;  and  tliat  in  the 
university,  as  such,  the  practical  calling  can- 
not be  learned,  but  that  it  must  be  learned 
among  practitioners  actually  engaged  in  the  art. 
"  When  accordingly  the  theory  of  education 
was  thought  out  afresh,"  says  Sir  Clifford  All- 
butt,  "  it  was  perceived  that  in  neglecting  to 
provide,  in  the  University  itself,  a  preliminary 
training  ground  and  proceeding  directly  to 
apprenticeship  in  the  hospitals,  physicians  had 
been  guilty  of  a  great  error.  Students  so 
educated  would  be  mentally  untrained  and  un- 
progressive,  although  they  might  prove  good 
craftsmen."     Under  the  influence  of  Paget  and 


508 


CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY 


CAMBRIDGE   UNIVERSITY 


Humphry  in  Cambridge,  and  of  Acland  and 
Rolleston  in  Oxford,  the  faculty  of  medicine 
sprang  again  into  fertility  and  began  to  flourish 
as  of  yore.  In  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, medical  graduates  were  rare,  and  in  some 
years  there  were  none.  At  the  present  date 
the  school  in  Cambridge  numbers  some  400 
students,  —  "all  of  whom  are  well  aware  that 
in  the  University,  whether  the  branch  of  study 
be  medicine,  or  any  other  field  of  disinterested 
research  and  sound  learning,  they  are  being 
educated,  not  with  the  immediate  intention 
of  practice,  but  of  mental  enlargement  and  cul- 
ture." This  done,  they  proceed  to  the  great 
technical  schools  in  large  cities  to  be  instructed 
in  the  art  of  medicine. 

Chemistry  has  been  studied  at  Cambridge 
from  very  early  times,  and  was  the  first  special 
branch  of  natural  philosophy  for  which  a  pro- 
fessorship was  founded  (1702).  Newton  had  a 
laboratory  in  a  small  garden  behind  his  rooms 
in  Trinity  College;  and  it  may  here  be  noted, 
as  one  of  the  advantages  afforded  by  the  colle- 
giate system,  as  distinguished  from  the  mere 
"  hostel  "  or  lodging  house  (so  common  in 
Continental  universities),  that  the  preexisting 
arrangements  for  scientific  instruction  in  the 
colleges  often  enable  them  to  supplement  the 
work  of  the  univcrsitj'  professor  or  lecturer. 
There  are,  for  example,  at  the  present  time, 
among  the  18  existing  colleges,  15  duly  ap- 
pointed teachers  of  zoology  (most  of  them  spe- 
cialists) whose  instruction  is  available  by  all 
members  of  colleges.  In  Newton's  time, 
and  down  to  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  chemistry  was  held  to  include  all 
branches  of  molecular  phj-sics,  such  as  the 
sciences  of  heat,  electricity,  and  magnetism; 
and  a  candidate  for  a  degree  in  "  Arts  "  (under 
which  term  "  sciences  "  were  often  included) 
could  make  a  chemical  problem  the  subject  of 
his  exercise,  or  "  act."  After  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  however,  the  only  avenue 
to  honors  in  natural  philosophy  was  by  its 
mathematical  treatment,  and  students  of 
chemistry,  other  than  those  taking  up  medicine, 
were  very  few.  A  new  era  dawned  in  1850, 
when  the  Natural  Sciences  Tripos  was  insti- 
tuted. The  professor  of  chemistry  had,  how- 
ever, to  work  in  his  own  laboratory,  equipped 
and  maintained  entirely  at  his  own  cost,  with  one 
or  two  "  advanced  "  students  as  his  assistants. 
St.  John's,  indeed,  in  1853  equipped  a  labora- 
tory for  its  own  students;  and  12  years  later 
the  university  fitted  up  an  old  building  for  a 
like  purpose;  but  it  was  not  until  1887  that  the 
present  commodious  building  was  created  and 
fitted  in  accordance  with  modern  requirements. 
Since  then  the  work  of  the  school  has  gone  on 
apace;  the  buildings  have  been  extended,  the 
appliances  largely  increased  (with  special  pro- 
vision for  those  engaged  in  research),  and  there 
is  a  very  extensive  spectroscopic  equiiiment, 
including  one  of  Rowland's  largest  gratings  and 
an   echelon  spectroscope  on  Michelson's  plan. 


There  are  now  600  students,  including  a  fair 
number  of  researchers  who  have  the  oppor- 
tunitj'  of  communicating  their  investigations  to 
the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society,  thereby 
profiting  by  the  criticisms  of  experts,  and  being 
enabled  to  publish  the  results  in  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Society.  Advanced  students  from 
other  laboratories,  duly  recommended,  as  well 
as  graduates  from  other  universities,  are  ad- 
mitted to  share  the  advantages  for  study  which 
the  chemical  laboratory  affords.  By  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Cavendish  Professorship  of  E.x- 
perimental  Physics  (1871)  the  Professor  of 
Chemistry  was  relieved  from  the  duty  of  lec- 
turing on  heat,  electricity,  and  magnetism. 

The  following  enumeration  of  scientific 
chairs  founded  within  the  last  half  century 
marks  the  steadj'  advance  of  the  university  in 
this  direction:  professorship  of  zoology  and 
comparative  zoology  (1866);  mechanism  and 
applied  mechanics  (1S75);  physiology  and 
surgery  (1883);  pathology  (1 884);  agricul- 
ture, with  special  reference  to  protozoology 
(1899);  biology  (1906);  agricultural  botany 
(1908);  biology,  with  special  reference  to  eugen- 
ics (1908);  astrophysics  (1909).  Laboratories, 
where  required,  have  also  been  erected,  which, 
with  their  adaptation  to  modern  method, 
entitle  the  university  to  be  considered  a  pioneer 
in  this  respect.  Among  the  newly  erected 
buildings,  that  appropriated  to  geology  is  per- 
haps the  most  palatial;  while  to  trace  the 
commencement  of  the  study  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  revert  to  the  seventeenth  century  and 
to  note  the  observations  made  and  the  collec- 
tions formed  by  Martin  Lister  (1638-1712), 
Agostino  Scilla,  and  Dr.  John  Woodward,  the 
founder  of  the  professorship,  who  died  in  1728. 
Woodward  stipulated  in  his  will  that  the  uni- 
versity should  provide  for  the  safe  keeping  and 
proper  display  of  his  collections  and  such  addi- 
tions as  might  be  made  to  them,  while  the  occu- 
pant of  his  chair  was  especially  charged  to 
guard  the  reputation  of  the  fossils  from  the 
assertions  of  those  who  maintained  them  to  be 
mere  lusus  naturae.  One  Thomas  Nichols,  of 
Jesus  College,  also  published  at  the  University 
Press  in  1652  a  curious  old  treatise  by  De  Boot 
(1609)  grounded  on  the  treatise  of  Theophrastus 
(B.C.  374-286),  and  containing  many  quaint 
conceits  respecting  stones,  both  precious  and 
common.  A  century  later,  the  great  contro- 
versy between  the  Wernerian  and  Huttonian 
schools  set  men  observing  and  collecting  with 
renewed  energy,  but  although  valuable  material 
was  added  to  the  Woodwardian  Museum,  little 
was  done  in  the  way  of  research  until  the  time 
of  Adam  Sedgwick,  whose  tenure  of  the  profes- 
sorship lasted  from  1818  to  1873,  and  who 
carried  on  a  memorable  controversy  with 
Murchison.  Sedgwick  drew  sections  across  his 
typical  regions,  collected  largely,  and  employed 
such  skilled  paleontologists  as  McCoy,  Salter, 
and  Morris  to  name  and  arrange  his  collec- 
tions and  to  illustrate  his  works.     On  his  death 


509 


CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY 


CAMDEN 


a  meeting  was  held  in  the  Senate  House  to 
consider  what  steps  shouhl  be  taken  to  do  lionor 
to  his  memory,  and  ultimately  a  fund  was 
raised  which,  including  value  of  old  prem- 
ises and  buildings,  amounted  to  more  than 
£50,000,  wherewith  the  Sedgwick  Museum  has 
been  erected  and  partly  fitted  up.  The  Museum 
contains  many  private  collections  especially 
valuable  from  their  association  and  from  the 
collector's  name.  Among  others,  there  is  one 
of  ox  skulls  from  the  neighborhood  of  Cam- 
bridge, which  illustrates  the  line  of  descent  of 
our  modern  breeds  of  cattle,  —  the  bison,  the 
urus  (of  which  there  is  a  specimen  from  the 
peat,  with  a  polished  stone  implement  sticking 
in  its  skull),  and  finally  the  Celtic  .shorthorn, 
which,  crossed  with  the  Roman  breed,  is  the 
origin  of  all  our  domestic  cattle.  The  liLstory 
of  the  Fens  themselves,  carrying  us  back  to  the 
beginning  of  the  age  of  Neolithic  man,  is  also 
well  illustrated.  Last  term  (Lent,  1910)  there 
were  8  lecturers  and  demonstrators  engaged, 
along  with  246  students,  in  carrying  on  the  work 
of  education  and  research. 

The  matriculation  in  the  universitv  for  the 
academic  year  1909-1910  was  1217.  The 
Council  have  recently  published  a  Report  on  the 
Constitution  and  Government  of  the  Univer- 
sity, in  which  a  material  alteration  is  proposed 
with  respect  to  the  fees  now  payable  in  order 
to  entitle  the  payer  to  life  membershi))  of  the 
Senate;  and  also,  in  place  of  the  present 
Electoral  Roll,  the  establishment  of  a  "  House  of 
Residents,"  the  composition  of  wliich  is  to  be 
more  strictly  limited  to  residents  who  are  actively 
participant  in  the  work  of  the  university  and  the 
colleges,  but  from  whose  decisions  provision  is  to 
be  made  for  appeal  to  the  Senate  under  certain 
specified  conditions.  J.  B.  M. 

The  following  table  gives  the  date  of  the  foun- 
dation, the  enrollment  of  students,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Senate  of  each  college:  — 


Founded 


1546  . 
1511  . 
1348  . 
1347  . 
1441  . 
1505  . 
1584  . 
1326  . 
1350  . 
1496  . 
1448  . 
1352  . 
1284  . 
1596  . 
1860  . 
1473  . 
1519  . 
1582  . 


Mem- 
bers 

OP  THE 

Sen- 
ate 


Trinity  College 

St.  John's  College 

Caius  College 

Pembroke  College 

King'.s  College 

Christ's  College 

Emmanuel  College 

Clare  College 

Trinity  Hall 

Jesus  College 

Queens'  College 

Corpus  Christi  College     .... 

St.  Peter's  College 

Sidney  College 

Downing  College 

St.  Catharine's  College    .... 

Magdalene  College 

Selwyn  College 

Non-ColleKiate  Students    .... 
Members  not  on  the  College  Boards 


2156 

H47 

401 

423 

455 

412 

375 

309 

242 

215 

168 

247 

217 

164 

96 

113 

89 

66 

22 

154 


7331 


Under- 
OR.\nu- 

ATE8 


700 
2.53 
313 
256 
175 
208 
229 
219 
145 
187 
184 
106 

79 

91 
140 
104 

91 
122 

97 


See  Engl.\nd,  Education  in;  University; 
and  the  articles  on  the  various  subjects  of 
study,  Chemistry,    Greek,  etc. 

References:  — • 

Breul,  K.  Students'  Life  and  Work  in  the  University 
of  Cambridge.     (Cambridge.   190S.) 

Bristed,  C.  a.  Five  Years  in  an  English  University. 
(London,  187.'}.) 

Cambridge  University.  College  Histories  Series,  18  vols. 
(London,  1898-1904.) 

Cambridge  University.  Students'  Handbook.  (Cam- 
bridge, 1902.) 

Clark,    J.     W.     Architectural    History    of    Cambridge. 
3  vols.   (Cambridge,    1886.) 
Cambridge,    a    Brief   History  and    Descriptive  Notes. 

(London,  1890.) 
Concise  Guide  to  the  Town  and   University  of  Cam- 
bridge.    (Cambridge,  1900.) 

Macalister,  D.  Advanced  Study  and  Research  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  a  Guide  to  Students. 
(Cambridge,   1903.) 

MuLLiNGER,     .J.     B.     The     University    of    Cambridge. 
2  vols.   (Cambridge,  1873-1884.) 
Cambridge     Characteristics     in    the    Seventeenth    Cen- 
tury.    (London,  1807.) 
History    of   the    University  of  Cambridge.      (London, 
1888.) 

Ra.'shd.^ll,  H.  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle 
Ages.      (Oxford,  1895.) 

Wordsworth,  C.     Scholae  Academicae:    Studies  at  the 
English     Unii^crsities    in    the    Eighteenth    Century. 
(Cambridge,    1877.) 
Social  Life  at  the  English   Universities  in    the  Eight- 
eenth Century.     (Cambridge,  1874.) 

CAMDEN,  WILLIAM  (1551-1623).  —  An 
English  schoolmaster  and  historian  who  was 
educated  at  Christ's  Hospital  and  St.  Paul's 
School  and  was  in  residence  at  Oxford,  though 
he  apparently  left  without  the  ordinary  de- 
grees. From  1575  to  1593  he  was  usher  at 
Westminster  School,  and  in  1593  succeeded 
Edward  Grant  as  headmaster.  In  1597  he 
published  his  famous  Greek  Grammar,  which 
in  the  first  half  of  the  succeeding  century  be- 
came as  much  the  standard  textbook  for  Greek 
as  Lily  was  for  Latin  grammar.  In  1647, 
however,  Camden's  Greek  Grammer  was  super- 
seded by  that  of  the  famous  Dr.  Busby  {q.v.). 
Elsewhere,  however,  Camden's  book  was  re- 
tained. There  had  been  40  editions  by  1691, 
and  it  is  said  altogether  has  run  through  over 
100  editions.  John  Brinsley,  in  his  Ludus 
Literarius  (1612),  says  he  would  have  scholars 
use  Camden's  Grammar  for  Greek,  "  notwith- 
.standing  the  faults  in  the  print  (as  indeed  there 
are  very  many)  and  what  other  exceptions  can 
be  taken;  because,  as  it  is  one  of  the  shortest, 
as  yet,  so  it  is  most  answerable  to  our  Latin 
Grammer,  for  the  order  of  it.  Whereby  schol- 
ars well  acquainted  with  our  common  gram- 
mar will  be  much  helped  both  for  speedy 
understanding  and  learning  it.  Also  the  words 
of  art  set  down  in  it  in  Greek,  as  well  as  Latin, 
wiU  be  a  great  help  for  reading  commentaries 
in  Greek;  as  upon  Hesiod  and  Homer."  In 
1660  Charles  Hoole,  in  his  New  Discovery  of 
the  Old  Art  of  Teaching  School,  says:  "I  prefer 
Camden's  Greek  Grammar,  before  any  that  I  have 
yet  seen,  though  perhaps  it  be  not  so  facile  or  so 
complete  as  some  later  printed,  especially  those 


510 


CAMERARIUS 


CAMP  SCHOOLS 


that  are  set  out  by  my  worthy  friends,  Mr. 
Busby  of  Westminster  and  Mr.  Dugard  of 
Merchant  Taylor's  School."  Camden  at  West- 
minster School  had  to  share  with  one  other 
master,  the  teaching  of  120  boys,  though  he 
would  use  the  services  of  monitors  and  the 
custos.  In  his  time  the  Dean  of  Westminster 
(Launcelot  Andrewes)  "  would  send  for  the 
older  boys  of  the  school  to  the  Deanery  and 
teach  them  Greek  from  8  till  11  o'clock."  It 
must  have  been  in  the  vacations  (1578-1600) 
that  Camden  made  his  tours  of  antiquarian 
discoveries,  which  he  eventually  published  in  his 
Britannia  (5th  edition,  1600).  It  may  reason- 
ably be  suggested  that  his  researches  into  early 
British  history  must  have  brought  an  influence 
of  a  practical  kind  into  the  boys'  studies.  Any- 
way, his  close  interest  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
the  epitaphs  in  which  building  he  edited  in 
1600;  his  collection  of  old  chronicles  in  1603; 
his  Remains  concerning  Britain,  1605;  his  An- 
nales  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  published, 
first  part  1589,  second  part  1628,  represent  the 
new  spirit  of  historical  research,  and  mark 
Camden  as  the  great  historian-schoolmaster  of 
Queen  Elizabeth's  reign.  Finally,  in  1622, 
Camden  endowed  a  readership  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cxford  for  a  lecturer  in  history,  thus 
showing  himself,  educationally,  a  pioneer  in  the 
university  teaching  of  history  as  a  differentiated 
subject.  F.  W. 

CAMERARIUS,  JOACHIM.  —  The  friend 
of  Melanchthon  at  Wittenberg,  and  a  prolific 
writer  and  editor  of  classical  texts;  was  born  at 
Bamberg,  in  1500,  died  in  1574.  He  is  inter- 
esting in  the  history  of  education  as  an  editor 


^l^^pf "  "^^^^^^H^^L 

w^                "^^S^^^^^^P^ 

P  ~'f^^-~n""^|^H|^B 

j^Kt  IkmM^.      -^c/^^- ~'>^^Pt^H9r 

j^f^S^<^^  <^VBm 

^^Bim^^^-'-'^^^m 

Jp7   ^I^kIp^^u 

l. 

m 

'■   m 

w/''/0^Wr"  ^^^\' 

'Wi 

7/Jfe##|-    ^^Stt 

/  '^^Ml 

k-^s 

Joachim  Camerarius  (loOO-loil). 


511 


of  Homer,  the  Greek  Elegiac  Poets,  Theocritus, 
Sophocles,  Thucydides,  Herodotus,  and  Aris- 
totle's Ethics,  Politics,  and  Economics,  the 
Aristotelian  editions  being  posthumous.  His 
Plautus,  edited  in  1552,  is  an  important  link  in 
the  chain  of  the  collation  of  classical  Mss., 
which  at  length  resulted  in  the  restoration  of  the 
ancient  literature  to  a  worthy  form.  Camera- 
rius wrote  several  works  directly  upon  educa- 
tion, including  a  Dialogue  on  the  Proper  Life 
of  Boijhood,  annotations  on  the  first  and  second 
books  of  Quintilian's  Institutes,  Precepts  of 
Honor  and  Behavior  in  Boyhood,  and  a  di- 
dactic work  which  he  called  the  School  of  the 
Wise,  or  the  Seven  Wise  Men.  P.  R.  C. 

References:  — 
Camerarius  :  Dialogus  de  vita  decente  aetatem  puerilem 

quodque  hoc  stadium  Deo  placeat;  Ludus  sapientum; 

Praecepta  honestatis. 
Sandys,  History  of  Classical  Scholarship.     (Cambridge, 

1903-1008.) 

CAMP  SCHOOLS.  —  Summer  camps  for 
boys  and  girls  constitute  an  interesting  phase 
of  educational  development  in  the  United 
States.  The  long  summer  vacation  and  the 
remarkable  changes  in  the  character  of  the 
home  resulting  from  the  growth  of  cities  and 
the  specialization  of  commerce  and  industry 
have  created  a  need  for  new  forms  of  education. 
The  home,  particularly  in  the  city,  no  longer 
affords  opportunities  for  boys  to  secure  that 
physical,  mor.al,  and  mental  training  that  our 
fathers  received  from  participation  in  the 
manifold  activities  which  were  carried  on  in 
the  homes  of  our  grandfathers.  The  work  of  the 
world  has  been  removed  from  the  home  to  the 
factory,  the  office,  and  the  store,  where  it  is  being 
done  better  than  ever  before  by  specialists, 
each  in  his  own  class.  All-round  manly  develop- 
ment demands  sturdy  work  and  manly  play,  each 
with  its  own  special  contribution  of  moral  power, 
physical  vigor  and  experience  in  social  relations. 
The  summer  camp  supplements  the  city  school 
and  the  home  by  furnishing  certain  educational 
advantages,  which  the  home  no  longer  affords, 
and  the  city  school  cannot  provide  in  adequate 
measure.  In  the  summer  camps,  which  are 
usually  conducted  for  from  4  to  10  weeks,  the 
boy  has  the  companionship  of  boys  of  his  own 
age,  and  of  men  of  strong  character  who  under- 
stand boys;  he  lives  a  simple  outdoor  life  in 
close  touch  with  nature;  he  develops  his  latent 
powers  for  inventing  and  making  things;  he 
acquires  valuable  physical  accomplishments  in 
land  and  water  sports;  and,  through  intimate 
social  relations,  learns  how  to  play,  work,  and 
live  with  others. 

In  some  of  the  summer  camps  regular  instruc- 
tion in  school  subjects  is  given,  mainly  to  assist 
boys  who  have  failed  of  promotion  in  school  or 
who  wish  to  prepare  for  the  September  college 
entrance  examinations.  Study  is  usually  limited 
to  3  or  4  hours  a  day,  the  rest  of  the  time  being 
devoted    to    outdoor    physical    activities.     In 


CAMPAN 


CAMPANELLA 


other  camps  there  is  no  formal  study  of  school 
subjects,  but  instruction  is  provided  in  nature 
study,  manual  training,  photography,  music, 
etc.,  besides  the  usual  activities  in  land  and 
water  sports.  In  addition  to  the  formal  in- 
struction, summer  camps  afford  valuable  train- 
ing in  health  habits,  discipline,  and  self-reliance. 
The  boys  sleep  in  tents,  eat  simple  wholesome 
food,  exercise,  play,  and  rest  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  for  health  and  normal 
development.  Habits  of  order  and  self-reli- 
ance are  fostered  by  compelling  each  boy  to 
make  his  own  bed,  keep  his  clothing  and  belong- 
ings in  order  for  daily  inspection,  and  perform 
simi)le  duties,  such  as  waiting  on  tal.ilc,  gathering 
wood  for  the  camp  fires,  etc.  There  are  camjjs 
for  all  classes  of  boys.  The  camps  for  the 
children  of  wealthy  parents  are  owned  and 
conducted  by  private  individuals,  the  tuition 
ranging  from  SIO  to  .825  a  week.  Other 
camps  are  conducted  by  philanthropic  institu- 
tions like  the  Young  lien's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, Institutional  Churches,  and  City  Settle- 
ments. In  these  camps  the  tuition  ranges 
from  $3  to  S8  a  week,  and  there  are  some 
camps  for  very  poor  boys  where  no  charge  is 
made,  even  for  transportation  to  and  from  the 
camp. 

The  beginning  of  this  movement  dates  back 
to  about  1885.  In  1900  there  were  about  100 
camps,  with  a  membership  of  between  four  and 
five  thousand  boys.  During  the  last  10  years 
the  movement  has  developed  with  great 
rapidity.  It  is  estimated  that  in  1910  there  were 
seven  or  eight  hundred  camps,  with  an  enroll- 
ment of  about  40,000  boys.  Since  1900  sum- 
mer camps  have  been  organized  for  girls  on  the 
same  general  plan  as  the  camps  for  boys.  In 
1910  there  were  more  than  100  camps  for  girls, 
with  a  membership  of  about  5000  girls. 

See  Excursions,  School.  G.  L.  M. 

References  :  — 
Balch,  .-v.     Oulina.  Vol.  14,  pp.  122,  203. 
FiNDLAY,   J.   J.     Fichlcn   Demonstration  School  Record. 

(Manchester,  Eng.,  1907.) 
Robinson,  E.   M.     Summer  Camps,  Association  Boys, 

Vol.  I,  pp.  65-109. 
Sandys,    E.   W.     Camps   and    Camping,    Outing,  Vol. 

30,  p.  373. 
Seton,  Ernest  Thompson.     The  Birch-Bark  Roll  of  the 

Woodcraft  Indians. 
Shield,  G.  O.     Camping  and  Camp  Outfits.     (Chicago, 

New  York.) 
SwiVELLER,  Dick.     Outing,  Vol.  .38,  p.  411. 
Talbot,  W.  T.     Summer  Camping  for  Boys,  American 

Physical  Education  Review,  \'oI.  IV.  pp.  30-33. 

CAMPAN,  MME.  JEAN-LOUISE-HEN- 
RIETTE  GENEST  (1752-1822).  —  Lady-in- 
waiting  to  Marie  Antoinette,  and  friend  of 
Napoleon;  one  of  the  few  women  that 
deserve  a  place  in  French  educational  history. 
Her  reputation  as  a  teacher,  as  head  of  the 
Institut  Saint-Germain,  led  Napoleon ,  to  ap- 
point her  directress  of  the  school  at  Ecouen, 
which  was  founded  for  the  daughters  and  sisters 
of  the  members  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.     She 


was  persecuted  most  cruelly  by  the  Bourbons 
on  account  of  her  indirect  relationship  to  Mar- 
shal Ney.  She  maintained  that  the  punish- 
ment of  the  child  should  be  proportional  to  the 
offense,  and  should  not  be  too  often  repeated. 
She  was  one  of  the  first  to  speak  seriously  of  the 
education  of  women,  enlarging  its  scope  from 
the  elements  of  reading  and  writing  so  as  to 
include  history,  geography,  arithmetic,  elemen- 
tary science,  and  especially  modern  languages, 
not  only  for  reacUng,  but  also  for  a  speaking 
knowledge.  Among  her  writings  are  De 
Veducation  ;  Conseils  aux  jeunes  filles ;  Theatre 
pour  les  jeunes  pcrsonnes ;  Qiielques  essais 
dc  morale.  F.  E.  P. 

CAMPANELLA,  THOMAS.—  Student,  poet, 
and  reformer,  born  in  the  village  of  Stegnano, 
a  small  town  on  the  coast  of  Calabria,  in 
1568.  Though  of  humble  birth,  at  the  age  of 
5  he  impressed  all  who  saw  him  by  his  prodi- 
gious abihties,  memory,  and  imaginativeness; 
and  at  13  he  was  already  an  ardent  student 
and  a  poet.  He  soon  mastered  all  the  known 
sciences,  and  even  entered  upon  the  studj'  of  the 
occult  branches  in  wliich  the  Hebrews  excelled, 
alchemy,  astrology,  and  magic.  But  the 
scholastic  philosophy  did  not  satisfy  his  spirit. 
"  We,"  he  wrote,  "  with  our  souls  attached  to 
dead  books  and  temples,  prefer  these  to  the 
divine  book  of  nature,  to  which  through  trouble, 
strife,  ignorance,  grief,  and  fatigue  we  should 
return  through  the  knowledge  of  God."  At 
the  age  of  30  Campanella  began  to  apply  his 
principles  in  the  sphere  of  politics  and  religion, 
by  encouraging  the  people  of  Calabria  to  a 
revolt  against  the  dominance  of  the  Spaniards 
and  the  order  of  the  Jesuits.  Betrayed,  cap- 
tured, and  delivered  to  the  vengeance  of  the 
Spaniards,  he  was  seven  times  subjected  to  the 
most  extreme  tortures,  which  on  the  la.st  occa- 
sion endured  40  hours  and  left  the  heroic  sufferer 
apparently  lifeless,  without  having  exacted  a 
single  word  "  unworthy  of  a  philosopher." 
Having  conquered  torture,  he  was  doomed  to 
permanent  seclusion;  but  being  allowed  the 
use  of  paper,  pens,  and  ink,  he  wrote  poems, 
pleas  for  unhappy  Calabria,  Atheism  Con- 
quered, the  City  of  the  Sun,  and  a  number  of 
other  works,  including  a  defense  of  Galileo. 
After  26  years  he  received  his  liberty,  cleared 
himself  before  the  Inquisition,  and  was  smug- 
gled by  friendly  aid  mto  France.  Welcomed 
and  pensioned  by  Richeheu  and  Louis  XIII, 
consulted  in  matters  of  state  policy,  and  vene- 
rated by  the  monks  of  the  Dominican  convent 
of  St.  Honore,  Campanella  passed  his  old  age 
in  peace  and  honor.  He  enjoyed  the  reputation 
of  a  prophet,  and  died  on  Alay  21,  1639,  a  few 
davs  before  the  time  he  had  predicted  for  him- 
self. 

The  City  of  the  Sun  is  the  most  important  of 
the  works  of  Campanella  from  the  point  of 
view  of  education.  The  supreme  magistrate 
is  a  grand  metaphysician  who  is  most  skilled 


512 


CAMPBELL 


CANADA 


in  the  knowledge  of  the  city,  and  who  must 
retire  if  at  any  time  another  is  found  to  have 
more  knowledge  than  he.  The  magistrates  act 
under  his  advice.  Instruction  is  said  to  be  the 
best  guarantee  of  capacity,  and  the  people  of 
the  sun  have  a  higher  degree  of  instruction 
than  Europeans.  Universal  knowledge  is  possi- 
ble to  them,  because  they  disdain  scholasticism, 
and  behold  on  the  walls  of  the  great  central 
temple  the  representation  of  aU  human  knowl- 
edge. Each  act  is  with  them  a  scientific 
step,  and  accordingly  they  learn  in  a  single 
year  what  human  beings  may  in  ten.  The  three 
chief  assistant  magistrates  are  chosen  as  the 
most  skilled  in  the  several  departments  of  the 
arts  over  which  they  are  to  preside;  and  lesser 
magistrates  are  to  be  elected  on  the  same 
principle. 

References :  — 
Camp,\nell.\.      Cily    of   the    Sun.    in    Ideal    Common- 
wealths, cd.  by  Morley,  pp.  2 15-203. 
Di.icourse  Touching  the  Spanish  Monarchy.    (London, 
1054.) 
CoLET.     (Euvres  Choisies  de  Campanella. 

CAMPBELL.     ALEXANDER     (1786-1866). 

—  An  educator  who  attended  schools  of  Ire- 
land and  the  University  of  Glasgow.  For 
several  years  he  was  principal  of  an  academy 
at  Buffalo.  He  was  the  founder  and  the  first 
president  of  Bethany  College  (1841-1866). 
Campbell  was  the  founder  of  the  sect  known  as 
the  "  Disciples  of  Christ  "  or  the  "  Campbell- 
ites."  In  1823  he  established  the  Christian 
Baptist,  a  periodical  which  under  the  title  of  the 
Millennial  Harbinger  continued  to  appear  until 
1866.  Campbell  was  the  author  of  several 
doctrinal  works,  a  number  of  hymns,  a  tran.s- 
lation  of  the  New  Testament,  and  Memoirs  of 
Thomas  Campbell,  his  father  (1861).  W.  S.  M- 

Reference  :  — 

RicH.\RDsoN.     Memoir  of  Alexander  Campbell.     (Phila- 
delphia, 1808.) 

CAMPBELL  COLLEGE,  HOLTON,  KANS. 

—  A  coeducational  institution  formed  in  190.3 
by  the  amalgamation  of  Lane  University, 
Lecompton,  Ivans.,  and  Campbell  University, 
Holton,  Kans.  It  is  under  the  auspices  of  the 
United  Brethren  Church.  Academic,  colle- 
giate, educational,  musical,  and  business  depart- 
ments are  maintained.  The  work  of  the  col- 
lege is  based  on  about  12  points  of  a  high  school 
course.  Students  arc  admitted  on  graduation 
from  an  accredited  high  school.  Degrees  are 
conferred  in  the  college  and  educational  depart- 
ments. There  are  6  professors  and  9  instruc- 
tors and  assistants  on  the  faculty. 

CAMPBELL-HAGERMANN  COLLEGE, 
LEXINGTON,  KY.  —  A  proprietary  school 
for  girls  and  young  women.  Preparatory, 
collegiate,  fine  arts,  domestic  science,  and  busi- 
ness departments  are  maintained.  English 
and  classical  courses  are  offered,  on  the  com- 

voL.  I  — 2l  513 


pletion  of  which  diplomas  are  conferred.     There 
is  a  faculty  of  22  instructors. 

CAMPBELL,  WILLLAM  HENRY  (1808- 
1890).  —  Educator,  studied  at  Dickinson  Col- 
lege and  Princeton.  He  was  principal  of  Eras- 
mus Hall  (1833-1839);  principal  of  Albany 
Academy  (1848-1851);  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  in  Rutgers  College  (1851-1862),  and 
president  of  that  institution  from  1863  to  1882. 
Author  of  System,  of  Catechetical  Instruction,  and 
of  several  religious  works.  W.  S.  M. 

CAMPE,  JOACHIM  HEINRICH  (1746- 
1818). — One  of  the  best  known  representa- 
tives of  the  Philanthropinist  movement,  author 
of  many  books  for  children,  German  lexicog- 
rapher. He  was  born  at  Deensen  in  Bruns- 
wick, and  studied  theology  at  the  University 
of  Halle.  In  1777  he  was  called  to  the  charge 
of  the  Dessau  "  Philanthropinum,"  which  had 
been  nearly  ruined  by  the  erratic  management 
of  its  founder,  Basedow  (q.v.).  Unable  to  agree 
w'ith  Basedow,  he  left  rather  precipitously  after 
a  few  months,  and  established  an  educational 
institute  of  his  own  at  Triton,  near  Hamburg. 
From  there  he  went  (1786)  as  "  Councillor  of 
Education  "  to  Brunswick,  where  Duke  Karl 
Wilhelm  Ferdinand  attempted  to  make  the 
school  system  independent  of  the  Church. 
Owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  clergy,  the  plan 
failed,  and  from  1790  on  Campe  devoted  him- 
self to  a  very  prolific  literary  activity,  espe- 
cially in  the  field  of  juvenile  writings.  His 
most  popular  work  was  Robinson  der  Jiingere 
(1779),  based  on  Defoe's  story,  but  interspersed 
with  numerous  remarks  of  commonplace  moral- 
ity which  are  exceedingly  tedious.  His  most 
important  educational  work  is  his  Allgemeine 
Revision  des  gesamten  Schul-  und  Erziehungs- 
wesens  {General  Revision  of  the  Whole  Systern 
of  Schools  and  of  Education) ,  a  pedagogical  jour- 
nal in  16  volumes  (1785-1791),  in  which  he  pub- 
lished translations  of  the  works  of  Locke  and  of 
Rousseau,  besides  numerous  original  articles 
by  himself  and  other  adherents  of  the  Philan- 
thropinist school.  In  his  Dictionary  of  the 
German  Language  (5  vols.,  1807-1812)  he  tried 
to  introduce  native  equivalents  for  many  of  the 
foreign  words  which  had  gradually  crept  into 
German.  Some  of  the  new  words  created  by 
him  have  become  firmly  established  in  the 
language. 

References  :  — 
Arnold.     K.     J.     H.     Campe    als    Jugendschriftsteller. 

(Leipzig,  1005.) 
Cassan,  C.     Joachim  Heinrich  Campe,  in  Die  Klassiker 

der  Padogooik,  Vol.  7,  1889. 

CANADA,  EDUCATION  IN.  —  Historical 
Development.  —  By  the  British  North  America 
Act  of  1867  the  control  of  pul)lic  education  was 
left  to  the  governments  of  the  four  provinces 
(Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Bruns- 
wick)   which    were    then     united     under    the 


CANADA 


CANADA 


general  name  of  Dominion  of  Canada.  The 
same  right  has  been  assured  also  to  the  prov- 
inces that  have  since  entered  the  confedera- 
tion (Prince  Edward  Island,  Manitoba,  British 
Columbia,  and  the  Provinces  of  Alberta  and 
Saskatchewan,  formerly  included  in  the  North- 
west Territories.  Prior,  however,  to  the  feder- 
ation, education  had  become  a  matter  of  general 
interest.  Ontario,  "  the  core  of  the  confedera- 
tion," had  at  the  time  of  its  adoption  a  well-or- 
ganized system  of  public  schools.  Quebec  had 
brought  its  parochial  schools  under  public 
supervision,  and  the  smaller  maritime  prov- 
inces had  proved  their  interest  in  the  cause 
both  by  legislation  and  bj'  grants  for  schools 
from  public  funds.  From  the  beginning  two 
forces  wore  at  work  directing  the  educational 
activities  of  the  people.  Both  the  English  and 
French  settlers  brought  with  them  traditional 
respect  for  parochial  schools  and  for  ecclesias- 
tical control  of  education;  but  the  English 
settlers,  of  whom  many  came  from  the  United 
States  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
were  also  imbued  with  the  idea  of  public  respon- 
sibility in  this  matter.  Before  the  union  of  the 
two  older  provinces,  which  took  place  in  1841,  the 
legislature  of  Upper  Canada  had  passed  meas- 
ures providing  for  the  establishment  of  town- 
ship "  common  schools  "  and  of  district  gram- 
mar schools  of  the  English  type,  throughout  the 
province.  The  need  of  higher  seats  of  learning 
was  also  recognized,  and  as  early  as  1797  a  grant 
of  500,000  acres  of  land  was  secured  as  an 
original  endowment  for  a  university  and  sec- 
ondary schools.  In  1821  a  royal  charter  was 
obtained  authorizing  the  establishment  at  or 
near  York  (now  Toronto)  of  a  college  "  with 
the  style  and  privilege  of  a  university."  The 
institution  was  organized  and  the  erection  of  the 
college  buildings  begun  in  1842;  the  next  year 
the  first  class  of  students  matriculated.  An 
equal  regard  for  the  higher  learning  was  shown 
in  the  province  of  Lower  Canada,  where  the 
Church  directed  the  educational  work.  Laval 
University  was  founded  by  the  Seminary  of 
Quebec  (ecclesiastical  body)  in  1852,  and  the 
same  year  a  royal  charter  was  granted  to  the 
institution.  These  institutions  fi.xed  the  stand- 
ards for  the  colleges  and  seminaries  which 
multiplied  around  them,  and  gave  leaders  of 
learning  and  ability  to  the  cause  of  popular 
education.  In  the  opening  address  before  the 
first  Parliament  of  the  united  provinces,  which 
convened  in  1841,  the  Governor-General  em- 
phasized the  need  of  adequate  provision  for 
public  instruction.  A  school  law  for  the  United 
Provinces  was  passed  the  same  year,  which, 
although  it  proved  futile,  served  to  settle  the 
policy  of  provincial  independence  in  school 
affairs. 

The  Ontario  System  of  Public  Instruction.  — 
In  1843  measures  were  adopted  looking  to  the 
organization  of  the  elementary  schools  of  Upper 
Canada  (now  Ontario),  and  in  1846  the  Com- 
mon School  Act  for  that  division  was  passed, 


upon  which  is  based  the  system  of  elementary 
education  for  which  the  province  is  distin- 
guished. This  Act  was  inspired  by  Dr.  Eger- 
ton  Ryerson,  who  had  been  appointed  Chief 
Superintendent  of  Education  in  1844  and  had 
made  careful  study  of  European  systems  of 
education  and  those  of  Massachusetts  and  New 
York.  The  measure,  therefore,  embodied  the 
best  elements  of  several  systems,  to  which  were 
added  a  number  of  important  original  features. 
Dr.  Ryerson  held  his  official  position  for  30 
years,  and  thus  was  able  to  develop  and  perfect 
the  work  of  which  he  was  founder.  The 
Ontario  school  law  of  1871,  passed  4  years  after 
the  Dominion  federation  was  formed,  embodied 
the  principles  upon  which  Dr.  Ryerson  had 
steadily  insisted,  viz.,  free  tuition,  compulsory 
education  of  children  of  school  age,  county 
inspection  by  qualified  persons,  and  uniform 
examinations  for  promotion  from  elementary  to 
high  schools. 

Central  Authority.  —  In  1876  the  office  of 
chief  superintendent  was  abolished,  and  its 
duties  tran.sfcrred  to  a  Minister  of  Education, 
who  included  within  his  province  all  the  public 
agencies  of  education.  Thus,  the  "  common  " 
or  "  public  schools  "  were  brought  into  closer 
relation  with  the  secondary  schools  and  higher 
institutions,  although  they  continued  to  be 
separately  administered.  As  a  member  of  the 
government  council,  the  Minister's  powers 
greatly  exceed  those  formerly  devolved  upon 
the  Superintendent.  He  initiates  and  largely 
directs  school  legislation.  His  annual  report  to 
the  Lieutenant-Governor  comprises  all  the  public 
agencies  of  education  and  such  statements  and 
suggestions  for  promoting  the  interest,  gener- 
ally, as  he  may  deem  useful  and  expedient. 
He  has  power  to  decide  upon  all  disputes  and 
complaints  laid  before  him,  the  settlement  of 
which  is  not  otherwise  provided  by  law,  and 
upon  all  appeals  made  to  him  from  decisions  of 
subordinate  school  officers.  The  education 
department  includes  the  minister's  official 
staff,  professional  assistants,  advisers,  and 
special  inspectors,  all  selected  with  regard  to 
their  professional  competency.  The  ever-in- 
creasing scope  and  complexity  of  the  sy.stem  is 
indicated  by  the  development  of  the  depart- 
ment. The  most  recent  illustrations  of  this 
growth  arc  the  creation  in  1906  of  an  Advisory 
Council  of  Education,  comprising  representa- 
tives of  the  universities,  of  the  various  classes 
of  public  schools,  of  the  inspectorate  and  local 
tru.stees;  and  the  appointment  of  a  superin- 
tendent who  acts  as  the  minister's  representa- 
tive in  the  council.  The  incumbent  of  this 
office  is  necessarily  an  educational  specialist, 
his  duties  being  not  executive,  but  advisory. 
The  department  comprises  within  its  province: 
kindergartens,  public  schools,  and  night  schools, 
high  schools,  and  collegiate  institutions  per- 
taining to  secondary  education,  and  special 
schools  for  training  teachers,  artisans,  etc. 

Local  A  uthorities.  —  The    municipal    system 


514 


CANADA 


CANADA 


of  Ontario  affords  an  admirable  basis  for  the 
local  control  of  school  affairs.  The  province 
is  divided  into  counties,  vfhich  are  subdivided 
into  minor  municipalities.  These  are  town- 
ships, which  for  school  matters  are  subdivided 
into  sections,  and  incorporated  villages,  towns, 
and  cities.  The  responsibilities  and  privileges 
of  each  of  these  divisions,  as  regards  education, 
are  clearly  defined  by  law.  They  are  exercised 
through  school  trustees  elected  by  the  rate- 
payers (men  and  women)  of  the  respective 
communities.  The  public  or  common  schools 
based  upon  the  laws  of  1846,  1871,  and  subse- 
quent measures,  and  the  complementary  high 
schools  and  collegiate  institutes  as  provided 
for  by  the  High  Schools  Act  of  1885,  form 
together  a  unified  system  of  public  education 
leading  up  to  the  university  matriculation. 
The  system  is  marked  by  the  judicious  balanc- 
ing of  central  and  local  control.  The  central 
authority  determines  the  scholastic  standards 
by  official  requirements;  the  local  authorities 
establish  schools,  appoint  teachers  and  inspec- 
tors, regulate  expenditures,  etc.,  but  are 
governed  at  every  step  by  the  ministerial 
mandate.  Thus  are  secured  equality  of  pro- 
vision and  uniform  standards  throughout  the 
province,  professional  training  to  some  degree 
for  all  teachers,  careful  adjustments  of  courses 
of  study,  uniform  textbooks,  and  an  inspection 
service,  strictly  professional  in  its  personnel. 
The  Public  Schools.  —  The  establishment  of 
the  "  common  "  or  "  public  "  schools  is  man- 
datory upon  the  local  school  boards,  which 
must  meet  certain  prescribed  conditions  as 
regards  sites,  buildings,  and  equipment;  for 
instance,  in  the  case  of  rural  schools,  the  build- 
ing must  be  at  least  30  feet  from  the  public  high- 
way: where  the  average  attendance  of  the  sec- 
tion for  the  previous  year  exceeds  50,  the  school- 
house  must  contain  2  rooms,  an  additional  room 
and  teacher  being  required  for  each  additional 
50  pupils  in  average  attendance;  there  must 
also  be  scjiarate  entrances  with  covered  porches 
and  suitable  cloakrooms  for  boys  and  girls. 
Conditions  as  to  lighting,  heating,  sanitation 
are  all  included  in  the  official  requirements. 
The  schools  are  classified  or  graded  in  5  forms, 
promotions  being  made  twice  a  year.  Exami- 
nations conducted  by  the  teachers  determine 
in  part  the  fitness  of  the  pupil  for  promotion; 
but  the  record  of  his  class  work  has  greater 
weight  in  this  respect.  The  official  program, 
which  is  followed  by  all  schools,  includes  read- 
ing and  literature,  geography,  grammar  and 
composition,  history,  arithmetic,  writing,  draw- 
ing, temperance  and  hygiene,  music,  drill  and 
calisthenics,  moral  and  religious  instruction; 
in  the  fourth  form  agriculture  is  introduced. 
The  fifth  form  was  intended  as  a  sort  of  high 
grade  division  in  rural  schools,  and  from  it  has 
(h'veloped  a  system  of  continuation  classes  or 
schools  which  have  rapidly  increased  since 
1905.  The  purpose  of  the  Department  in 
fostering  these  classes  is  not  to  serve  the  par- 


ticular interests  of  the  rural  population  as 
opposed  to  other  sections,  but  to  meet  the 
larger  interests  of  the  State  as  a  whole  while 
contributing  to  the  best  development  of  the 
individual  pupil.  The  complete  plan  for  the 
continuation  schools  includes:  (1)  a  fixed 
course  for  general  culture;  (2)  an  elementary 
course  in  agriculture  or  allied  subjects;  (3)  a 
course  in  the  economics  of  the  home.  Two 
teachers  are  really  required  to  carry  on  the 
work,  but  at  present,  as  a  rule,  only  one  teacher 
is  engaged  in  each  school  for  the  special  duties 
of  the  continuation  class.  These  classes,  or 
schools,  if  organized  as  such,  are  under  the 
charge  of  a  special  inspector.  They  are  care- 
fully distinguished  from  the  regular  high  schools, 
and  the  law  prescribes  that  they  shall  not  be 
opened  within  the  high  school  districts. 

Separate  Schools.  — •  The  law  provides  that 
any  number  of  heads  of  families,  not  less  than 
five,  residents  of  the  place  and  Roman  Catho- 
lics, may  unite  and  establish  a  separate  school. 
Supporters  of  such  schools  are  exempt  from  the 
payment  of  local  taxes  for  the  support  of  the 
public  schools.  The  separate  schools  are  all 
under  government  inspection,  and  are  gener- 
ally conducted  in  accordance  with  the  same 
regulations  as  the  public  schools.  Like  the 
latter,  they  are  managed  by  boards  of  trustees, 
who  are  elected  by  the  separate  school  sup- 
porters. The  teachers,  except  those  who  are 
members  of  certain  religious  orders,  are  required 
to  comply  with  the  official  regulations  in  order 
to  receive  certificates.  The  course  of  study 
pursued  by  the  pupils  is  nearly  the  same  as  that 
for  the  public  schools,  and  the  textbooks,  except 
those  for  religious  instruction,  are  in  many 
instances  the  same.  The  provision  as  to  sepa- 
rate schools  applies  to  Protestants  and  to  colored 
persons  as  well  as  to  Roman  Catholics;  but  as 
a  rule  only  the  latter  avail  themselves  of  the 
privilege.  Efforts  have  been  made  from  time 
to  time  to  do  away  with  this  feature  by  the 
establishment  of  a  system  of  purely  secular 
schools;  but  this  purpose  has  little  popular 
support,  and  nonsectarian  religious  exercises, 
i.e.  selected  Bible  readings  and  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  are  required  in  all  public  schools. 

Compulsory  School  Attendance.  —  The  law 
not  only  requires  the  establishment  of  public 
schools  by  local  authorities,  but  obliges  parents 
and  guardians  to  secure  the  education  of  the 
children  under  their  charge,  between  the  ages 
of  8  and  14  years,  either  by  public  or  private 
agencies.  The  legal  school  age,  it  may  be 
observed,  is  longer,  i.e.  7  to  21  years.  Children 
are  required  to  conform  to  the  rules  and  disci- 
pline of  the  school,  and  vicious  or  incorrigible 
children  are  remanded  to  industrial  schools. 
The  compulsory  school  provision  is  supple- 
mented by  labor  laws  which  forbid  the  employ- 
ment of  children  under  14  years  of  age  with 
penalties  for  violation  of  the  same.  The  con- 
ditions under  which  exemption  from  school 
attendance  may  be  granted  are  carefully  de- 


515 


CANADA 


CANADA 


fined.  Truant  officers  must  be  appointed  for 
every  city,  town,  and  incorporated  village, 
and  may  be  appointed  for  every  school  section. 
These  officers  are  invested  with  public  powers 
and  large  authority  for  the  investigation  of 
truant  cases.  As  a  consequence  the  compul- 
sory law  is  well  enforced  in  the  cities;  in  the 
rural  sections,  in  Ontario  as  elsewhere,  it  is 
little  regarded. 

The  Legislative  Grant.  —  The  apportion- 
ment of  the  legislative  grant  to  public  schools 
is  made  with  special  reference  to  stimulating 
local  support.  Formerly  the  grant  to  each 
school  was  based  ujion  the  average  attendance 
of  pupils.  Under  legislative  acts  of  1907  the 
grant  to  rural  public  and  separate  schools  is 
apportioned  on  the  basis  of  the  salaries  paid  to 
teachers,  the  value  of  the  equipment,  the  char- 
acter of  the  accommodations,  the  grade  of  the 
teachers'  professional  certificates,  and  the 
amount  of  the  local  expenditure.  Special 
grants  are  also  payable  to  schools  in  new  or 
poor  districts.  To  meet  the  increased  expendi- 
ture thus  incurred  the  grant  for  rural  schools 
in  1907  was  raised  to  .1380,000,  as  against 
$120,000  in  1906.  The  grants  to  schools  in 
urban  municipalities  are  apportioned  as  hereto- 
fore on  the  basis  of  the  average  attendance  of 
pupils  for  the  previous  year.  County  and 
township  authorities  are  required  to  make  addi- 
tional grants  up  to  a  specified  minimum  for 
each  school,  and  local  taxes  supply  whatever 
may  be  required  to  make  up  the  remaining 
expenditure.  The  effort  for  improving  the 
conditions  of  rural  education  by  the  changed 
basis  and  increased  amount  of  the  usual  legis- 
lative grant  is  supplemented  by  a  special  grant 
of  .$5000  made  in  aid  of  libraries  for  the  rural 
schools.  The  increased  grants  for  continua- 
tion classes,  and  for  the  encouragement  of 
school  gardens,  although  applicable  also  to 
cities,  are  specially  helpful  in  the  rural  com- 
munities. 

The  Professional  Guarantees.  —  In  respect  to 
the  two  main  conditions  of  an  efficient  school 
system,  namely,  qualified  teachers  and  compe- 
tent inspectors,  the  Ontario  system  is  unrivaled. 
No  person  can  enter  the  service  who  does  not 
hold  a  government  certificate,  and  no  teacher 
secures  a  permanent  certificate  "  who  does  not 
possess 'qualifications  of  a  threefold  nature: 
(1)  scholarship,  (2)  a  knowledge  of  pedagogical 
principles,  and  (3)  success  shown  by  actual 
experience." 

Training  nf  Teachers.  —  Provision  for  train- 
ing teachers  is  afforded  by  kindergarten  train- 
ing classes;  county  model  schools;  normal 
schools;  teachers'  institutes,  and  university 
faculties  of  education. 

The  County  Model  School.  —  In  each  county 
one  public  school,  at  least,  is  set  apart  by  the 
Education  Department  for  the  purpose  of 
training  intending  teachers  for  the  third  or 
lowest  grade  certificate.  The  training  covers 
a  session  of  4  months,  and  each  school  receives 


a  grant  of  .$150  from  the  legislature  and  an 
additional  .$150  from  the  county  council  to 
insure  an  adequate  staff  for  the  work.  This 
provision  is  regarded  as  a  purely  temporary 
expedient,  but  it  has  saved  the  rural  schools  of 
Ontario  from  the  evil  of  totally  incompetent 
teachers.  Every  effort  is  made,  however,  to 
provide  normal  schools,  even  in  the  remote 
and  newly  settled  portions  of  the  country. 
Two  normal  schools,  with  large  model  or  prac- 
tice schools  as  adjuncts,  were  early  established, 
one  in  Toronto  and  the  other  in  Ottawa.  •  Four 
additional  normal  schools  have  recently  been 
organized,  and  2  others  have  been  provided  for. 
The  course  of  the  model  schools  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  ordinary  i)ublic  schools.  The  course 
of  instruction  in  the  normal  schools  is  strictly 
professional,  including  history  of  education; 
science  of  education;  school  organization  and 
management;  methods  of  teaching  each  sub- 
ject on  the  program  of  the  public  schools; 
practice  in  managing  cla.sses  and  in  teaching  in 
the  model  school;  also  instruction  in  the  special 
subjects  of  the  public  school  course,  such  as 
temperance  and  hygiene,  agriculture,  etc.  In 
order  to  obtain  a  permanent  license  to  teach  in 
the  public  schools,  a  teacher  must  hold  a  second- 
class  certificate,  which  is  awarded  only  to  stu- 
dents who  have  attended  a  regular  normal 
school  and  passed  the  final  examination.  Can- 
didates for  admission  to  the  normal  school 
must  have  obtained  the  junior  high  school  cer- 
tificate and  have  had  one  year's  experience  in 
teaching.  The  highest  positions  in  the  teach- 
ing profession  are  open  only  to  persons  holding 
a  certificate  of  qualification  awarded  on  the 
results  of  examinations  held  by  the  university 
faculty  of  education. 

The  Inspectors.  —  School  inspectors  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  local  authorities,  but  the  law 
determines  the  conditions  on  which  the  inspec- 
tor's certificate  shall  be  issued.  These  are  as 
follows:  (a)  5  years'  successful  experience  as  a 
teacher,  of  which  at  least  3  years  shall  have 
been  in  public  schools;  and  (b)  a  specialist's 
certificate  obtained  on  a  university  examination 
or  a  degree  in  arts  from  the  University  of 
Toronto  with  first-class  graduation  honors  in 
one  or  more  of  the  recognized  departments  in 
said  university,  or  an  equivalent  from  any  other 
university  of  Ontario,  with  a  certificate  of 
having  passed  the  final  examination  in  peda- 
gogy. Once  appointed,  the  inspector  has  a  life 
tenure,  unless  he  forfeits  his  position  by  mis- 
conduct or  inefficiency. 

High  Schools  and  Collegiate  rnstitules.  — 
The  high  schools  of  Ontario,  which  were  organ- 
ized under  their  present  title  by  the  law  of  1871, 
are  a  development  from  the  grammar  schools 
of  the  early  colonial  period.  With  the  colle- 
giate institutes,  which  are  high  schools  of  an 
advanced  type,  they  offer  very  full  provision 
for  secondary  education.  The  province  of  the 
high  schools  is  carefully  distinguished  from 
that  of  the  public  schools,  and  while  the  courses 


516 


CANADA 


CANADA 


of  study  in  the  two  form  a  continuous  scheme 
of  education,   pupils  from  the  public  schools 
who  wish  to  enter  the  high  school,  as  well  as 
all  other  candidates  for  admission,  must  pass 
an  examination  prescribed  by  the  Department 
and   uniform   throughout   the   province.     The 
ideal  of  secondary  education  which  these  schools 
illustrate  may  be  inferred  from  their  program, 
which  is  arranged  for  4  forms.     In  forms  1  and 
2,  special  attention  is  paid  to  reading,  EngHsh 
grammar,    composition   and   rhetoric,    English 
poetical  literature,  modern  history,  especially 
that  of  Canada  and  the  British  Empire,  and 
geography;    the  mathematical  course  includes 
arithmetic,   algebra  through  simple  equations 
of  one  unknown  quantity,  and  the  first  book  of 
Euclid;   the  sciences  taken  up  are  physics  and 
botany;    as   regards   languages,    option   is   al- 
lowed   between    Latin,    flench,  and    German. 
To  these  branches  are  added  drawing  and  what 
is  called  a  commercial  course,  which  is  obliga- 
tory for  all  pupils.     At  the  close  of  form  2, 
pupils  may  take  the  high  school  primary  exam- 
ination, which  has  special  value  in  the  business 
world.     The  studies  of  forms  3  and  4  are  ar- 
ranged with  special  reference  to  the  high  school 
leaving  examination  or  the  universitj'  matricu- 
lation examination.    These  examinations,  there- 
fore,   determine    the    standard    of    secondary 
education,  and   the   latter   also   regulates   the 
course  of  private  schools  that  prepare  students 
for   the    university.     The   subjects    comprised 
in  the  matriculation  examination  are;    Latin, 
mathematics,  English  history  and  geography, 
and   choice   of   one   of   the   following   groups: 
(a)  Greek;   (b)  French  and  German;   (c)  French 
and  either  physics  or  chemistry;  (d)  German  and 
either  physics  or  chemistr,y.     The  high  school 
certificate  is  recognized  for  admission  to  univer- 
sities and  various  professional  courses.    The  man- 
agement of  the  secondary  schools  is  intrusted 
to  local  trustees  whose  duties  are  similar  to  those 
of  public  school  trustees.    A  .special  corps  of  high 
school  inspectors  is  maintained  Isy  the  education 
de|)artment.     The  current    expenses   of  public 
secondary  schools  are  met  by  (1)  government 
grants,  (2)  county  grants,  (3)  district  or  munici- 
pal grants,  (4)  fees  of  students.    The  amount 
of  the  government  grant  is  based  on  the  efforts 
made  by  the  locality.    As  a  minimum  each  high 
school  receives  a  fixed  grant  of  .1375,  and  each 
collegiate  institute  an  additional  grant  of  .S275, 
the  grants  in  fuU  varying  from  about  .S500  to 
$1800.      The  county  council  supplements  this 
grant    by   an   equal   amount   to   each   school, 
which  is  intended  to  meet  the  co.st  of  instruc- 
tion for  the  county  pupils  who  do  not  reside 
in  the  municipality  or  district  where  the  high 
school  is  situated.     Tuition  fees  are  small,  and 
may  be  and  often  are  remitted. 

The  practical  result  of  the  training  in  the 
commercial  course  of  the  high  schools  has  led 
to  the  establishment  of  special  courses  in  agri- 
culture. In  1900  the  cxi)erinient  was  made  of 
instituting  a  special  department  of  agriculture 


in  6  selected  high  schools  and  appointing  to 
the  charge  6  graduates  of  the  agricultural 
college.  In  1907  two  schools  were  added  to  the 
original  group. 

Departmental  Examinations.  —  The  high 
school  entrance  examination  begins  the  series 
wliich  the  department  conducts  as  a  means  of 
maintaining  scholastic  standards,  and  at  the 
same  time  of  rewarding  earnest  students  by  an 
oflScial  diploma.  In  addition  to  the  two  high 
school  certificates,  primary  and  leaving,  and 
teachers'  certificates,  there  are  examinations 
for  specialists'  certificates  which  have  equal 
value  with  a  university  diploma. 

Statistical  Summary.  —  The  number  of 
schools  of  each  class  comprised  in  the  Ontario 
system,  for  the  latest  year  reported  (1908), 
the  distribution  of  pupils  among  them,  and  the 
expenditure  for  each  class  so  far  as  the  item 
is  separately  reported,  are  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table :  — 


En- 

Number 

Expendi- 

Cost 

Class 

Num- 
ber 

MENT 

Teachers 

ture 

Pupil 

Kindergartens  . 

\m 

16,477 

288 

Public  schools  . 

5SG9 

.399,670 

9020 

$7,182,234 

$17.97 

Separate        Ro- 

man Catholic 

schools      .     . 

465 

53,551 

1065 

761,592 

14.22 

High        schools 

and  collegiate 

institutions    . 

145 

.31,912 

793 

1,385,832 

43.42 

Night  schools    , 

10 

SS9 

18 

Normal  schools 

(j 

1.149 

62 

The  total  enrollment  in  public  and  separate 
schools  was  453,221,  and  the  average  daily 
attendance  in  the  same  272,190,  or  60  per 
cent  of  the  enrollment.  More  than  half  the 
whole  number  of  pupils,  viz.,  53.47  per  cent, 
were  in  rural  schools.  Of  the  teachers  em- 
ployed in  the  schools  named,  1842,  or  18  per 
cent  were  men,  as  against  30  per  cent  in  1897. 
As  regards  certificates,  it  appears  that  767 
teachers,  or  7.6  per  cent,  held  finst-class  certifi- 
cates; 3979,  or  39.4  per  cent,  second-class;  and 
3565,  or  35  per  cent,  third  class.  The  small 
number  remaining  were  temporary  appointees. 
The  average  annual  salary  for  men  teachers 
in  the  province  was  .S624;  for  women  teachers, 
$432;  the  average  salary  in  cities  was  for  men, 
$1350;  the  highest  salary  $2000.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  university  matriculation  examina- 
tion is  indicated  by  the  choice  of  languages 
on  the  part  of  high  school  pupils.  In  1909 
the  number  taking  Latin  was  21,928;  Greek, 
680;  French,  18,960;  German.  4009.  It  is  ob- 
servable further  that  the  number  taking  Latin 
has  steadily  increased  during  the  decade;  French 
and  German  show  slight  increase,  and  Greek 
slight  decline. 

The  following  tables  show  the  progress  of 
the  sc'hools  in  respect  to  salient  conditions  for 
the  two  decades  1887  to  1907:  — 


517 


CANADA 


CANADA 


SCHOOL  POPULATION  AND  ATTENDANCE 


Total  Number 

Percentage  of 

School 

OF  Enrolled 

Average  At- 

Yeah 

POPT7LATION 

Pupils  in  Pub- 

tendance TO 

5  TO  21 

lic  AND  Separate 

Total  Number 

Schools 

Enrolled 

1887 

611,212 

493,212 

49.71 

1897 

590.055 

482,777 

[56.66 

1907 

590.285 

448.218 

59.45 

1908 

596,713 

453,221 

60.05 

With  the  development  of  continuation 
schools,  the  growth  in  the  enrollment  of  high 
schools  and  collegiate  institutes,  which  was  very 
marked  in  the  decade  1887  to  1897,  —  i.e.  from 
17,459  to  24,390,  or  an  increase  of  nearly  40 
per  cent,  —  has  naturally  somewhat  declined; 
still,  a  normal  growth  is  maintained,  as  is  shown 
by  the  increase  from  24,390  high  school  pupils 
in  1897  to  31,912  in  1908,  a  gain  of  30  per  cent. 

RECEIPTS  AND  EXPENDITURES  (Public  Schools 
Only) 


Year 

Total 
Receipts 

Total 
Expenditure 

Cost  Per 
Pupil 

1887 
1897 
1907 
1908 

$4,.33 1,357 

4,988,1,55 
9,257,928 
9,972,181 

$3,742,104 
4.015,670 
7.556.179 
7.943.826 

$7.59 

8.73 

16.85 

17.52 

The  sources  of  the  school  income  and  the 
proportion  from  each  source,  for  the  years 
considered,  were  as  follows:  — 


Legislative  grants  . 
Municipal     grants 

taxes 
Other  local  sources 


and 


1887 
Per 

Cent 


71.2 
22.6 


1897 
Per 

Ce.vt 


67.1 
25.6 


1907 
Per 

Cent 


7.07 


66.4 
26.53 


1908 
Per 
Cent 


7.7 


66. 
26.3 


Rural  versus  City  Schools.  —  The  very  com- 
plete provision  for  supervision  and  inspection 
by  the  central  department  has  brought  the 
rural  schools  of  Ontario  to  a  comparatively 
high  standard.  At  the  same  time  the  highest 
possibilities  of  the  system  are  realized  in  popu- 
lous centers.  In  Toronto,  for  example,  a  city 
of  208,000  inhabitants,  the  legal  requirements 
of  the  system  are  not  only  fully  met,  but  they 
are  often  anticipated  by  the  action  of  the  local 
school  board,  which,  it  may  be  said,  sets  the 
pace  for  the  province.  The  school  provision  is 
very  complete,  and  comprises  the  entire  range 
of  institutions  from  kindergarten  to  high 
schools,  classical  and  technical.  The  teachers 
are  well  trained,  and  the  system  is  maintained 
at  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  through  the  devo- 
tion and  energy  of  the  chief  inspector,  a  posi- 
tion long  held  by  Mr.  James  L.  Hughes,  who 
has  achieved  wide  reputation  as  an  educational 


leader.  The  official  staff  of  the  board  includes 
also  an  assistant  inspector  and  a  senior  high 
school  principal  whose  experience  is  utilized 
in  the  adjustment  of  courses  of  study.  The 
current  expenditure  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  city  schools  in  1908  amounted  to  1853,230, 
equivalent  to  S32.23  per  capita  of  average 
attendance. 

Quebec,  System  of  Education.  —  The 
public  school  system  of  Quebec  had  its  origin 
in  parochial  schools  and  schools  maintained  by 
the  religious  orders,  the  Jesuits,  RecoUets, 
Christian  Brothers,  etc.,  from  the  time  of  the 
earliest  settlement  of  the  colony.  The  basis 
of  the  system  was  laid  in  1845  by  a  law  which 
made  the  parish  the  unit  of  school  administra- 
tion. Government  inspectors  of  schools  were 
appointed  in  1852,  and  in  1859  the  form  of  an 
organized  system  was  completed  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  council  of  pubUc  instruction. 
This  council,  which  has  general  charge  of  the 
dual  system  of  Catholic  and  Protestant  schools, 
as  provided  for  by  a  law  of  1875,  comprises: 

(1)  The  Roman  Catholic  bishops  or  adminis- 
trators of  the  dioceses  in  the  province,  and  an 
equal  number  of  Roman  Catholic  laymen  ap- 
pointed by  the  Lieutenant  Governor  in  council; 

(2)  a  committee  of  Protestant  members  ap- 
pointed in  like  manner.  The  two  committees 
sit  separately,  and  administer  the  affairs  of 
the  Catholic  and  Protestant  schools  respec- 
tively. The  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion appointed  by  the  Governor  is  e.r-officio 
chairman  of  the  joint  council  of  public  instruc- 
tion, but  is  entitled  to  vote  only  on  the  com- 
mittee to  which  he  by  religion  belongs.  Each 
committee  makes  its  own  list  of  textbooks, 
and  all  regulations  for  the  course  of  in.struction 
in  its  own  schools;  and  on  the  presentation  of 
the  two  committees  the  Lieutenant  Governor 
is  bound  to  appoint  Catholic  and  Protestant 
inspectors  to  visit  the  several  schools.  The 
proceeds  of  the  special  tax,  of  the  general  public 
school  fund,  and  of  any  legacies  which  may  be 
bequeathed  for  the  purpose  of  education,  are 
divided  between  the  two  committees  in  the 
proportion  of  the  number  of  Catholic  and  of 
Protestant  inhabitants.  In  regard  to  the  spe- 
cial tax  of  one  fifth  of  a  cent  per  dollar.  Cath- 
olic and  Protestant  ratepayers  may  elect  to 
which  fund  their  contributions  shall  be  paid. 
The  statutes  of  the  province  contain  provisions 
allowing  dissentients  in  any  district,  if  of 
suflBcient  number,  to  demand  a  school  of  a 
religious  character  different  from  that  of  the 
majority  of  the  inhabitants;  but  practically 
it  is  found  that  the  two  classes  of  schools 
satisfy  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants,  and  that 
no  private  schools  exist  outside  the  general 
system  of  public  instruction.  In  the  Catholic 
schools  the  catechism  is  taught.  In  the 
Protestant  schools  the  Bible  is  the  textbook 
for  religious  instruction.  Scripture  history  is 
taught,  and  the  school  exercises  begin  with 
the    reading    of    the    Scriptures    and    prayer. 


518 


CANADA 


CANADA 


A  few  of  the  rural  schools  are  mixed,  but  in      tary   schools   accords    with   the    traditions    of 


them  religious  instruction  is  generally  given 
in  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  majority, 
the  children  of  the  minority  being  exempted 
from  the  obligation  to  attend  the  religious 
lesson. 

Local  Authorities.  — The  local  unit  of  school 
administration  in  Quebec  is  a  school  munici- 
pality, i.e.  "  any  torritorj^  erected  into  a  mu- 
nicipality for  the  support  of  schools  under  the 
control  of  school  commissioners  or  of  trustees 
elected  by  those  who  pay  a  property  tax  (rate- 
payers)." The  commissioners  are  empowered 
to  divide  a  municipality  into  school  districts 
and  to  maintain  one  or  two  schools  in  each 
district.  The  commissioners,  or  trustees, 
elected  as  provided  above  constitute  what  is 
technically  termed  a  school  corporation.  These 
officers  have  full  control  of  the  public  schools 
in  their  respective  areas,  subject  only  to  the 
general  requirements  of  the  council.  They 
engage  the  teachers,  determine  their  salaries, 
provide  the  schoolhouses  and  equipments, 
and  in  general  discharge  the  same  duties  as 
the  school  trustees  of  Ontario.  The  separa- 
tion of  the  schools  in  each  district  by  religious 
differences  completes  the  policy  begun  by  the 
division  of  the  central  council  into  two  auton- 
omous committees. 

Classification  of  ScJwols.  —  In  addition  to  the 
schools  under  control,  that  is,  schools  in  charge 
of  the  elected  school  commissioners  or  trustees 
of  each  municipality,  there  are  many  Roman 
Catholic  schools,  in  charge  of  the  clergy  or  of 
the  religious  orders,  characterized  as  inde- 
pendent or  partly  independent  schools,  which 
receive  grants  either  from  provincial  or  from 
local  funds.  The  public  schools  of  Quebec, 
whether  Roman  Catholic  or  Protestant,  are 
distinguislied  as  elementary  schools  compris- 
ing five  grades,  model  schools,  and  academies. 
The  Roman  Catholic  model  schools  and 
academies  do  not  include  the  classics  in  their 
course,  these  studies  being  reserved  for  clas- 
sical colleges  founded  and  maintained  for  the 
most  part  by  the  Church  or  by  the  religious 
orders;  the  Protestant  model  schools  and 
academies  include  courses  in  Latin  and  Greek. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  schools 
under  the  charge  of  the  Protestant  committee 
are  similar  in  their  classification  and  conduct 
to  the  public  schools  of  the  other  provinces. 
In  the  system  under  the  charge  of  the  Catholic 
committee,  the  tendency  is  to  draw  sharper 
distinctions  between  schools  for  the  children 
of  the  poorer  classes  and  those  that  will  nat- 
urally attract  the  patronage  of  men  in  business 
and  profes.sional  life.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  clerical  teach- 
ing orders,  especially  the  Christian  Brothers, 
have  always  paid  great  attention  to  the  indus- 
trial training  of  the  young,  combining  it  with 
the  instruction  in  elementary  branches.  Thus 
the  recent  effort  for  promoting  manual  training 
and  gardening  through  the  agency  of  elemen- 


Catholic  educators.  What  was  formerly  done 
in  a  few  schools  is  simply  becoming  general 
under  the  new  impulse.  The  inspector  of 
horticulture  in  primary  schools  under  the 
Catholic  committee  reports  that  while  in  1907 
gardening  was  carried  on  in  20  counties  and 
60  schools  in  respect  to  12.58  pupils,  in  1908 
it  was  extended  to  27  counties,  97  schools, 
and  2200  pupils.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  also, 
that  of  the  total  pupils  in  the  Catholic  elemen- 
tary and  model  schools  and  academies,  94  per 
cent  are  French;  whereas  in  the  corresponding 
schools  under  the  Protestant  committee,  95 
per  cent  of  the  pupils  are  of  English  origin. 
In  many  schools  both  languages  are  employed 
as  media  of  instruction.  The  Catholic  model 
schools  have,  as  a  rule,  preparatory  depart- 
ments for  the  elementary  instruction  of  pupils 
who  will  presumably  continue  their  education 
up  to  16  or  18  years  of  age.  The  model  school 
course  is  continuous  with  that  of  the  academies. 
Many  of  the  classical  colleges  also  have  pre- 
paratory divisions.  For  these  reasons  a  classi- 
fication of  the  schools  of  Quebec  on  the  basis 
of  grades  is  quite  misleading. 

Training  and  Qualifications  of  Teachers.  — ■ 
Besides  the  schools  above  enumerated,  the ' 
law  makes  provision  for  the  establishment  of 
one  or  more  normal  schools  with  attached 
model  or  practice  schools.  Boards  of  Exam- 
iners appointed  by  the  Lieutenant-Governor 
upon  the  recommendation  of  either  committee 
of  the  Council  of  Public  Instruction  are  author- 
ized to  examine  candidates  for  teachers'  posi- 
tions and  to  i.ssue  diplomas  to  those  who  pass 
the  tests.  The  examining  boards  for  Montreal 
and  Quebec  are  provided  for  by  special  statutes. 

Sources  of  Support.  —  The  support  of  the 
various  classes  of  schools  comprised  in  the 
system  is  derived  from  legislative  grants,  local 
taxes,  and  fees.  The  fees  are  low,  not  exceed- 
ing 50  cents  a  month,  and  they  may  be  and 
often  are  remitted. 

Montreal  as  a  Type.  —  The  system  has  in  it 
elements  of  friction  as  well  as  of  power,  both  of 
which  are  most  active  in  the  cities.  Montreal, 
with  a  population  of  268,000,  has  practically  a 
triple  sj^stem  of  schools,  i.e.  public  schools 
under  the  Protestant  board,  public  schools 
under  the  Catholic  board,  and  subsidized  pri- 
vate schools.  The  Protestant  schools,  which 
in  1008  enrolled  11,956  pupils,  including  50S  in 
kindergartens  and  1431  in  the  3  high  schools, 
resemble  schools  of  the  United  States.  The 
enrollment  in  the  Catholic  schools  the  same 
year  was  27,154,  of  whom  5858  were  in  private 
subsidized  institutions.  The  teaching  force 
numbered  822,  of  whom  411  were  members  of 
religious  orders  for  women  and  196  of  religious 
orders  for  men.  The  total  expenditure  on  the 
part  of  the  Catholic  school  board  was  8373,050, 
of  which  .S43,250  were  supplied  by  fees.  These 
particulars  indicate  the  deep  distinction  be- 
tween the  two  parts  of  the  dual  system;  the  one 


519 


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CANADA 


wholly  modern  in  its  spirit  and  aims;  the  other 
freighted   n-ith  ecclesiastical   traditions. 

Stalistical  Summanj.  ~  In  19()7-li)()8,  the 
latest  year  covered  by  an  official  report,  there 
were  210,543  pupils  enrolled  in  clcnientary 
schools;  97,032  in  model  schools;  45,309  in 
academies;  total,  352,944.  Of  this  number 
88  per  cent  were  in  schools  under  Catholic 
control.  The  number  of  teachers  in  the  schools 
was  1 1,774,  of  whom  10,830  were  in  the  Catholic 
schools.  The  latter  included:  lay  teachers, 
264  men,  53()9  women;  and  clerical  teachers, 
1831  men,  330()  women.  Of  the  total  number 
of  Catholic  lay  teachers,  4713  had  obtained  a 
teacher's  diploma.  The  Protestant  teachers 
numbered  1173,  viz.  34  men,  1139  women. 
Of  these  teachers  23  men  and  725  women  had 
secured  diplomas.  In  addition  to  the  above- 
named  schools,  corresponding  to  the  public 
and  high  schools  of  Ontario,  there  were  reported 
under  the  head  of  special  schools,  11  schools  of 
arts  and  manufactures,  4  schools  for  defectives, 
and  62  night  schools,  with  a  total  attendance  of 
9352  pupils;  4  normal  scliools,  with  526  stu- 
dents in  training,  and  699  pupils  in  the  attached 
model  schools.  The  classical  colleges  subsi- 
dized by  the  State  numbered  19,  with  6274 
pupils,  of  whom  the  majority  were  preparing 
for  matriculation  at  some  one  of  the  univer- 
sities. The  total  expenditure  for  this  system 
of  schools  and  colleges  was  .$5,148,887,  which 
was  derived  as  follows:  Provincial  apjiropria- 
tion,  S6S3,350,  or  13.2  per  cent;  local  taxes, 
$2,624,438,  at  51  per  cent;  fees,  chiefly  in  sub- 
sidized institutions,  81,841,099,  or  35.8  per 
cent. 

Other  Provincial  Systems.  —  Apart  from 
the  great  interest  which  the  Ontario  system  of 
public  and  high  schools  has  excited  by  its  com- 
pleteness and  results,  it  is  of  importance  be- 
cause it  has  served  as  a  model  for  the  other 
provinces,  Quebec  alone  excepted,  in  the  devel- 
opment of  their  systems.  All  the  provinces 
have  sought  to  secure  uniformity  of  school 
provision  and  educational  standards  by  means 
of  government  control;  but  no  other  province 
has  invested  the  chief  officer  of  education  with 
such  extensive  powers  as  those  exercised  by  the 
head  of  the  Ontario  system.  In  Xova  Scotia, 
British  Columbia,  and  Manitoba  the  central 
educational  authority  is  the  Executive  Council 
of  the  respective  province.  The  chief  officer 
of  education  in  each,  who  is  appointed  by  the 
provincial  Governor,  bears  the  title  of  Superin- 
tendent. The  central  control  of  public  educa- 
tion in  New  Brunswick  is  vested  in  a  Board  of 
Education,  comprising  the  Lieutenant  Governor, 
the  members  of  the  Executive  Council,  the  presi- 
dent of  the  University  of  New  Brunswick,  and 
the  chief  superintendent  of  education.  The 
last  named  is  the  secretary  and  chief  executive 
officer  of  the  board.  The  local  control  of  school 
affairs  in  all  the  provinces  is  vested  in  elected 
boards  of  trustees. 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  local  orgauiza- 


i20 


tion  in  Nova  Scotia  is  the  annual  school  meeting 
in  each  rural  school  section,  wiiich  the  law 
requires  to  be  held  on  the  last  Monday  of  June, 
just  before  the  close  of  the  schools  for  the  year, 
and  7  or  8  weeks,  or  more,  before  the  opening 
of  the  schools  in  the  new  school  year.  It  is 
the  annual  parliament  of  the  section,  where  the 
taxpayers  assemble  to  discuss  the  educational 
administration,  elect  the  new  trustees,  and 
vote  the  amount  of  supply  to  be  levied  ujion  the 
section  for  the  support  of  the  schools  for  the 
following  year. 

Nova  Scotia,  British  Columbia,  and  Prince 
Edward  Island,  in  common  with  Ontario,  have 
compulsory  school  laws.  Separate  schools  for 
Roman  Catholics  are  provided  in  the  recently 
formed  provinces.  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan. 
The  public  schools  of  all  the  provinces  except- 
ing Quebec  are  free  schools,  their  support  being 
derived  from  provincial  grants,  local  (municipal) 
appropriations,  and  school  taxes.  While  the 
mode  of  appropriating  the  legislative  grant 
among  the  school  districts  differs  in  the  different 
provinces,  the  principle  is  generally  followed  of 
making  the  grant  a  means  of  stimulating  local 
effort  in  behalf  of  the  schools.  In  determining 
the  basis  of  distribution,  the  tendency  is  to  pay 
increased  regard  to  the  grade  of  certificate  or 
license  held  by  the  teachers  and  to  the  length 
of  the  school  session. 

The  Manitoba  Law  of  1890.  —  Prior  to  the 
passage  of  the  education  law  of  1890  Manitoba 
maintained  separate  schools  for  Roman  Catho- 
lic and  for  Protestant  children.  The  bitter 
contest  to  which  this  law  gave  rise,  the  appeal 
to  the  Dominion  government,  and  subsequently 
to  the  English  Privy  Council,  the  remedial  order 
issued  b)'  the  Dominion  government,  and  the 
refusal  of  the  Manitoba  people  to  submit  to 
this  dictation,  recall  the  struggle  over  the  same 
question  which  from  time  to  time  agitated 
Ontario  until  the  passage  of  the  Separate  School 
Act  of  1863.  On  account  of  the  contest  over 
the  question  in  ^Manitoba,  the  provisions  of  the 
law  of  1890  are  of  unusual  interest.  The 
general  control  of  schools  was  vested  in  a  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  consisting  of  the  Executive 
Council,  or  a  committee  thereof,  appointed  by 
the  Lieutenant  Governor  in  council,  and  an 
Advisory  Board  composed  of  7  members,  4  of 
whom  are  appointed  by  the  Department  of 
Education,  2  by  the  teachers  of  the  province, 
and  1  by  the  university  council.  Among  the 
duties  of  the  Advisory  Board  is  the  power  "  to 
examine  and  authorize  textbooks  and  books  of 
reference  for  the  use  of  the  pupils  and  school 
libraries;  to  determine  the  qualifications  of 
teachers  and  inspectors  for  high  and  public 
schools;  to  appoint  examiners  for  the  purpose 
of  preparing  examination  papers;  to  prescribe 
the  form  of  religious  exercises  to  be  used  in 
schools."  The  law  provides  "  for  the  forma- 
tion, alteration,  and  union  of  school  districts 
in  rural  municipalities,  and  in  cities,  towns, 
and   villages  ";    for  the  election  of  trustees  in 


CANADA 


CANADA 


each  district;   for  the  maintenance  and  control 
of  the  schools.     It  is  further  ordered  that:  — 

All  public  schools  shall  be  free  schools,  and  every 
person  in  rural  municipalities  between  the  age  of  5  and 
16  years,  and  in  cities,  towns,  and  villages  Ijetween  the 
age  of  6  and  16,  shall  have  the  right  to  attend  some 
school. 

Sec.  6.  Religious  exercises  in  public  schools  shall  be 
conducted  according  to  the  regulations  of  the  advisory 
board.  The  time  for  such  religious  exercises  shall  be 
just  before  the  closing  hour  in  the  afternoon.  In  case 
the  parent  or  guardian  of  any  pupil  notifies  the  teacher 
that  he  does  not  wish  such  puijil  to  attend  such  religious 
exercises,  then  such  pupil  shall  be  dismissed  before 
such  religious  exercises  take  place. 

Sec.  7.  Religious  exercises  shall  he  held  in  a  public 
school  entirely  at  the  option  of  the  school  trustees  for 
the  district,  and  upon  receiving  written  authority  from 
the  trustees  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  hold 
such  religious  exercises. 

Sec.  8.  The  public  schools  shall  be  entirely  non- 
sectarian,  and  no  religious  exercises  shall  be  allowed 
therein  except  as  above  provided. 

General  Statistical  Stixvey.  —  The  follow- 
ing tables  bring  into  comparative  view  the 
principal  data  pertaining  to  the  several  systems 
of  the  Dominion. 

STATISTICS  OF  PROVINCIAL  NORMAL 
SCHOOLS  —  1908 


Pbotince 

Number 

OF 

Schools 

Number  op  Students 

Men 

WoTtien 

Total 

Ontario      .... 
Quebec       .... 

Nova  Scotia  .     .     . 
New  Brunswick 
Manitoba  .... 
British  Columbia     . 
Prince    Edward    Is- 
land   

Alberta       .... 
Saskatchewan     .     . 

6 

7 
1 

1 
5 

1 

1 
1 

1 

128 
400 

45 

44 
39 

1021 
518 

304 

96 
92 

1149 
918 
161 
349 
131 
45 

285 
140 
131 

Provinces 


Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova  Scotia    . 
New  Brunswick   .     . 
Manitoba    .      .      .      . 
Prince    Edward    Is- 
land      

Alberta  


Average  Annual  Salahies 
OF  Teachers 


Male 


$624 

289 

■  218-924 

'  262-641 


' 154-460 
» 635-899 


Female 


$432 

167 

'  194-598 

'  218-395 


590 


'  151-281 
■  625-696 


•  The  average  salar>'  in  these  provinces  is  given  in  the  official 
reports  for  each  class  of  teachers.  The  amounts  tabulated  are 
the  highest  and  lowest  averages  reported. 

Special  Schools.  —  In  addition  to  the  ele- 
mentary, liigh,  and  normal  .schools,  all  the 
provinces  maintain  sjiccial  schools  for  deaf 
mutes  and  for  those  deprived  of  sight,  on  the 
principle   that   the   State   owes  such   children 


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352,944 
100,105 
67,785 
71,031 
30,098 
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31.275 
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1. 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova  Scotia  .... 
New  Brunswick  .     .     . 
Manitoba        .... 
British  Columbia    .     . 
Prince  Edward  Island 

Alberta 

Sa.'*katchewan     .     .     . 
Northwest  Territories 

o 


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.11 


equal  facilities  with  those  provided  for  normal 
children.  The  courses  of  instruction  in  these 
institutions  are  analogous,  so  far  as  the  capac- 
ity of  the  pupils  will  allow,  to  those  of  the 
elementary  schools.  The  industrial  depart- 
ments are  well  equipped  and  the  training  care- 
fully adapted  to  the  aptitudes  of  the  pupils. 
Movement  for  Manual  Training  and  Rural 
Education.  —  The  Macdonald  movement,  per- 
taining to  both  manual  training  and  rural 
education,   affects  every  province  of  Canada. 


521 


CANADA 


CANADA 


It  dates  from  1899,  when  Sir  William  C.  Mao- 
donald  furnished  funds  to  establish  manual 
training  centers  in  connection  with  the  jjublic 
schools  in  21  places  from  Prince  Edward  Island 
to  British  Columbia,  and  to  maintain  them 
without  cost  to  the  pupils  or  the  public  for  a 
period,  in  most  cases,  of  3  years.  At  first  special 
teachers  of  ability  and  experience  were  brought 
in  from  outside,  mostly  from  England.  Some 
27  manual  training  teachers  were  thus  secured. 
As  time  went  on  Canadian  teachers  were  trained 
and  became  duly  (lualified.  Before  the  end  of 
the  period  of  maintenance  by  the  Macdonald 
fund,  there  were  45  manual  training  teachers 
on  the  salary  roll  at  a  cost  of  some  S3G00  per 
month,  and  more  than  7000  boys  were  taking 
the  courses.  As  a  rule  the  work  thus  begun 
was  taken  over  by  the  education  authorities 
when  the  initial  period  closed,  and  in  such  cases 
the  equipment  was  presented  free  to  the  school 
boards,  and  in  the  case  of  the  normal  schools 
to  the  provincial  governments.  In  1907  over 
20,000  boys  and  girls  in  Canadian  schools  were 
receiving  the  benefits  of  manual  training  in 
their  regular  course  under  the  school  authorities. 
The  Macdonald  rural  school  fund  made  pro- 
vision for  a  school  garden  at  each  of  5  rural 
schools  in  each  of  .5  provinces.  A  trained  in- 
structor was  placed  in  charge  of  each  group  of  5 
gardens  and  of  the  nature-study  work  at  them, 
the  e.xpenscs  being  met  from  the  fund.  The 
educational  purpose  has  been  kept  clearly  in 
view  in  the  conduct  of  the  gardens.  They  are 
attached  to  the  ordinary  rural  schools,  owned 
by  the  school  corporations,  and  conducted 
under  the  authority  of  the  school  trustees  and 
with  the  express  approval  of  the  ratepayers. 
The  work  is  recognized  as  a  legitimate  part  of 
the  school  program,  and  it  is  interwoven  as 
far  as  possible  with  other  studies.  The  garden 
is  merely  an  outer  classroom  of  the  school. 
This  relation  has  been  in  good  part  established 
by  the  traveling  instructors  whom  Professor 
Robertson  appointed  to  supervise  the  work  in 
each  province.  The  instructors  were  chosen  as 
teachers  of  experience  in  rural  schools,  and  were 
sent  for  special  preparation,  at  the  expense  of 
the  Macdonald  fund,  to  Chicago,  Cornell, 
Columbia,  and  Clark  universities  in  the  United 
States,  and  to  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College, 
Guelph.  The  movement,  which  has  thus  pro- 
gressed on  two  distinct  lines,  is  intended  to 
bring  the  education  provided  for  the  people  at 
public  expense  into  more  immediate  relation 
to  the  industrial  demands  which  they  must 
meet  when  the  period  of  school  training  is 
closed.  The  work  is  pa.ssing  now  from  the 
experimental  stage  to  that  of  an  integral  part 
of  the  general  scheme  of  education.  Marked 
advance  has  been  made  in  this  respect  in  New 
Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Ontario.  The 
first-named  province  presents  several  examples 
of  consolidated  rural  schools  with  admirable 
equipment  for  both  manual  training  and  gar- 
den culture.     In  Nova  Scotia  manual  training 


centers  have  been  organized  both  in  cities  and 
rural  districts  which  are  attended  for  2  hours  a 
day  by  pupils  on  the  public  school  registers  of 
their  respective  sections.  The  schools  are 
divided  into  two  groups,  mechanic  science  and 
domestic  science.  In  1908  the  former  were 
attended  by  1824  pupils,  and  the  latter  by  1610, 
or  a  total  of  3434. 

In  Ontario  the  entire  scheme  of  technical 
education,  including  manual  training,  household 
science,  and  -art  instruction,  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  special  inspector  on  the  official  staff 
of  the  Education  Department.  This  officer 
has  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  industries 
of  the  province  with  a  view  to  adapting  the 
technical  training  to  the  actual  conditions  sur- 
rounding the  pupils.  After  the  preliminary 
training  in  manual  work  and  drawing  in  the 
lower  grades  of  the  public  schools,  he  advises 
that  a  system  of  vocational  training  be  organ- 
ized parallel  with  the  last  2  years  of  the  public 
school  course  and  the  high  school  course,  as  a 
means  of  fitting  the  boys  industrially  inclined 
for  entrance  upon  the  trades  of  their  respective 
localities.  The  permanencj'  of  the  work  is 
assured  by  the  provision  of  two  centers  amply 
equipped  for  the  dou]:)le  purpose  of  training 
special  teachers  for  the  new  service  and  afford- 
ing models  of  its  methods  and  purposes.  The 
first  of  these  centers  is  the  Macdonald  Institute, 
an  adjunct  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College 
at  Guelph.  Sir  William  Macdonald  gave  the 
sum  of  .'5182,500  to  provide  buildings  and  equip- 
ment for  the  institute,  which  has  become  the 
headquarters  for  manual  training,  for  house- 
hold science,  and  for  providing  short  courses 
of  instruction  and  training  for  farmers'  daugh- 
ters and  others  in  cooking,  sewing,  domestic 
art,  and  other  branches  of  domestic  economy. 
Short  courses  of  instruction  in  nature  study  and 
school  gardens  were  provided  without  fees  to 
teachers,  and  the  governments  of  4  eastern 
provinces  where  consolidated  schools  were 
established  gave  scholarships  to  enable  teachers 
to  attend.  Over  200  teachers  have  already 
taken  these  courses.  The  second  center  is 
Macdonald  College,  which  occupies  a  beautiful 
site  overlooking  the  Ottawa  River  at  Ste.  Anne 
de  Bellevue,  20  miles  west  of  Montreal.  The 
college  comprises  3  departments:  the  School 
for  Teachers,  which  provides  practical  and 
thorough  training  for  teaolicrs  in  the  art  and 
science  of  teaching;  the  School  of  Agriculture, 
which  aims  to  provide  a  thorough  theoretical 
and  practical  training  in  the  several  branches 
of  agriculture;  and  the  School  of  Household 
Science,  in  which  young  women  receive  training 
in  household  economy.  The  school  for  teach- 
ers takes  the  place  of  the  McGill  Normal 
School  of  Montreal,  and  is  amply  equipped  for 
the  more  extended  training  which  teachers  must 
receive  to  meet  the  larger  requirements  of  the 
service.  Macdonald  College  has  been  incor- 
porated with  McGill  University,  and  thus  the 
courses  of  instruction  leading  to  degrees  are 


522 


CANADA 


CANADA 


planned  under  the  advice  and  w-ith  the  approval 
of  the  university  authorities.  In  addition  to 
donating  the  whole  property  without  incum- 
brance, Sir  William  RIacdonald  placed  a  sum 
of  over  82,000,000  in  the  hands  of  the  trustees 
of  McGill  University  as  an  endowment  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  new  college. 

Higher  Education.  —  The  agencies  of  higher 
education  in  the  Canadian  provinces  are  uni- 
versities and  affiliated  colleges  which  have 
preserved  through  a  long  history  the  scholastic 
traditions  and  standards  of  the  universities  of 
the  Old  World.  The  colleges  as  a  rule  have  been 
established  and  are  maintained  by  the  various 
religious  denominations.  The  greater  number 
date  from  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, but  a  few  have  a  history  covering  two  or 
more  centuries;  among  these  are:  in  Ontario, 
Knox  College,  Toronto  (founded  1504),  Albert 
College,  Belleville  (1757);  in  Quebec,  Tucker 
Seminary  (1665),  St.  Sulpice,  Montreal  (1767). 
Sixteen  institutions  bear  the  title  of  university, 
and  of  these  13  situated  in  the  older  provinces 
bear  witness  by  their  numbers  to  early  political 
and  denominational  antagonisms.  At  pres- 
ent there  is  a  strong  tendency  toward  the  con- 
centration of  the  resources  of  higher  education 
b)'  means  of  the  federation  of  the  colleges  and 
higher  technical  schools  with  the  universities. 
In  view  of  a  scheme  for  promoting  agricultural 
education  under  discussion  in  the  Senate  of 
New  Brunswick,  in  the  session  of  1908-1909, 
the  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  New  Bruns- 
wick urges  in  his  report  for  the  same  year  that 
any  action  that  might  result  should  keep  the 
matter  in  close  affiliation  with  the  technical 
work  already  carried  on  by  the  university. 

In  Nova  Scotia  the  importance  of  a  common 
standard  for  universities  has  long  been  rec- 
ognized, especially  in  respect  to  professional 
diplomas,  which  the  government  has  declined  to 
recognize  because  there  was  no  guarantee  of 
equivalence  in  those  of  the  different  institutions. 
In  connection  with  plans  for  promoting  higher 
technical  education  in  the  province,  which 
were  brought  to  completion  in  1908,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  three  universities  agreed  to  an 
arrangement  whereby  the  Nova  Scotia  Techni- 
cal College  is  affiliated  with  the  other  colleges 
of  the  province.  By  this  agreement  the  estab- 
lished colleges  will  insist  on  a  uniform  matricu- 
lation retiuirement,  and  a  uniform  first  2  years' 
engineering  course.  The  general  training  in 
matiiematics,  physics,  chemistry,  English,  for- 
eign language,  shopwork,  drawing,  etc.,  which 
constitute  the  basis  for  any  engineering  course, 
will  be  given  in  the  older  colleges,  leaving  the 
professional  finisiiing  2  years'  course  to  the 
technical  college. 

Laval  University,  established  at  Montreal  in 
1878,  a  Ijranch  of  the  ancient  university  whose 
seat  is  at  (Quebec,  is  the  center  of  an  important 
group  of  colleges  and  schools  including  the 
polytechnic,  dentistry,  and  pharmacy  schools, 
the  agricultural  school  of  Oka,  founded  in  1893 


by  the  Reverend  Trappist  Fathers  of  Notre 
Dame  du  Lac,  and  the  school  of  superior  edu- 
cation for  girls  founded  by  the  Sisters  of  La 
Congregation  de  Notre  Dame,  which  was  sol- 
emnly inaugurated  in  1907.  As  an  immediate 
result  of  the  relation  with  the  university,  the 
agricultural  school  has  arranged  for  a  superior 
course  in  its  specialty.  The  university  affilia- 
tion of  the  school  of  Notre  Dame  raises  the 
standard  of  higher  education  for  women  in 
Catholic  circles  of  Quebec. 

The  most  striking  illustrations  of  the  uni- 
versity federation  movement  are  afforded  by 
recent  measures  affecting  the  University  of 
Toronto  and  McGill  University  of  Montreal. 
The  federation  of  the  University  of  Toronto 
was  proclaimed  bj'  the  Lieutenant  Governor 
Nov.  18,  1903,  and  came  into  effect  Nov.  1, 
1904.  Among  the  affiliated  institutions  are 
the  University  College,  Victoria  College,  Trin- 
ity College,  the  Toronto  School  of  Practical 
Science,  the  Toronto  College  of  Music,  and  the 
Agricultural  College  at  Guelph,  Ontario,  each 
of  which  has  a  representation  in  the  university 
Senate.  The  university  comprises  a  faculty 
of  arts,  faculty  of  medicine,  faculty  of  law,  and 
a  faculty  of  applied  science  and  engineering. 
In  addition  to  the  customary  degrees  in  arts, 
in  medicine,  and  in  law,  the  university  offers 
in  applied  science  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Ap- 
plied Science,  and  the  degrees  of  Civil  Engineer, 
of  Mining  Engineer,  of  Mechanical  Engineer,  and 
of  Electrical  Engineer,  also  the  degree  of  Bache- 
lor of  the  Science  of  Agriculture.  Graduates  in 
the  course  of  pedagogy  who  hold  a  degree  in 
arts  or  a  first-class  diploma  from  the  Education 
Department  are  admitted  to  the  examination 
for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Pedagogy.  Candi- 
dates for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Pedagogy  must 
have  obtained  the  former  degree,  or  have  had 
7  years'  successful  experience  as  teacher  or 
school  inspector  in  Ontario.  The  university 
also  offers  a  2-year  course  leading  to  the 
diploma  in  commerce,  and  one  of  4  years  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Household 
Science.  By  the  liberality  of  a  private  donor, 
the  university  has  been  recently  provided  with  a 
special  building  for  home  economics.  The 
educational  work  of  McGill  University  is 
carried  on  in  McGill  College,  the  Royal  Victoria 
College  for  Women,  and  other  university  build- 
ings in  Montreal;  and  also  in  Macdonald 
College  at  Ste.  Anne  de  Bcllevue;  the  McGill 
University  College  of  British  Columbia,  Van- 
couver, B.C.,  and  in  the  affiliated  college  at 
Victoria,  B.C.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
standardizing  influence  of  this  university 
reaches  to  the  newer  provinces.  Macdonald 
College  is  the  latest  addition  to  the  federation 
of  which  McGill  University  is  the  center.  By 
this  relation  the  school  for  teachers  which  has 
taken  the  place  of  the  McGill  Normal  School 
of  Montreal,  and  the  two  schools  pertaining  to 
the  latest  developments  of  education  in  the 
Province  namely,  the  School  of  Agriculture  and 


523 


CANADA 


CANADA 


the  School  of  Household  Science,  are  brought 
under  the  direction  of  committees  composed  of 
representatives  of  the  university  and  the  college. 
At  the  same  time  the  university  is  broadening 
its  own  scope  by  the  inclusion  of  faculties  of 
agriculture  and  education. 

The  creation  of  faculties  of  education  in  the 
leading  universities  increases  their  relations  to 
the  public  school  systems  which  began  with 
provisions  for  the  inspection  and  affiliation  of 
high  schools,  and  for  the  training  and  certifica- 
tion of  teachers  aspiring  to  the  highest  positions. 
All  the  colleges  within  the  borders  of  Alanitoba 
are  affiliated  with  the  universitj'  of  the  province, 
which  has  the  exclusive  right  to  confer  degrees. 

Among  the  universities  of  the  Dominion 
three  distinct  types  may  be  recognized.  Laval 
University  is  ecclesiastic  in  its  origin  and  con- 
trol. The  Archbishop  of  Quebec  is  visitor  and 
apostolic  chancellor,  the  Archbishop  of  Montreal 
is  the  vice-chancellor;  the  rector,  the  executive 
head  of  the  university,  is  assisted  by  a  council 
in  which  the  several  faculties  and  the  Seminary 
of  Quebec  (ecclesiastical  institution)  are  repre- 
sented. The  university  comprises  the  profes- 
sional faculties  of  theology,  of  law,  and  of  medi- 
cine, and  the  faculty  of  arts,  all  of  which  are 
duplicated  in  the  liranch  university  at  Montreal. 
The  latter,  as  already  stated,  comprises  affili- 
ated technical  schools.  The  general  organiza- 
tion and  the  degrees  conferred,  i.e.  bachelor, 
licentiate,  and  doctor,  follow  French  precedents. 
McGill  University,  a  Protestant  institution  in 
Montreal,  presents  the  highest  type  of  a  private 
foundation  to  which  imperial  character  has 
been  given  by  the  amended  charter  of  1855. 
This  charter  constituted  "  the  Governors, 
Principal  and  Fellows  "  of  the  university  a 
body  politic  and  corporate,  but  at  the  same 
time  vested  supreme  authority  in  the  Crown, 
the  same  to  be  "  exercised  by  His  Excellency 
the  Governor  General  of  Canada,  for  the  time 
being,  as  visitor."  The  development  of  the 
university  has  kept  pace  with  the  ever  grow- 
ing diversity  of  public  interests,  which  depend 
for  their  forceful  direction  upon  trained  intel- 
ligence. Toronto  University  is  the  highest 
type  of  a  .state  institution.  It  was  endowed 
originally  by  land  grants,  and  began  its  active 
operations  in  1843  under  the  predominant 
influence  of  the  Church  of  England.  It  was 
brought  under  state  control  and  completely 
secularized  by  the  act  of  1849.  Originally  the 
university  was  merely  an  examining  and  legis- 
lative body,  the  teaching  function  being  re- 
served for  University  College.  The  first  event 
in  the  devcloijing  history  of  the  university  was 
the  formation  of  a  teaching  faculty,  the  uni- 
versity professorate,  by  the  federation  act  of 
1887.  The  crowning  event  is  the  act  of  1906 
reorganizing  the  university  on  a  comprehen- 
sive plan.  This  measure,  already  foreshad- 
owed by  the  federation  act  of  1903,  was  re- 
quired to  meet  a  crisis  in  university  education 
arising    from    the    advance    of    science.     The 


Commissioners,  upon  whose  recommendations 
the  i)lan  is  based,  did  not  pretend  to  forecast 
antl  regulate  the  future.  "  We  could  do  no 
more,"  they  say,  "than  provide  a  home  for 
culture  and  science,  under  the  same  academical 
roof,  uniting  them  as  far  as  possible,  yet  leav- 
ing each  in  its  way  untrammeled  by  the  union." 
The  federation  of  the  Ontario  Medical  College 
for  Women  with  the  university  and  the  admis- 
sion of  women  to  the  examinations  for  the 
university  degrees  in  medicine  are  significant 
facts  in  the  recent  development.  It  may  be 
noted  that  women  are  admitted  to  the  arts 
faculties  of  nearly  all  the  Canadian  universities. 

UNIVERSITIES  OF  CANADA 


Date 

Endow- 

Approx- 
imate 

Namb 

OF 

Foun- 

ment AS 
Reported 

Number 

dation 

IN  1904 

OF 

Stddents 

University  of  King's  College. 

Windsor,  Nova  Scotia    .     . 

1790 

$140,000 

25 

University  of  New  Brunswick, 

Fredericton,    New    Bruns- 

wick   

1800 

'  8,964 

150 

McGill  University.  Montreal, 

Quebec 

1821 

2,074,504 

1500 

Dalhousie  College  and  Uni- 

versity, Halifax,  Nova  Sco- 

tia       

1818 

420,000 

360 

University    of    Toronto    and 

University  College     .    .    . 

1827 

3,700,000 

2500    • 

University  of  Acadia  College, 

Wolfville,  Nova  Scotia  .     . 

1838 

241,970 

115 

University  of    Queen's  Col- 

lege, Kingston,  Ontario  .     . 

1841 

500,000 

800 

University  of  Bishop's    Col- 

lege, Lennoxville.  Quebec  . 

1843 

192,918 

51 

University  of  Ottawa,  Otta- 

wa, Ontario 

1848 

— 

500 

University    of    Trinity    Col- 

lege, Toronto  2 

1852 

490.000 

3 

Laval  University,  Quebec  and 

Montreal  * 

1852 

None 

1390 

University  of  Mount  Allison 

College,  New  Brunswick     . 

1862 

120.000 

125 

University  of  Manitoba,  Win- 

nipeg       

1877 

5  150,000 

461 

Victoria  University,  Toronto, 

Ontario ' 

1836 

487,455 

3 

Mc  Master  University,  Toron- 

to, Ontario 

1887 

900,000 

200 

University  of  St.  Joseph's  Col- 

lege, St.  Joseph,  New  Bruns- 

wick   

1864 

— 

200 

University  of  Alberta,  Strath- 

cona 

1906 

— 

50 

University  of   Saskatchewan, 

Regina 

190^" 

•  Government  grant. 

2  Federated  with  University  of  Toronto. 

3  Included  in  total  of  University  of  Toronto. 

*  Quebec  Seminary,  an  ecclesiastical  organization,  defrays  all 


expenses. 

s  Acres  of  land. 


The  latest  estimates  give  S3, 315,900  as 
the  endowment  of  Toronto  University  and 
$7,000,000  as  the  endowment  of  the  federated 
university.  Recent  donations  and  bequests 
have  brought  the  endowment  of  McGill  Uni- 
versity, with  inclusion  of  Macdonald  College, 
up  to"  30,000,000.  A.  T.  S. 

For  educational  condition  in  Newfoundland, 
see  Newfoundland,  Education  in. 


524 


CANFIELD 


CANON  LAW  ON   EDUCATION 


References:  — 

Board  of  Education,  England.  Special  Reports,  Vo].  I. 
The  history  of  the  Manitoba  school  system,  and  the 
issues  of  the  recent  controversy,  by  R.  L.  Morant. 

Board  of  Education,  England.  Special  Reports  on 
Educational  Suhjects,  \'ol.  IV. 

Chauveau,  M.  L'instruction  pnhliqxie  au  Canada. 
Precis  historique  et  stalisiique.     (Quebec,  1876.) 

Coleman.  H.  T.  J.  Public  Education  in  Upper  Canada. 
(New  York,  1907.) 

Commissioner  of  Agriculture  and  Dair>-mg.  Canada, 
The  Macdonald  Funds  fur  Manxud  Training  and 
the  Improvement  of  Rural  Schools.  Evidence  of  James 
W.  Robertson,  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  and 
Dairying,  before  the  .Select  Standing  Committee  on 
Agriculture  and  Colonization,  1903.    (Ottawa,  1904.) 

CouBERTiN,  Pierre  de.  Universiles  transatlantiques. 
(Paris.  1890.) 

EwART,  John  S.  The  Manitoba  School  Question. 
(Toronto,  1894.) 

HoDGiNS,  J.  G.  Documentary  History  of  Educatmn  m 
Ontario,  Vols.  1-27.  Printed  by  order  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly  of  Ontario.  (Toronto,  1894- 
1903.) 
The  Legislation  and  History  of  Separate  Schools  in 
Upper  Canada,  1841-1876.      (Toronto,  1897.) 

Laurent,  O.  Les  Uniivrsites  des  Etats-Unis  et  du 
Canada,  et  specialement  leurs  institutions  medicalcs. 
(Paris,  1894.) 

Millar.  John.  Educational  System  of  the  Province  of 
Ontario.     (Toronto,  1893.) 

Official  Reports  of  the  systems  of  public  instruction  in 
the  several  provinces.  Laws  relating  to  the  systems 
of  public  instruction  in  the  several  provinces. 

Ontario.  Annu/d  Reports  of  the  Inspector  of  Technical 
Education,   1907,  1908.      (Toronto,   1908,   1909.) 

Ontario  Educational  Association.     Anmtal  Reports. 

Ontario.  Report  of  the  Text-book  Commission.  (To- 
ronto.) 

Ontario  School  of  Agriculture  and  Experimental  Farm. 
Annual  Reports. 

Proceedinys  of  the  Dominion  Educational  Association. 
(Ottawa,  1909.) 

Ross,  George  W.  The  School  System  of  Ontario. 
International  Education  Series,  Vol.  XXXVIII. 
(New  York.  1896.) 

Ryerson,  Egerton.  Report  on  a  Systern  of  Public 
Elementary  Instruction  for  Upper  Canada,  184(5- 
1847.      (Montreal.   1846-1847.) 

Smith.  Goldwin.  Canada  and  the  Canadian  Question. 
(London.  New  York.  1891.) 

University  of  Toronto  and  its  Colleges,  1827-1906. 
(Toronto.  1906.) 

University  of  Toronto.     Report  of  the  Royal  Commis- 
sion.    (Toronto.  1906.) 
Files  of  educational  journals,  especially  :  — 

Canadian  Teacher,  Toronto. 

Journal  of  Education.  Nova  Scotia. 

Educational  Record  of  Quebec.     (Quebec,  1910.) 

Educational  Review,  St.  John,  New  Brunswick. 

CANFIELD,  JAMES  HULME  ri 847-1909). 
—  Ivliu-itor,  Kraduated  from  Williams  Col- 
lege in  1.SG8.  For  .several  years  he  was  engaged 
in  railway  building  and  the  practice  of  law, 
during  which  period  he  served  for  3  years, 
without  i)av,  as  sui)erintendent  of  schools  at 
St.  Joseph,"  Mich.  From  lS77to  1891  he  was 
professor  of  history  in  the  University  of  Kansas; 
for  the  ne.xt  4  years  president  of  the  University 
of  Nebraska,  and  from  189.5  to  1899,  president 
of  the  Ohio  State  University.  During  the  last 
10  years  of  his  life  lie  was  librarian  of  ('(jlumbia 
University.  Author  of  College  Student  and 
his  Problems  (1902).  W.  S.  RI. 

CANISIUS  COLLEGE,  BUFFALO,  N.Y.  — 
See  Ji-;su.s,  Society  of. 


CANON    LAW    ON   EDUCATION.  —  The 

Canon  Law,  in  the  sense  in  which  that  term  is 
used  in  this  article,  is  that  body  of  law  which 
arose  in  the  Middle  Ages  from  ecclesiastical 
legislation,  derived  its  authority  from  the 
Church,  and  was  enforced  in  the  tribunals  of 
the  Church.  It  was  composed  of  the  enact- 
ments of  local  and  of  general  councils,  extracts 
from  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  rules  and  ordi- 
nances of  individual  bishops,  and  decretals  of 
the  Popes;  the  last  were  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant of  its  constituents,  as  they  were  the 
decisions  of  the  supreme  pontiff  on  points  of  law 
arising  in  cases  actually  before  ecclesiastical 
courts,  and  were  embodied  in  directions  to  those 
before  whom  the  cases  were  being  heard.  In 
the  Canon  Law,  as  it  was  ultimately  codified, 
all  these  laws  derive  their  authority  from  the 
fact  that  they  were  officially  promulgated  in 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  as  the 
authoritative  body  of  law  to  be  usecl  in  all 
courts.  These  oiBcial  collections  make  up, 
together  with  the  Deeretum  of  Gratian,  which 
appeared  between  1140  and  1150  a.d.,  what  is 
known  as  the  Corpus  Juris  Canonici.  In 
addition  to  this  law,  the  jus  commune  of  the 
Church,  there  was  in  every  part  of  the  Church, 
especially  before  1200  a.d.,  much  law  enacted 
by  local  synods,  holding  good  in  the  district 
in  which  they  were  enacted  and  of  force  so  far 
as  they  did  not  contravene  the  jus  commune. 
This  distinction  is  necessary  in  stating  the 
bearing  of  the  Canon  Law  upon  education,  as 
there  was  always  much  local  canon  law  bearing 
on  the  subject,  though  there  was  little  that  be- 
longed to  the  general  legislation  of  the  Church, 
and  none  before  the  twelfth  century. 

The  importance  of  a  study  of  the  C'anon  Law 
for  the  history  of  education  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. For  every  educational  institution 
from  the  elementary  school  to  the  university 
and  every  form  of  instruction  from  the  ABC  to 
astronomy  and  divinity  was  regulated  by  the 
Canon  Law.  For  nearly  1100  years,  from  the 
year  600  to  1700,  the  Church  Courts  had  exclu- 
sive jurisdiction  over  schools  and  scholars,  the 
school  being  regarded  as  an  adjunct  of  the 
Church  iq.v.),  and  the  scholar  and  those  who 
ministered  to  him  were  a  branch  of  the  great 
clerical  profession,  or  body  of  clerks  (q.v-). 
The  earliest  legislation  for  education  or  schools 
to  be  found  in  the  Canon  Law  appears  to  be  in 
the  Sixth  Council  of  Constantinople,  held  in 
680.  Canon  5  directs  that  priests  shall  keep 
schools  in  towns  {rillas)  and  in  villages  (ficos) 
and  if  any  of  the  faithful  wishes  to  commend  his 
little  ones  to  them  (the  priests)  to  learn  gram- 
mar {litteras),  they  shall  not  refuse  to  take 
them,  but  they  shall  not  demand  any  fees  for 
them  or  accept  anji^hing  from  them,  except 
what  their  parents  in  their  zeal  for  charity  shall 
voluntarily  offer.  This  was  an  attempt,  prob- 
ably premature,  to  utilize  the  parocliial  clergy 
as  schoolmasters  and  establish  through  them 
a  system  of  free  elementary  schools  in  the  rural 


525 


CANON  LAW  ON  EDUCATION 


CANON  LAW  ON  EDUCATION 


districts.  Canon  4  of  the  same  Council  apply- 
ing to  the  greater  schools  in  the  large  towns 
provided  that  if  any  priest  wanted  to  send  his 
nephew  (we  maj'  guess  that  the  word  was  orig- 
inally son)  or  other  relation  to  school  in  the 
churches  of  saints  {i.e.  the  secular  cathedrals  or 
collegiate  churches)  or  in  the  monasteries,  "  the 
government  of  w^liich  is  committed  to  us,  we 
give  them  leave  to  do  so."  The  Sixth  Council 
of  Constantinople  was  accepted  by  Pope  Adrian 
as  ecumenical,  and  therefore  authoritative. 
These  Canons  have  been  usually  attributed  to 
Charlemagne  and  Theodulph  of  Orleans,  from 
their  appearance  among  their  Capitularies  in 
771  and  797,  but  were  of  course  only  revived 
by  them.  As  usual,  the  law  only  crystallized 
and  extended  practice.  For,  long  before  this, 
at  least  in  France  and  England,  the  bishops 
(see  Bishops'  Schools)  had  assumed  the  con- 
trol and  furnished  the  supply  of  schools.  The 
Council  of  Aix,  in  7S9,  under  the  influence  of 
Alcuin  and  Charlemagne,  ordered  that  boys' 
schools  should  be  kept  in  every  monastery  and 
bishop's  see,  to  teach  the  psalms,  singing,  arith- 
metic, and  grammar,  and  Catholic  books  well 
corrected  should  be  kept,  but  the  boys  should 
not  be  allowed  to  spoil  them  either  in  reading 
or  writing,  and  if  gospels,  psalters,  or  missals 
were  wanted,  grown-up  men  should  be  em- 
ployed to  write  them.  A  later  council, 
assembled  at  the  same  place  in  813,  closed  the 
monastic  schools  to  externs,  if  they  had  ever 
been  opened,  decreeing,  "  No  schools  shall  be 
kept  in  monasteries  except  for  oblates."  So 
that  when  the  injunction  of  780  was  repeated 
at  the  second  Council  of  Chalons  it  was  confined 
to  bishops'  sees.  "  It  is  desirable  that,  as  the 
Lord  Emperor  ordered,  they  should  establish 
churches  in  which  the  scholastic  learning  and 
the  proofs  of  holy  scripture  should  be  learnt." 
In  826,  a  General  Council,  under  Pope  Eugenius 
II,  treated  the  provision  of  schools  by  bishops 
as  a  matter  of  course,  and  complaining  that 
"of  some  places  we  are  informed  that  neither 
masters  are  kept  nor  any  care  taken  for  a 
grammar  school  (studio  litterarum),"  decreed, 
"  Therefore  let  all  care  and  diligence  be  exhibited 
by  all  bishops  and  their  subjects  and  in  other 
places  where  necessary,  that  masters  and  teach- 
ers shall  be  established  to  teach  assiduously 
grammar  schools  and  the  principles  of  the  liberal 
arts,  because  in  them  especially  God's  com- 
mands are  made  clear  and  explained."  The 
council  under  Pope  Leo  IV  in  855,  treating  of 
schools  "  of  human  as  well  as  divine  learning," 
confirmed  this,  and  reenacted  it,  because  "  by 
long  intermission  many  of  God's  churches  had 
been  invaded  by  ignorance  of  the  faith  and  a 
complete  want  of  learning."  A  council  at 
Rome  held  by  Gregory  VII  in  1078  contained 
a  chapter  headed  "  That  all  bishops  shall 
cause  the  art  of  grammar  (artes  litterarum)  to 
be  taught  in  their  churches."  Almost  exactly 
a  century  later,  in  the  Lateran  Council  of  1179 
(DecretaksGreg.  IX,  toin.V,  tit.  de  Magislris),  the 


requirement  was  made  more  stringent  and  ef- 
fective by  being  particularized.  It  was  now 
provided  that,  to  prevent  the  opportunity  of 
reading  and  becoming  proficient  being  denied 
to  the  poor,  who  could  not  be  assisted  by  their 
parents'  means,  a  competent  benefice  should  be 
given  in  every  cathedral  church  to  a  master  to 
teach  the  clerks  of  the  church  and  poor  scholars 
gratis;  while  at  the  same  time  the  taking  of  fees 
for  granting  licenses  to  teach  was  forbidden. 
Alexander  III  in  a  rescript  (c.  1160),  said  to  be 
addressed  (ibid.,  2,  3)  to  the  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester, but  wliich,  as  it  speaks  of  the  Gallic 
Church,  seems  more  likely  intended  for  the 
Archbishop  of  Vienne,  reiterates  the  last  order 
on  the  ground  "  Freely  (gratis)  ye  have  received, 
freely  give,"  and  directs  that  if  anywhere 
masters  have  not  been  appointed  because  of 
the  demand  of  fees,  proper  persons  shall  be 
appointed  at  once.  If  this  was  really  addressed 
to  a  Bishop  of  Winchester,  it  may  be  the  result 
of  the  appeal  in  the  case  of  Fantosme  v.  JekeU, 
referred  to  the  Pope  by  John  of  Salisbury  (Hist. 
Winchester  College,  p.  37). 

In  the  next  Lateran  Council  in  1215  Inno- 
cent III  added  to  the  requirement  of  a  master 
"  in  the  faculty  of  grammar,"  in  every  cathe- 
dral, a  similar  requirement  in  every  church 
whose  means  allowed  it,  the  master  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  Chapter,  and  also  in  every 
mother  church  a  theological  school.  Honorius 
III,  in  1219,  in  highly  rhetorical  language, 
repeated  the  last  decree,  and,  to  prevent  the 
scarcity  of  masters  being  alleged  as  an  excuse, 
directed  that  teachable  persons  should  be  sent 
to  a  university  to  be  trained  up  for  the  purpose, 
so  that  they  might  shine  in  God's  church  like 
stars  in  heaven;  and  tliat  students  should  for 
five  years  receive  the  profits  of  their  canonries 
and  Uvings  as  if  they  were  resident.  It  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  necessary  to  repeat  these 
injunctions  again.  Grammar  and  theology 
were  well  provided  for.  But  in  1311  we  find 
Clement  V  at  the  Council  of  Vienne  insisting 
on  the  necessity  of  having  for  bishops  and  mis- 
sionaries men  learned  in  every  language,  par- 
ticularly those  used  by  infidels.  So  he  ordered 
that  at  Paris  for  France,  Oxford  for  England, 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales,  Bologna  for  Italy, 
and  Salamanca  for  Spain,  the  universities  should 
provide  teachers  in  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Chaldee 
to  teach  and  translate  books  into  those  lan- 
guages, and  that  funds  should  be  found  by  con- 
tributions from  prelates,  monasteries,  chapters, 
and  collegiate  churches.  For  some  years  this 
was  actually  carried  out.  At  the  same  council 
(Clem,  iii,  t.  10,  c.  I),  at  the  end  of  a  long 
statute  as  to  the  disorders  of  monks  in  dress, 
conduct,  and  worldliness,  especially  in  abandon- 
ing their  conventual  life  "  to  wander  at  large  in 
the  courts  of  princes  and  magnates,"  an  attempt 
was  made  to  introduce  learning  into  the  monas- 
teries, by  providing  that  ■  in  every  monastery 
whose  means  were  sufficient,  a  fit  master  should 
be  kept  to  instruct  the  monks  in  the  primitive 


526 


CANON  LAW 


CANON   LAW 


sciences,  i.e.  grammar  and  rhetoric.  Pope 
Benedict  XII  took  this  question  up,  and  in 
1335  made  elaborate  constitutions  for  the  Bene- 
dictine monks,  which  were  followed  by  similar 
constitutions  for  the  Augustinian  or  regular 
canons,  providing  not  only  for  a  grammar 
master  in  the  monasteries,  but  for  sending  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  monks  of  each  monas- 
tery to  the  university.  The  Canon  Law,  the 
Corpus  Juris  Canonici,  seems  to  have  been 
crystallized  at  this  time  and  ceased  to  grow, 
one  canon  only  of  Benedict's  two  successors, 
Clement  VI  and  Urban  V,  being  incorporated 
in  the  Exlravagantcs,  or  extra  series.  The  schism 
in  the  Papacy,  no  single  Pope  being  recognized 
by  the  whole  of  Christendom,  accounts  for  this. 
But  education  was  still  governed  by  Canon  Law. 
The  Pope's  sanction  was  still  required  for  the 
establishment  of  universities  or  colleges.  An 
attempt  was  made  in  England  in  1410  in  the 
Gloucester  School  case  to  bring  grammar  schools 
under  the  cognizance  of  the  Common  Law.  But 
it  failed,  the  judges  holding  that  schools  and 
education  were  a  spiritual  matter,  for  the 
ecclesiastical  courts  only. 

Even  after  the  Reformation,  when  the 
Canon  Law  was  repudiated  and  its  study  at  the 
universities  forbidden,  it  still  governed  educa- 
tional institutions.  The  Canons  of  1603  con- 
tained provisions  with  regard  to  schools  and 
schoolmasters.  Not  till  the  time  of  Lord  Coke 
was  it  held  that  universitj'  colleges,  though 
composed  of  ecclesiastical  persons,  were  lay 
corporations  amenable  to  the  Common  Law. 
Not  till  after  the  Revolution  of  1688  did  a 
series  of  decisions  of  the  courts  emancipate  the 
lower  branches  of  education  from  ecclesiastical 
control,  (irammar  schools  still  remained  sub- 
ject to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  "  Ordinary  "  until 
the  Endowed  Schools  Act  of  18G9  enabled  the 
Commissioners  under  that  Act  by  scheme  to 
abolish  it.  A.  F.  L. 

See  Benefit  of  Clergy;  Bishops'  School.s; 
Cathedr.'vl  Schools;  Church  and  Educa- 
tion; Middle  Ages,  Education  in. 

CANON     LAW,     TEACHING     OF.  —  The 

teaching  of  Canon  Law  may  be  dividetl  into 
two  periods,  marked  by  the  appearance  of  Gra- 
tian's  Dccretiim  between  1141  and  1150.  With 
that  work  Ix'gan  the  systematic  and  scientific 
study  and  teaching  of  Canon  Law.  Some 
study  of  tliis  sul)jcct  had  always  been  a  practical 
necessity  for  the  clergy  in  their  administration 
of  the  diocesan  institutions  and  in  the  cure  of 
souls.  For  the  Canon  Law  was  not  only  public, 
or  constitutional  law,  but  also  a  sort  of  criminal 
law  administered  in  the  ordinary  penitential 
discipline  of  the  Church.  In  the  East,  how- 
ever, during  the  patristic  period,  the  great 
councils  dealt  cliiefly  with  theological  and  con- 
stitutional questions.  Though  many  of  their 
enactments  became  imperial  laws,  neitlier  tiiey 
nor  the  works  that  appeared  on  tlie  penitential 
discipline  seem  to  have  given  rise  to  any  sys- 


527 


tematic  study  or  teaching.  In  the  subsequent 
development  of  the  Eastern  churches  the  rela- 
tion of  the  Church  and  the  State  prevented 
an  independent  treatment  of  ecclesiastical  law. 
In  the  West  the  course  of  development  of 
Canon  Law  was  different.  A  multitude  of 
local  sjTiods  elaborated  the  penitential  disci- 
pline and  endeavored  to  adapt  the  Church  to 
the  changed  social  conditions  of  the  new  king- 
doms. The  Church  lived  according  to  Roman 
Law  in  the  midst  of  the  conflicting  Barbarian 
codes,  and  this  independent  position  of  the 
Church  and  its  law  was  developed  as  it  became 
more  and  more  the  international  organization 
of  Western  Christendom.  We  tlierefore  find 
a  tendency  even  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century  to  make  collections  of  canons  of  coun- 
cils and  papal  decretals,  of  which  by  far  the 
most  important  was  that  of  the  monk  Diony- 
sius  Exiguus,  before  526.  Other  collections 
soon  appeared,  among  them  the  Capitula  of 
Martin  of  Braga  in  572,  and  the  Colledio 
Hispana  ascribed  to  Isidore  of  Seville  (d.  636) 
(q.v.).  The  next  step  maj'  be  marked  by  the 
revised  code  of  Dionysius  presented  by  Pope 
Hadrian  to  Charles  the  Great  in  772,  which  was 
adopted  for  the  Prankish  Church  at  the  Council 
of  Frankfort  in  802.  A  body  of  Canon  Law 
came  into  circulation  in  this  way  which  might 
serve  as  a  basis  for  further  developments,  and 
which  was  itself  carefully  studied  and  even 
glossed.  To  it  should  be  added  the  Pseudo- 
Isidorean  decretals,  about  .^.d.  847,  which  after 
some  use  in  the  ninth  century  drop  from  sight 
as  important  factors  in  ecclesiastical  law,  to 
come  forward  in  the  later  development  of  the 
ecclesiastical  constitution. 

There  met  this  stream  of  Canon  Law  founded 
upon  conciliar  enactments  and  decretals  an- 
other stream  founded  directly  upon  the  peni- 
tential discipline,  and  of  private  origin.  This 
appears  to  have  arisen  in  the  monastically  or- 
ganized Irish  Church,  and  to  have  been  carried 
to  the  Continent  by  the  wandering  Irish  monks, 
the  Scoti  peregrinanie.'i,  of  whom  Columban 
(d.  615)  {q.v.)  was  the  best  representative. 
This  was  embodied  in  penitentials,  or  handbooks 
prepared  for  the  use  of  the  clergy  in  administer- 
ing penance,  and  containing  lists  of  sins  with 
appropriate  penalties.  These  books  had  no 
official  authorit_y,  and  owed  their  reception  to  the 
reputation  of  their  authors,  real  or  reputed. 
Among  these  books  the  penitential  of  Theo- 
dore of  Canterbury,  in  its  various  forms,  seems 
to  have  been  the  most  famous,  but  there  were 
also  widely  used  penitentials  by,  or  attributed 
to.  Belle,  Egbert  of  York,  Halitgar  of  Cambray, 
and  Rhabanus  Maurus.  In  time  almost  every 
diocese  had  its  own  penitential,  which  was 
studied  by  the  diocesan  clergy  as  a  part  of 
their  necessary  training  for  their  office. 

These  two  lines  of  development  may  be  said 
to  have  joined  in  the  collection  of  Regino  of 
Pruin,  Lihri  duo  de  synodalibus  causi.t  el  dis- 
ciplinis  ecclesiasticis,  a.d.  906,  a  work  of  great 


CANON   LAW 


CANON   LAW 


practical  utility,  summing  up  the  actual  law 
as  it  then  existed  and  giving  an  impetus  to  new 
study.  During  the  next  200  years  the  system- 
atic arrangement  of  the  material  was  followed, 
and  several  important  collections  appeared, 
e.g.  the  worlds  of  Burchard  of  Worms,  between 
1012  and  1023,  Anselm  of  Lucca  (d.  1086), 
Deusdedit,  about  1086,  and  Ivo  of  Chartres 
(d.  1117).  During  this  period  we  have  no 
information  as  to  methods  of  instruction  in 
Canon  Law.  The  clergy  must  have  used  these 
or  similar  books,  especially  the  pcnitentials, 
and  were  expected  to  be  familiar  with  them. 
But  there  is  no  trace  of  systematic  instruction. 
Canon  Law  had  not  .yet  become  a  scientific 
study,  and  there  were  no  institutions  where  it 
could  have  been  taught  as  such.  Students  there 
were  of  Canon  Law,  but  the  whole  subject  was 
in  the  prescientific  stage. 

In  the  course  of  the  twelfth  century  a  revolu- 
tion took  place  in  the  teaching  of  Canon  Law, 
as,  indeed,  of  all  other  branches  of  knowledge, 
and  it  became  one  of  the  principal  subjects  taught 
at  Bologna  and  later  at  all  universities.  In 
addition  to  the  general  intellectual  revival  of  the 
twelfth  century,  which  had  made  itself  felt 
first  at  Bologna  and  Paris,  there  were  several 
causes  for  the  change  that  came  over  the  study 
and  teaching  of  Canon  Law.  There  was,  in  the 
first  place,  the  revival  of  a  scientific  study  of 
Roman  Law,  whereby  under  the  lead  of  Irnerius 
(q.v.)  and  his  followers  that  law  became  the 
leading  subject  studied  at  Bologna.  There 
had  never  been  a  time  when  Roman  Law  had 
not  been  studied  and  taught  to  some  extent, 
and  since  the  latter  ]iart  of  the  ninth  century  its 
connection  with  Canon  Law  was  constant. 
Secondly,  there  was  the  new  dialectical  method 
used  by  Abelard  (q.v.)  in  his  Sic.  et  Non,  with 
its  fascinating  task  of  balancing  and  reconciling 
conflicting  authorities,  tlie  method  first  em- 
ployed in  the  new  teaching  of  Canon  Law. 
Thirdly,  there  was  the  new  interest  given  to  the 
study  of  Canon  Law  by  the  great  development 
of  the  constitutional  and  legal  sides  of  the 
Church  in  the  great  struggle  which  had  been 
inaugurated  by  Hildebrand  and  brought  to  a 
preliminary  triumph  in  the  Concordat  of  Worms 
in  1123.  The  work  with  which  the  new  method 
was  introduced  was  the  production  of  a  monk 
of  the  Convent  of  St.  Felix  at  Bologna,  Gratian 
by  name,  who  appears  to  have  taught  Canon 
Law  and  to  have  published,  between  1141  and 
1150,  his  Concordia  Discordantium  Canonum, 
later  known  as  the  Decretum.  The  importance 
of  the  work  was  that  it  introduced  a  method 
of  handling  the  great  mass  of  Canon  Law  which 
had  grown  up,  of  ridding  it  by  a  dialectical 
method  of  its  innumerable  contradictions,  and 
building  up  from  it  a  consistent  body  of  legal 
doctrine.  Teaching  Canon  Law  was  now 
po.ssible  as  a  scientific  pursuit.  The  reform 
Gratian  introduced  was  due  to  his  careful  dis- 
tinction as  to  the  force  of  canons  and  other 
legal  material,  based  upon  the  authority  of  the 


528 


councils  in  which  they  were  respectively  enacted 
and  the  date  at  which  they  were  issued,  and, 
what  is  more  important  for  the  advance  in 
method  of  teaching,  to  the  thoroughgoing  em- 
ployment of  the  scholastic  method  of  logical 
distinctions.  The  effect  of  the  work  was  in- 
stantaneous. Although  the  Decretum  never 
became  authoritative  in  courts  of  law,  and  the 
force  of  a  citation  was  merely  that  of  the  cita- 
tion in  its  original  form,  yet  the  book  was  hardly 
the  less  influential,  for  it  became  at  once  the 
recognized  textbook,  displacing  aU  rivals,  and 
for  a  time  serving  as  the  sole  basis  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  same  way  that  the  almost  exactly 
contemporaneous  Sentences  of  Peter  Lombard 
became  the  basis  of  instruction  in  theology. 
The  relation  between  these  books  was  therefore 
well  expressed  in  the  fable  that  these  two 
natives  of  Lombardy  were  twin  brothers. 

The  method  of  teaching  Canon  Law  became 
at  once  that  which  had  been  inaugurated  in  the 
University  of  Bologna  in  teaching  Civil  Law, 
that  of  glossing.  There  was  this  difference: 
the  text  of  the  Pandects  was  itself  authoritative; 
the  Decretum  was  at  once  a  text,  not  always 
authoritative,  and  a  gloss  upon  that  text.  We 
have  therefore  in  the  work  of  the  glossators, 
who  begin  even  in  Gratian's  time,  an  advance 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  law,  not  always  in 
exact  accordance  with  Gratian's  theories.  The 
first  of  these  glossators  was  Paucapalea,  some  of 
whose  glosses,  marked  as  Paleae,  have  been 
incorporated  in  the  text  of  the  Decretum.  He 
was  followed  by  a  host  of  other  teachers, 
several  of  whose  summae  have  been  published, 
among  them  jNIagistcr  Rolandus,  at  once  a 
pupil  of  Abelard  and  of  Gratian,  and  afterwards 
Pope  Alexander  III,  the  first  of  the  long  line  of 
great  lawyer  popes,  Magister  Rufinus,  Stephen 
of  Tournay,  and  still  others.  Bazianus  (d.  1197) 
was  the  first  Doctor  utriusqne  juris. 

The  next  development  in  Canon  Law  arose 
out  of  the  study  begun  by  Gratian's  work. 
The  leaders  of  the  Church  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury were  either  professors  of  Canon  Law  or 
students  of  that  science,  and  several,  holding 
pontificates  of  relatively  long  periods,  produced 
a  mass  of  legislation  which  rapidly  antiquated 
the  collection  of  Gratian,  though  conceived  in 
his  spirit.  These  great  legislators  were  Alex- 
ander III  (1159-1181),  Innocent  III  (1198- 
1216),  Honorius  III  (1216-1227),  Gregory  IX 
(1227-1241),  and  Innocent  IV  (1243-1254),  who 
was  one  of  the  greatest  canonists  of  the  Church. 
There  were  also  held  three  great  councils,  the 
Lateran  Councils  of  1179  and  1215,  intro- 
ducing throughgoing  reforms  in  the  adminis- 
tration and  law  of  the  Church,  and  the  Council 
of  Lyons,  a.d.  1245.  This  became,  therefore,  a 
period  of  new  compilations  of  which  the  most 
important,  the  Quinque  compilationes  antiquae, 
have  been  published  (ed.  by  Friedberg,  Leipzig, 
1SS2).  They  were  all  arranged  after  a  new 
system  devised  by  the  author  of  the  first  com- 
pilation, Bernhard  of  Pavia,  who  arranged  his 


CANON  LAW 


CANON  LAW 


material,  not  under  the  logical  divisions  of  a 
legal  system,  but  under  five  general  heads,  ac- 
cording to  the  verse,  Judex,  judicium,  derus,  con- 
nubia,  crimen,  with  the  canons  and  decretals 
under  various  titles.  In  this  first  compilation 
were  gathered  the  decretals  of  the  popes  since 
1139  and  the  canons  of  the  councils.  The  first 
official  compilation  was  one  of  the  five,  known  as 
Tertia,  made  at  the  command  of  Innocent  III 
by  Petrus  Collivacinus  in  1210,  and  sent  to  the 
University  of  Bologna,  as  the  great  legal  uni- 
versity of  the  Church,  that  it  might  be  used 
tam  injudiciis  quain  in  scholis.  Thenceforward 
the  teachers  of  Canon  Law  commented  upon 
the  decretals  in  this  new  collection  along  with 
the  Decrel  n  m ,  and  a  distinction  between  Ordinar)' 
and  Extraordinary  lectures  was  built  up  .similar 
to  that  which  had  become  established  in  Civil 
Law  between  the  portions  of  the  Pandects 
known  as  the  Digestiim  Vetus,  the  Infortiatiim, 
and  the  Digestion  Novum.  Another  compila- 
tion, the  Quinln,  was  sent  by  Honorius  III  in 
1226  to  tha  canonist  Tancred  who  had  been 
made  Arclidoacon  of  Bologna,  the  official  who 
since  1219  had  taken  the  leading  part  in  the 
conferring  of  degrees  at  Bologna  and  so  acted 
in  place  of  Chancellor,  and  also  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris,  which  had  been  rapidly  forging  to 
the  front.  The  last  step  in  this  development 
took  place  in  1234,  when  Gregory  IX  sent  to 
these  two  universities  his  great  collection  drawn 
up  by  the  distinguished  canonist,  Raymund 
of  Pennaforte,  and  designed  to  be  of  exclusive 
authority.  In  this  collection  we  have  for  the 
first  time  a  code  similar  to  the  Codex  of  Ju.s- 
tinian,  a  complete  collection  of  laws  of  general 
authority  comprising  all  the  law  up  to  the  date 
of  issue  that  was  to  retain  its  force.  Tliis  code, 
known  as  the  Decretales  Gregorii  IX,  was  to 
serve  as  the  authoritative  text  not  only  in 
courts  but  in  schools.  (Volcntes  igilur,  ut  hoc 
tantum  compilatione  universi  utantur  in  judi- 
ciis  et  in  scholis,  districtius  prohihentes,  ne 
quis  praesumnt  aliam  facere  absque  auctoritale 
sedis  apostolicae  speciali,  BuUar.  Taur.  Ill,  p. 
48.5.)  But  this  was  understood  as  not  displac- 
ing the  Decrelum  of  Gratian  as  the  basis  of  in- 
struction as  well,  for  on  the  Dccretum  the  more 
important  lectures,  the  Ordinary,  were  long 
after  still  delivered.  Two  subsequent  collec- 
tions were  officially  pronnilgated,  the  Liber 
Scx^us,  compiled  under  Boniface  VIII  and  pub- 
lished in  the  same  way  as  the  Decretals  of 
Gregory  IX,  and  the  Constitutioncs  CIcmentis, 
or  Clementina,  of  Clement  V,  published  in 
1317  by  John  XXII,  after  the  death  of  Clement 
at  Avignon.  To  these  were  added  two  un- 
official collections,  the  Extramgantes  Johannis 
XXII  and  ti>c  Extravagnntes  communes,  decre- 
tals which,  because  of  their  general  use  in  uni- 
versities as  the  basis  of  lectures,  were  brought 
together  for  convenience. 

The  method  of  treating  these  official  collec- 
tions, the  genesis  of  which  has  been  stated, 
was  that  of  glossing  or  commenting  upon  the 


-2m 


529 


text.  The  teacher  read  a  portion  of  the  text, 
analyzed  it,  pointed  out  the  significance  of  the 
legal  principles  involved,  and  showed  their 
application.  The  task  which  Gratian  had  set 
the  teacher  of  treating  the  whole  mass  of  law 
so  as  to  effect  the  reconciliation  of  inconsisten- 
cies by  means  of  distinctions  fell  into  the  back- 
ground. The  aim  now  was  to  ascertain  the 
exact  meaning  and  implication  of  each  state- 
ment. To  this  no  little  assistance  was  drawn 
from  the  Civil  Law.  The  contrast  between 
the  two  methods  can  be  seen  at  a  glance  by 
comparing  such  a  work  as  the  Sttmma  of  Hos- 
tiensis  with  the  Su7n7na  of  Rufinus,  the  former 
based  upon  the  Decretals,  the  latter  upon  Gra- 
tian. The  new  method  was  carried  to  the 
highest  pitch  of  refinement  by  the  great  Canon- 
ists, the  first  who  composed  a  commentary  or 
Apparatus  to  the  five  books  of  the  Decretals  being 
no  one  less  than  Sinibaldus  Fliscus,  or  Innocent 
IV,  who  wrote  his  Comwentaria  in  quinque 
libros  dccretalium,  one  of  the  best  ever  written, 
about  the  time  he  held  the  Council  of  Lyons, 
A.D.  1253.  The  number  of  the  commentators 
is  legion.  One  of  the  most  important  was  Hen- 
ricus  de  Segusio  (d.  1271),  later  known  as 
Hostiensis,  having  become  Bishop  of  Ostia. 
iEgidius  Fuscarius  (d.  1289)  was  the  first 
layman  to  teach  Canon  Law  with  distinction, 
but  what  is  of  more  importance  for  the  his- 
tory of  the  teaching  of  Canon  Law  at  Bologna 
was  the  honor  paid  to  his  memory  and  later  to 
all  the  other  teachers  of  Canon  Law  in  Bologna, 
of  burial  with  the  same  honors  as  the  Doctors 
of  Civil  Law,  for  before  his  death  there  had  been 
some  disparity  between  the  Canonists  and 
Legists.  Prominent  as  teachers  were  Wilhelmus 
Durantis,  Guido  de  Baysio,  known  as  the  Arch- 
deacon, because  holding  that  position  at 
Bologna,  appointed  by  the  city  professor  of  the 
Decretum,  with  a  special  salary,  Johannes 
Andrea,  "  fons  et  tuba  juris  canonici"  (d.  1314), 
and  many  others,  all  at  Bologna.  Among  the 
later  canonists  were  Nicolaus  de  Tudeschi 
(d.  1443),  known  as  Panormitanus  from  his 
diocese,  Palermo,  and  Johannes  Turrecremata 
(d.  1468).  But  the  list  of  teachers  of  the  first 
rank  is  very  long,  for  there  was  no  more  profit- 
able employment  for  legal  talent  than  practice 
in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  where  important 
cases  were  constantly  being  tried,  and  no  more 
promising  ground  for  rapid  advance  in  prefer- 
ment than  a  reputation  for  canonical  learning. 
For  this  reason  the  study  of  Canon  Law  was 
carried  on  more  industriously  than  even  that 
of  theology,  for  the  proficient  in  theology 
obtained  little  advantage  in  the  struggle  for 
ecclesiastical  patronage.  The  parish  priest 
needed  little  theological  training,  and  obtained 
even  less.  The  ecclesiastical  lawyer  held  the 
key  to  all  the  high  offices. 

The  University  of  Bologna  set  the  example 
to  be  followed  by  the  other  institutions  in  the 
method  of  teaching.  In  the  first  place,  the  in- 
struction was  divided  into  two  groups  of  lee- 


CANON   LAW 


CANON   LAW 


turcs,  the  Ordinary,  or  the  more  important,  and 
tlie  Extraordinary.  The  Ordinary  covered  at 
Hoh)gna  was  very  probably  at  first  the  Decretuin, 
but  afterwards  it  came  to  cover  tiie  Decretals 
of  Gregory  IX.  The  Extraordinary  covered 
the  Liber  Sextus,  the  Clementina,  and  the 
Extravagantes.  The  division  between  the  two 
groups  became  less  important  than  in  the  Civil 
Law  because  of  the  great  difference  in  extent 
between  the  two  groups,  and  Ordinary  subjects 
were  necessarily  treated  in  Extraordinary 
lectures.  At  Paris  the  division  was  also  some- 
what uncertain.  The  principal  difference  be- 
tween the  two  classes  of  lectures,  apart  from 
subject  matter,  was  that  the  Ordinary  lectures 
could  be  delivered  only  by  the  doctors  or  ma- 
gisters  (the  names  are  synonymous)  and  in  the 
morning  hours,  but  the  Extraordinary  lectures 
might  be  delivered  by  advanced  scholars  as  a 
part  of  their  training  for  the  doctorate,  and 
were  in  any  case  delivered  in  the  afternoon. 
The  Ordinary  lectures  were  formal  and  covered 
long  passages,  but  the  Extraordinary  lectures 
were  frequently  in  the  form  of  discussions  of 
special  points,  were  less  formal,  and  admitted 
questioning  on  the  part  of  both  instructor  and 
student. 

In  teaching  Canon  Law  the  importance  of  the 
glo.ss  was  hardly  less  important  than  in  teaching 
Civil  Law.  The  glossa  ordinaria  to  the  Decre- 
tuni  was  composed  by  Johannes  Teutonicus  in 
1215,  and  had  the  advantage  of  giving  a  sum- 
mary of  all  the  best  opinion  on  the  text  to  that 
date.  This  gloss  was  henceforward  copied  with 
the  text  and  used  both  in  the  lectures  and  in 
the  courts.  In  this  way  the  lecture  room  was 
kept  in  touch  with  the  jiractioal  application  of 
the  law.  The  disadvantage  was  that  the  com- 
ment of  the  teacher  was  upon  the  gloss  even 
more  than  upon  the  original  text,  a  failing  which 
characterized  the  teaching  of  the  Civil  Law 
even  more  when  a  glossa  ordinaria  to  that  had 
been  composed  by  Accursius  in  1260.  Glossae 
were  also  provided  for  the  official  collections 
of  decretals,  which  acquired  recognition  in  the 
schools  and  courts  as  having  a  sort  of  authority 
as  glossae  ordinariae.  They  in  turn  were  sub- 
jected to  the  same  use  in  lectures  as  the  basis  of 
instruction.  These  glossae  do  not  api)ear  in 
the  modern  editions  of  the  Canon  Law,  of 
which  the  best  is  that  of  Friedbcrg,  Leipzig, 
1879-1881.  The  last  edition  with  the  glossae 
such  as  was  used  in  instruction  throughout 
the  Middle  Ages  was  that  published  at  Lyons 
in  1671. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation  the  center 
of  the  study  of  Canon  Law  was  undoubtedly 
Italy,  and  the  University  of  Bologna  was  the 
fountainhead.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the 
lead  was  taken  by  France,  and  Paris  and  Tou- 
louse became  more  prominent  than  Bologna.  A 
little  later  Germany  began  to  take  a  new  inter- 
est in  the  subject.  At  the  Reformed  and 
Protestant  universities  generally,  in  the  cen- 
turies following  the  Reformation,  the  study  of 


Canon  Law  undoubtedly  fell  off.  The  study  of 
the  Civil  Law,  however,  flourished  because  of 
the  official  introduction  of  the  Roman  Law  on 
the  basis  of  the  fiction  that  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  of  the  German  people  was  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  Roman  Empire  of  Constantine 
and  Justinian.  With  this  large  parts  of  the 
Canon  Law  had  become  closely  connected, 
especially  in  matters  treating  of  marriage  and 
in  the  civil  processes  of  the  courts,  the  latter  a 
matter  in  which  the  Canon  Law  stood  in  closer 
connection  with  the  German  practice  of  the 
courts  than  did  the  Civil  Law.  Thus  in  spite 
of  the  repudiation  of  the  Canon  Law  by  the 
Reformers  (cf.  Luther's  burning  the  Book  of 
the  Decretals  along  with  the  Pope's  Bull,  Dec. 
10,  1520),  the  Canon  Law  so  far  as  it  did  not 
touch  the  hierarchical  system  and  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church  continued  to  be  taught  in  the 
legal  faculties  of  the  German  universities 
under  non-Roman  control.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  institutions  attention  contiimed  to  be 
given,  the  subject  was  indispensable,  but  there 
were  no  longer  the  same  brilliant  prospects 
open  to  the  canonist. 

On  account  of  the  importance  of  Canon  Law 
for  the  scientific  and  historical  study  of  many 
legal  topics,  it  is  still  studied  in  the  universities 
of  continental  Europe,  and  of  other  countries 
where  the  Roman  and  the  Canon  laws  have 
been  subsidiary  laws.  Every  term  courses  are 
announced  in  the  legal  faculties  of  the  larger 
of  these  universities  on  the  Canon  Law  as  a 
whole  and  upon  special  topics.  It  is  due  to 
this  interest  that  new  textbooks  constantly 
appear  in  French,  German,  Italian,  and  Latin, 
and  the  liveliest  interest  is  taken  in  all  topics 
connected  with  its  history.  Thus  some  of  the 
best  textbooks  liave  been  written  by  Protes- 
tants, e.g.  Richter  and  Friedberg,  and  the 
standard  edition  of  the  Corpus  Juris  Canonici 
is  by  Friedberg,  and  the  eminent  historian  of 
French  law,  Esmein,  has  written  a  masterly 
work  on  Mariage  en  droit  canonique.  Canon 
Law  is  also  studied  in  all  seminaries  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  as  an  essential  part  of 
the  professional  training  of  the  clergy.  In 
English-speaking  countries  the  professional 
study  and  teaching  of  the  Canon  Law  has  al- 
most disappeared  among  Protestants,  even 
where,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Anglican  Com- 
munion, a  very  large  part  of  the  ecclesiastical 
law  of  the  various  branches  of  that  communion 
is  derived  from  the  Canon  Law.  This  is  due 
largely  to  the  attitude  taken  by  Henry  VIII 
toward  the  Canon  Law.  He  abolished  its 
study  at  the  universities  in  1535,  encouraging 
Roman  or  Civil  Law  in  its  place.  Though 
Canon  Law  remained  in  force  in  England  after 
the  breach  with  Rome,  it  did  so  only  so  far  as  it 
did  not  contravene  the  King's  prerogative,  a 
very  vague  term,  or  the  statutes  of  the  realm. 
This  was  further  limited  by  the  understanding 
that  only  so  much  was  to  retain  the  force  of 
law  as  could  be  shown  to  have  been  observed  in 


530 


CANON  LAW 


CAPELLA 


England  prior  to  the  breach  with  Rome.  The 
fiction  was  invented  that  the  Canon  Law  had 
never  been  binding  in  England  propria  vigore, 
but  had  been  received  by  the  English  people  and 
only  in  parts.  Abortive  attempts  were  made 
in  the  sixteenth  century  to  revise  the  law,  but 
with  judges  violently  opposed  to  the  Canon  Law 
on  religious  grounds  and  accepting  the  pre- 
ambles to  Henry's  statutes  as  historical  truth, 
much  of  the  law  was  set  aside  by  judicial  inter- 
pretation. Still  there  was  enough  to  \yarrant 
serious  study,  if  only  in  the  matter  of  wills  and 
marriage.  Yet  here  a  body  of  law,  known  as 
the  King's  Law  ecclesiastical,  had  grown  up, 
and  much  study  of  the  decretals  would  have 
been  regarded  as  antiquarian  research  savoring 
of  popery,  e.g.  Ayliffo's  Parergon.  To  this 
condition  should  be  added  as  a  cause  for  the 
disappearance  of  the  teaching  of  Canon  Law 
the  disappearance  of  all  legal  professorial  teach- 
ing, for  until  recently  law  was  read  entirely  in 
chambers.  There  have  not  yet  appeared,  so 
far  as  can  be  ascertained,  any  courses  in  Canon 
Law  in  England,  and  the  study  has  been  con- 
fined to  the  .students  of  history  largely.  In  theo- 
logical seminaries  of  the  Anglican  Communion, 
the  study  has  been  revived  to  a  slight  degree, 
especially  in  the  United  States.  In  American 
universities  some  courses  have  been  announced 
in  connection  with  the  study  of  Medieval  and 
Chtirch  History,  as  at  Harvard  by  Professor 
E.  Emerton.  The  writer  has  also  lectured  at 
Harvard  on  Canon  Law.  There  are  at  present 
no  courses  now  being  given  in  the  subject  so  far 
as  can  be  discovered.  In  the  law  schools 
of  America,  Canon  Law  fares  even  worse  than 
the  Civil  or  Roman  Law.  In  these  schools,  in 
spite  of  their  great  advance  in  methods  of  teach- 
ing English  and  American  Law,  a  subject  so 
slightly  connected  with  actual  practice  of  law 
has  obtained  no  recognition. 

The  literature  bearing  on  the  teaching  of 
Canon  Law  is  scanty  and  fragmentary.  In 
addition  to  the  textbooks  of  Canon  Law,  of 
which  some  of  the  most  important  are  those 
of  Schultc,  Friedberg,  Richter,  Vering,  von 
Scherer,  and  Walter,  all  of  which  contain  large 
sections  devoted  to  the  history  of  the  science, 
the  following  works  may  be  consulted,  but  the 
list  is  merely  suggestive.  There  is  as  yet  no 
history  of  the  Teaching  of  Canon  Law.  But 
in  addition  to  the  works  cited  much  information 
may  be  obtained  from  the  histories  of  univer- 
sities in  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  such  as 
tho.se  of  Rasiulall,  Denifle,  and  Kaufmann. 
The  modern  method  of  instruction  has  taken  the 
form  of  systems  of  Canon  Law  corresponding 
to  the  elements  of  jurisprudence  which  have 
been  popular  in  all  countries,  or  to  the  Pandec- 
tenrechl  of  the  Germans.  Among  the  more 
notable  textbooks  in  use  at  present  are  those  of 
Friedberg,  Richter,  Vering,  and  Devoti.  More 
elaborate  treatises  have  appeared  by  Hinschius, 
von  Scherer,  and  Phillips,  which,  although 
planned  upon  the  form  of  a  textbook,  are  very 


elaborate  and  profound  treatises  in  several 
volumes.  J.  C.  A.,  Jr. 

References :  — 

Hinschius.  System  des  Kalholischen  Kirckenrechts,  mit 
besonderer  Rucksicht  auf  Deutschland.    (1869-1888.) 

LoENiNG.     Geschichte  des  deutschen  Kirckenrechts  (1878.) 

Massen.  Geschichte  der  Quellen  iind  Literatur  des 
canonischen  Rechts.      (Gratz,  1870.) 

Maitland.  Ro7nan  Canon  Law  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land.     (Cambridge,  1899.) 

Madrus  Sarti  et  Maukus  Fattorini.  De  Claris  archi- 
gyvnuisii  Bononiensis  professoribus.      (17G9.) 

Rashd.\ll,  H.      Universities  of  Europe.     (Oxford,  1895.) 

Savigny.  Geschichte  des  romischen  Rechts  im  Mittel- 
alter,  1834. 

ScHULTE.     Geschichte    der    Quellen    und    Literatur    des 
canonischcn  Rechts.      (Stuttgart,   1875.) 
System  und  Lehrbu^h. 

Actual  textbooks  used  in  the  twelfth  century  are  the 
Summae  of  Paucapalea  (1891),  Rufinus  (1892), 
StephanusTornacensis  (1891),  all  edited  by  Schulte  ; 
the  Summa  of  Rolandus,  ed.  by  Thaner,  1874  ; 
Summa  Decretaliuni  of  Bernardus  Papicnsis,  ed.  by 
LaspcjTes,  1860. 

CANTOR.  —  See  Precentor;    also.  Cathe- 
dral Schools;    Church  Schools. 

CAPE  COLONY,  EDUCATION  IN.  —  See 

South  Africa,  Education  in. 

CAPELLA,  MARTIANUS  MINEUS  FELIX. 

—  Flourished  in  North  Africa  probably  in  the 
late  fourth  and  early  fifth  Christian  century, 
though  some  have  placed  him  a  century  earlier. 
He  was  a  lawyer,  possibly  also  a  teacher,  but 
little  is  known  of  him  personally.  He  lives  as 
the  author  of  a  curious  allegorical  treatise  on  the 
Seven  Liberal  Arts,  entitled  De  Nuptiis  Philo- 
logiae  et  Mercurii  (Concerning  the  Marriage  of 
Philology  and  Mercury).  This  work  consists 
of  9  books,  the  first  2  of  which  contain  the 
allegory  of  the  marriage,  which  takes  place 
before  the  assembly  of  all  the  gods  of  Latin 
mythology.  ApoUo  presents  as  gifts  to  the 
bride  seven  maidservants,  the  seven  arts.  Gram- 
mar, Dialectic,  Rhetoric,  Geometry,  Arithmetic, 
Astronomy,  and  Music.  As  each  maid  is  led 
forward  she  relates  her  parentage  and  expounds 
the  substance  of  her  arts.  These  speeches 
constitute  the  last  7  books  of  the  treatise. 
The  entire  work  is  extremely  pedantic,  formal, 
and  involved;  the  allegorical  parts  fantastic, 
the  expository  ones  extremely  tasteless  and 
clumsy.  But  the  treatise  forms  an  encyclo- 
pedia of  the  various  subjects,  displays  much 
learning,  and  served  as  text  on  the  entire  range 
of  culture  as  known  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  book  on  astronomy  clearly  foreshadows  the 
heliocentric  theory  of  the  universe,  but  its 
significance  to  the  Middle  Ages  was  as  a  con- 
venient summary  of  the  past.  With  Boe- 
thius  representing  logic,  and  Donatus  and 
Priscian  grammar,  Capella  completed  the 
authoritative  curriculum  of  the  Middle  Ages; 
though  objection  was  often  raised  to  the  Mar- 
riage of  Philology  and  Mercury  as  being  the 
work  of  a  pagan. 


531 


CAPITAL   UNIVERSITY 


CARLETON   COLLEGE 


References :  — 

Abelson,  p.     The  Seven  Liberal  Art^.     Columbia  Univ. 

T.  C.  Contrib.  to  Educ.      (New  York,  lil06.) 
Cole,  P.     Later  Roman  Education  in  Auxoniwi,  Capella, 

and  the  Theodosian  Code.      (New  York,  1909.) 
Sandys,  J.  E.     A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  Vol. 

I.     (Cambridge,  190.3.) 
Taylor,   H.   O.      The  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Middle 

Ages.      (New  York,  1901.) 

CAPITAL  UNIVERSITY  AND  THEOLOG- 
ICAL   SEMINARY,    COLUMBUS,   OHIO.— 

The  university  was  cstalili.shed  in  IS.jO  to  pro- 
vide academic  preparation  for  the  seminary 
which  had  been  founded  in  1830  by  the  Evangel- 
ical Lutheran  Joint  Synod  of  Ohio  and  other 
states.  Classical  and  scientific  courses  leading 
up  to  the  appropriate  degrees  are  offered. 
A  two  years'  department  preparatory  to  the  col- 
lege is  also  maintained,  to  which  students  who 
have  completed  the  eighth  grade  of  a  common 
school  are  admitted.  A  tliree  years'  course  is 
given  in  the  theological  seminary,  in  wliich  both 
German  and  English  are  used  in  instruction. 
There  is  a  faculty  of  11  professors. 

CAPS  AND  GOWNS.  —  See  Academic 
Costume. 

CARBON    DIOXIDE.  —  See    Air    of    the 

Schoolroom. 

CARDAN.  —  Girolamo  Cardano  (Latin,  Hier- 
onymus  Cardanus;  English,  Jerome  Cardan), 
was  one  of  the  foremost  algebraists  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  He  was  born  at  Pavia  in 
1501,  and  died  at  Rome  in  1576.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Bologna  and  at  Padua. 
Of  his  numerous  works  the  most  important  is 
the  Ars  Magna,  first  published  at  Nurnberg 
in  1545.  (See  Algebra.)  In  this  is  contained 
the  first  printed  solution  of  the  cubic  equation, 
a  solution  that  he  seems  to  have  obtained  from 
Tartaglia  (q.v.)  under  pledge  of  secrecy,  but  the 
proof  of  which  he  claims  to  have  supplied. 
The  solution  usually  goes  by  the  name  of 
"  Cardan's  method."  D.  E.  S. 

CAREW,  RICHARD  (1555-1620).  —  An 
English  scholar  who  was  educated  at  O.xford,  a 
country  gentleman,  Justice  of  the  Peace,  mem- 
ber of  ParUament  for  Saltash,  translator  of  part 
of  Tasso,  and  writer  of  an  antiquarian  book  on 
Cornwall,  1602.  Educationally  Carew  is  im- 
portant as  the  translator  (1594)  under  the  title 
of  The  Examination  of  Men's  Wits  of  the  Span- 
iard Juan  Huarte's  Examen  de  Ingenios  para 
las  Ciencias  (1557)  (see  Huarte,  Juan),  a 
book  advocating  the  education  of  youth  in 
accordance  with  the  mental  characteristics 
which  they  showed  before  and  during  the  time 
of  instruction,  thus  really  the  pioneer  of  educa- 
tional psj-chology.  Carew  also  wrote  a  short 
but  valuable  essay  on  The  True  and  Ready 
Way  to  Learn  the  Latine  Tongue;  expressed 
in  an  Answer  to  a  Queri  (query),  whether  the 
ordinary  way  oj  teaching  Latine  by  the  Rules  of 


Grammar,  he  the  best  Way  for  Youths  to  Learn 
it.  This  was  reprinted  by  Samuel  Hartlib  in 
1654,  along  with  the  views  on  the  same  subject 
of  Eilhardus  Lubinus,  the  German,  and  Mon- 
taigne, the  Frenchman.  Carew  gives  an  ac- 
count of  his  own  education.  He  spent  at 
school  9  or  10  years  over  the  rules  of  Lily's 
Grammar.  For  3  years  he  was  at  Oxford,  and 
3  further  years  at  the  Middle  Temple.  He 
then  traveled  in  Poland  and  Sweden,  and  had 
to  attempt  to  use  the  Latin  language  as  the 
medium  of  communication,  and  found  his 
grammar  training  fail  him.  He  then  went  into 
France,  and  in  three  quarters  of  a  year  learned 
more  French  than  he  had  learned  Latin  in  13 
years.  He  thence  argued  that  Latin  should  be 
taught  by  "  usual  talking  and  much  reading 
and  writing."  He  maintains  that  the  rules  of 
grammar  arise  from  the  common  practice  of 
speech,  and  not  vice  versa.  Finally,  he  says; 
"  I  hold  it  likewise  very  necessary  for  every 
teacher  to  be  as  diligent  in  observing  the  ex- 
ceeding different  nature  of  all  their  scholars, 
according  to  the  dispositions  of  their  person 
and  age,  rather  than  according  to  their  common 
rules;  for  some  can  learn  the  same  thing  better 
at  7  than  others  at  14;  and  yet  those  at  the 
14  years'  end  will  many  times  overturn  and 
outgo  the  same  persons,  who  so  much  outwent 
them  before."  F.  W. 

CARIES.  —  See  Teeth,  Hygiene  of. 

CARLETON   COLLEGE,   FARMINGTON, 

MO.  —  A  coeducational  institution  founded  in 
1S54  as  an  academy.  It  is  now  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
Preparatory,  academic,  collegiate,  and  musical 
departments  are  maintained,  though  the  work 
given  is  chiefly  preparatory.  Degrees  are 
conferred. 

CARLETON    COLLEGE,    NORTHFIELD, 

MINN.  —  A  coeducational  institution  founded 
as  Northfield  College,  which  received  its  first 
class  in  1870.  The  first  trustees,  nominated  in 
1866  by  the  State  Association  of  Congregational 
Churches,  adopted  articles  of  incorporation  and 
became  a  self-perpetuating  body  of  24  mem- 
bers, free  from  denominational  control;  each 
trustee  serves  4  years.  A  preparatory  school 
was  opened  in  1867  and  discontinued  in  1906. 
Upon  the  location  of  the  college  in  Northfield, 
its  citizens  gave  820,000,  and  the  Congregational 
churches  of  the  state  810,000,  toward  the 
establishment  of  a  "Founder's  Fund."  The 
college  is  one  of  23  institutions  fostered 
by  the  Congregational  Educational  Society. 
In  recognition  of  the  first  large  donation, 
S50,000  from  Mr.  William  Carleton  of  Charles- 
town,  Mass.,  the  name  was  changed  to  Carle- 
ton  College,  Jan.  16,  1872.  Other  gifts 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  General  Endowment 
Fund,  including  .'550,000  from  Dr.  D.  K.  Pear- 
sons of  Chicago.     The  largest  single  gift   has 


532 


CARLYLE 


CARLYLE 


been  $100,000  from  Mr.  William  H.  Laird  of 
Winona,  in  1905.  Tlie  college  is  endeavoring 
to  complete  an  endowment  of  $500,000. 
Carleton  College  is  one  of  the  institutions 
originally  accepted  by  the  Carnegie  Founda- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Teachmg  (q.v.). 
Besides  the  usual  undergraduate  courses, 
admission  to  which  is  by  examination  or  cer- 
tificate, the  college  maintains  a  school  of  music 
and  graduate  courses;  the  degree  of  M.A.  is 
given  for  1  year's  study  in  residence,  or  2 
years'  study  in  absentia,  in  each  case  requirmg 
a  thesis,  the  department  of  mathematics  and 
astronomy  offers  courses  leading  to  the  Ph.D. 
By  arrangement  with  the  University  of  Minne- 
sota, students  intending  to  study  medicine  may, 
during  their  senior  year,  take  professional  stud- 
ies in  the  university.  Women  must  reside 
in  Gridley  Hall,  the  women's  dormitory,  or  in 
other  buildings  exclusively  for  their  use;  the 
supervision  of  the  women  is  comniitted  to  a 
dean,  and  regulations  governing  social  relations 
between  men  and  women  are  strict.  There  are 
no  fraternities:  Phi  Kappa  Psi  maintained  a 
chapter  from  1883  to  1888.  The  college  owns 
the  Laird  Athletic  Field,  situated  on  the  bank 
of  the  Cannon  River.  There  are  no  dormi- 
tories for  men.  The  library  has  23,000  volumes. 
Grounds,  buildings,  and  equipment  were  valued 
(1906)  at  $232,000;  the  total  annual  income 
was  $33,000.  The  average  salary  of  a  pro- 
fessor is  $1400.  The  instructing  staff  (1909) 
numbers  21,  of  whom  8  are  full  professors. 
There  are  340  students,  divided  as  follows: 
College,  310;  School  of  Music,  30.  Donald  J. 
Cowling  is  president.  C.  G. 

CARLYLE,  THOMAS,  AS  AN  EDUCATOR. 

—  The  chief  events  in  the  life  of  Carlyle,  em- 
phasizing especially  those  related  to  his  career 
as  a  teacher,  a  teacher  in  the  technical  sense 
of  the  word,  are  as  follows:  Thomas  Carlyle 
(born  Dec.  4,  1795,  at  Ecelcfechan  in  southern 
Scotland)  learned  the  alphabet,  he  says,  at  his 
mother's  knee.  At  the  age  of  5  he  was  in  the 
village  school.  At  about  7  he  was  reported 
"  complete  in  English,  ...  I  must  go  on  to 
Latin  or  waste  my  time."  To  Latin  then  he 
went,  and  soon  "  made  rapid  and  sure  \yay." 
At  ten  he  entered  Annan  Academy,  May  26, 
1806.  After  three  years  of  gerund-grinding  he 
could  read  Latin  and  French  "  with  fluency," 
and  he  knew  something  of  geometry,  algebra, 
and  geography.  On  Nov.  9,  1809,  while  he 
was  yet  1.3,  he  entered  Edinburgh,  having 
w^alked  from  Ecclefechan  in  three  days.  The 
earliest  reference  to  Carlyle  as  engaged  in  teach- 
ing is  apparently  the  following,  from  the  earliest 
letter  from  his  father  that  has  been  preserved: 
Ecclefechan.  27th  April,  1814. 
Dear  Sir,  —  I  received  yours  yesterday, 
and  was  very  glad  to  hear  that  you  were  well 
and  was  teaching,  for  we  did  not  know  what  to 
do,  whether  you  were  coming  home  or  going  to 
stop  at  I'xlinburgh;  .  .   . 


In  the  summer  of  1814  —  in  June  —  Carlyle 
was  appointed  mathematical  master  in  his  old 
school  at  Annan,  "  salary  about  £70."  Here  he 
remained  about  two  and  one  half  years,  "  a  clear 
and  correct  expositor,"  but  doing  violence  to 
educational  doctrine  in  that  he  did  not  mingle 
freely  in  the  social  life  of  the  place.  In  late 
autumn  of  1810  he  became  parish  schoolmaster 
at  Kirkcaldy,  a  few  miles  beyond  Edinburgh, 
where  he  and  Edward  Irving  (later  a  distin- 
guished London  preacher  and  founder  of  a  sect) 
became  fast  friends.  On  Nov.  20,  1818,  Carlyle 
left  for  Edinburgh  with  no  definite  prospects,  and 
with  perhaps  £100  of  his  savings.  On  Dec.  17 
he  wrote  to  his  mother,  reassuringly,  that  he  had 
three  hours  of  private  teaching  at  two  guineas 
a  month  for  each  hour.  But  by  the  middle  of 
January  these  particular  engagements  had  come 
to  an  end.  In  Feb.,  1819,  he  spoke  of  "  a  slight 
tincture  "  of  the  German  language,  which  he  is 
receiving  in  return  for  an  equally  slight  tinc- 
ture of  the  French,  which  he  is  communicating. 
On  Mar.  29  he  is  "  still  at  the  German,"  and  is 
able  to  read  books  now,  with  a  dictionary.  As 
late  as  1834,  when  Carlyle  was  38  years  of  age 
and  had  written  Sartor  Resartus  and  his  Essay 
on  Burns,  and  had  been  for  years  in  intimate 
correspondence  with  Goethe,  he  was  exchang- 
ing lessons  in  geometry  for  lessons  in  Greek. 
"  Began  Homer  two  weeks  ago.  .  .  .  Poor 
Glen  is  my  very  sufficient  help  here  "  —  though 
this  exchange  was  doubtless  largely  for  his 
friend's  sake,  a  man  of  genius,  whose  mind 
was  sinking  into  eclipse. 

The  three  years  following  the  resignation  of 
his  Kirkcaldy  school,  that  is,  1819,  1820,  1821, 
were  years  of  sore  trial  to  himself,  for  many 
reasons,  and  of  disappointment  to  his  family. 
Tom  would  neither  go  on  into  the  ministry  nor 
remain  in  the  respectable  rank  of  the  profes- 
sional schoolmaster.  He  spent  the  winters  at 
Edinburgh,  the  summers  at  home.  He  was 
earning  something  writing  articles  for  Brew- 
ster's Encydopcedia,  and  there  are  occasional 
references  in  the  correspondence  with  friends 
and  family  to  private  teaching.  In  Sept.,  1820, 
he  refused  a  (Yorkshire)  traveling  tutorship, 
and  again  in  1821  a  tutorship  offered  by  his 
Kirkcaldy  friend,  Provost  Swan.  But  in  Jan., 
1822,  he  accepted  an  offer  that  came  to  him 
through  his  friend  Irving,  now  in  London,  of  a 
tutorship  to  two  promising  youths  —  one  of 
whom,  Charles  Buller,  in  after  years  had  a 
share  in  giving  responsible  government  to  Eng- 
land's greatest  colonv,  "  Our  Lady  of  the 
Snows";  the  other,  Arthur  Buller.  later  "Sir 
Arthur  and  Indian  Judge  "  (on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  w^orld  from  Canada),  both  to  the 
last  "  always  generously  grateful  "  to  their  re- 
markable tutor.  The  £200  per  annum  "  and 
good  accommodations  in  the  house  "  was  to 
him  opulence.  He  sent  for  his  brother  John  — 
later  translator  of  the  Inferno  —  to  come  to  the 
university  at  his  expense,  and  in  various  ways 
came  to  the  support  of  the  family.     This  tutor- 


533 


CARLYLE 


CARLYLE 


ship  he  held  until  July,  1824.  By  this  time  he 
had  translated  Legendre's  Geomeluj  from  the 
French,  Goethe's  WUhclm  Meister's  Apprentice- 
ship from  the  German,  and  had  written  a  Life 
of  Schiller  for  the  London  Magazine.  And  he 
had  wooed  and  won  the  beautiful  and  brilliant 
Jane  Baillie  Welsh. 

After  their  marriage  on  Oct.  17,  1826,  there 
were  at  various  times  attempts  made  to  secure 
for  Carlyle  a  university  professorship.  In  the 
latter  part  of  1827  one  of  the  new  London  pro- 
fessorships was  talked  of  —  English  literature 
or  moral  philosophy.  In  the  early  part  of 
1828  a  concerted  attempt  was  made  to  secure 
for  Carlyle  the  vacant  professorship  of  moral 
philosophy  in  St.  Andrews  University.  "  Equal 
testimonials,"  says  Froude,  "  viewed  by  the 
intrinsic  quality  of  the  givers,  to  those  which 
were  collected  or  spontaneously  offered  on  this 
occasion,  were  perhaps  never  presented  by  any 
candidate  for  a  Scotch  professorship."  Goethe 
wrote  a  magnanimous  testimonial.  Carlyle 
wrote  to  his  brother  John  at  Munich  that  such 
praise  as  this  one  "  ought  to  value  more  than 
any  Professorship  in  these  parts."  This  tes- 
timonial from  Goethe  was,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
probably  not  presented  to  the  St.  Andrew  elec- 
tors —  not  that  it  would  have  affected  the  deci- 
sion. "  Dr.  Cook  is  as  good  as  appointed;  .  .  . 
Goethe's  certificate  arrived  while  I  was  in  the 
country:  mustard  after  dinner;  which  these 
rough  feeders  shall  not  so  much  as  smell!  " 
—  Letter  to  Dr.  John  Carlyle,  Munich,  Apr.  16, 
1828.  As  to  a  possible  appointment  to  a  pro- 
fessorship in  Glasgow  University,  Carlyle 
writes  to  his  brother  Aleck  in  January,  1833: 
"  We  shall  see.  My  own  private  impression  is 
that  I  shall  never  get  any  promotion  in  this 
world." 

In  the  early  part  of  1834  a  professorship  in 
astronomy  was  about  to  be  established  in 
Edinburgh.  Carlyle  had  always  excelled  in 
mathematics,  and  was  qualified  for  the  post. 
But  this  time  Jeffrey  could  not  help  —  his  in- 
fluence having  already,  perhaps,  been  given  to 
another.  He,  however,  embraced  the  occasion 
to  read  Carlyle  a  lecture.  There  was  another 
professorship,  viz.  rhetoric,  to  which  he  might 
have  conscientiously  recommended  Carlyle, 
had  not  Carlyle  made  the  mention  of  his  name 
in  such  a  connection  ridiculous.  (Sartor  Re- 
sartus  was  now  appearing  in  Fraser's  Magazine, 
and  was  being  received  with  universal  execra- 
tion.) This  was  the  last  time  Carlyle  looked 
for  such  appointment.  Before  the  middle  of 
June,  1834,  he  was  established  at  No.  5  Cheyne 
Row,  Chelsea,  London  —  his  home  for  the  rest 
of  his  life.  In  1841  he  received  an  invitation 
from  a  body  of  Edinburgh  students  to  stand 
for  a  professorship.  Carlyle  was  touched,  but 
could  not  now  accept.  In  1844  he  declined  a 
professorship  at  St.  Andrews.  But  in  186.5, 
after  the  publication  of  the  last  volume  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  he  received  by  so  large  a 
majority  the  nomination  to  the  Lord-Rector- 


ship of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  his  own 
university,  that  he  could  not  decline.  It  was 
the  highest  tribute  his  countrymen  could  pay 
him  —  it  was  Scotland's  recognition  of  her 
gifted  son. 

The  "  perfect  triumph  "  of  the  Inaugural 
Address,  Apr.  2,  1866,  and  the  subsequent  uni- 
versal acclaim  were  followed,  while  Carlyle  was 
still  detained  among  his  kinsmen,  by  the  shock 
of  the  sudden  death  of  his  wife,  and  the  light 
of  his  life  was  gone  out.  On  Feb.  5,  1881, 
Carlyle  died,  and  according  to  his  wish  was 
buried  with  his  people  in  Ecclefechan  kirkyard. 

Carlyle  was  thus  a  teacher,  in  the  technical 
sense  of  the  word,  for  years.  Furthermore,  he 
wrote  much  on  strictly  educational  themes. 
And  inasmuch  as  the  readers  of  this  peasant- 
born  writer  of  magnificent,  rhythmical,  vivid, 
vital,  imperishable  English  prose  have  been 
numbered  by  the  million  and  are  found  in 
every  corner  of  the  English-speaking  world  and 
in  other  lands  as  well,  his  influence  on  educa- 
tional thought  and  practice,  but  especially  on 
educational  ideals,  cannot  easily  be  overesti- 
mated. 

Carlyle's  recognition  by  his  own  generation 
was  long  delayed,  but  it  came  at  last  in  a  flood. 
That  immortal  work  of  genius.  Sartor  Resartus 
(which  appeared  in  book  form  first  in  America, 
thanks  to  Emerson),  could  not  for  a  time  find 
a  publisher  in  England,  except  the  author  pay 
the  publisher  £150  to  guarantee  him  against 
loss;  but  before  the  author's  death  a  popular 
edition  of  30,000  copies  was  printed  and  sold. 
Sartor  Resartus  from  beginning  to  end  is  full  of 
ideas  of  educational  significance.  And  inas- 
much as  the  education  of  the  hero,  Teufels- 
drockh,  is  described  in  detail,  large  parts  of  this 
wonderful  book  are  in  fact  as , strictly  educa- 
tional in  interest  as  Rousseau's  Emile.  Stimu- 
lating and  suggestive  comment  on  educational 
matters  is  found  in  all  of  Carlyle's  work,  for 
Carlyle  himself  was  greatly  interested  in  educa- 
tion. 

This  interest  in  educational  problems  and 
theories  doubtless  arose  partly  out  of  his  ex- 
perience in  the  classroom,  but  it  was  assuredly 
greatly  stimulated  by  the  study  which  Carlyle 
made  —  as  no  English-speaking  man  before 
him  had  made  —  of  German  literature  and 
German  philosophy.  He  read  Goethe's  Faust 
in  1820,  and  in  1822  published  an  account  of  it 
in  the  New  Edinburgh  Revieiv.  In  1823  and 
1824  he  was  at  work  on  Goethe's  greatest 
novel,  Wilhelm  Meister.  Wilhelm  Meister's 
Apprenticeship,  translated  by  Thomas  Carlyle, 
was  published  in  1824.  This  one  book  —  so 
wise,  so  rich  a  storehouse  as  it  is  of  philosophic 
discussion,  of  illuminating  comment  on  life 
and  art  —  must  in  itself  have  suggested  to  so 
gifted  a  reader  as  Carlyle  a  wide  range  of  ideas 
concerning  education  and  concerning  life.  But 
by  the  time  he  began  on  Sartor  Resartus  he 
had  ranged  over  the  whole  field  of  German 
thought,    and   in   silence   had   meditated   and 


534 


CARLYLE 


CARLYLE 


grown  wise  in  the  stillness  of  his  moorland 
Craigenputtock  home.  As  it  was  manifestly 
unprofitable  for  Carlyle  to  attempt  "  to  state 
the  Philosophy  of  Clothes  without  the  Philoso- 
pher, the  ideas  of  Teufelsdrockh  without  some- 
thing of  his  personality,"  there  are  in  Sartor 
ResaHus,  as  a  matter  of  course,  chapters  on 
Genesis,  Idyllic  (childhood  days),  Pedagogy, 
Getting  under  Way,  Romance,  etc.,  with  com- 
ment on  heredity,  environment,  the  creative 
instinct  in  children  (and  their  apparently  wan- 
ton breakages  as  due  to  this  instinct),  the  gre- 
garious sports  by  which  the  youth  trains  himself 
to  cooperation, good  passivit> ,  and  good  activity, 
the  village  schoolmaster,  who  pronounces  Teu- 
felsdrockh a  genius  and  sends  him  on  to  the 
gymnasium  —  whore,  also,  his  teachers  are 
"  hide-bound  pedants  without  knowledge  of 
man's  nature  or  of  boy's,"  "  inanimate,  me- 
chanical gerund-grinders,"  who  cram  into  their 
pupils  "  Innumerable  dead  Vocables,"  and  call 
it  "  fostering  the  growth  of  mind."  They 
"  know  syntax  enough;  and  of  the  human  soul 
thus  much:  that  it  had  a  faculty  called  Memory, 
and  could  be  acted-on  through  the  muscular 
integument  by  appliance  of  birch-rods." 
"  Alas,  so  is  it  everywhere,  so  will  it  ever  be; 
till  the  Hodman  is  discharged  or  reduced  to 
hod  bearing;  and  an  Architect  is  hired,  and  on 
all  hands  fitly  encouraged:  till  communities 
and  individuals  discover,  not  without  surprise, 
that  fashioning  the  souls  of  a  generation  by 
Knowledge  can  rank  on  a  level  with  blowing 
their  bodies  to  pieces  by  Gunpowder;  that  with 
Generals  and  field  marshals  for  killing,  there 
should  be  world-honoured  Dignitaries,  and,  were 
it  possible,  true  God-ordainod  Priests,  for 
teaching."  Through  contact  with  such  true 
God-ordained  priests  is  the  mind  of  youth 
fostered,  which  grows  "  like  a  Spirit  by  mysteri- 
ous contact  of  Spirit;  Thought  kindling  itself 
at  the  fire  of  living  Thought." 

Before  Sartor  Rcsarlus  was  published,  Car- 
lyle, in  Corn-Law  Rhymes  (1832),  had  asked, 
"  But  what,  after  all,  is  meant  by  uneducated," 
in  these  unhappy  times,  "  when  he  that  is  the 
least  educated  will  chiefly  have  to  sa}'  that  he 
is  the  least  perverted  "  —  a  question  and  an- 
swer "  significant  of  much."  "  As  if  it  were 
by  universities  and  libraries  and  lecture-rooms, 
that  man's  Education,  what  we  call  Education, 
were  accomplished."  The  first  sentence  of 
Latler-Day  Pamphlets  (1850)  is,  "  The  Present 
Time  ...  to  know  it,  and  what  it  bids  us 
do,  is  ever  the  sum  of  Knowledge  for  all  of  us." 
"  I  foresee,"  he  says,  "  that  our  Etons  and 
O.xfords  with  their  nonsense-verses,  college- 
logics,  and  broken  crumbs  of  mere  speech,  .  .  . 
will  be  found  a  most  astonishing  seminary  for 
the  training  of  young  English  souls  to  take 
command  in  human  Industries,  and  act  a 
valiant  part  under  the  sun!  " 

Garlyle's  chief  service  to  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation perhaps  is  the  persistence  with  which 
he  insisted  upon   England's  duty  to  provide 


education  for  all.  In  1831  no  English  publisher 
could  be  found  for  this  noble  passage:  "  Two 
men  I  honour  and  no  third.  First,  the  toil- 
worn  Craftsman  that  with  earth-made  Imple- 
ment laboriously  conquers  the  Earth,  and  makes 
her  man's.  .  .  .  Hardly-ontreated  Brother ! 
For  us  was  thy  back  so  bent,  for  us  were  thy 
straight  limbs  and  fingers  so  deformed:  thou 
wort  our  Conscript,  on  whom  the  lot  fell,  and 
fighting  our  battles  wort  so  marred.  For  in 
thee  too  lay  a  god-created  Form,  but  it  was  not 
to  be  unfolded;  ...  It  is  not  because  of  his 
toils  that  I  lament  for  the  poor:  .  .  .  But 
what  I  do  mourn  over  is,  that  the  lamp  of  his 
soul  should  go  out;  that  no  ray  of  heavenly, 
or  even  of  earthly  knowledge,  should  visit 
him;  .  .  .  That  there  should  one  Man  die 
ignorant  who  had  capacity  for  Knowledge,  this 
I  call  a  tragedy,  were  it  to  happen  more  than 
twenty  times  in  the  minute,  as  by  some  com- 
putations it  does.  The  miserable  fraction  of 
Science  which  our  united  Mankind  .  .  .  has 
acquired,  why  is  not  this,  with  all  diligence, 
imparted  to  all  ?  " 

Why  is  not  this,  with  all  diligence,  imparted 
to  all  ?  To  this  challenge  Carlyle  returns  again 
and  again.  Who  would  suppose,  he  cries  in 
Chartism  (December,  1839),  that  education 
were  a  thing  which  had  to  be  advocated  f  This, 
one  would  imagine,  was  the  first  function  that 
a  government  would  set  about  discharging. 

"  Were  it  not  a  cruel  thing  to  see,  in  any 
province  of  an  empire,  the  inhabitants  living 
all  mutilated  in  their  limbs,  each  strong  man 
with  his  right  arm  lamed  ?  How  much  cruder 
to  find  the  strong  soul,  with  its  eyes  still  sealed, 
its  eyes  extinct  so  that  it  sees  not !  Light  has 
come  into  the  world,  but  to  this  poor  peasant 
it  has  come  in  vain.  .  .  .  Heavier  wrong  is 
not  done  under  the  sun.  It  lasts  from  year  to 
year,  from  century  to  century;  the  blinded 
sire  slaves  himself  out,  and  leaves  a  blinded 
son;  and  men,  made  in  the  image  of  God,  con- 
tinue as  two-legged  beasts  of  labour;  and  in 
the  largest  empire  of  the  world,  it  is  a  debate 
whether  a  small  fraction  of  the  Revenue  of  one 
Day  .  .  .  shall,  after  Thirteen  Centuries,  be 
laid  out  on  it,  or  not  laid  out  on  it.  .  .  .  Dis- 
senters call  for  one  scheme  of  Education,  the 
Church  objects;  this  party  objects,  and  that. 
.  .  .  Pity  that  difficulties  exist;  that  Religion, 
of  all  things,  should  occasion  difficulties." 

To  Carlyle  as  to  Sterling  it  is  "  monstrous  " 
that  the  State  is  prevented  from  "  teaching 
Roman  Catholic  children  to  read,  write  and 
cipher,  merely  because  they  believe  in  the 
Pope."  "  How  dare  any  man,  especially  a 
man  calling  himself  minister  of  God,  stand  up 
in  any  Parliament  or  place,  under  any  pretext 
or  delusion,  and  for  a  day  or  an  hour  forbid 
God's  light  to  come  into  the  world,  and  bid 
the  Devil's  Darkness  continue  in  it  one  hour 
more!  " 

In  successive  volumes,  Carljde  continued  to 
call  for  a  right  Educational  Bill,  for  an  efficient 


535 


CARMINA  BURANA 


CARNEGIE  PHILANTHROPIES 


teaching  service,  for  a  captain  general  of 
teachers,  a  minister  of  education,  whose  work 
would  he  to  provide  a  feasible  plan  whereby 
the  alphabet  should  get  itself  taught  and 
God's  light  should  come  into  the  world.  He 
lived  to  see  the  work  entered  upon,  in  the 
Education  Act  of  1870.  No  small  part  in  the 
awakening  of  the  conscience  of  England  to  this 
duty  was  taken  by  Thomas  Carlyle.       R-  J- 

References:  — 
Carlyle,   Alex.^nder.     Love  Letters   of  Thomas   Car- 
lyle and  Jane  Welsh.    2  vols.     (London.  1909.) 
New  Letters   of   Thomas   Carlyle.     2  vols.      (Loudon, 

1904.) 

New  Letters  and  Alemorials   of  Ja?ie   Welsh    Carlyle. 

2  vols.    (London,  1903.) 

Carlyle,    Alexander,    and    Crichton-Browne,   .Sir 

James.      The  Nemesis  of  Froude.      (London,  1903.) 

Froude.     Life  of  Thomas  Carlyle.     4  vols.     (London, 

1882-1884.) 
Garnett,  Richard.     Brief  Life  of  Thomas  Carlyle,  in 
the  Great  Writers  Series.     Contains  a  bibliography 
by    John    P.    Anderson   of   the    British    Museum. 
(London,  1887.) 
Norton.     Charles     Eliot.     Correspondence     between 
Goethe  and  Thomas  Carlyle.     (New  York,  1887.) 
Letters  of  Thomas  Carlyle.     (New  York,  1888.) 
Reminiscences   of    Thomas   Carlyle.      2    vols.      (New 
York,  18S7.) 

CARMINA  BURANA,  CARMINA  VAGO- 
RUM.  —  Student  songs,  whose  origin  may  be 
referred  back  to  the  end  of  the  twelfth  and 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  centuries.  The 
first  title  is  given  to  a  collection  of  such  songs 
contained  in  a  Ms.  of  the  thirteenth  century 
found  in  the  monastery  of  Benedictbeuern  in 
Bavaria  and  now  preserved  at  Munich.  The 
second  title  contains  the  reference  to  the  wan- 
dering life  of  the  students  of  that  period.  (See 
Bacchants.)  As  the  productions  of  a  class 
which  stood  outside  the  general  life  of  the  times, 
they  present  pictures  of  the  student  attitude 
to  the  Church  and  people.  The  songs  may  be 
separated  into  two  main  divisions  according 
to  content.  One  type  deals  with  the  wander- 
ing life,  with  the  delights  of  spring  and  nature, 
with  the  pleasures  of  love  and  wine,  and  with 
gambling  and  the  students'  struggle  for  exist- 
ence. The  other  type  includes  satires  on 
society  and  the  Church,  and  moral  and  religious 
disquisitions.  A  sense  of  brotherhood  among 
the  students  marks  the  songs,  which  were  so 
widespread  that  it  is  difficult  to  locate  their 
origin.  The  student  brotherhood  soon  de- 
veloped into  a  so-called  guild  with  Golias  as 
the  patron  saint.  Who  Golias  was,  into  whose 
mouth  most  of  the  songs  are  placed,  is  not 
known.  Probably  he  was  a  mythical  person- 
age created  by  the  students  to  serve  their  pur- 
pose. Hence  the  songs  are  the  songs  of  a  class 
and  not  individual,  so  that  it  is  hopeless  to 
attempt  to  trace  the  author  in  each  case.  The 
songs  are  written  in  a  great  variety  of  meters, 
but  are  all  marked  by  a  lilt  and  swing  which 
was  demanded  by  the  purpose  which  called 
them  forth.  Though  written  in  Latin,  the 
classical    meters    are    rarely  found.     Instead, 


accent  and  rhythm  are  given  first  place.  In 
many  cases  the  measures  are  borrowed  from 
church  hymns,  which  are  frequently  parodied. 
In  their  boldness  and  freshness,  and  freedom 
from  conventional  restrictions,  in  the  pagan 
view  of  life  and  the  opposition  to  the  Church, 
Symonds  traces  the  beginnings  of  the  early 
Renaissance  and  a  revolt  against  the  limitations 
and  restraints  of  the  time. 

In  addition  to  the  Ms.  of  the  Carmina 
Burana,  which  Symonds  has  translated  in 
Wine,  Women  and  Song,  another  series  of 
student  songs  is  collected  in  a  Harleian  Ms. 
written  before  1264.  This  series,  whose  author- 
ship is  attributed  to  Walter  Mapes,  was  edited 
in  1841  by  Thomas  Wright. 

References:  — 

Symonds,  J.  A.  Wine,  Women  and  Song.  (Portland, 
Me.,  1899.)  This  book  contains  a  good  bibliog- 
raphy on  the  subject  of  student  songs. 

Wright,  T.  Walter  Mapes.  Camden  Soc.  Publ.,  Vol. 
50.  (London,  1850.) 

CARNEGIE  EDUCATIONAL  PHILAN- 
THROPIES. —  Among  the  many  remarkable 
gifts  for  education  and  for  the  various  forms 
of  social  betterment  which  have  marked  the 
present  generation,  none  have  been  more  note- 
worthy because  of  the  principle  involved  or  the 
vast  sums  contributed  than  those  of  Andrew 
Carnegie. 

Andrew  Carnegie  was  born  in  Dunfermline, 
Scotland,  in  1837,  and  was  brought  to  this  coun- 
try when  twelve  years  of  age.  After  a  boyhood 
passed  in  a  variety  of  occupations,  as  with  many 
American  boj^s,  the  close  of  the  war  found 
him  as  government  superintendent  of  military 
railways  and  telegraph  lines  in  the  East.  The 
foundations  of  his  great  wealth  were  laid  in  his 
introduction  of  the  Bessemer  steel  process  into 
the  United  States.  Mr.  Carnegie's  entire  life 
is  identified  with  the  upbuilding  of  the  steel 
industry  in  this  country,  until  he  retired  in  1901, 
with  a  colossal  fortune,  with  the  formation  of 
the  United  States  Steel  Corporation. 

Mr.  Carnegie's  name  will  ever  be  associated 
with  one  particular  form  of  philanthropy  and 
one  particular  instrument  of  educational  work, 
—  the  free  library.  His  father  before  him  was 
interested,  with  five  fellow  weavers,  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  library  in  his  native  Scotch 
town.  In  1865  Mr.  Carnegie  became  a  life 
member  of  the  Mercantile  Library  and  Me- 
chanics Institute  of  Pittsburg.  In  1886  the 
firm  of  Carnegie  Brothers  and  Company  pre- 
sented to  each  of  their  office  employees  an 
annual  membership  in  the  same  library,  and  an 
alcove  was  added  for  the  purchase  of  appro- 
priate books,  and  was  named  by  the  authorities 
"  the  Carnegie  Alcove."  Some  years  after  this 
the  gifts  for  the  notable  Carnegie  libraries  of 
Pittsburg  were  begun.  And  from  there  grew 
the  general  scheme  for  library  encouragement 
all  over  this  country,  and  in  fact  over  the 
English-speaking  world. 


536 


CARNEGIE  PHILANTHROPIES 


CARNEGIE   FOUNDATION 


The  principle  underlying  practically  all  of 
these  gifts  is  that  the  community  must  agree 
to  devote  to  the  annual  support  of  the  library 
a  sum  approximately  one  tenth  of  the  sum 
given  for  the  building  ;  for  Mr.  Carnegie's 
benefactions  are  usually  given  for  the  building 
itself.  The  motives  leading  to  this  form  of 
benefaction  are  summarized  thus  by  the 
founder;  "  (1)  The  library  gives  nothing  for 
nothing.  The  youth  who  is  improved  by  it  must 
cooperate.  If  he  does  not  read  and  study,  he 
finds  no  reward.  (2)  The  library  supported 
by  taxation  is  owned  by  the  community.  It 
is  no  gift  to  the  poorer  classes.  They  must 
also  contribute  their  mite.  It  is  the  library 
of  the  people,  and  within  its  walls  the  poorest 
citizen  has  all  the  rights  of  the  Mayor.  _  (3)  Free 
public  libraries  are  the  cradles  of  triumphant 
democracy.  (4)  The  donor  does  not  pauperize 
the  community;  he  gives  the  building,  the 
community  furnishes  the  site  and  maintains 
the  library." 

To  Jan.  1,  1910,  Mr.  Carnegie  had  given 
$54,000,000  to  more  than  2000  libraries.  The 
circulation  per  year  for  these  libraries  is  esti- 
mated to  be  over  180,000,000  volumes  or  more 
than  there  are  English-speaking  people  in  the 
world.      The  gifts  are  distributed  as  follows:  — 

THE   TOTAL  OF   MR.   CARNEGIE'S   LIBRARY    GIFTS 


United  Stat«a      .     . 

1029  buildings  208  branches 

$36,160,035 

Canada       .... 

96  buildings 

5  branches 

2,240.715 

England  and  Wales 

344  buildings 

59  branches 

8,935,380 

Ireland       .... 

45  buildings 

21  branches 

767.347 

Scotland     .... 

115  buildings 

18  branches 

2,142,143 

New  Zealand       .     . 

17  buildings 

167,062 

British  West  Indies 

5  buildings 

119,000 

Australia  and  Ta-'^ma 

nia   4  buildings 

69.280 

South  Africa        .     . 

4  buildings 

31,244 

SevchcUea  Islands   . 

1  building 

10,000 

Fiji  Islands     .     .     . 

1  building 

7,500 

College  Libraries     . 

3,660,753 

Total    . 

$54,310,459 

The  distribution  of  these  gifts  in  this  country  is  as 
follows :  — ■ 


Alabama 15  libraries, 

Arizona 3  libraries, 

Arkansas 3  libraries, 

California 76  libraries, 

Colorado 21  libraries, 

Connecticut 7  libraries, 

Delaware        1  librarj', 

Florida 4  libraries, 

Georeia 18  libraries, 

Hawaii I  library, 

Idaho 7  libraries, 

Illinois 87  libraries, 

Indiana 69  libraries, 

Iowa SO  lilirariea, 

Kansas 41  libraries. 

Kentucky 15  libraries, 

Louisiana 5  libraries, 

Maine 19  libraries, 

Maryland 5  libraries, 

Massachusetts 29  libraries, 

MichiRan        42  libraries, 

Minnesota 43  libraries. 

Mississippi 3  libraries. 

Missouri 20  libraries, 

Montana 1 1  libraries, 

Nebraska 24  libraries, 

Nevada 2  libraries, 

New  Hampshire      .     .     .     .  12  libraries, 

New  Jersey 21  libraries, 


S306,.300. 

54,000. 

125,600. 

1,832,787. 

528,443. 

65,840. 

6,000. 

100,000. 

398,200. 

100,000. 

95,500. 

3,279,430. 

4.687,680. 

1,303,906. 

600.840. 

776..300. 

340.000. 

210,550. 

555,500. 

747,500. 

1,486.700. 

573.400. 

35.000. 

1,389.000. 

1.^4.200. 

350.000. 

35,000. 

159,000. 

651,405.50 


New  Mexico 2 

New  York 48 

North  Carolina 9 

North  Dakota 8 

Ohio 71 

Oklahoma 10 

Oregon 7 

Pennsylvania 39 

South  Carolina 6 

South  Dakota 6 

Tennessee 9 

Texas 29 

Utah 4 

Vermont 3 

Virginia 4 

Washington 21 


West  Virginia 

M'isconsin 

Wyoming 

District  of  Columbia 

Indian  Territory 

Porto  Rico     .     . 


libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
Ubraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
Ubraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
libraries, 
library. 


20, 

6,545, 

147, 

117, 

2,509 

163 

180, 

3,179 

71 
171 
252 
604 

58, 

73 
211 
741 

91 
849, 
186 
725 

30 
100 


000. 
,873. 
945.71 
700. 
783.04 
000. 
000. 
,215.65 
200. 
,000. 
500. 
.200. 
."jOO. 
000. 
,000. 
500. 
.500. 
861. 
.500. 
,000. 
.000. 
000. 


Besides  the  library  benefactions,  Mr.  Car- 
negie's generosity  has  been  directed  toward 
the  improvement  of  educational  facilities  in 
other  ways.  Most  notable  among  these  are 
The  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Improve- 
ment of  Teaching,  founded  in  190.5  bv  the  gift 
of  $10,000,000,  to  which  S5,000,000  were  added 
in  1908  ;  and  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Wash- 
ington for  the  encouragement  of  research,  by 
the  gift  of  810,000,000  in  1902.  These  are  dis- 
cussed under  the  appropriate  captions. 

In  addition  to  these  Mr.  Carnegie  has  given 
generously  to  various  colleges  and  universities 
at  various  times.  Chief  among  these  is  the 
Carnegie  Technical  Institution  of  Pittsburg, 
which  has  received  over  S4, 000, 000.  One 
other  form  of  Mr.  Carnegie's  benefactions 
which  looks  toward  the  education  of  the  people 
is  the  frequent  gift  of  church  pipe  organs  — 
more  than  4000  in  all  —  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
proving the  musical  tastes  of  the  people. 

References:  — 

Library  Journal:  an  early  number,  usually  January, 
each  year  gives  a  summary  of  Mr.  Carnegie's  gifts 
for  the  preceding  year. 

CARNEGIE  FOUNDATION  FOR  THE 
ADVANCEMENT      OF      TEACHING.  —  An 

organization  established  Apr.  16,  1905,  by  Air. 
Andrew  Carnegie,  having  for  its  primary  pur- 
pose the  establishing  of  retiring  allowances  in 
the  colleges,  universities,  and  technical  schools 
of  the  United  States,  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
and  Newfoundland.  On  this  date  Mr.  Car- 
negie expressed  his  wish  in  a  letter  addressed 
to  25  men  whom  he  had  selected  as  trustees 
of  the  fund.     A  part  of  this  letter  follows  :  — 

New  York,  April  16,  1905. 

Gentlemen  :  — 

I  have  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  least  rewarded 
of  all  the  professions  is  that  of  the  teacher  in  our  higher 
educational  institutions.  New  York  City  generouf^ly, 
and  verj*  ^\'isely,  pro\'ides  retiring  pensions  for  teachers 
in  her  public  schools  and  also  for  her  policemen.  Very 
few,  indeed,  of  our  colleges  are  able  to  do  so.  The 
consequences  are  grievous.  .\ble  men  hesitate  to  adopt 
teaching  as  a  career,  and  many  old  professors,  wlios* 
places  should  be  occupied  by  younger  men,  cannot  be 
retired. 


537 


CARNEGIE  FOUNDATION 


CARNEGIE  FOUNDATION 


I  have  therefore  transferred  to  you  and  your  sue- 
cessors,  as  Trustees,  $10,000,000,  5  per  cent  First 
Mortjiage  Bonds  of  the  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion, the  revenue  from  which  is  to  provide  retiring 
pensions  for  the  teachers  of  Universities,  Colleges,  and 
Technical  Schools  in  our  country,  Canada,  and  New- 
foundland under  such  conditions  as  you  may  adopt 
from  time  to  time.  Expert  calculation  shows  that  the 
revenue  will  lie  ample  for  the  purpose. 

The  fund  applies  to  the  three  classes  of  institutions 
named,  without  regard  to  race,  sex.  creed,  or  color. 
We  have,  however,  to  recognize  that  State  and  Colonial 
Governments,  which  have  established  or  mainly  sup- 
ported Universities,  Colleges,  or  Schools,  may  prefer 
that  their  relations  shall  remain  exclusively  with  the 
State.      I  cannot,  therefore,  presume  to  include  them. 

There  is  another  class  which  States  do  not  aid,  their 
constitution  in  some  cases  even  forbidding  it,  viz.. 
Sectarian  Institutions.  Many  of  these,  established 
long  ago,  were  truly  sectarian,  but  to-flay  are  free  to 
all  men  of  all  creeds  or  of  none  —  such  are  not  to  be 
considered  sectarian  now.  Only  such  as  are  under  the 
control  of  a  sect  or  require  Trustees  (or  a  majority 
thereof).  Officers,  Faculty,  or  Students,  to  belong  to 
any  specified  sect,  or  which  impose  any  theological  test, 
are  to  be  excluded. 

Gratefully  yours, 

Andrew  Carnegie. 

The  trustees  were  erected  into  a  corporation 
by  an  act  of  Congre.ss  approved  Mar.  10,  1906, 
and  the  first  retiring  allowances  granted  went 
into  effect  on  July  1  of  that  year.  Colleges, 
universities,  and  technical  schools  maintained 
by  state  and  colonial  governments  had  not 
been  included  by  the  original  letter  of  gift. 
The  state  and  colonial  institutions  having 
formally  requested  that  the  benefits  of  the 
Foundation  be  extended  to  them,  Mr.  Carnegie, 
on  Mar.  31,  1908,  expressed  his  willingness  to 
provide  for  their  inclusion  in  the  retiring  allow- 
ance system,  by  offering  an  additional 
$5,000,000  to  the  fund,  making  the  total  gift 
$1.5,000,000.  On  May  7,  1908,  the  trustees 
of  the  Foundation  accepted  this  additional 
trust.  To  render  the  Foundation  a  more  in- 
tegral part  of  higher  education  in  America, 
the  trustees  desire,  as  far  as  may  be,  to  have 
their  relations  with  the  institutions  of  higher 
education  rather  than  with  the  individual  pro- 
fessors. For  this  purpose  the  Foundation  re- 
ceives applications  from  institutions  to  be 
placed  upon  the  list  of  colleges,  universities, 
and  technical  schools  designated  as  the  accepted 
list.  To  be  placed  upon  this  list  the  educa- 
tional standard,  the  plan  of  government,  and 
the  endowment  of  the  institution  must  conform 
to  certain  definite  regulations.  In  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  fund,  therefore,  the  task  of  the 
board  has  been  not  to  pass  upon  the  merits 
of  individuals,  but  of  colleges.  Each  such  ap- 
plication involves  a  study  of  the  method  of 
government,  the  educational  value  of  each  in- 
stitution as  a  center  of  in|;ellectual  and  moral 
influence,  the  financial  resources,  the  equip- 
ment, and  the  standards  of  academic  work. 
Once  an  institution  is  placed  upon  the  accepted 
list,  the  teachers  and  executive  officers  may  re- 
tire under  fixed  regulations  for  the  granting  of 
retiring  allowances.  The  allowance  comes  as 
a  right,  not  as  a  charity;   as  a  thing  earned  in 


the  regular  course  of  service,  not  as  a  courtesy. 
Sixty-seven  institutions  are  on  the  accepted 
list,  and  about  320  life  allowances  have  been 
granted.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1910 
about  $850,000  had  been  paid  in  retiring 
allowances. 

A  summary  of  the  data  concerning  retiring 
allowances  in  force  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal 
year,  Oct.  1,  1909,  is  given  in  the  following 
table:  — 


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CARNEGIE  FOUNDATION 


CARNEGIE   INSTITUTION 


As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  chief  work  of  the 
Foundation  is  that  of  an  educational  agency, 
dealing  with  institutions  of  higher  learning  in 
America.  The  viewpoint  is  national  ;  it  in- 
cludes the  interests  not  alone  of  a  community 
or  of  a  section,  but  of  a  continent.  From  time 
to  time  the  Foundation  publishes  in  pamphlet 
form  studies  in  education.  The'  annual  report 
of  the  president  also  deals  with  various  educa- 
tional problems  in  addition  to  those  which  con- 
cern only  the  administration  of  the  trust. 
These  publications  are  distributed  among  col- 
lege teachers  and  officers  and  those  interested 
in  education.  The  fund  does  not  provide 
allowances  for  teachers  in  secondary  school 
work  or  in  the  grades.  The  following  rules  give 
the  bases  on  which  allowances  are  computed  :  — 

Rule  1.  Any  person  sixty-five  years  of  ace  who  has 
had  not  loss  than  fifteen  years  of  service  as  a  professor, 
or  not  less  than  twenty-five  years  of  service  as  instructor 
or  as  instructor  and  professor,  and  who  is  at  the  time 
a  professor  or  an  instructor  in  an  accepted  institution. 
shall  be  entitled  to  an  annual  retiring  allowance  com- 
puted as  follows  :  — 

(a)  For  an  active  pay  of  twelve  hundred  dollars  or 
less,  an  allowance  of  one  thousand  dollars,  provided  no 
retiring  allowance  shall  exceed  ninety  per  cent  of  the 
active  pay  ; 

(6)  For  an  active  pay  greater  than  twelve  hundred 
dollars  the  retiring  allowance  shall  equal  one  thousand 
dollars,  increased  by  fifty  dollars  for  each  one  hundred 
dollars  in  excess  of  twelve  hundred  dollars  ; 

(c)  No  retiring  allowance  shall  exceed  four  thousand 
dollars. 

Rule  2.  Any  person  who  has  had  twenty-five  years 
of  service  as  a  professor  or  thirty  years  of  servdcc  as 
professor  and  instructor  in  an  accepted  institution, 
Bhall,  in  the  case  of  disability  unfitting  him  for  the  work 
of  a  teacher  as  proved  by  medical  examination,  be  en- 
titled to  a  retiring  allowance  computed  as  follows  :  — 

(a)  For  an  active  pay  of  twelve  hundred  dollars  or 
less,  a  retiring  allowance  of  eight  hundred  dollars,  pro- 
vided that  no  retiring  allowance  shall  exceed  eighty 
per  cent  of  the  active  pay  ; 

(h)  For  an  active  pay  greater  than  twelve  hundred 
dollars,  the  retiring  allowance  shall  equal  eight  hun- 
dred dollars,  increased  by  forty  dollars  for  each  one 
hundred  dollars  in  excess  of  twelve  hundred  dollars  ; 

(c)  For  each  additional  year  of  .service  above  twenty- 
five  for  a  professor,  or  above  thirty  for  an  instructor, 
the  retiring  allowance  shall  be  increased  by  one  per 
cent  of  the  active  pay  : 

(d)  No  retiring  allowance  shall  exceed  four  thousand 
dollars. 

Rt;LE  ,3.  A  widow  who  has  been  for  ten  years  the 
wife  of  a  teacher,  who  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  in 
receipt  of  a  retiring  allowance,  or  who  at  the  time  of 
his  death  was  eligible  to  a  retiring  allowance,  or  who 
had  had  twenty-five  years  of  ser\'ice  as  a  professor,  or 
thirty  years  of  service  as  an  instructor  and  professor, 
shall  receive  as  a  pension  one-half  of  the  retiring  allow- 
ance to  which  her  husband  was  entitled  under  Rule  1 
or  would  have  been  entitled  under  Rule  2  in  case  of 
disability. 

The  administrative  officers  are  Henry  S. 
Pritchett,  president;  Robert  A.  Franks,  trea- 
surer ;  .John  (1.  Bowman,  .secretary.  The  offices 
are  at  576  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City. 

J.  G.  B. 

Reference :  — 

Annual   Reports   of  the  President  and   Treasurer  of  the       '"'^P'      t      i-x    i.-  ^  i  j         i         j       i 

Carneoie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teach-         .    '-^^'^    Institution,    too.    has    developed    along 
ing.    (New  York,  190G  to  date.)  lines  somcwhat  different  from  what  was  at  first 

539 


CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION.  —  An  in.stitu- 
tion  founded  and  endowed  by  Mr.  Andrew 
Carnegie,  of  New  York  City,  and  organized  as 
a  quasi-national  institution  by  a  special  act  of 
Congress.  The  purpose  of  the  institution  ig 
to  aid  and  encourage  investigation,  research, 
and  discovery,  and  the  application  of  knowl- 
edge to  the  improvement  of  mankind.  On 
Jan.  28,  1902,  Mr.  Carnegie  executed  a  deed  of 
trust,  tran.sferring  S10,000,000  of  5  per  cent 
bonds  to  26  trustees,  named  by  him  in  the 
trust,  to  found  the  Carnegie  Institution  of 
Washington,  D.C.,  for  the  purpose  of  improv- 
ing and  extending  the  opportunities  for  study 
and  research  in  this  country.  The  aims  of  the 
institution,  as  set  forth  by  Mr.  Carnegie,  were 
to  promote  original  research  ;  to  discover  the 
exceptional  man  in  every  department  of  study; 
to  increase  the  facilities  for  higher  education; 
to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  universities  of 
the  country;  to  enable  students  to  enjoy  the 
advantages  of  the  governmental  institutions 
in  Washington;  and  to  publish  the  results  of 
important  scientific  investigations.  The  found- 
ing of  the  institution  came  as  a  culmination  of 
efforts  which  had  been  made  to  secure  the  en- 
dowment of  a  George  Washington  Memorial 
University  in  Washington,  which  should  be  a 
national  university.  It  was  thought  at  the 
time  that  the  creation  of  this  Institution  would 
meet  all  such  national  needs,  and  these  ideas 
are  in  part  expressed  in  Mr.  Carnegie's  deed  of 
trust.  The  Institution  was  originally  organ- 
ized as  a  corporation  in  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, but,  in  1904,  it  was  reincorporated  as  a 
quasi-national  institution  by  Congress.  In 
1907,  Mr.  Carnegie  added  $2",000,000  in  5  per 
cent  bonds  to  the  endowment. 

The  Year  Books  tell  the  history  of  the 
Institution  and  its  work.  At  first  there  was 
much  uncertainty  as  to  what  the  work  of  the 
Institution  should  be.  Committees  were  ap- 
pointed in  the  different  fields  of  knowledge, 
and  reports  as  to  needs  were  made.  The  pro- 
posals for  investigation  far  exceeded  the  income 
of  the  Institution,  and,  pending  further  inquiry, 
a  number  of  small  grants  were  made  to  indi- 
vidual investigators.  Gradually  "  larger  proj- 
ects "  were  decided  upon  and  inaugurated, 
though  the  smaller  individual  grants  have  been 
continued,  in  slowly  decreasing  numbers.  The 
experience  of  the  Institution  seems  to  be,  how- 
ever, that  the  best  returns  are  to  be  obtained 
by  expending  the  income  on  a  few  larger 
projects,  rather  than  in  scattering  it  in  aid  of 
many  smaller  ones,  and  to  connect  with  these 
larger  projects  a  number  of  capable  investi- 
gators as  associate  investigators.  Gradually  a 
few  larger  projects  have  been  decided  upon, 
chiefly  of  a  scientific  nature,  and  these  have 
now  been  advanced  sufficiently  to  use  up  the 
resources  of  the  Institution  for  some  time  to 


CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION 


CARNEGIE  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS 


expected,  and  what  was  indicated  in  Mr.  Car- 
negie's deed  of  trust.     It  lias  gradually  evolved 
into  a  distinctively  research  institution  of  the 
highest  rank,  giving  up  any  attempt  to  fulfill 
the  functions  of  a  national  university  at  Wash- 
ington.    Its  present  purpose  is  to  aid  in  the 
investigation  of  the  more  difficult  problems  in 
the  better  organized  fields  of  knowledge;    to 
use  the  income  in  providing  facilities  for  such 
investigation;  and  in  pulilishing  the  results.     A 
few  small  individual  grants  are  still  made,  but 
the  tendency  is  to  diminish  these.     The  present 
scope  of  the  work  of  the  Institution  is  indicated 
by  the  nature  of  the  permanent  investments 
for  the  departments  now  supported,  and  by  the 
work  they  are  doing.     The  figures  are  for  the 
year  1909-1910,  and  are  taken  from  the  Year 
Book   published   in   February,    1910.     (1)   De- 
partment of  Administration,  located  at  Wash- 
ington,   D.C.     Permanent  central  offices.     In- 
vestment  in   buildings,    site,    and   eciuipment, 
$254,419;     maintenance     for     year,     $45,000. 
(2)   Department  of  Botanical  Research.     Head- 
quarters,    Desert     Botanical     Laboratory,     at 
Tucson,  Ariz.     Investment   in  plant,  $34,706; 
appropriation    for    year,     $32,000.      (3)     De- 
partment of   Experimental  Evolution.     Head- 
quarters, Cold    Spring    Harbor,   Long    Island, 
N.Y.     Investment     in    plant,     $46,006;      ap- 
propriation  for   year,  $29,000.     (4)  Geophys- 
ical   Laboratorj',   Washington,   D.C.      Invest- 
ment   in    plant,    $173,223;    appropriation   for 
year,   $45,000.      Work,  —  a  systematic  study 
of  the  origin  and  transformation  of  the  rocks 
of    the    earth's     crust.     (5)    Department     of 
Marine  Biology.     Headquarters,  Tortugas  Is- 
land, Fla.,    Investment  in  plant,  $23,344;    ap- 
propriation for  year,  $15,000.     Also  supports 
two  research  tables    at    Naples.     (6)   Depart- 
ment of  Meridian  Astronomy.     Headquarters 
have  been  at  the  Dudley  Observatory,  Albany, 
N.Y.     A  temporary  observatory  is  now  being 
established  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  at  San 
Luis,  Argentina.     Investment  in  plant,  $15,599; 
appropriation  for  year,  $30,000.     (7)   Depart- 
ment  of  Terrestrial   Magnetism.     Investment 
in  ship  and   equipment,  $138,960;    appropria- 
tion for   year,  $60,000.     Work,  —  preparation 
of  a  catalogue  of  standard*  star  positions.     (8) 
Solar  Observatory,  Mt.  Wilson,  and  Pasadena, 
Cal.     Investment     in     plant,    $403,611;     ap- 
propriation for  year,   $104,000.     Work,  —  in- 
vestigation    of     solar     phenomena.     (9)    Nu- 
trition Laboratory,  Boston,  Mass.     Investment 
in   plant,    $117,030;     appropriation    for    year, 
$25,000.     (10)   Department  of   Economics  and 
Sociology.    Appropriation    for    year,    $17,500. 
Investigations  in  population,  agriculture,  min- 
ing, manufactures,  transportation,   commerce, 
money  and  banking,  labor  movement,  industrial 
organization,    social    legislation,    taxation   and 
finance,   and    the   status   of    the   negro.     (11) 
Department  of  Historical  Research.     Appropri- 
ation for  year,  $20,500.     Preparation  of  cata- 
logues   of    documents    relating    to    American 


history  in  the  libraries  of  the  world.  (12)  Pub- 
lication of  Investigations.  Annual  appropria- 
tion, $50,000.  118  volumes  had  been  issued 
up  to  the  close  of  1909.  (13)  Minor  grants 
to  investigators  and  institutions  to  assist  in 
carrying  on  researches  in:  archaeology,  astron- 
omy, bibliography,  botany,  chemistry,  mathe- 
matics, meteorology,  paleontology,  physics, 
and  zoology.  Appropriation  for  all  of  the 
above,  $43,000  for  the  year.  E.  P.  C. 

References:  — 

Year  Books  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington, 
1902-1909. 

CARNEGIE  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS, 
PITTSBURG,  PA.  —  A  coeducational  institu- 
tion founded  by  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  with  an 
endowment  of  $1,000,000,  increased  at  the  dedi- 
cation exercises  of  the  schools  to  $4,000,000. 
The  schools  are  ultimately  to  be  housed  in  5 
buildings,  all  of  which,  with  the  exception  of  a 
new  building  for  the  School  of  Applied  Design, 
are  now  completed.  Four  departments  —  the 
School  of  Applied  Science,  the  School  for  Appren- 
tices and  Journeymen,  the  School  of  Applied 
Design,  and  the  Margaret  Morrison  School  for 
Women  —  are  maintained.  The  United  States 
Geological  Survey  has  established  in  Machin- 
ery Hall  the  main  laboratory  of  the  Chemical 
Division,  Technologic  Branch,  where  investiga- 
tions of  fuels  from  all  parts  of  the  country  are 
conducted.  The  courses  in  the  schools  are 
arranged  for  day  and  night  students. 

In  the  School  of  Applied  Science  no  student 
is  permitted  to  take  up  any  specialty  until  he 
has  completed  a  preliminary  training  in  English, 
mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  drawing,  and 
shop  practice.  On  completion  of  this  training 
students  may  concentrate  on  their  particular 
branch  within  the  fields  of  engineering  and 
chemical  practice.  The  time  to  be  taken  over 
any  course  is  not  fixed,  but  depends  on  the  apti- 
tude and  application  of  the  individual  students. 
Candidates  over  16  who  have  had  a  high 
school  or  equivalent  preparation  arc  admitted 
on  certificate  from  high  schools  and  an  entrance 
examination  in  fundamental  subjects.  Courses 
are  given  in  the  night  similar  to  those  given  dur- 
ing the  day,  and  admi.ssion  requirements  are  the 
same.  In  1907-1908,  571  students  were  en- 
rolled in  the  day  and  night  courses  of  this  de- 
partment. 

The  School  for  Apprentices  and  Journeymen 
aims  to  give  general  training  to  supplement  the 
usual  apprenticeships  in  order  to  counteract  the 
dangers  of  specialization  and  over-emphasis  of 
the  practical  as  opposed  to  the  theoretical  sides. 
A  day  industrial  course  is  offered  to  meet  the 
demand  for  proficient  men  in  the  machinery 
and  building  trades.  Here  an  opportunity  is 
given  to  men  to  enter  the  course  for  part  of  the 
year  only  and  to  take  up  employment  for  the 
rest  of  the  year.  The  admission  requirements 
are  very  elastic.  No  definite  period  for  com- 
pleting the  course  is  assigned.     In  the  same 


540 


CARPENTER 


CARPENTER 


department  night  trade  courses  are  offered  for 
apprentices  and  journeymen  already  engaged  in 
a  trade,  preferably  that  which  they  wish  to 
study.  In  1907-1908,  641  students  were  en- 
rolled in  the  different  courses  of  this  depart- 
ment. 

Two  courses  —  architecture  and  interior 
decoration  —  are  offered  in  the  School  of  Ap- 
plied Design.  A  valuable  adjunct  to  the  de- 
partment is  the  Carnegie  Library  and  Institute. 
Candidates  are  admitted  b.v  certificate  of  a  high 
school  or  equivalent  preparation  and  an  en- 
trance examination  in  subjeet.s  fundamental  to 
the  courses.  Others  are  admitted  to  take  the 
courses  after  the  preliminary  training  in  the 
applied  school  of  science,  or  on  account  of  ma- 
turity, practical  experience,  or  other  satisfactory 
reasons.  Night  courses  are  provided.  In 
1907-190S,  114  students  were  enrolled  in  this 
department. 

The  ^Margaret  ^Morrison  Carnegie  School  for 
Women  is  designed  primarily  to  give  training  in 
the  home-making  arts  and  secondh'  in  technical 
subjects.  A  general  course  of  one  year  is  given 
as  a  foundation  for  specialization.  The  special- 
ized courses  include  household  arts,  dress- 
making, costume  design,  and  secretarial  work. 
Candidates  over  18  j'ears  of  age  are  ad- 
mitted on  a  personal  interview  and  entrance 
examination,  those  under  18  only  on  giving 
evidence  of  having  had  at  least  2  years  of 
high  school  or  equivalent  training,  and  an  en- 
trance examination.  Night  courses  are  also 
offered.  Four  hundred  and  six  students  were 
enrolled  in  this  department  in  1907-1908. 
Tuition  fees  are  charged  in  all  departments, 
being  in  all  cases  lower  for  residents  of  Pitts- 
burg than  for  others.  Arthur  A.  Hamerschlag, 
Sc.D.,  is  the  director. 

CARPENTER,  MARY  (1807-1877).  —  Phi- 
lanthrdpist  and  educator.  Her  father,  Dr.  Lant 
Carpenter,  was  a  Unitarian  divine  and  school- 
master, and  Miss  Carjienter  not  only  studied 
under  him,  but  taught  in  his  place  when  occa.sion 
demanded.  After  acting  as  governess  for  some 
years  Mi.s.s  Carpenter  returned  to  Bristol  and 
opened,  in  conjunction  with  her  mother,  a  school 
for  girls,  and  superintended  a  Sunday  school. 
In  1840  she  turned  her  attention  to  tlie  educa- 
tion of  poor  children,  for  whom  she  opened  a 
ragged  school  (q-v.),  and  to  the  condition  of 
juvenile  offenders.  A  book  which  she  wrote 
in  1S57  on  the  need  of  reformatories  led  to  a 
conference  in  Birmingham  in  the  same  year. 
This  movement  resulted  in  legislation  in  1854. 
In  18.50,  in  order  to  test  the  system  which  she 
had  formulated,  she  opened  a  reformatory. 
Throughout  this  period  she  did  not  relax  her 
interest  in  ragged  schools,  but  urged  on  the  gov- 
ernment the  need  of  grants  for  such  schools. 
In  1859  she  opened  a  day  industrial  school 
(q.v.).  From  1800  to  her  death  Miss  Carpenter 
devoted  the  great  part  of  her  efforts  to  female 
education  in  India  and  prison  reform  in  England 

541 


and  Canada.  She  made  several  visits  to  India, 
and  always  made  reports  to  the  government. 
During  one  of  these  visits  she  superintended  a 
normal  school  in  Bombay.  In  1873  she  visited 
America,  where  she  spoke  on  and  interested 
herself  in  prison  reform.  Before  her  death  she 
had  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  Parlia- 
ment had  sanctioned  the  jn-ovision  of  day  in- 
dustrial schools  by  school  boards.  Miss  Car- 
penter died  in  1877.  The  most  important  of 
her  numerous  writings  deal  with  ragged  schools 
and  the  treatment  of  juvenile  offenders.  In 
1849  she  published  Ragged  Schools,  their  princi- 
ples and  modes  of  operation  hrj  a  u'orker;  in  1859, 
The  Claims  of  Ragged  Schools  to  pecuniary  ed- 
ucational aid  from  the  annual  parliamentary 
grant;  in  1861,  What  shall  we  do  with  our  Pauper 
Children?  On  the  other  subject  of  her  interest 
there  appeared  in  1851  Reformatory  Schools 
for  the  Children  of  the  perishing  and  dangerous 
classes  and  for  juvenile  offenders;  in  1853, 
Juvenile  Delinquents,  their  condition  and  treat- 
ment; in  1864,  Our  Convicts,  how  they  are  made 
and  shoxdd  be  treated. 

References:  — 

CARPENTER,  J.  E.     Life  and  Worlc  of  Mary  Carpenter. 

(London,  1869.) 
Dictionxiry  of  National  Biography. 
Tlie  Times,  June  18,  1877. 

CARPENTER,  NATHANIEL  (1589-c.  1627). 
—  An  English  schoolmaster  who  was  ]\I.A.  and 
D.D.  of  O.xford  University  (Exeter  College) 
and  is  described  as  a  "  noted  philosopher,  poet, 
mathematician,  and  geographer."  He  was  ap- 
pointed, through  Archbishop  l^ssher,  school- 
master of  the  King's  Wards  in  Dublin,  children 
of  Roman  Catholic  parents.  Wood,  in  the 
Athenae  O.Ton.,  states  that  on  his  deathbed 
Carpenter  regretted  that  he  "had  so  much 
courted  the  maid  instead  of  the  mistress," 
meaning  that  he  had  spent  his  chief  time  in 
philosophy  and  mathematics  instead  of  in  di- 
vinity. Carpenter's  important  work  on  Geog- 
raphy, "  containing  the  sphericall  and  topicall 
Parts  thereof,"  was  published  at  Oxford  in  1625 
(4to,  285  pp.).  The  first  is  mainly  mathemati- 
cal geography,  but  the  second  is  largely  what 
we  now  call  human  geography.  For  instance, 
he  points  out  that  the  "  natural  bounds  are 
more  certain  than  artificial,"  and  discusses  the 
"  qualities  of  a  region,"  "  the  disposition  of 
inhabitants  in  respect  of  the  site,"  of  the  effect 
of  education  in  overcoming  geographical  limita- 
tions, of  "  the  mixture  of  colonies  in  the  same 
nation."  Carpenter  has  interesting  criticism 
on  the  value  of  navigation  in  the  increase  of 
knowledge  and  riches  and  the  comparison  of 
the  East  and  the  West  in  learning.  He  is 
especially  eloquent  in  speaking  of  the  people  of 
his  own  native  country  of  Devon,  as  illustra- 
tive of  the  effect  of  the  hill  countries  on  the  de- 
velopment of  warlike  and  generous  qualities, 
and  speaks  of  Gilbert,  Hawkins,  Frobisher, 
etc.    "  whose    names    live    with    the    Ocean." 


CARPENTER 


CASAUBON 


The  date  (1625)  makes  much  of  the  subject 
matter  significant.  P.  W. 

CARPENTER,  STEPHEN  H.  (1831-1878). 

—  Educator,  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Rochester  in  1854.  He  was  6  years  instruc- 
tor in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  and  2 
years  assistant  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion in  Wisconsin  (under  Henry  Barnard). 
He  was  subsecjuently  professor  in  St.  Paul's 
College,  Mo.,  and  from  1871  to  1878  president 
of  the  University  of  Kansas.  Author  of  Moral 
Forces  in  Education  and  of  several  textbooks  on 
English  grammar.  W.  S.  M. 

CARROLL  COLLEGE,  WAUKESHA,  WIS. 

—  A  coeducational  institution  founded  as  a  high 
school  in  18-16  and  reorganized  in  1903  for  full 
college  work.  It  is  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Presbyterian  Synod  of  Wisconsin.  Academic, 
collegiate,  and  musical  departments  are  main- 
tained. Admission  to  the  college  is  by  certifi- 
cate of  an  accredited  high  school  or  by  an  ex- 
amination requiring  15  units  of  high  school 
studies.  Degrees  are  conferred  in  arts  and 
science  courses.  There  is  a  faculty  of  12 
professors  and  10  instructors  and  assistants. 
Rev.  Wilbur  Oscar  Carrier,  M.A.,  D.D.,  is  the 
president. 

CARSON  AND  NEWMAN  COLLEGE,  JEF- 
FERSON CITY,  TENN.  —  A  coeducational 
institution  since  1889,  established,  in  1851, 
under  Baptist  control.  Preparatory,  collegiate, 
musical,  and  business  departments  are  main- 
tained. The  college  courses  are  based  on  ap- 
proximately 8  points  of  high  school  work. 
Degrees  are  conferred.  There  are  12  pro- 
fessors and  10  instructors  and  assistants. 

CARTER,  JAMES  GORDON  (1795-1849). 

—  One  of  the  originators  of  the  normal  school 
movement  in  America,  was  born  at  Leo- 
minster, Mass.,  on  Sept.  7,  1795,  and  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1820.  He 
engaged  in  private  school  work,  and  in  1S2I 
published  Letters  to  the  Hon.  William  Prescolt 
on  the  Free  Schools  of  New  England,  with  Re- 
marks on  Principles  of  Instruction,  in  wliich  he 
pointed  out  the  defects  in  education  which 
were  later  made  the  basis  of  the  reforms  of 
Horace  Mann.  In  1827  he  presented  a  peti- 
tion to  the  Massachusetts  legislature  asking  for 
an  appropriation  for  the  establishment  of  a 
state  normal  school.  The  bill  was  presented  by 
William  B.  Calhoun  (q.v.),  and  was  lost  in  the 
senate  by  one  vote.  He  then  opened  a  private 
normal  school  at  Lancaster,  and  for  several 
years  did  what  he  could  to  arouse  an  interest  in 
the  professional  training  of  teachers.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  legisla- 
ture in  1835,  and  drafted  the  bill  that  established 
the  State  Board  of  Education.  He  was  active 
in  the  organization  of  the  American  Institute 
of  Instruction  (q.v.)  and  contributed  numerous 


articles  on  education  to  the  Literary  Gazette.    He 
died  at  Chicago  on  July  21,  1849.        W.  S.  M. 

CARTHAGE  COLLEGE,  CARTHAGE, 
ILL,  —  Founded  in  1870,  and  conducted  under 
the  auspices  of  the  General  Synod  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  Church  in  the  United  States. 
The  constitution  is  coeducational,  and  main- 
tains academic,  collegiate,  Bible  training,  and 
fine  arts  departments.  Admission  is  on  certifi- 
cate of  accredited  high  schools  or  by  an  exami- 
nation requiring  about  14  units  of  work.  Clas- 
sical, scientific,  and  literary  courses  are  given 
in  the  college,  and  lead  to  the  appropriate  de- 
grees. There  are  six  professors  and  eight  in- 
structors. 

CARTHUSLANS.  —  See  Abbey  Schools; 
Convent  Schools;  Middle  Ages,  Educa- 
tion in;  AIonastic  Schools;  Monastic 
Rules,  Educational  Provisions  in. 

CASAUBON,  ISAAC  (1559-1614).  —  A  clas- 
sical scholar  of  some  note.  He  was  born  in 
Geneva,  the  son  of  a  Huguenot  pastor,  who 
supervised  his  education.  Casaubon  received 
no  organized  education  until  he  was  19,  when 
he  entered  upon  studies  at  Geneva,  learning 
Greek  from  a  Cretan,  Franciscus  Portus,  who 
recommended  him  as  his  successor.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Geneva  in  1582. 
But  although  holding  a  public  appointment,  his 
interests  were  mainly  in  private  study,  to  which 
he  devoted  every  minute  that  he  could  spare. 
He  was  connected  by  his  first  marriage  with 
the  printer,  Henri  Estienne,  who,  however,  re- 
fused to  give  him  access  to  his  Mss.  His 
editions  of  classical  writings  won  for  him  the 
friendship  of  the  most  famous  scholars  of 
Europe,  including  Joseph  Scaliger.  In  1596 
he  accepted  an  appointment  in  Montpellier, 
where  he  lectured  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects 
connected  with  the  classical  studies.  In  1600 
he  moved  to  Paris,  where  he  held  the  position 
of  a  Lecteur  du  Roi  and  received  a  pension,  but 
could  not  obtain  a  chair  in  the  university  owing 
to  his  Protestant  leanings.  In  1604,  however, 
he  received  an  appointment  in  the  Royal 
Library,  where  he  lost  no  time  in  untiring  study 
of  the  Mss.  to  be  found  there.  Attempts  were 
made  throughout  this  period  to  convert  him, 
for  political  and  personal  reasons,  to  Roman 
Catholicism,  but  without  success.  But  on  the 
death  of  Henri  IV  he  lost  his  patron,  and,  be- 
cause his  religious  views  now  inclined  to  Angli- 
canism, he  accepted  a  call  to  England,  where 
he  received  a  prebcndal  stall  in  Canterbury 
and  was  received  with  great  kindness  every- 
where. He  won  the  interest  of  the  King, 
James  I,  who  bestowed  a  pension  on  him  and 
frequently  emplo\'ed  him  as  his  companion. 
Casaubon  became  naturalized  in  England, 
which  he  called  the  "  island  of  the  blest."  He 
died  in  England  four  years  after  his  arrival. 
His  early  death  was  hastened  by  a  neglected 


542 


CASE  METHOD   OF   INSTRUCTION 


CASSIODORUS 


constitution  due  to  untiring  devotion  to  his 
studies. 

He  left  some  25  publications  on  classical 
subjects.  His  interests  were  mainly  in  the  his- 
torical and  biographical.  History  and  biog- 
raphy he  regarded  as  sources  of  political  and 
ethical  philosophy.  The  work  which  first 
brought  him  a  European  reputation  was  his 
edition  of  Theophrastus  (1592),  although  his 
earliest  work  on  Strabo,  of  which  he  said  he 
was  ashamed,  is  still  unsurpassed.  Among 
his  other  editions  are  those  on  Athenceus,  Sue- 
tonius, Persius,  and  Polybius  (unfinished).  It 
was  a  ma.xim  with  Casaubon  that  one  only 
knows  so  much  as  one  remembers;  hence  he 
made  short  notes  of  all  that  he  read,  and  the 
result  is  contained  in  60  volumes  of  Adversaria. 
In  1597  he  began  an  interesting  diary,  Ephe- 
merides,  which  he  continued  until  shortly  before 
his  death,  and  which  was  edited  by  his  son. 

References:  — ■ 

Pattison,  Mark.     Isaac  Casaubon.     (Oxford,  1892.) 
Sandys,  J.  E.     .4  History  of  Classical  Scholurship,  Vol. 
II.      (Cambridge,  1906.) 

CASE  METHOD  OF  INSTRUCTION.— 
See  Law,  Education  in. 

CASE  SCHOOL  OF  APPLIED  SCIENCE, 
CLEVELAND,  OHIO.  —  Founded  in  1880  as 
the  result  of  an  endowment  left  by  Leonard  Case 
for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  scientific 
school,  instruction  was  begun  in  1881  in  a 
temporary  building,  and  transferred  to  new 
buildings  in  1885.  The  location  in  an  im- 
portant industrial  center  offers  considerable 
advantages  to  an  institution  which  aims  to 
give  technical  training.  Courses  are  given  in 
physics,  chemistry,  and  engineering  (civil,  rail- 
road, structural,  mechanical,  electrical,  mining, 
and  metallurgical).  All  students  take  the 
same  studies  in  the  first  year,  and  specialization 
increases  from  the  second  year  to  the  end  of 
the  course  of  4  years.  Candidates  for  admis- 
sion must  have  graduated  from  a  preparatory 
school  with  a  4  years'  course  requiring  at  least 
14  units  for  graduation,  and  pass  an  examina- 
tion in  14  units  of  high  school  work.  Degrees 
are  conferred  on  the  completion  of  courses  and 
presentation  of  a  thesis.  The  institution  is 
accepted  by  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the 
Advancement  of  Teaching.  There  are  23  pro- 
fessors and  16  instructors  on  the  faculty. 
Charles  Sumner  Howe,  Ph.D.,  D.Sc,  LL.D., 
is  the  president. 

CASSIAN,  JOHN.  —  Early  Christian  theo- 
logian, born  about  a.d.  360  and  educated  in  a 
monastery  at  Bethlehem,  under  the  tutelage 
of  the  Abbot  Germanus,  in  all  the  learning  of 
the  East.  In  390  they  made  a  pilgrimage 
amongst  the  hermits  of  Egvpt,  and  found  the 
life  of  retirement  from  the  world  so  attractive 
that  they  remained  there  7  years.  They  then 
went  to  Constantinople,  where  Cassian  became 


a  disciple  of  St.  Chrysostom  (q.v.),  the  greatest 
preacher  and  teacher  of  the  day.  Under  his 
instruction  he  became  one  of  the  ablest  and 
soundest  theologians  of  the  early  Church. 
After  the  overthrow  of  St.  Chrysostom  Cas- 
sian went  to  Rome,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  as  one  of  the  chief  champions  of  the 
Christian  Faith.  One  of  his  pupils,  Vincent 
of  Lerins,  won  a  foremost  place  amongst  the 
Latin  fathers,  and  he  himself,  at  the  instance 
of  Leo  the  Great,  \\Tote  an  important  treatise 
On  the  Incarnation,  in  opposition  to  the  Nes- 
torian  and  Pelagian  heresies.  He  steered  a 
safe  course  between  the  Scylla  of  Augustinian 
exaggerations  and  the  Charybdis  of  Pelagian 
errors  and  was  regarded  as  the  founder  of  Semi- 
Pelagianism.  The  sack  of  Rome  by  Alaric 
drove  him  out  from  the  world  and  back  to 
monastic  life.  He  founded  two  monasteries  at 
Marseilles  (one  for  men  and  the  other  for 
women),  and  thus  introduced  the  monastic 
system  into  the  Western  Church.  Upon  the 
lines  laid  down  by  him  monasticism  (q.v.)  took 
on  a  more  highly  organized  form  in  the  West 
than  in  the  East,  and  profoundly  influenced  the 
life  of  the  Church  and  the  world  for  many 
centuries.  The  Latin  fathers  fostered  educa- 
tion from  this  time  onward,  and  became  the 
intellectual  leaders  of  the  world.  Connected 
with  every  cloister  was  a  school  where  the 
lamp  of  knowledge  was  kept  burning  and  sys- 
tematic courses  of  study  were  pursued.  The 
curriculum  was  not  confined  to  religious  litera- 
ture, but  included  all  the  liberal  arts  and  the 
classic  authors.  This  great  system  was  based 
chiefly  upon  the  writings  of  John  Cassian,  in 
which  he  laid  down  the  fundamental  principles 
of  monasticism  for  all  time.  Two  volumes  of 
these  have  been  preserved:  De  Coenobiortim 
Institidis,  in  12  books,  in  which  he  lays  down 
the  external  rules  of  the  ascetic  life  and  de- 
scribes its  inner  experiences;  and  Collationes 
Patrum,  in  which  he  relates  his  observations  of 
monastic  life  in  Egypt,  translated  in  the  Library 
of  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers,  Vol.  XI,  Scribners, 
N.Y.  W.  R. 

References:  — 

Librari/   of  Greek   and   Latin   Fathers,   Vol.    XI.      (New 

York.  1890-1897.) 
Farrar,    F.    W.     Lives    of  the    Fathers.     (New   York, 

1907.) 

CASSIODORUS,  or,  more  fullv,  MAGNUS 
AURELIUS    CASSIODORUS    SENATOR.  — 

A  descendant  of  a  family  which  had  for  three 
generations  been  distinguished  in  political 
circles  at  Rome,  was  born,  probably  at  Scylla- 
cium  in  Bruttium,  about  a.d.  477.  He  was  a 
contemporary  of  the  famous  Boethius  {q.v.), 
whom,  however,  he  long  survived.  His  mind 
appears  to  have  been  as  practical  as  that  of 
Boethius  was  idealistic.  Having  the  advan- 
tages of  the  best  education  that  the  times 
could  afford,  Cassiodorus  was  able  to  gain  the 
particular  favor  of  King  Theodoric  by  a  pane- 


')43 


CASTELLION 


CASTIGLIONE 


g>Tic  which  he  composed  in  his  honor.  At 
20  he  was  (lusstor,  and  afterwards  became  con- 
sul. Under  the  successors  of  the  Gothic  king, 
down  to  and  including;  Yitigis,  Cassiodorus  re- 
tained his  political  eminence,  which  he  deserved 
by  reason  of  his  enthusiastic  support  of  the 
policy  of  Theodo^ric  to  weld  the  Goths  and 
Romans  together  into  a  single  people. 

But  more  important  to  education  than  his 
political  activities  is  the  period  of  the  retire- 
ment of  Cassiodorus  to  a  cloister  which  he 
had  himself  founded  at  Mvarium,  in  Bruttium. 
It  was  in  540  that  he  betook  himself  to  its 
pleasant  gardens  and  books,  and  from  tliis 
time  forth,  to  the  advanced  age  of  83,  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  endeavor  to  make  the 
monastery  the  home  of  learning.  Accordingly 
Cassiodorus  first  devised  a  monastic  rule  in 
which  the  substitution  of  mental  for  physical 
labor  was  permitted  and  even  encouraged. 
What  literarj'  activity  was  carried  on  in  the 
western  monasteries  during  the  early  Middle 
Ages  can  trace  its  inception  to  Cassiodorus. 

The  most  influential  of  his  \\Titings  was  his 
Instituliotis  of  sacred  and  secular  learning  [In- 
stiluliones  divinarum  et  saecularium  lectionum). 
The  book  was  intended,  as  the  preface  inti- 
mates, to  supply  the  need  of  a  theological 
school  for  the  monks.  The  second  part  is  the 
more  interesting  from  the  standpoint  of  a  stu- 
dent of  education,  since  it  contains  an  abridged 
treatment  of  the  seven  liberal  arts,  consisting  in 
part,  however,  of  mere  extracts,  intended  ac- 
cording to  the  author  for  the  simple  unlettered 
monks  who  had  not  studied  the  profane 
sciences.  The  Institutions,  written  about  the 
year  544,  underwent  a  later  revision  at  the 
hands  of  its  author.  He  wrote  also  Complex- 
iones  in  epistolas  et  acta  apostolorum  et  apoca- 
lypsia,  and  a  more  important  Historia  eccle- 
siaslica  tripartita,  in  12  books,  which  became 
the  principal  manual  of  theological  history  for 
the  Middle  Ages,  but  which  is  founded  upon  the 
three  ecclesiastical  histories  of  Socrates,  Sozo- 
menus,  and  Theodoret.  The  Variae  (epistolae) 
of  Cassiodorus  contain  a  convincing  testimony 
of  his  political  activities.  Finally  his  De  Anima 
completes  the  circle  of  his  literary  activities  by 
an  excursion  into  the  field  of  philosophy.  The 
quality  of  the  soul  he  determines  to  Idc  light, 
because  it  is  made  in  the  image  of  God.  Cas- 
siodorus is  one  of  the  few  great  "  transmitters  " 
who  kept  alive  the  embers  of  classical  learning 
for  western  Europe. 

References:  — 
Cassiodords.     Opera,  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.,  Vol.  69. 

Letters,  tr.  by  Hodgkia.      (London,  1886.) 
Ebert.     Allgemeine  Geschichte   der  Literalur  des  MMel- 

altcrs  im  AbendUindc. 
Sandys.    History  of  Classical  Scholarship.     (Cambridge, 
1903-1908.) 

CASTELLION  (CASTALIO,  CASTELLIO, 
or  CHATILLON),  SEBASTIEN  (1515-1563). 
— ■  The  successor  of  Maturinus  Corderius  (q.v.) 
as  schoolmaster  at  Geneva  in  1541,  when  Cor- 


derius had  gone  to  Neuchatel.  Castellion  was 
the  great  prophet  of  the  principle  of  religious 
toleration.  The  De  Hacreticis  was  first  pub- 
lished in  1550,  and  in  this  work  against  com- 
pulsion in  religious  matters,  Castellion  was  one 
in  a  joint  authorship  about  which  there  is  dis- 
cussion. (See  Buisson:  Castellion,  Vol.  II,  ch. 
13.)  Castellion  edited  a  number  of  Greek 
classics,  and  made  translations  of  the  Bible  in 
Latin  and  in  French,  but  his  educational  work, 
the  Dialogi  sacri,  was  most  widely  known.  Its 
circulation  was  immense.  M.  Bui-sson  names 
over  130  editions,  of  which  IS  were  published 
in  London.  These  Dialogues  or  Colloquies  are 
all  biblical  in  subject,  and  attemjjt  to  bring 
into  the  schools  scriptural  stories,  with  the 
ease  and  grace  of  the  Latin  CoUociuies  which 
dealt  with  similar  subjects.  In  Huguenot  and 
Puritan  schools  they  were  constantly  included 
in  the  curriculum.  In  English  schools  they 
were  often  required  to  be  part  of  the  curriculum, 
by  statute,  e.g.  at  St.  Saviour's  Grammar 
School,  South wark  (Orders  1562),  Rivington 
Grammar  School  (Statutes  1564),  Sandwich 
Grammar  School  (Statutes  1580),  Canibcrwell 
Grammar  School  (Statutes  1615),  and  they 
were  used  in  1628  at  Westminster  School. 
They  are  written  in  a  remarkably  simple, 
natural  style  (in  Latin)  suitable  for  children. 
They  thus  served  the  double  purpose  of  the 
Colloquy  as  a  school  method  to  teach  Latin 
and  the  subject  matter  of  the  Bible  at  the  same 
time.  The  first  complete  edition  (4  books)  of 
Castellion's  Dialogi  Sacri  vraa  published  in  1551 
at  Basle;  the  first  London  edition  (in  Latin)  was 
1573.  The  first  edition  in  French,  Dialogues 
Sacrcs,  was  published  at  Basle  in  1555.  In 
1715,  119  of  these  dialogues  were  published  in 
English  at  London.    See  article  on  Colloquies. 

F.  W. 
Reference :  — 
Buisson,    F.     Sebasiien  Castellion,  sa  vie  et  son  ceuvre. 
(Paris,  1892.) 

CASTIGLIONE,  BALDASSARE.—  Courtier 

and  diplomat,  born  at  Casatico  near  Milan, 
Dec.  6,  1478.  He  studied  in  Milan  under 
George  Merula  and  Demetrius  Chalcondj'las. 
As  a  youth  he  entered  the  service  of  Ludovico 
il  Moro;  but  in  1499,  on  Ludovico's  downfall, 
he  attached  himself  to  the  Marquis  Francesco 
Gonzaga,  with  whom  he  campaigned  until  the 
defeat  of  Garigliano  (1503);  after  which,  to 
Gonzaga's  indignation,  he  transferred  his  alle- 
giance to  Guidobaldo  di  Monte  Feltro,  Duke 
of  Urbino.  After  a  brief  campaign  against 
Cesena  in  behalf  of  the  Pope,  in  which  Cas- 
tiglione  commanded  50  men,  he  took  up  attend- 
ance at  the  court  at  Urbino  (1504),  remaining 
there  until  Guidobaldo's  death  (1508),  except 
for  a  trip  to  London  (1506)  to  receive  for  the 
Duke  from  Henry  VII  the  order  of  the  Garter. 
By  Francesco  Maria  della  Rovere,  Guidobaldo's 
successor,  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Gub- 
bio;   and  after  the  war  of  Julius  II  against  the 


544 


CASTIGLIONE 


CATALEPSY 


Venetians,  in  which  Castiglione  fought  under 
della  Rovere,  he  was  rewarded  with  the  castle 
of  Novillara,  near  Pcsaro,  and  was  made 
Count  (1.513).  During  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  pontificate  of  Leo  X  he  was  ambassador 
at  Rome.  When  Leo  confiscated  the  Duchy 
of  Urhino  for  his  own  nephew,  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici  (1516),  Castiglione  went  back  to  his 
former  patron,  now  appeased,  the  Marquis 
Gonzaga.  At  Mantua  the  same  year  he  mar- 
ried Ippolita  dei  conti  Torelli,  who  four  years 
later  died,  leaving  him  three  children.  There- 
after he  vibrated  between  Mantua  and  Rome, 
until  in  1524  Clement  VII  sent  him  as  am- 
bassador to  Charles  V.  While  he  was  at  the 
Spanish  court  the  imperial  troops  under  Bour- 
bon sacked  Rome  and  imprisoned  the  Pope 
(1527).  Castiglione  was  stricken  with  grief 
and  shame.  Though  the  Emperor  accepted 
him  as  a  Spanish  subject  and  offered  him  the 
bishopric  of  Avila,  and  though  the  Pope  ab- 
solved him  from  blame,  he  died  unconsoled  at 
Toledo,  Feb.  7,  1529.  His  body  was  taken  to 
Ital}',  and  buried  in  the  Church  of  the  Madonna 
dclle  Grazie  near  Mantua.  Soldier,  courtier, 
diplomat,  poet,  Italian  and  Latin,  Castiglione's 
lasting  fame  yet  rests  on  The  Book  of  the 
Courtier,  a  prose  dialogue  in  4  books.  Accord- 
ing to  himself,  the  work  was  written  as  an 
In  memorimn  to  Guidobaldo,  anil  in  porhi 
giorni.  Although  by  1518  he  had  submitted 
the  manuscript  to  Bembo,  Sadoleto,  and  others, 
he  published  it  only  in  1528. 

Ostensibly  the  book  reports  certain  conver- 
sations at  LTrbino  in  1506  (while  Castiglione 
himself  was  in  England)  between  the  Duchess 
Elizabcta  Gonzaga,  Emilia  Pia,  and  various 
gentlemen  of  note  in  society  and  letters.  Sub- 
ject to  the  criticism  of  the  rest,  four  chosen 
spokesmen  respectively  draw  the  right  courtier 
as  to  character  and  conduct, the  right  court  lady, 
and  the  right  prince,  —  and  the  right  relations 
of  the  courtier  to  each.  The  guiding  principle 
of  the  resulting  social  structure  is  aesthetic. 
Living  is  conceived  as  a  fine  art.  The  cour- 
tier's essential  attribute  is  grace;  the  court 
lady's,  graciousness.  Their  only  religion  is  a 
religion  of  beauty.  Platonic  love  of  beauty 
motivates  the  courtier's  many-sided  accom- 
plishment; his  accomplishment  in  turn  at 
once  adorns  the  court  and  serves  the  State. 
It  is  the  humanistic  rendition  of  chivalric 
proucsse  with  f«»r/oi'.sie.  Castiglione's  Courtier 
is  the  medieval  chevalier  sans  peur  et  saris  re- 
proche  at  once  subtilized  and  humanized  by 
the  "  sweetness  and  light  "  of  cla.ssical  culture. 
And  the  Book  of  the  Courtier  depicts  him  even 
more  effcctivelj'  dramatically  than  didactically: 
it  is  the  first  salon  picture  of  modern  society. 

Translated  into  Spanish  by  Boscan  (1534), 
into  French  by  Colin  (1537),  into  English  by 
Hoby  (1561),  the  book  dominated  iMiropean 
culture  for  the  century.  In  England,  praised 
by  Ascham,  Castiglione's  ideal  was  emulated 
by  Lyiy  in  his   Euphues,  by  Spenser  in  the 


Faerie  Queene,  by  Sidney  in  his  own  living. 
It  produced  a  host  of  imitative  conduct  books, 
from  the  Governonr  (1531)  of  Elyot  (17./')  to 
The  Compleat  Gentleman.  (1634)  of  Peacham 
(q.v.),  and  The  Compleat  Gentleman  (1630)  and 
The  Compleat  Gentleivoman  (1631)  of  Brath- 
wait  (q.v.).  After  the  Reformation  and  the 
Catholic  reaction,  however,  Castiglione's  aes- 
thetic paganism  became  impossible;  and  the 
problem  of  his  imitators  and  emulators  was  to 
reinfuse  his  system  with  Catholic  or  Protestant 
orthodox  piety.  Thus  Spenser  in  the  Faerie 
Queene,  to  "  fashion  a  gentleman  or  noble  per- 
son in  vertuous  and  gentle  discipline,"  does  so 
by  superimposing  upon  Castiglione's  romantic 
Platonisra  a  rigid  Calvinism.  While  Spenser, 
again,  formally  declares  the  "  court  and  royal 
citadell  "  to  be  "  the  great  school  maistresse  of 
all  courtesy  "  (F.  Q.  Ill,  vi,  1),  he  really  ex- 
tends the  concept  of  "  courtier  "  into  that  of 
"  nobleman,"  as  the  writers  of  the  following 
generation,  such  as  Peacham  and  Brathwait,  at 
least  tend  to  extend  it  into  that  of  "  gentleman," 
not  necessarily  attached  to  any  court. 

J.  B.  F. 
References:  — 
Ady,    Mrs.   Julia  (Cartwhight)  .     Baldassare  Castigli- 
one the  perfect  Courtier,  his  Life  and  Letters,  1478— 

1529.      (New  York,  1908.) 
CiAN,  ViTTORio,  II  Cortcgiano.      (Firenze,  1894.) 
Hoby,    Sir    Thomas.      The    Courtier,    reprinted    in    the 

Tudor  Translations.      (London,    1900.)      The  most 

interesting  English  translation. 
Opdycke,  L.  E.     The  Courtier.     (New  York,  1901  and 

1903.) 
Watson,    F.     English    Grammar    Schools    up    to    1660. 

(Cambridge,  1908.) 
Woodward,  W.  H.      Education  during  the  Renaissance. 

(Cambridge,  1906.) 


CASTING  OUT  NINES. 

Computations. 


See  Checks  on 


CASWELL,  ALEXIS  (1799-1877).  —  Edu- 
cator and  author,  graduated  at  Brown  in  1822. 
He  was  two  years  professor  in  Columbian  Uni- 
versity at  Washington,  thirty-five  years  a  pro- 
fessor at  Brown  LTniversity,  and  from  1868  to 
1872  president  of  that  institution.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science  [q.v.).  Author 
of  Life  of  Francis  Wayland,  Textbook  on  As- 
tronomy, and  of  numerous  scientific  papers. 

W.  S.  M. 

CATALEPSY.  —  A  nervous  condition  in 
which  the  muscles  are  held  tense,  so  that  either 
a  limb  or  the  whole  body  is  motionless,  rigid, 
and  immovable,  or  the  parts  retain  any  position 
in  which  they  may  be  set.  The  position  w-hich 
is  assumed  by  the  patient  or  that  imposed  by 
a  bystander  lasts  for  a  much  longer  period 
than  is  possible  by  any  effort  of  the  will  in  a 
normal  individual,  and  the  patient  appears  like 
a  manikin  with  hinged  joints.  The  condition 
in  which  the  imposed  positions  are  retained  is, 
for  obvious  reasons,  sometimes  called  jlexi- 
bilitas  cerea  (waxy  flexibility).     The  latter  con- 


VOL.  I — 2  N 


545 


CATANIA 


CATECHETICAL  SCHOOLS 


dition  is  found  in  a  number  of  mental  and 
nervous  diseases  (dementia  precox  [q.v.],  hys- 
teria Iq.v.],  etc.),  and  a  similar  state  has  been 
described  as  one  of  the  stages  in  hypnotic 
sleep.  Both  forms  of  catalepsy,  the  rigid  and 
the  flexible,  have  been  explained  as  the  effect 
of  abnormal  suggestibility,  and  they  appear 
to  be  allied  to  and  sometimes  accompanied 
by  two  other  states  resulting  from  an  increased 
suggestibility,  viz.  (1)  echolalia  (q.v.),  in  which 
there  is  a  repetition  of  sounds  or  words  or 
phrases  that  have  been  heard  by  the  patient, 
and  (2)  cchopraxia,  in  which  the  patient  repeats 
movements  he  has  seen.  Both  in  hysteria  and 
in  dementia  precox  the  symptom  may  last  for 
days,  but  in  the  former  disease  it  is  usual  to 
find  it  of  much  shorter  duration.  The  term 
"  catalepsy  "  is  sometimes,  but  incorrectly,  used 
as  the  name  for  abnormal  sleep  states  of  the 
nature  of  trance,  but  for  the  latter  the  term 
"narcolepsy"  {q.v.)  is  used.  S.  I.  F. 

References:  — 
Gaubert,  L.     De  la  catalepsie  chez  les  mystiques.     (Paris, 

1903.)     70  pp. 
Hecker.     Katalepsie  bei   klcinen  Kindern.     Centralbl. 

f.  Kindcrh.,  Vol.  XII,  1907,  pp.  1-7. 
Kraepelin,  E.     Psychiatric.     (Leipzig,  1904.) 

CATANIA,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  Estab- 
lished in  1437,  and  by  a  Papal  bull  of  1444 
raised  to  the  level  of  Bologna.  It  was  opened 
in  1445.  Until  1805  it  was  the  only  university 
of  Sicily,  but  at  that  date  the  University  of 
Palermo  was  established.  Faculties  of  law, 
medicine,  arts,  and  sciences  are  maintained. 
In  1909-1910  there  were  enrolled  1160  students. 

See  Italy,  Education  in. 

CATAWBA  COLLEGE,  NEWTON,  N.C.  — 
Opened  in  1857  under  the  auspices  of  the  North 
Carolina  classis  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the 
United  States.  Academic,  collegiate,  and  nmsi- 
cal  departments  are  maintained.  The  college 
courses  —  classical,  scientific,  and  literary  —  are 
based  on  about  eight  points  of  high  school  work, 
and  lead  to  their  appropriate  degrees.  There 
are  6  professors  on  the  faculty  of  the  college. 

CATECHETICAL  METHOD.  —  See  Cate- 
chism; Catechetical  Schools;  Soceatic 
Method;  Teaching,  Methods  of. 

CATECHETICAL  SCHOOLS— Those 

schools  for  religious  and  general  education  which 
were  established  in  various  parts  of  the  Christian 
world  in  the  second  and  third  centuries,  and  in 
connection  with  the  Church.  In  this  respect 
they  differed  from  the  private  schools  conducted 
by  such  teachers  in  the  Church  as  Justin  Martyr, 
Tatian  and  others.  In  some  cases  the  Cate- 
chetical Schools  may  have  been  an  outgrowth  of 
the  courses  of  instruction  given  to  catechu- 
mens. But  they  differed  in  many  respects  from 
so-called  Catechumenal  Schools  (q.v.),  in  that 
their  aim  was  general  culture  as  well  as  religious 


training;  heathen  as  well  as  Christians  were 
admitted  to  them;  and  they  were  rivals  of  the 
secular  schools.  The  name  "  Catechetical 
Schools "  implies  merely  instruction,  possibly 
in  the  form  of  lectures  such  as  were  delivered 
to  catechumens,  i.e.  persons  under  instruction. 
The  only  connection  with  the  word  "  cate- 
chism "  is  that  the  latter  term  has  been  applied 
to  simple  textbooks  of  religious  instruction 
which  happen  to  be  arranged  in  the  form  of 
question  and  answer.  The  most  important 
and  influential  of  those  schools  was  undoubtedly 
Alexandria  (f/.f.),but  there  were  other  schools, 
such  as  the  school  of  the  Monarchians  at  Rome, 
and  the  schools  of  Edessa,  Ca?sarea,  Antioch 
(q.v.),  and  Nisibis.  All  of  these  developed  a 
large  activity  and  played  an  important  part  in 
the  educational  work  of  the  Church,  especially 
in  the  education  of  the  clergy. 

The  School  of  Alexandria  seems  to  have  been 
the  first  established.  Its  foundation  is  obscure, 
but  it  may  well  be  placed  in  the  first  half  of  the 
second  century  when  the  Gnostic  schools  were 
still  flourishing  in  that  city.  It  was  especially 
to  counteract  the  heathen  schools  of  Alexandria 
that  it  was  later  fostered  by  the  church  of  that 
city.  The  first  teacher  whose  name  is  known 
was  Pantienus  (c.  180  to  200),  a  Stoic  philos- 
opher converted  to  Christianity.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  colleague,  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria (q.v.)  about  200,  and  he  in  turn  by  Ori- 
gen  (q.v.)  in  202.  Heraclas  became  head  for  a 
short  time  after  Origen,  whose  assistant  he  had 
been,  and  then  followed  Dionysius  (q.v.)  in  232, 
who  remained  head  after  becoming  Bishop  of 
Alexandria  in  247.  The  list  of  later  heads  of 
the  school  is  not  wholly  certain.  The  tradi- 
tional list  is  as  follows:  Theognostus,  Pierius 
(282  to  c.  300),  Serapion,  Peter,  Macarius, 
Didymus  the  Blind  (c.  340  to  395),  and 
Rhodon. 

The  curriculum  covered  the  whole  range  of 
sciences  as  then  studied,  all  branches  of  rhetoric, 
and  the  various  systems  of  philosophy  except 
the  Epicurean.  The  study  of  the  Bible  was 
very  thorough,  and  Origen  while  head  of  the 
school  devoted  himself  especially  to  that 
branch.  The  school  broke  up  in  the  first  Ori- 
genistic  Controversy  under  Theophilus  of 
Alexandria  (385-412)  when  Rhodon,  the  last 
head  of  the  institution,  left  the  city  and  settled 
and  taught  in  Sida. 

Contemporaneous  with  the  flourishing  period 
of  the  School  of  Alexandria  was  the  School  of 
the  Monarchians  at  Rome,  under  Theodotus 
the  Leather  Worker,  a  teacher  from  Byzantium, 
and  Theodotus  the  Money  Changer,  his  pupil 
and  successor.  This  was  not  strictly  a  catechet- 
ical school;  as  it  was  not  officially  connected 
with  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  it  seems  to  have 
been  a  private  undertaking.  It  is,  however, 
important  in  this  connection,  as  it  exerted  an 
influence  upon  the  early  teachers  of  the  School 
of  Antioch  (q.v.)  The  fortunes  of  the  school 
of  Theodotus  after  the  death  of  the  younger 


546 


CATECHETICAL  SCHOOLS 


CATECHETICAL  SCHOOLS 


teacher  of  that  name  are  unknown.  The  school 
was  probably  extinct  by  250.  It  was  a  nursery 
of  thoroughly  scientific  inquiry.  The  study 
of  logic  and  mathematics  stood  in  high  favor, 
and  the  works  of  Aristotle,  Euclid,  and  Galen 
{qg.v.)  served  as  textbooks  (cf.  Eusebius,  H.E. 
V,  28).  Biblical  studies  were  carried  on  in  a 
critical  spirit,  and  the  exegesis  was  literal  and 
grammatical,  all  characteristics  of  the  School 
of  Antioch.  A  catechetical  school  seems  to 
have  been  established  at  Jerusalem  by  Alex- 
ander, bishop  of  that  city  (212  to  250),  who 
had  been  a  pupil  of  Clement  and  a  warm  friend 
of  Origen.  It  is  barely  possibly  that  both  these 
great  Alexandrians  taught  there  for  brief  periods. 

At  Csesarea  was  a  famous  school  which  was 
probably  in  existence  as  early  as  215,  when  Ori- 
gen taught  therefor  a  short  time,  and  certainly 
after  232,  when,  after  his  quarrel  with  Bishop 
Demetrius  of  Alexandria  (189  to  232),  he  set- 
tled there  permanently.  Under  Origen  the 
School  of  Ca'sarea  was  as  flourishing  as  that  of 
Alexandria,  but  after  his  death  it  rapidly  de- 
clined. It  was  revived  by  Pamphilius  (d.  309), 
who  had  studied  at  Alexandria  under  Pierius, 
the  Origenist.  Pamphilius  especially  labored 
to  increase  the  library  of  the  school.  Among 
his  pupils  was  Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  whose  Ec- 
clesiastical History  bears  witness  on  every 
page  to  the  riches  of  the  library  Pamphilius 
brought  together.  A  certain  Thespesius  is 
mentioned  by  .Jerome  (De  viris  illustrihus,  c.  1 13), 
as  teaching  in  Ca>sarea,  probably  in  the  school. 
His  pupil,  Euzoius  (deposed  379),  becoming 
bishop  of  the  city,  tried  to  restore  the  library 
to  its  earlier  condition.  Further  traces  of  the 
school  do  not  appear. 

The  importance  of  the  School  of  Antioch  in- 
creased as  that  of  Alexandria  and  Caesarea  de- 
clined. Secular  schools  flourished  in  the  city, 
and  the  head  of  one  of  these,  Malchion,  a 
teacher  of  rhetoric  and  a  learned  presbyter  of 
the  Church,  took  a  leading  part  in  the  con- 
demnation of  Paul  of  Samosata.  If  he  was 
the  founder  of  the  school,  his  successor,  Lucian, 
who  gave  the  lasting  trend  to  the  thought  of  the 
school,  docs  not  seem  to  have  agreed  in  Paul's 
condemnation,  for  Lucian  remained  outside  the 
communion  of  the  Church  for  many  years  after 
Paul's  downfall  in  2GS.  With  Lucian  was  as- 
sociated the  presbyter  Dorotheus,  whose  in-, 
fluencc  does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  great. 
Lucian  studied  at  Edessa  and  at  Ca'sarea, 
where  he  came  under  the  influence  of  Origen's 
scientific  spirit,  if  not  of  Origen  himself ;  but 
traces  of  tiie  theological  views  sulistHpiently 
known  as  Origenism  are  not  found  in  Lucian's 
teaching.  His  labors  on  the  revised  text  of  the 
Septuagint,  based  upon  a  miimte  compari- 
son of  the  current  version  with  the  He- 
brew, indicate  the  scientific  character  of  the 
work  done  at  this  school.  Lucian's  text  was  in 
general  use  throughout  the  East  from  Con- 
stantinople to  Antioch.  Among  his  pupils 
were  Arius  and  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  the  op- 


ponents of  Athanasius.  On  account  of  this 
connection  of  the  school  with  heresy,  it  suffered 
a  partial  eclipse  until  the  latter  part  of  the 
fourth  centurj',  when  it  was  again  flourishing 
and  a  center  of  theological  study  far  more  im- 
portant than  Alexandria  at  that  time.  Among 
its  representatives  were  Diodorus  of  Tarsus 
(d.  394),  Chrysostom  (q.v.)  (d.  407),  Theodore 
of  Mopsuestia  (d.  429),  and  Theodoret  of 
Cyrrhus  (d.  457).  How  far  the  educational 
work  of  Lucian  was  carried  on  in  a  permanent 
institution  is  uncertain,  but  the  unity  of  thought 
in  the  Antiochene  theologians  and  the  similarity 
of  their  exegetical  principles  in  the  earlier  and 
later  periods  point  to  some  common  instruction 
and  the  probable  continuity  of  the  school. 

The  foundation  of  the  School  of  Edessa  dates 
from  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  and  was 
probably  due  to  Bardasanes,  under  whom  the 
Christianization  of  the  city  took  place.  Before 
the  end  of  the  century  it  was  one  of  the  leading 
schools  of  the  Church.  Here  under  a  certain 
Maearius  Lucian  studied.  It  was,  however, 
in  its  earliest  period  under  the  Gnostic  in- 
fluences of  Bardasanes,  whose  connection  with 
the  Valantinians  is  very  probable. 

The  School  of  Edessa  appears  to  have  lan- 
guished during  much  of  the  fourth  centur_y,  but 
was  revived  from  Antioch,  the  center  of  Nes- 
torianism,  with  which  its  fortunes  henceforth 
became  identified.  In  this  way  Edessa  became 
the  seat  of  education  for  the  Nestorian  clergy 
of  Persia.  Rabbulas,  Bishop  of  Edessa  (412- 
435),  a  fanatical  opponent  of  Nestorianism, 
broke  up  the  school  in  432,  but  he  was  succeeded 
in  the  see  by  Ibas,  a  pronounced  Nestorian  ex- 
pelled by  Rabbulas  ,who  restored  tlie  school  and 
brought  it  to  a  high  degree  of  prosperity.  His 
translations  of  the  works  of  the  Antiochenes, 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  and  Diodorus,  had  a 
marked  and  lasting  influence  upon  the  thought 
and  scientific  exegesis  of  the  Syrian  Church. 
In  489  the  School  of  Edessa  was  destroyed  by 
the  Emperor  Zeno  in  his  attempt  to  destroy 
Nestorianism,  but  not  before  it  had  founded  a 
number  of  minor  schools,  among  them  one  at 
Seleucia  on  the  Tigris.  The  School  of  Nisibis 
was  founded  by  the  Nestorians  expelled  in  489 
from  Edessa,  and  there  were  maintained  the 
traditions  of  their  teachers,  for  its  inspiration 
was  drawn  from  Theodore  and  Theodoret,  and 
it  flourished  for  centuries.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  seventh  century  under  the  direction  of 
Rlana  it  numbered  more  than  800  students. 
It  is  to  the  School  of  Nisibis  as  the  center 
of  Nestorianism  that  much  of  the  honor 
is  due  of  making  the  translations  of  Aristotle 
(q.v.)  and  of  Greek  medical  works  into  Syriac 
and  from  that  language  into  Arabic,  whereby 
Greek  science  was  preserved  among  the  Ara- 
i)ians,  and  through  Spain  came  into  the  West. 
The  study  of  Aristotle,  although  not  in  har- 
mony with  the  theology  which  became  domi- 
nant in  the  Greek  and  early  Latin  churches, 
was  peculiar  to  the  School  of  Antioch  and  its 


547 


CATECHISMS 


CATECHISMS 


transmission  to  the  schools  of  Edessa  and  Nisibis 
was  of  vast  importance  for  the  schools  of  the 
Arabians  and  later  Western  culture. 

J.  C.  A. 
References :  — 

Davidson.     History  of  Education.     (New  York,  1900.) 

DR.tNE,  A.  T.  Christian  Schools  and  Scholars.  (Lou- 
don, ISSl.) 

Hodgson,  G.  Primitive  Christian  Education.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1906.) 

MoELLER,  VV.  History  of  the  Christian  Church.  (Lon- 
don and  Now  York,   1S92.) 

Monroe,  P.     Hi-story  of  Education.      (New  York,  1906.) 

CATECHISMS.  —  Imply  a  method  of  teach- 
ing, viz.  oral  instruction.  The  term  i.s  now  usu- 
ally restricted  to  elementary  instruction  which 
proceeds  by  a  method  of  stereotyped  cjuestions 
by  the  teacher  and  answers  by  the  pupil  — 
though  the  term  is  equally  appropriate  if  the 
cjuestions  are  asked  by  the  learner,  as  is  said  to 
have  been  done  in  the  early  Christian  Church. 
The  catechetical  method  is  naturally  very 
ancient,  and  prevailed  in  oriental  countries 
from  antitiuity.  It  was  used  by  the  .Jews,  and 
the  early  Christians  simply  continued  it  with 
fresh  subject  matter.  In  England,  it  was  em- 
ployed in  Anglo-Saxon  times,  in  the  de  Dinsioni- 
bu.'i  Temporum  liber  ascribed  to  Bede  in  many 
secular  subjects,  and  throughout  the  Middle 
Ages,  for  religious  instruction.  It  was  the 
method  for  the  teaching  of  grammar  in  the  well- 
known  Ars  Minor  of  Donatus,  the  longe.st-lived 
grammar  in  history.  The  catechism  was  there- 
fore found  ready  to  hand  by  the  religious  sup- 
porters of  Roman  Catholicism  and  of  Protest- 
ant Reformers  when  the  life  and  death  struggle 
began  in  competition  for  attaching  the  youth 
to  the  one  side  or  the  other.  The  catechism  as 
a  religious  manual  is  therefore  most  closely 
connected  with  the  post-Reformation  move- 
ments in  religion.  The  long  Roman  Catholic 
catechism  (1566),  an  outgrowth  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  intended  as  the  manual  for  the  instruisk- 
tion  of  the  clergy,  has  been  translated  from 
Latin  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe.  It  has 
been  followed  by  manj'  shorter  local  and  special 
catechisms,  also  allowed  by  authority  in  the 
Roman  Church. 

The  Protestant  series  of  catechisms  begins 
with  that  of  Martin  Luther  in  German  in  1529. 
It  is  said  by  Lutheran  writers  that  no  book  ex- 
cept the  Bible  has  had  a  wider  circulation. 
The  so-called  Calcchi.sm  of  Erasmus,  translated 
into  English  in  1533,  may  be  termed  Catholic 
rather  than  either  Roman  Catholic  or  Prot- 
estant. It  is  now  little  known,  Ijut  it  has 
high  value.  Its  remarkable  independence  of 
thought  may  be  judged  by  the  answer  to  the 
question,  Why  in  the  Lord's  Prayer  there  is  not 
desired  everlasting  life?  The  answer  is:  "Be- 
cause it  belongeth  to  good  .soldiers  only  to  do 
the  offices  and  businesses  which  their  captain 
hath  commanded  and  appointed  them;  taking 
no  thought  or  care  for  their  reward."  In  1547 
Erasmus'  Catechism  was  required  by  ordinance 
to  be  in  the  possession  of  every  boy  in  Win- 


chester College.  In  1536  Calvin  wrote  in  the 
French  language  the  famous  Geneva  Catechism, 
which  he  himself  at  once  translated  into  Latin, 
and  afterwards  Henry  Stephens,  the  great 
(irecian,  translated  into  Greek.  Altogether 
there  are  373  questions.  Its  circulation  was 
common  in  France,  in  the  Netherlands,  in  Bo- 
hemia, in  Scotland,  and  in  England.  The 
English  translation  is  dated  1556,  and  it  was 
regarded  "  as  the  best  next  book  to  the  Bible." 
But  it  was  too  long  to  hold  its  place  perma- 
nently. On  it  were  based  two  other  important 
Calvinistic  catechisms:  First,  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism  in  1563,  composed  by  Zacharias 
Ursinus  and  Caspar  Olevianus;  for  it  is  claimed 
the  greatest  number  of  versions  into  other 
languages  after  the  Bible,  the  De  Imitatione 
Chrisli,  and  the  Pilgrim's  Progress.  Secondly, 
the  longer  and  the  shorter  catechisms  of  the 
Westminster  Assembly,  1654.  The  Shorter 
Catechism  is  still  the  theological  heirloom  of 
Scotland,  and  is,  says  Dr.  Schaff,  unequaled 
"  in  its  brevity,  terseness,  and  accuracy  of  defi- 
nition." Thomas  Carlyle's  opinion  is  often 
quoted,  "  The  older  I  grow  —  and  I  now  stand 
upon  the  brink  of  eternity  —  the  more  comes 
back  to  me  the  first  sentence  in  the  Shorter 
Catechism  which  I  learned  when  a  child,  and 
the  fuller  and  deeper  its  meaning  becomes. 
'What  is  the  chief  end  of  man?  To  glorify 
God  and  to  enjoy  him  for  ever.'  " 

In  England  the  first  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
issued  in  1549  contains  the  Church  of  England 
Catechism.  Its  authorship  is  uncertain.  It 
was  probably  written  either  by  John  Poynet 
(afterwards  Bishop  of  Rochester)  or  bj'  Alex- 
ander Nowell,  afterward  Dean  of  St.  Paul's. 
Both  Poynet  and  Nowell  wrote  longer  cate- 
chisms. Poynet's  Short  Catcchi.sm  (1553)  was 
required  by  royal  injunction  to  be  used  by  all 
schoolmasters  in  their  schools.  But  the  acces- 
sion of  Queen  Mary  caused  the  suppression  of 
the  Catechism,  and  Poynet  fled  to  Strassburg. 
In  1570  Nowell  wrote  his  Larger  Catechism  in 
Latin,  which  was  immediately  translated  into 
English  by  Thomas  Norton,  the  translator 
of  Calvin's  Institutes.  Nowell's  Middle  Cate- 
chism, was  published  also  in  1570,  in  Latin, 
and  translated  also  by  Norton  into  English 
in  1572;  and  in  1573  Nowell  published 
his  Catechisnnis  parvus  in  Latin,  translated 
into  Greek  in  1574.  These  catechisms  of 
Dean  Nowell  are  of  great  importance,  in  connec- 
tion with  grammar  school  teaching,  in  all  their 
forms,  English,  Latin,  and  Greek.  For  Nowell's 
catechisms  were  required  by  the  Canons  of 
1571  to  be  taught  in  the  schools,  and  the  Can- 
ons of  1604,  requiring  all  schoolmasters  to  teach 
in  English  or  Latin  the  longer  or  shorter  cate- 
chism, probably  contain  the  reference  to  the 
same  work,  though  the  author  is  not  named. 

The  Grammar  School  Statutes  dated  after 
the  return  of  the  exiles  from  the  Marian 
Persecution  lay  stress  on  the  teaching  of 
catechisms.     Thus  the  Statutes  of  Retford  1552, 


548 


CATECHISMS 


CATECHISMS 


Caistor  1630,  require  the  Common  Prayer 
Book  Catechism.  Harrow  Rules  1580  and 
Rivington  Grammar  School  required  Cal- 
vin's or  Nowell's  Catechism.  Many  require 
Nowell  only.  St.  Paul's  School  in  1678  used 
Nowell's  Catechism,  Ursinus',  i.e.  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism,  translated  into  Greek  by  Henry 
Stephens,  and  the  Church  Catechism,  "  which," 
we  are  told,  "  no  other  ought  to  exclude." 
The  universities  also  required  the  students  by 
statute  to  be  tested  in  the  catechi.sms,  for  ex- 
ample in  1578  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  the 
catechisms  of  Calvin  and  Bullinger  were  pre- 
scribed. Catechisms,  then,  were  used  univer- 
sally in  the  schools.  "  Multitudes  of  little 
catechisms  "  were  produced,  some  only  local, 
others  more  general,  in  addition  to  the  authori- 
tative and  well-known  English  and  foreign 
manuals.  James  I,  at  the  Hampton  Court 
Conference,  made  the  well-known  gibe  that  in 
Scotland  "ignorant"  catechisms  were  devised 
"  by  everyone  who  was  the  son  of  a  good  man." 
Brinslcy  in  1012,  in  the  Lucius  Literarius, 
describes  the  method  of  teaching  the  catechism. 
It  is  to  be  taught  every  Saturday  as  a  "prepara- 
tion to  the  Sabbath"  for  half  an  hour  or  more. 
Each  boy  is  to  learn  to  repeat  half  a  side  of  a  leaf 
or  more  at  a  time  until  he  can  say  the  whole. 
The  more  they  say  at  a  time  and  the  oftener,  the 
better.  After  each  has  said  the  task,  then  a 
class  is  formed.  Those  "  suspected  to  be  care- 
les.s  "  are  then  to  give  the  "answers"  to  the 
questions.  The  teacher  then  makes  each  an- 
swer "  so  plain  and  easy  "  that  the  least  child 
can  understand.  "  Questions  "  are  to  be  re- 
made into  shorter  questions,  and  all  are  to  be 
examined  "  backward  and  forward."  All  being 
answered,  "  all  diligence  "  must  be  used  "  to 
whet  it  upon  them,  to  work  holy  affections  in 
them;  that  each  may  learn  to  fear  the  Lord  and 
walk  in  all  his  commandments."  From 
Charles  Hoole's  New  Discorcrij  of  the  Old  Art  of 
Teaching  School,  we  learn  that  in  the  third  form 
of  the  (Jrammar  School  the  boys  arc  to  learn 
the  Westminster  Assembly's  Catechisms  in 
English  and  Latin.  In  the  fourth  form  they 
use  the  Assembly's  Le.sscr  Catecliism  in  Latin 
and  Dr.  Harmer's  translation  into  Greek.  In 
the  fifth  form,  after  the  boys  have  gone  thrice 
over  the  Assembly's  Catechism  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  they  "may  proceed  "  in  Nowell's  Cate- 
chism or  the  Palatinate  (i.e.  the  Heidelberg) 
Catechism  in  Greek.  In  the  sixth  form,  the 
boys'  catechisms  are  Nowell  and  Birkett  in 
Greek  and  the  Church  Catechism  in  He- 
brew. After  the  Restoration  (1660)  the  use 
of  the  catechism  for  school  purposes  in  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew  gradually  gave  way  to  the 
shorter  English  Church  Catechism  in  English. 
The  establishment  of  charity  schools  in  the  early 
years  of  the  eighteenth  century,  to  the  num- 
ber eventually  of  2000,  led  to  the  absolute 
supremacy  in  England  of  the  employment  for 
the  school  education  of  the  vast  bulk  of  the 
community,  of  the  Common  Prayer  Book  Cate- 


chism, so  that  the  voluminous  and  multitudi- 
nous catechism  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  fell  out  of  use. 

The  catechism  in  the  form  of  stereotyped 
questions  and  answers,  whether  religious  or 
secular,  has  been  in  favor  in  ages  when  the  culti- 
vation of  the  verbal  memory  was  regarded  as  a 
matter  of  great  educational  importance.  And 
it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  supporters 
of  the  method  ignored  the  understanding  of 
the  subject  matter.  They  insisted  on  it,  as 
will  be  seen  in  Brinsley's  method  of  teaching. 
But  the  closely  thought-out  exact  statements 
were  to  the  six-teenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
the  best  expressions  of  theological  doctrines, 
and  therefore,  it  was  felt,  ought  to  be  known 
exactly,  just  as  mathematical  definitions  and 
chemical  formute  are  usually  required  nowadays 
to  be  learned  verbatim.  The  objections  ordi- 
narily urged  against  the  catechism  method 
amount  to  this  —  that  the  learner  docs  not  form 
his  0W71  conclusions,  \mt  learns  those  arrived  at 
by  others  on  grounds  which  he  does  not  under- 
stand, and  that  therefore  he  is  not  encouraged 
to  use  his  own  reason  and  j  udgment ;  in  other 
words,  his  knowledge  becomes  mechanical  and 
not  rational.  It  is  clear,  too,  that  the  control 
exercised  by  the  teacher  in  having  the  questions 
stereotyped  gives  the  lead  in  the  question  as  well 
as  in  the  answer,  and  takes  away  from  the  pupil 
the  chances  of  putting  the  questions  in  the  forms 
which  would  best  satisfy  his  own  individual 
difficulties.  On  the  other  hand,  theological 
catechisms  were  not  devised  with  a  view  to 
mental  discipline.  Their  point  of  view  is  the 
communication  of  absolutely  ascertained  truth 
in  the  most  compact,  thorough,  sound,  exact 
statement  of  which  it  is  capable.  Accordingly, 
they  usually  fall  into  the  educational  fallacy 
of  supposing  that  the  shorter  the  statement  is, 
the  easier  it  is  to  learn.  This  is  true  only  if  we 
take  "  to  learn  "  as  meaning  to  repeat  the 
words.  Thus  it  is  probably  only  the  theological 
scholarly  man  who  sees  the  full  significance  of 
the  "  Short  "  Catechism.  It  must,  however, 
be  remembered  that  in  the  Puritan  times  the 
atmosphere  was  fully  charged  with  theological 
ideas,  and  that  the  catechism  as  a  brief  and 
exquisite  statement  of  what  was  in  the  individ- 
ual consciousness  was  filled  out,  even  in  chil- 
dren's minds,  with  a  familiarity  of  knowledge 
of  the  Bible  and  Calvinistic  doctrines  to  a 
degree  which  made  the  catechism  much  more 
vivid  and  real  than  we  can  readily  understand. 
In  a  sense  there  was  a  "  visualization  "  of  the 
subject  matter  to  which  the  modern  world  has 
no  parallel.  The  modern  attitude  of  opcn- 
mindedness,  and  of  search  for  truth,  and  the 
educational  doctrine  of  the  value  of  mental 
disci])line,  are  thus  on  the  whole  in  opposition 
to  catechisms.  F.  W. 

References:  — 

Blunt.    J.    H.     Annotated    Book    of    Common  Prayer. 
(Church  Catechism.)     (London,  1903.) 


549 


CATECHUMENAL  SCHOOLS 


CATECHUMENAL  SCHOOLS 


Jacobson,  W.  Co(ecftt«mu^  (Auctore  A.  Nowcll).  (Ox- 
ford, 1835.) 

The  Heidelberg  Catechism  (with  historical  Introduction). 
(London,  1900.) 

Mitchell,  A.  F.  The  Catechisms  of  the  Second  Reforma- 
tion.     (London,  1SS6.) 

ScH.\FF,  Philip.  History  of  the  Creeds.  (London, 
1S78.) 

Watson,  Foster.  The  English  Grammar  Schools  to 
1660.      (Cambridge,  1908.) 

For  lists  of  the  old  Catechisms  in  England  see  Andrew 
Maunsell's  Catalogue  (159.5)  and  William  London's 
Catahigue  of  the  Most  Vendible  Books.  (Section 
on  Divinity  1658.) 

CATECHUMENAL  SCHOOLS.  —  A  term 
applied  to  that  intellectual  and  moral  training 
which  candidates  for  admission  to  the  Christian 
Church  received  before  baptism.  These  candi- 
dates were,  accordingly,  known  as  catechumens, 
or  persons  under  instruction.  In  the  earliest 
period  of  the  Church  persons  were  often  ad- 
mitted after  very  brief  preparation,  but  in  the 
second  century  a  period  of  probation  and  in- 
struction became  general,  and  handljooks  of 
instruction,  such  as  the  Didache,  began  to  ap- 
pear. Although  not  members  of  the  Church, 
converts  not  j'ct  baptized  were  regarded  as  so 
connected  with  it  as  to  be  subject  to  ecclesiasti- 
cal discipline,  for  they  had  been  formally  recog- 
nized as  catechumens  by  the  bishop  and  ad- 
mitted to  that  status  by  a  simple  ceremony  of 
laying  on  of  hands.  In  case,  therefore,  the 
catechumen  fell  into  gross  sin,  he  was  compelled 
to  undergo  a  longer  period  of  probation.  Thus 
arose  by  the  midcUe  of  the  third  century  all  the 
essential  features  of  the  system  of  instruction 
and  discipline. 

The  catechumenate  commonly  lasted  three 
years.  There  is  little  ground  for  making  three 
or  four  clearly  defined  classes  among  the  cate- 
chumens, a  mistake  made  even  by  Bingham, 
which  seems  to  have  arisen  from  confusion 
with  the  penitonti.al  discipline;  for  persons 
under  penance  were  often  reduced  to  a  position 
in  which  they  had  only  the  rights  of  catechu- 
mens. A  natural  division,  however,  was  made 
between  the  general  body  of  catechumens, 
commonly  called  audientes,  because  allowed  to 
hear  the  sermon  and  the  readings  of  the  Scrip- 
ture in  the  services,  and  those  who,  without 
being  admitted  to  greater  privileges  as  to 
attendance  upon  services,  had  formally  applied 
for  baptism,  generally  at  the  beginning  of  Lent, 
and  were  looking  forward  to  baptism  at  the 
next  Easter  —  Even.  These,  the  competentes, 
received  special  instruction  in  a  body.  .lu.st 
before  baptism  they  were  taught  the  words  of 
the  Creed  or  Symbol,  with  the  doctrinal  con- 
tents of  which  they  had  been  made  familiar,  and 
also  received  the  Lord's  Prayer.  Then,  on 
baptism,  they  became  full  members  of  the 
Church  and  were  admitted  for  the  first  time  to 
be  present  at  the  Eucharist  and  to  receive  it. 
There  was  no  special  class  whose  duty  it  was  to 
instruct  the  catechumens.  The  term  catechist 
did  not  imply  an  order  of  the  ministry,  but  a 
function   which   might   be  performed   by   any 


believer,  clerical  or  lay.  In  the  earliest  period 
persons  appear  who  later  figure  as  sponsors, 
and  these  frequently  undertook  the  instruction 
of  the  recent  convert.  Later  the  work  natu- 
rally fell  almost  entirely  to  the  clergy.  Thus 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (d.  8S0)  (q.v.),  whose  cate- 
chetical lectures  are  still  extant,  acted  as  cate- 
chist probably  both  while  a  deacon  and  after  his 
ordination  to  the  presbyterate.  The  teacher,  or 
doctor  audientium,  to  whom  Augustine  (q.v.) 
addressed  his  textbook  on  catechetical  instruc- 
tion, belonged  to  the  lower  order  of  clergy 
known  as  lector.  Bishops  frequently  took  part 
in  the  instruction,  and  did  so  commonly  in  the 
preparation  immediately  before  baptism.  On 
the  other  hand,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  encourages 
laymen  to  undertake  the  work  {Cat.  xv,  18). 

As  to  the  course  of  instruction  covered  during 
the  catechumenate,  there  is  for  the  Ante-Nicene 
period  little  evidence.  The  Didache  probably 
served  as  a  manual  in  various  parts  of  the 
Church,  and  as  models  for  other  textbooks. 
Thus  much  of  it  appears  in  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitution (Bk.  VII,  1-32).  The  earliest  body  of 
carefully  elaborated  instruction  is  the  series 
of  Catechetical  Lectures  delivered  by  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem  in  347,  covering  the  whole  scheme  of 
doctrine,  as  it  had  been  formulated  by  the 
Church,  and  the  fundamental  points  of  Chris- 
tian morality.  These  lectures  are  the  most 
important  extant  document  relating  to  the 
catechumenate,  and  are  probably  in  the  form 
in  which  they  were  actually  delivered.  The 
Great  Catechism  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa  (q.v.)  is  a 
highly  technical  exposition  of  theology  con- 
ceived in  the  spirit  of  Origen  (q.v.).  It  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  used  in  instruction,  for  which 
it  was  hardly  suitable,  but  was  intended  to 
serve  as  a  guide  to  the  catechist  on  the  main 
points  of  doctrine.  On  account  of  its  radical 
Origenism  it  could  hardly  have  enjoyed  great 
circulation.  The  work  of  Augustine,  Dc  catechi- 
zandis  rudibus,  is  not  a  textbook,  but  a  brief 
treatise  on  religious  pedagogy,  giving  hi!its  for 
dealing  with  different  classes  of  pupils,  pointing 
out  stumbling  blocks  in  the  way  of  the  teacher, 
setting  before  him  ideals,  and  even  presenting 
models  of  discourse. 

The  catechumenate  attained  its  greatest 
development  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries. 
The  Church,  free  from  persecution,  then  de- 
.veloped  its  organization  in  all  points,  and  the 
catechumenal  system  was  carefully  regulated. 
Indeed,  it  is  largely  from  this  period  that  most 
information  regarding  the  Church's  in.stitutions 
is  to  be  gathered.  It  still  remained  the  custom 
to  baptize  adults  almost  exclusively,  even  in  the 
case  of  members  of  pious  and  devoted  Christian 
families.  The  reason  for  this  was  that  the  for- 
giveness obtained  in  baptism  applied  only  to 
the  sins  in  the  past.  If  baptism  came  later  in 
life,  it  would  avail  for  more  wrongdoings  and 
delinquencies.  Men  and  women  therefore  ap- 
plied for  baptism  who  had  never  been  heathen, 
and  were  familiar  with  the  leading  points  of  the 


550 


CATEGORICAL 


CATHEDRAL  SCHOOLS 


faith.  For  them  the  grade  of  instruction  could 
be  much  higher  than  if  it  were  merely  for  chil- 
dren. The  catechumcnal  system  declined  very 
rapidlj'  with  the  general  introduction  of  infant 
baptism.  There  was  no  place  for  it  before  bap- 
tism, and  the  children  brought  up  in  the  Church 
and  attending  its  services  received  their  knowl- 
edge of  the  faith  through  the  services  of  the 
Church.  For  some  centuries  the  catechumenate 
remained  only  as  a  series  of  elaborate  ceremo- 
nies connected  with  bajitism.  These  were  gradu- 
ally simplified  till  but  few  traces  remained. 
The  place  of  this  admirable  system  of  instruc- 
tion was  but  inadequately  filled  by  preaching, 
which  rapidly  declined.  And  the  Middle  Ages, 
it  may  he  said,  never  developed  a  system  of 
instruction  which  approached  in  effectiveness 
the  catechumenate  of  the  early  Church.  With 
the  Protestant  Reformation  and  the  Council  of 
Trent  some  provision  was  made  for  popular 
religious  instruction,  especially  of  the  young, 
and  both  among  Protestants  and  Roman 
Catholics  numerous  Catechisms  were  compiled, 
and  the  clergy  held  accountable  for  suitable  in- 
struction in  their  cures.  J.  C.  A. 

References:  — 
BiNGH.\M.     Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church. 
D.wiDSON.     History  of  Education.     (New  York,  1900.) 
DnANE,  .\.  T.     Christian  Schools.     (London.   ISSl.) 
Church    Histories  of   Moeller,  Leander,  Robertson  and 
others. 

CATEGORICAL.  —  See  Judgment. 

CATHEDRAL  SCHOOLS.  —  It  has  already 

been  stated  that  all  schools  in  western  Europe 
arc  derived  from  the  bishops'  schools  (g.v.). 
From  the  time  that  the  bishop's  council  became 
a  corporation  apart  from  the  bishop,  with  sep- 
arate possessions,  the  bishop,  being  a  person 
whose  office  necessitated  perjDetual  movement 
in  his  diocese,  even  if  he  was  not,  as  was  very 
often  the  case,  traveling  in  the  service  of  the 
King,  who  rarely  spent  more  than  a  week  in  the 
same  place,  devolved  the  control  of  his  school 
on  the  chapter.  They,  being  bound  to  statu- 
tory residence  and  service  in  the  mother  or 
cathedral  church  of  the  diocese,  were  better 
able  to  look  after  the  cathedral  school.  This 
in  process  of  time  developed  into  three,  and, 
in  some  cases,  four  schools,  the  theological 
school,  the  grammar  school  (q.v.),  the  song  or 
music  school  (q.t<.).  and  in  later  times,  in  .some 
places,  such  as  Lincoln  and  Salisbury,  the 
choristers'  school  (q.v.),  a  grammar  and  song 
school  combined.  At  first  the  one  school  had 
been  originally  taught  by  one  of  the  canons, 
who  was  known  as  the  schoolmaster  (Magistcr 
Scholanii/i,  Scholnnlicus,  or  Arc/iinrholn).  The 
song  school  was  very  early  .separated,  and  by  the 
end  of  the  eleventh  century,  when  the  consti- 
tution of  cathedral  churches  was  fixed,  or  at 
least  became  the  subject  of  written  statutes, 
had  been  placed  under  a  separate  officer,  the 
cantor,  chanter,  or,  as  he  was  called  from  the 
thirteenth   century,   precentor.     Though  sing- 


ing was  regarded  as  quite  as  important  for  all 
cathedral  ministers,  and  was  for  the  services 
even  more  important  than  grammar,  and 
the  precentor,  though  a  later  creation,  gen- 
erally took  precedence  ne.xt  the  dean,  yet 
the  song  school  never  was  regarded  as  of  the 
same  importance  as  the  grammar  school; 
and  the  song  schoolmaster  occupied  a  much 
lower  position  than  the  grammar  schoolmaster. 
The  theological  school  became  separated  from 
the  grammar  school  about  the  last  quarter  of 
the  twelfth  century.  Though  theology  was 
the  highest  faculty,  and  indeed  the  ultimate  end 
theoretically  of  all  learning,  yet  the  chancellor's 
(q.v.)  own  school  never  occupied  as  high  a  po- 
sition as  the  grammar  school,  which  he  devolved 
on  his  deputy  and  appointee,  the  granmiar 
schoolmaster.  The  grammar  school  of  the 
Cathedral  Church  of  N.,  or,  as  it  was  quite  often 
called,  the  Grammar  School  of  the  City  of  N., 
was  par  excellence  the  Cathedral  School.  These 
cathedral  schools  were  the  public  schools  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  England,  even  after  the 
Reformation,  continued  to  l)e  the  chief  schools 
down  to  the  eighteenth  century.  Even  now, 
if  they  have  been  eclipsed  by  the  select  few  of 
the  old  grammar  schools,  which  are  known  as 
the  Great  Public  Schools,  and  their  modern  imi- 
tators, the  cathedral  schools  still  remain  among 
the  chief  of  those  public  schools  of  the  second 
rank  which  still  retain  the  title,  dropped  by  the 
others,  of  grammar  schools.  They  were  al- 
ways for  the  city  and  county  as  well  as  for  the 
members  of  the  cathedral  church  itself.  They 
taught  not  only  grammar  in  the  strict  sense,  but 
the  classics  in  general,  together  with  rhetoric 
and  dialectic  or  logic,  the  Irivium  {q.v.)  of  the 
schola.stic  course.  The  earliest  documents 
extant  in  connection  with  the  cathedrals  show 
us  their  importance.  There  were  four  principal 
persons  or  dignitaries  in  the  cathedrals  as  or- 
ganized in  France,  Spain,  and  Germany,  as  well 
as  England,  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century: 
the  head,  called  in  England  dean,  the  precentor, 
the  chancellor,  and  the  sacrist  or  treasurer,  and 
they  ranked  in  that  order  generally.  At  St. 
Paul's,  London,  and  perhaps  some  other  places, 
the  chancellor  ranked  second  instead  of  third, 
as  he  had  originally  been  second,  before  the 
bishop  himself  had  been  superseded  by  the  dean. 
In  England,  the  earliest  of  these  documents 
is  the  In.tlitidion  of  St.  O.ftDund,  the  foundation 
statutes  of  Salisbury  Cathedral,  which,  though 
they  only  exist  in  a  thirteenth-century  copy, 
purport  to  be  made  in  the  year  1091,  and  are 
substantially,  if  not  in  every  word,  of  that  date. 
They  state  that  the  chancellor  is  preeminent 
in  teaching  the  school  and  correcting  the  books, 
and  that  the  Archischola,  apparently  the  same 
person,  has  to  hear  and  determine  the  lessons, 
keep  the  chapter  seal,  write  the  chapter  letters, 
and  draft  the  chapter  deeds.  There  is  every 
reason  to  think  that  the  statutes  of  Lincoln 
Cathedral,  founded  in  1090,  and  those  of  York 
Cathedral,  reconstituted  in  the  same  year,  were 


551 


CATHEDRAL  SCHOOLS 


CATHEDRAL  SCHOOLS 


in  identical  tornis.  At  St.  Paul's,  London,  the 
earliest  extant  document  in  which  the  school 
appears  is  in  a  confirmation,  about  the  year 
1111,  by  Bishop  Richard  to  Hugh  the  school- 
master (Ma{jistro  Scholarum)  of  the  house  pre- 
viously occui)ied  by  Master  Durand  to  hold 
it  ex  officio  to  him  and  his  successors  forever; 
and  as  Durand  signs  deeds  as  a  canon  as  early 
as  HOG,  this  brings  the  school  back  to  that 
date  at  least.  In  about  1120  the  same  bishop 
granted  to  "  Henry,  my  canon,  the  pupil  of 
Master  Hugh,  the  school  of  St.  Paul's  as  hon- 
orably as  the  church  in  best  and  most  honor- 
able wise  ever  held  it,"  and  conferred  on  him 
some  new  endowments.  King  Stephen  about 
1137  conferred  a  special  endowment,  some 
churches  in  Hampshire,  on  the  schoolmaster 
of  Salisbury.  At  York  the  Archbishop  about 
1189  gave  a  separate  endowment  of  100.S.  a 
year  out  of  the  "synodals,"  or  fees  payable  to 
the  archbishop  for  synods,  to  the  sehoolma.ster. 
But  when  the  schoolmaster  became  chancellor, 
in  about  1190  at  York  and  about  1205  at  St. 
Paul's,  these  endowments  remained  part  of  the 
chancellor's  estate,  and  the  grammar  sc'hool  as 
such  became  unendowed.  Its  master  received 
generally  a  payment  of  £2  a  year  from  the 
chancellor,  adequate  no  doubt  in  1190,  but  as  it 
was  never  increased,  wholly  inadequate  even  by 
1382,  when  £10  was  the  stipend  assigned  to  the 
headmaster  of  Winchester.  It  appears  from  stat- 
utes at  York  in  1307  that  the  grammar  school- 
master was  bound  to  be  a  Master  of  Arts,  and 
held  office  only  for  three  years,  or  by  special 
grace  for  a  fourth  year.  But  after  the  Black 
Death  in  1349,  such  was  the  dearth  of  M.A.'s 
that  the  chapter  had  to  infringe  the  statute  or 
custom  and  concur  in  the  chancellor's  making 
appointments  for  life  or  during  good  l)ehavior. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  several  of  the  York 
masters  were  not  in  holy  orders,  and  were  mar- 
ried men.  The  rector,  as  he  is  called,  of  the 
grammar  school  of  Chichester,  Master  Thomas 
Romsey,  who  had  been  master  there  for  ten 
years,  became  the  second  headmaster  of  Win- 
chester College  in  1395  —  a  sufficient  evidence 
of  the  high  status  of  that  cathedral  school. 

In  the  fifteenth  century,  the  customary  sti- 
pend had  become  so  insufficient,  while  the  canon 
law  directed  that  cathedral  schools  should  be 
free  at  all  events  to  the  members  of  the  Church 
and  the  poor,  that  other  means  were  resorted 
to  for  paying  the  master.  At  Lincoln,  in  1402, 
we  find  that  the  master  was  made  a  vicar- 
choral,  i.e.  one  of  the  canon's  choir  deputies. 
At  Wells  the  schoolmaster  was  also  a  chantry 
priest  in  the  cathedral.  At  Chichester  he  was 
in  1460  also  parson  of  St.  Olave's  Church  in  the 
city,  a  not  very  satisfactory  arrangement.  So 
in  1498  Bishop  Story  appropriated  one  of  the 
eanonries,  or  prebends  of  the  cathedral,  to  that 
school,  which  is  in  consequence  still  called  the 
Prebendal  School.  At  Exeter,  when  the  Refor- 
mation was  in  prospect,  the  chapter  in  1636 
proposed  to  reconstitute  themselves  as  pastor 


and  preachers  instead  of  dean  and  canons, 
and  to  augment  the  grammar  schoolmaster's 
stipend  out  of  the  chapter  revenues  to  £20  a 
year,  and  establish  a  number  of  free  scholar- 
ships. At  York  50  free  scholars  attending  the 
cathedral  school  were  maintained  by  the  neigh- 
boring abbey  of  St.  Mary's.  It  was  on  these 
lines  that,  when  the  monkish  cathedrals  at 
Canterbury,  Rochester,  Durham,  Worcester, 
Norwich,  Ely,  and  Carlisle  were  abolished  and 
secular  canons  introduced,  and  new  bishoprics 
and  chapters  of  canons  established  in  place 
of  the  abbeys  of  Peterborough,  Bristol,  and 
Gloucester  in  1540,  the  cathedral  schools  re- 
ceived a  great  accession.  To  each  new  cathe- 
dral chapter  a  grammar  school  was  attached 
with  master  and  usher  receiving  £20  and  £10 
a  year  respectively,  with  provision  for  free 
scholars  to  be  lodged,  boarded,  and  clothed  free, 
ranging  from  50  at  Canterbury  and  40  at  West- 
minster to  20  at  Peterborough,  and,  apparently, 
none  at  Gloucester,  with  extensive  provision  of 
exhibitions  to  take  the  best  scholars  on  to  the 
universities.  This  la,st  provision  was,  however, 
afterward  canceled  by  Henry  VIII  himself. 
While  the  schools  of  the  cathedrals  "  of  the 
new  foundation,"  as  they  are  called,  benefited 
enormously  by  the  change  of  religion,  those  of 
the  old  cathedrals  suffered.  For  the  abolition 
of  chantries  and  the  reduction  of  vicar-choral- 
ships  left  them  to  their  old  salaries  eked  out 
by  tuition  fees.  York  was  saved  by  the  annexa- 
tion by  Cardinal  Pole  of  an  old  hospital  or 
almshouse  for  poor  priests  to  the  school.  Here- 
ford received  subsequent  endowments  from  a 
later  dean.  Lichfield  school  was  removed  to  a 
hospital  in  the  city.  But  Salisbury  and  Wells 
cathedral  schools  gradually  died  of  inanition, 
and  York  and  Lichfield  ceased  to  be  regarded 
as  cathedral  schools.  So  that  by  an  odd  re- 
versal and  forgetfulness  of  history,  when  the 
great  inquiry  into  and  revival  of  secondary 
schools  by  the  Endowed  Schools  Commission 
of  1863  took  place,  it  was  schools  of  the  cathe- 
drals of  the  new  foundation  which  were  re- 
garded as  the  cathedral  schools,  and  provision 
was  made  for  assisting  them  out  of  the  funds  of 
the  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners,  who  now 
administer  the  estates  of  the  cathedrals,  while 
the  others  w-cre  disregarded.  Westminster, 
which,  owing  to  the  abolition  of  Westminster 
Cathedral  by  Queen  Mary  and  its  revival  by 
Queen  Elizabeth  as  a  collegiate  church,  is  not 
regarded  as  strictly  a  cathedral  school,  was 
throughout  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  the  largest,  most  famous,  and  most 
successful  of  the  public  schools.  Of  the  rest 
York  was  long  regarded  as  one  of  the  chief 
schools  of  the  north;  Durham  has  been  the 
most  uniformly  distinguished  and  successful; 
Canterbury  was  for  many  years  sadly  neglected 
and  decadent,  but  has,  since  a  new  scheme  was 
made  for  it  by  the  Charity  Commission,  been 
revived,  and  has  largely  increased  quite  re- 
cently;   Norwich  and  Hereford  and  Ely  have 


552 


CATHOLICS  AND  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 


CAUSATION 


been  fairly  successful  as  local  schools;  Bristol 
has  been  sadly  lowered,  and  Chichester  has  been 
reduced  almost  to  nothingness.  A.  F.  L. 

CATHOLICS  AND  THE  PUBLIC 
SCHOOLS.  —  See  P.\rochial  School  Sy.sTEM. 

CATHOLIC  UNIVERSITY  OF  AMERICA, 
WASHINGTON,  D.C.  —  A  Catholic  institu- 
tion founded  for  the  higher  education  of  the 
clergy  and  laity.  It  was  projected  in  1866,  but 
not  founded  until  1884.  It  received  Papal 
Sanction  in  1889,  and  the  first  classes  were 
opened  in  that  year.  The  university  comprises 
five  schools  —  sacred  science,  law,  philosophy, 
letters,  and  science,  each  divided  into  depart- 
ments. The  majority  of  the  departments  are 
for  graduate  students  only.  A  collegiate  de- 
partment was  added  in  1908,  admission  require- 
ments to  which  are  graduation  from  a  high 
school.  As  a  general  rule  candidates  are  not 
admitted  to  the  graduate  schools  unless  they 
have  had  a  previous  college  or  equivalent  train- 
ing. The  degrees  are  conferred  on  completion 
of  required  courses  and  examinations.  There 
are  15  professors,  8  associate  professors,  and  7 
instructors  on  the  faculty.  The  Very  Rev. 
Thomas  Joseph  Shahan,  S.T.D.,  J.U.L.,  is  the 
pro-rector. 

CATO,  MARCUS  PORCIUS,  MAJOR  (called 
CENSORIUS  and  SAPIENS)  (234-149  B.C.). 
—  Roman  statesman  famous  for  his  opposition 
to  the  aristocracy  and  the  introduction  of 
Hellenic  literature  and  foreign  manners. 
Throughout  his  life  an  opponent  of  literary 
studies,  he  characteristically  devoted  himself 
to  literature  in  his  old  ago,  took  up  the  study 
of  Greek,  and  became  a  prolific  author.  He 
laid  the  foundation  for  Latin  prose  literature. 
Much  of  what  he  wrote  is  now  lost.  One  of 
the  most  important  of  his  works  was  a  history 
[Origines]  in  seven  books,  dealing  not  only  with 
Roman  but  Italian  history  and  the  rise  of 
Italian  cities.  This  work  is  entirely  lost.  For 
his  son  he  composed  a  work  of  encyclopedic 
character  on  agriculture,  health,  science  of  war, 
and  jurisprudence.  The  only  genuine  extant 
work  that  can  be  ascribed  to  Cato  is  the  De  Re 
Rufilicn  or  De  Agri  Cultura,  a  guide  to  farmers, 
of  which  many  echoes  are  found  in  Vergil's 
Georgics.  Cato's  friends  atlopted  the  jiractice 
of  collecting  his  apothegms  and  moral  say- 
ings. In  Cicero's  time  these  had  increased  to 
quite  a  consideral)le  collection,  and  additions 
were  constantly  made.  These  went  by  the 
name  of  Disticha  de  Morihus,  and  were  all 
attributed  to  C^ato.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  owing 
to  their  content,  they  were  a  favorite  scliool 
textbook,  and  in  England  were  in  use  during- 
the  seventeenth  century.  Caxton  and  Wyn- 
kyn  de  Worde  botii  published  editions.  Eras- 
mus published  one  with  notes.  One  of  the 
earliest  English  translations  was  that  of  William 
Bullokar  (q.v.)  in  1585.     Hrinsley  (q.v.)  in  1612 


and  Hoole  (q.v.)  in  1659  issued  translations  in 
verse.  Mulcaster  oljjected  to  the  use  of  the 
Distichs  as  a  textbook  in  school,  and  with  great 
justification,  for  they  contain  moral  disquisi- 
tions and  moral  judgments  on  questions  which 
are  bej'ond  the  reach  of  schoolboys. 

References:  — 

Duff,  J.  Wright.  A  Literary  History  o/ Rome.  (Lon- 
don, 1909.) 

TEnFFEL.  A  History  of  Roman  Literature.  (London, 
1891,  1S92.) 

Watson,  Foster.  The  English  Grammar  Schools  to 
1660.     (Cambridge,  1908.) 


CAUSATION.  —  Probably  no  idea  or  set  of 
ideas  has  played  as  imjKjrtant  a  part  in  the 
history  of  philosophy  as  those  connected  with 
the  conception  of  causation.  Aristotle's  analy- 
sis of  every  subject  matter  into  four  primary  as- 
pects or  "  principles  "  which  exhaust  all  the 
points  of  view  from  which  the  subject  can  be 
intelligently  discussed,  was  stated  in  terms  of 
four  "  causes  ":  material,  formal,  efficient,  and 
final.  This  doctrine  was  taken  up  into  scholas- 
tic philosophy  and  educational  procedure,  and 
became  part  of  the  common  intellectual  heri- 
tage of  European  culture.  Of  the  four  notions, 
emphasis  long  fell  upon  the  formal  and  the 
final  causes,  to  the  comparative  neglect  of 
material  and  efficient.  The  formal  cause  was 
the  nature  or  essence,  the  universal  character, 
which  constituted  anything  irhat  it  is;  in 
virtue  of  this  universal  character,  the  star  is  a 
star,  man  a  man,  etc.  The  final  cause  was  the 
end  and  purpose  for  which  it  existed.  Scholas- 
tic philosophy  held  that  true  science  consists 
in  knowing  the  end  of  things,  their  what  for 
or  reason  why,  and  hence  culminated  in 
theology,  knowledge  of  God  as  the  final  cause 
and  good  of  the  whole  universe.  Moreover, 
its  method  was  essentially  dialectical;  obser- 
vation and  experiment  directed  upon  nature 
were  at  a  minimum;  definition  and  the  plac- 
ing of  rational  concepts  (i.e.  formal  causes)  in 
logical  relation  to  one  another  at  a  maximum. 

With  the  Renaissance  came  a  reaction  against 
the  scholastic  philosophy,  and  again.st  the  whole 
doctrine  of  formal  and  final  causes,  which  were 
either  denied  in  ioto,  or  else  regarded  as  wholly 
sterile  as  respects  knowledge  of  the  facts  of 
nature  and  history.  Inquiry  turned  to  efficient 
and  material  causation,  i.e.  an  inquiry  as  to 
the  process(«  by  which  things  are  brought  into 
existence  and  the  elements  or  constituents  out 
of  which  they  are  made.  Motion  (or  energy) 
soon  became  the  generic  term  for  efiicient 
causes,  matter  (or  mass)  for  material  causes. 
So  that  it  is  a  commonplace  of  present-day 
physical  science  that  strictly  scientific  state- 
ments and  explanations  must  be  in  terms  of 
motion  and  matter. 

Meantime  the  notion  of  efl^cient  causation 
was  subjected  to  criticism,  till  finally  four 
theories  regarding  it  were  evolved:  the  .skepti- 
cal, the  a  priori,  the  positivistic,  and  the  prag- 


553 


CAUTION  MONEY 


CENSUS 


matic.  The  skeptical  theory  is  best  represented 
by  Hume.  According  to  him  every  distinct 
perception  represents  separate  existence;  con- 
tinuity is  thus  essentially  an  illusion.  Objec- 
tively there  is  no  such  thing;  the  mind  gets 
accustomed  to  certain  familiar  recurrences  and 
comes  to  expect  that  one  tiling  will  follow  an- 
other. This  subjective  habit  of  expectation  is 
all  there  is  in  causation.  Kant,  seeing  in  tliis 
interpretation  of  cause  the  destruction  of  all 
science,  regarded  causation  as  ati  a  priori  cate- 
gory in  terms  of  whicli  thought  construes  all 
the  materials  of  experience,  and  without  which 
no  experience  is  possible.  The  positivistic 
notion  eliminates  efliciency  and  necessity  from 
the  idea  of  causation,  and  reduces  it  to  uniform 
succession.  We  do  not  know  and  cannot 
know  that  the  events  are  intrinsically  connected 
or  that  one  produces  the  other;  but  we  may 
know  that  they  are  uniformly  connected  as 
antecedent  and  consequent,  and  this  uniformity 
of  sequence  constitutes  the  whole  content  of 
causation.  Acconling  to  the  pragmatic  theory, 
the  justification  of  the  notion  of  causation  is  its 
service  in  giving  control  of  future  exi)erience. 
Continuity  is  as  much  a  fact  of  direct  experi- 
ence as  is  discreteness  or  separation.  While 
there  is  no  a  priori  assurance  that  any  particular 
instance  of  continuity  will  recur,  the  mind  en- 
deavors to  regulate  future  experience  by  postu- 
lating recurrence.  So  far  as  the  anticipation 
is  justified  by  future  events,  the  notion  is 
confirmed.  So  far  as  it  fails  to  work  the  as- 
sured continuity  is  dropi)ed  or  corrected.  Be- 
cause of  its  fruitfulness  in  regulating  the 
occurrences  of  exi)eriences,  the  general  notion 
of  causation  is  justified. 

Of  course,  it  is  not  necessary  for  educators 
to  adopt  any  one  of  the  various  philosophic 
interpretations  of  causation.  Teachers,  how- 
ever, have  to  take  full  account  of  the  fact  that 
modern  science  is  based  upon  the  principle  of 
continuity  of  change,  or  process,  and  have  to 
promote  in  pupils  the  habit  of  looking  at  and 
interpreting  all  sulijcct  matter  from  this  point 
of  view.  The  chief  obstacles  which  have  to  be 
overcome  are  the  tendencies  to  look  at  things 
as  isolated  and  hence  static,  and  to  connect 
things  on  grounds  of  sense  rather  than  evi- 
dence, and  (often  encouraged  by  textbooks, 
as  a  survival  of  the  scholastic  interest  in  formal 
cases)  to  consider  intellectual  demands  satisfied 
when  definitions  and  formal  classifications  have 
been  learned.  Insight  into  processes  of  causa- 
tion affords  assurance  of  independent  intellec- 
tual progress,  and  represents  the  goal  of  edu- 
cational procedure  on  its  intellectual  side. 

J.  D. 

CAUTION  MONEY.  —  A  fee  paid  by  under- 
graduates at  O.xford  and  Cambridge  to  the 
tutors  of  their  colleges,  amounting  to  from  £15 
to  £30,  to  ensure  the  prompt  payment  of  all 
dues.  The  money  is  retained  by  the  tutor  so 
long  as  a  student  keeps  his  name  on  the  books 


of  the  college,  or  until  he  compounds  for  his 
annual  dues. 

CEDARVILLE  COLLEGE,  CEDARVILLE, 
OHIO.  —  Chartered  in  1887,  but  not  opened 
until  1894.  It  is  a  coeducational  institution 
under  the  auspices  of  the  General  Synod  of  the 
Reformed  Presbyterian  Church.  Preparatory, 
collegiate,  normal,  and  fine  arts  departments 
are  maintained.  Students  are  admitted  to  the 
freshman  class  of  the  college  at  1.5  years  of  age. 
The  college  courses  are  based  on  approximately 
8  points  of  high  school  work.  The  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts  is  conferred.  There  is  a 
faculty  of  10  professors  and  3  instructors. 

CENSORSHIP  OF  PUBLICATION  AND 
OF  READING.  —  See  Freedom,  Academic; 
Index  uf  Prohibited  Books. 

CENSUS,  SCHOOL.  —  In  many  of  the  states 
it  has  long  been  the  custom  for  the  state 
superintendent  or  other  authority  to  obtain, 
among  other  types  of  information,  statistics  as 
to  the  number  of  children  between  certain  ages 
in  the  various  school  districts,  townships,  and 
counties.  Local  authorities  have  sometimes 
made  a  careful  census;  often  they  have  relied 
upon  estimates  or  upon  school  enrollment.  In 
distributing  funds  from  state  or  county  to 
the  local  district  many  states  have  adopted 
the  plan  of  apportioning  money  according  to 
educational  need  as  expressed  in  the  number 
of  children  to  be  educated.  This  has  given 
rise  to  the  school  census  in  its  more  exact  form. 
In  these  states  local  authorities  are  required 
to  appoint  a  special  census  officer  each  year, 
and  to  provide  the  means  necessarj'  for  an 
accurate  census.  "  Padding  the  census "  is 
sometimes  resorted  to  in  order  to  increase  the 
appropriation.  To  offset  this,  names  of  all 
families  are  commonly  now  recorded :  sometimes 
a  descriptive  blank  must  be  filled  out  for  each 
child.  Special  classifications  must  usually  be 
made  of  the  Chinese,  Indian,  or  negro  children, 
of  the  deaf,  blind,  etc.  The  "  census  age  " 
varies  among  the  states,  sometimes  including 
all  the  years,  e.g.  5  to  21,  during  which  youths 
may  attend  schools;  or  only  the  years,  e.g.  6 
to  15  or  17,  during  which  they  are  most  likely 
to  attend.  \ot  uncommonly  the  ages  4  and 
5  are  included,  in  order  to  get  a  measure  of  the 
numbers  likely  to  attend  school  in  the  near 
future.  In  some  cases  the  enumerator  must 
also  make  a  record  of  the  school  attended, 
whether  the  child  can  read  and  write,  and  in  a 
few  cases  record  also,  for  ages  above  14,  the 
kind  and  place  of  work  followed.  The  cost  of 
taking  the  census  is  fixed  by  statute  in  some 
states,  the  amount  ranging  from  2  cents  to  10 
cents  for  each  name  taken.  The  median  rate 
for  the  11  states  thus  fixing  the  rate  is  about 
4  cents.  In  a  variety  of  towns  w-here  the  enu- 
merator is  paid  by  the  day  it  is  found  tliat  the 
median  rate  is  slightly  more  than  5  cents  per 
name  taken. 


554 


CENSUS 


CENTRAL  COLLEGE 


The  original  purpose  of  the  school  census 
has  been  to  provide  a  basis  for  the  distribution 
of  funds.  In  cities  the  data  thus  gathered  has 
also  been  used  to  some  extent  in  the  endeavor 
to  locate  new  school  facihties,  but  especially 
in  enforcing  the  compulsory  education  laws. 
Presumably  a  complete  enumeration  of  chil- 
dren, with  ages,  would  be  quite  serviceable  in 
this  direction.  Practically,  however,  little  use 
has  been  made  of  the  census  in  this  direction, 
owing  partly  to  the  fact  that  it  is  usually  taken 
at  a  time  of  year  which  renders  it  unserviceable 
(often  toward  the  close  of  the  school  year), 
or  to  the  fact  that  its  data  are  not  made  acces- 
sible to  the  proper  officials.  This  has  led  to  a 
discussion  of  the  feasibility  of  enlarging  the 
scope  of  the  census  so  as  to  make  of  it  a  S3'stem 
of  registration  for  school  children.  Obviously, 
in  carrying  out  not  only  the  laws  on  compulsory 
attendance  (q.v.),  but  also  those  dealing  with 
child  labor  (q.v.),  and  with  the  enforcement  of 
special  educational  opportunities  for  defectives, 
and  in  carrying  into  effect  the  treatment  of 
delinquents  through  the  juvenile  court  and 
probation,  it  is  highly  desirable  to  have  an 
accurate  registration  of  all  children.  Under 
present  circumstances,  it  is  difficult  to  enforce 
adequate  education  in  the  case  of  children  who 
attend  private  or  parochial  schools,  notwith- 
standing the  perfection  of  the  laws.  In  Phila- 
delphia such  permanent  census  or  registration 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  attendance  officers.  For 
each  pupil  a  card  is  prepared,  and  on  this  all 
necessary  records  are  kept.  It  is  obvious  that 
such  a  system  of  record  as  this,  once  made, 
would  involve  only  a  moderate  amount  of 
attention  to  keep  it  up  to  date.  If  the  collec- 
tion of  cards  for  a  given  district  were  kept  in 
the  school  of  that  area,  attendance  officers  and 
others  could  have  ready  access  to  them.  At 
the  close  of  each  year,  amount  of  school  attend- 
ance, etc.,  should  be  recorded.  At  present  we 
have  little  satisfactory  evidence  as  to  the  cost 
and  administration  of  such  a  system,  but  ob- 
viously it  is  a  logical  necessity  in  proportion  as 
society  becomes  more  solicitous  that  all  children 
in  cities  and  rural  areas  shall  come  within  the 
reach  of  educational  machinery. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  adopt  the  German 
system  of  police  registration  for  people  living 
in  cities,  compelling  householders  to  report  all 
arrivals  and  departures.  While  the  system 
has  its  advocates,  the  consensus  of  opinion  is 
that  it  would  be  impossible  of  enforcement 
under  American  conditions.  But  the  registra- 
tion of  school  children  by  attendance  officers 
is  not  impracticable.  D.  S. 

See  Attendance,  Compulsory;  Child 
Labor. 

References:  — 

DuTTON,  S.  T.,  and  Snei>den,  D.  Aiiminislration  of 
Public  Education.      (New  York,  HKllS.) 

Snedden,  D.,  and  Allen,  W.  H.  Schonl  Reports  and 
School  Efficiency.      (New  York,  1907.) 

Consult  also  State  and  City  School  Reports. 


CENTENARY  FEMALE  COLLEGE, 
CLEVELAND,  TENN.  — A  school  for  the  edu- 
cation of  young  women,  established  in  1854. 
Primary,  preparatory,  collegiate,  business,  and 
fine  arts  departments  are  maintained.  Classi- 
cal and  scientific  courses  are  given  in  the  col- 
lege, leading  to  their  appropriate  degrees. 
Candidates  may  enter  the  college  freshman 
year  after  a  school  course  of  seven  years;  other- 
wise no  definite  statement  of  admi.ssion  require- 
ments is  made.  There  is  a  faculty  of  15  in- 
structors. 

CENTRAL  BAPTIST  COLLEGE,  CON- 
WAY, ARK.  —  A  female  college  founded  in 
1893  and  under  the  auspices  of  the  Baptist 
State  Convention.  Primary,  preparatory,  and 
collegiate  departments,  and  a  conservatory  are 
maintained.  Candidates  are  admitted  on  cer- 
tificates from  accredited  high  schools,  and  must 
meet  requirements  demanding  about  10  points 
of  high  school  work.  The  faculty  consists  of 
13  instructors. 

CENTRAL  CITY  COLLEGE,  MACON,  GA. 

—  An  institution  for  the  education  of  negroes, 
established  in  1899  and  conducted  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Missionary  Baptist  Convention 
of  Georgia.  Elementary,  academic,  collegiate, 
theological,  and  industrial  departments  are 
maintained.  The  majority  of  the  pupils  are 
in  the  elementary  department.  Diplomas  are 
given  on  completion  of  the  higher  courses. 
There  are  14  instructors  in  the  institution. 

CENTRAL  COLLEGE,  FAYETTE,  MO. 

—  A  coeducational  institution  chartered  Mar. 
1,  1855.  The  corporation,  stj'led  the  Board 
of  Curators,  has  24  members;  one  third  of 
this  number  is  appointed  by  each  of  the 
three  conferences  in  Alissouri  of  the  Alethodist 
Episcopal  Church,  South  (the  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri, and  Southwest  Missouri  Conferences). 
Though  denominational  in  origin  and  control, 
the  college  announces  its  purpose  to  inculcate 
only  a  broad,  evangelical  Christianity.  The 
usual  undergraduate  courses  of  four  years  lead 
to  the  bachelor's  degrees  in  arts  and  science; 
the  degrees  of  M.A.  and  M.S.  are  given  for 
one  year's  study  in  residence,  with  a  thesis. 
Central  College  is  one  of  the  colleges  admitted 
to  Class  A  by  the  Board  of  Education  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South  (see 
College  Boards  in  Education,  Denomin.4- 
tional)  ;  the  institution  is  also  a  memlier  of 
the  Mi.ssouri  College  Union,  an  organization 
which  aims  to  exclude  from  its  membership  all 
colleges  of  the  state  which  have  not  facilities  for 
doing  creditable  college  work  (see  College  En- 
trance Boards).  A  preparatory  school,  known 
as  Central  Academy,  is  maintained.  Two  "  cor- 
related schools,"  Woodson  Institute,  Richmond, 
Mo.,  and  Centenary  Academy  for  Girls,  Palmyra, 
Mo.,  are  also  styled  Central  Academy,  their 
work  corresponding  to  that  of  the  preparatory 


555 


CENTRAL   COLLEGE  FOR  WOMEN 


CENTRAL   UNIVERSITY 


school  managed  by  the  college.  Phi  Sigma  Nu 
has  a  chajitiT  in  the  college.  The  builiiing.s 
occupy  a  canipu-s  of  25  acres.  Grounds,  build- 
ings, and  C(|uipnient  were  valued  (I'.KXi)  at 
S197,000;  the  total  annual  income  was  .S1S,0U0. 
The  average  salary  of  a  professor  is  §1350.  In 
1910  there  were  99  students  in  the  college  and 
71  in  the  academy.  There  are  13  meniliers  on 
the  instructing  staff,  of  whom  10  are  full  pro- 
fessors. William  A.  \Vehl)  was  inaugurated  as 
president  at  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the 
college,  Oct.  7,  1907.  C.  G. 

CENTRAL  COLLEGE  FOR  WOMEN,  LEX- 
INGTON, MO.  ~  Kstahlishcd  to  .succeed  (lie 
Marvin  Female  Institute  in  1S71;  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Methodist  Epis<'opal  Church, 
South.  The  present  title  was  adopted  in  1906. 
Preparatory,  collegiate,  musical,  and  fine  arts 
departments  are  maintained.  About  6  points 
of  high  school  work  admit  to  the  freshman 
year  of  the  college.  Degrees  arc  conferred. 
There  is  a  faculty  of  8  professors  and  14 
assistants. 

CENTRAL  COLLEGE,  HUNTINGDON, 
IND.  —  A  coeducational  institution  chartered 
in  1S97  and  under  the  control  of  the  Church 
of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ.  Academic, 
collegiate,  theological,  musical,  and  commercial 
departments  are  maintained.  The  admission  re- 
quirements are  equivalent  to  about  eight  points 
of  iiigh  school  work.  Degrees  are  conferred. 
The  tlieological  course  extends  over  three  years, 
at  the  end  of  which  the  degree  of  Baclielor  of 
Divinity  is  granted.  There  is  a  faculty  of  6 
professors  and  4  instructors. 

CENTRAL  NORMAL  COLLEGE,  DAN- 
VILLE, IND.  —  A  coeducational  institution 
organized  in  1876,  giving  preparatory,  collegiate, 
law-,  normal,  and  business  courses.  The  col- 
legiate courses  are  academic,  scientific,  and 
classic,  and  are  given  in  three  years.  The  ad- 
mission requirements  are  indefinite.  Degrees 
are  conferred.  There  are  22  instructors  on 
the  faculty. 

CENTRAL  PLAINS  COLLEGE  AND  CON- 
SERVATORY OF  MUSIC,  PLAINVIEW,  TEX. 

—  Founded  in  1907  as  a  coeducational,  non- 
sectarian  institution.  Elementary,  academic, 
collegiate,  commercial,  and  industrial  depart- 
ments are  maintained.  The  requirements  for 
admission  to  the  college  courses  which  lead  to 
degrees  are  not  definite.  There  is  a  faculty  of 
20  instructors. 

CENTRAL  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA 
PELLA,  LA.  —  Established  in  1853  by  a  resolu- 
tion of  Iowa  Baptists  as  a  denominational,  co- 
educational institution.  Academic,  collegiate, 
theological,  fine  arts,  normal,  and  commercial 
departments  are  maintained.  Candidates  are 
admitted  on  certificate   from  accredited    high 


556 


schools  or  by  examination  requiring  approxi- 
mately 12  points  of  high  school  work.  Degrees 
are  conferred  in  classical,  philosojihical,  and 
scientific  courses.  There  is  a  faculty  of  12 
professors  and  7  instructors. 

CENTRAL  UNIVERSITY  OF  KENTUCKY 
DANVILLE,  KY.  —  Established  in  1901  by 
the  union  of  Centre  College,  Danville,  with  the 
Central  University,  Louisville.  Centre  College 
was  incorporated  by  the  legislature  of  the  state 
in  1819.  Though  planned  chiefly  by  Presb.y- 
terians,  the  charter  forlxide  the  inculcation  "of 
religious  teachings  peculiar  to  any  sect  of  Chris- 
tians. In  order  to  relieve  the  financial  distress 
into  which  the  college  soon  fell  because  of 
insuflicient  appropriations,  the  Presbyterian 
Church  offered  to  secure  a  sufficient  endow- 
ment provided  that  the  election  of  trustees 
should  be  entirely  in  its  control;  this  precipi- 
tated a  long  struggle,  which  ended  in  the  amend- 
ment of  the  charter,  whereby  in  return  for 
$20,000  the  selection  of  tru.stees  was  to  be 
made  by  the  Synod  of  Kentucky.  In  1830 
the  financial  provision  was  complied  with,  the 
Rev.  .John  Clark  Young  was  chosen  president, 
and  Centre  College  began  a  history  of  valual)le 
service,  interrupted  only  by  the  almost  com- 
plete emptying  of  its  classrooms  during  the 
Civil  War.  The  close  of  the  war  found  two 
Presbyterian  General  Assemblies  (North  and 
South)  in  existence,  each  one  of  which  claimed 
the  ownership  of  Centre  College.  The  result- 
ing dispute  was  not  decided  until  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  in  an  important 
opinion  known  as  the  Walnut  Street  Church 
decision,  declared  invalid  the  claim  of  the 
Southern  Synod  based  on  the  allegiance  of 
most  of  those  interested  in  the  college,  and 
continued  the  legal  possession  of  the  northern 
body.  This  decision  caused  the  establishment 
of  the  Central  University.  One  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  dollars  were  raised,  and  in  1873 
the  legislature  granted  a  charter  to  the  cor- 
poration, which  was  styled  the  Alumni  Asso- 
ciation of  Central  University;  the  institution 
soon  afterward  opened  its  doors  at  Richmond. 
The  alumni  association,  which  included  all  the 
alumni  of  Centre  College  graduated  previous 
to  the  separation  and  the  alumni  to  be  gradu- 
ated in  the  future  from  the  Central  University 
itself,  was  to  elect  the  governing  body,  the 
Southern  Presbyterian  Synod  to  control  the 
theological  school  and  one  of  the  preparatory 
schools.  In  1884  the  charter  was  so  amended 
that  the  right  of  election  was  conveyed  from 
the  alumni  association  to  the  Southern  Svnod, 
the  synod  to  elect  two  thirds  of  the  board  of 
curators,  however,  from  the  membership  of  the 
association. 

In  1901  all  the  parties  holding  any  right  to 
either  Centre  College  or  Central  University 
agreed  to  the  amalgamation  of  both  institu- 
tions under  the  name  of  the  Central  University 
of   Kentucky.     The   College   of   Liberal   Arts, 


1 


CENTRAL   UNIVERSITY 


CENTRALIZATION 


which  was  to  continue  to  be  called  Centre  Col- 
lege, was  to  remain  at  Danville.  The  property 
at  Richmond  was  to  be  turned  into  a  good 
preparator}'  school  of  high  grade,  while  the 
medical  and  dental  schools  established  at  Louis- 
ville by  the  first  Central  University  were  to 
remain  as  hitherto.  The  administration  of  the 
united  university  was  to  be  in  the  hands  of  a 
board  of  24  trustees,  half  of  whom  should  be 
elected  by  the  Presbyterian  Synod  North  and 
half  by  the  Synod  South.  Each  trustee  was  to 
serve  4  years.  In  1907  the  two  synods  relin- 
quished all  powers  of  election  or  of  vetoing 
the  election  of  trustees,  the  board  becoming 
self-perpetuating;  on  May  26,  1908,  the  uni- 
versity was  placed  on  the  accepted  list  of  the 
Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of 
Teaching  (q.v.),  as  a  non-sectarian  institution 
participating  in  its  system  of  retiring  allowances 
to  professors. 

Central  University  maintains  Centre  College, 
the  classical,  scientific,  and  literary  depart- 
ments, inchuling  courses  in  civil,  electrical,  and 
chemical  engineering;  a  graduate  department, 
conferring  the  M.A.  degree;  a  college  of  law, 
suspended  early  in  the  history  of  Central  Uni- 
versity at  Richmond,  but  reestablisiied  in  1901 
as  the  successor  of  the  school  reorganized  in 
1898  by  the  university,  and  of  the  Danville 
Law  School  established  in  1894;  and  the 
Louisville  College  of  Dentistry,  established  in 
1S87,  of  which  William  E.  Grant  is  president. 
Admission  to  the  Centre  College  and  to  the 
School  of  Law  is  by  examination  or  certificate 
from  an  accredited  or  approved  four-year  high 
school. 

Centre  College  has  the  life  of  a  small  college 
of  the  best  type;  both  before  and  after  the 
Civil  War,  it  numbered  among  its  alumni  an 
unusual  proportion  of  distinguished  men, 
among  them  2a  college  presidents,  29  repre- 
sentatives in  Congress,  5  United  States  senators, 
9  governors  of  states,  two  Vice-Presidents  of  the 
United  States,  and  many  other  public  officers. 
Fraternities  have  been  established  at  Centre 
College  as  follows:  Beta  Theta  Pi,  Phi  Delta 
Theta,  Phi  Kappa  Sigma,  Sigma  Chi,  and 
Kappa  Alpha,  Southern.  The  fraternities  estab- 
lished at  ("entral  University  include  :  Sigma 
Alpha  Elpsilon,  Alpha  Tau  Omega,  Phi  Delta 
Theta,  and  Delta  Kappa  Epsilon.  The  build- 
ing of  tlie  Dental  College  in  Louisville  is  valued 
at  .51 15,000;  the  grounds,  buildings,  and  eciuip- 
ment  of  Centre  College  were  valued  (1900)  at 
$257,000;  the  total  annual  income  was  .?,32,.3r)9. 
The  average  salary  of  a  professor  is  .SlfiOO. 
There  are  (1909),  not  including  the  Dental  Col- 
lege, 17  members  on  the  instructing  staff  in 
Centre  College,  of  whom  1 1  are  full  professors, 
and  8  members  on  the  instructing  staff  in  the 
Law  School,  of  whom  4  are  full  professors. 
The  students  number:  Centre  College,  133; 
Law  School,  32;  Dental  College,  108;  total, 
233.  Frederick  William  Hinitt,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  is 
president.  C.  G. 


CENTRAL  WESLEYAN  COLLEGE,  WAR- 
RENTON,  MO,  —  A  coeducational  institution 
founded  in  1S64  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  Academic,  collegiate,  musical,  and 
commercial  courses  are  maintained.  Sixteen 
units  are  required  for  entrance  into  the  fresh- 
man cla.ss.  Admission  is  by  examination  or 
on  certificate  from  accredited  schools.  Degrees 
are  conferred  in  classical  and  modern  languages, 
philosophical  and  scientific  courses.  There  is 
a  faculty  of  10  professors  and  13  instructors 
and  assistants. 

CENTRALIZATION. —  This  term  is  em- 
ployed to  designate  the  tendency  in  school 
administration  to  concentrate  authority  and  to 
reduce  management  by  laymen.  In  the  early 
history  of  America  education  was  a  local  and 
popular  function,  and  it  is  still  largely  so  in 
the  nonurban  comnmnities  of  most  states. 
But  in  a  marked  degree  since  1860  the  tendency 
has  been  toward  centralized  administration. 
Localized  and  democratic  administration  of 
public  education  is  characterized  by  the  follow- 
ing qualities:  the  con.stitution  of  the  state 
authorizes  and  establishes  it  only  in  mcst 
general  terms;  state  legislation  is  not  specific 
and  is  largely  permissive;  schools  and  school 
systems  are  administered  and  supervised  mainly 
by  laymen  holding  office  for  short  periods 
and  quite  responsive  to  public  opinion;  the 
areas  of  administration  for  important  functions 
arc  small,  such  as  districts  or  wards  of  cities; 
town  meetings  or  public  elections  are  competent 
to  decide  a  variety  of  administrative  questions, 
such  as  appropriating  money,  selecting  tex-t- 
books,  locating  schoolhouses,  and  deciding  on 
new  types  of  education;  and  state  officials 
have  mainly  advisory  powers,  or,  at  most,  cer- 
tain powers  of  veto. 

Centralized  administration,  on  the  other 
hand,  exhibits  these  characteristics:  the  state 
con.stitution  fixes  many  administrative  details, 
such  as  types  of  schools  that  may  be  per- 
mitted, maximum  tax  levies  that  may  be  im- 
posed, methods  to  be  employed  in  distributing 
funds,  and  (jualifications  and  compensations 
for  certain  offices;  the  state  legislature  by 
statute  and  by  its  control  of  municipal  gov- 
ernment regulates  a  variety  of  the  details  of 
administration,  thus  reducing  the  possibilities 
of  initiative  and  variation  in  the  local  com- 
munity; administrative  functions  are  trans- 
ferred from  the  smaller  to  the  larger  area.s,  as 
when  certification  of  teachers,  selection  of  text- 
books, formation  of  courses  of  study,  inspection 
of  schools,  conduct  of  institutes,  and  other  ad- 
ministrative functions  become  the  duties  of 
state  officials,  or  when  the  district,  or  the  part 
of  the  city,  has  to  yield  its  authority  to  the 
county  or  to  the  consolidated  citj-;  popular 
meetings  and  elections  diminish  in  numl)er  and 
effectiveness,  their  powers  being  conveyed  to 
representative  boards;  lay  boards  decrea.se  in 
size,  their  members  are  appointed  rather  than 


557 


CENTRALIZATION 


CENTRALIZATION 


elected,  and  the  members'  terms  of  office  are 
prolonged,  thus  removing  them  from  the  im- 
mediate control  of  the  popular  will;  under 
the  lay  boards  appear  experts  whose  functions 
increase  at  the  expense  of  the  board,  whose 
tenure  becomes  relatively  secure,  and  who  are 
not  necessarily  representative  of,  or  informed 
with  reganl  to,  the  local  ojiinion  and  will. 
Among  American  states.  New  York  is  com- 
monly regarded  as  having  the  largest  degree  of 
centralized  administration,  while  Massachu- 
setts is  taken  as  a  type  of  a  decentralized 
system.  But  in  New  York  the  prevalence  of 
the  district  system  and  the  election  of  non- 
urban  superintendents  are  features  of  a  rela- 
tively decentralized  administration;  while  in 
Massachusetts  tlie  district  has  been  abolished 
and  expert  supervision  is  found  over  all  rural 
areas.  In  most  American  cities  centralized 
administration  advances  steadily  as  manage- 
ment becomes  more  complex  and  requires  more 
expert  service. 

The  system  of  control  and  administration  in 
France  has  been  highly  centralized,  but  a 
marked  decentralizing  tendency  is  at  present 
at  work.  In  Germany  imperial  influence  is 
slight,  l)ut  in  the  states  administration  is  highly 
centralized  and  professional,  except  as  regards 
nonurban  inspection  or  supervision,  which  is 
still  largely  clerical.  But  in  Prussia  and  other 
states,  the  tendency  in  recent  years  has  been 
toward  bringing  into  existence  or  stimulating 
into  activity  local  agencies  which,  while  exer- 
cising very  slight  final  authority,  ne\crtheless 
become  centers  of  local  interest  and  influence. 
In  Great  Britain  the  modern  developments 
have  been  steadily  away  from  the  excessive 
local  and  popular  control  which  formerly 
existed.  But  the  tenacity  of  the  English  for 
local  institutions  and  democratic  control  has 
largely  prevented  the  appearance  of  the  anti- 
social effects  of  centralization,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  Scotland  and  England  possess  to-day 
the  best  balanced  systems  of  combining  local 
and  central  coiitrol  on  the  one  hand,  and  lay 
and  expert  administration  on  the  other,  that 
the  world  has. 

Centralized  administration  of  public  educa- 
tion may  have,  at  any  given  period,  some  good 
and  some  bad  effects.  Other  things  remaining 
equal,  it  promotes  efficiency  in  the  following 
directions:  (o)  It  promotes  uniformity  over 
large  areas,  with  the  accompanying  possibilities 
of  economy.  Types  of  educational  effort  may 
be  coordinated,  official  bodies  reduced,  con- 
flicting jurisdictions  adjusted,  and  the  material 
means  of  instruction  provided  on  a  large  scale. 
(6)  It  permits  the  collective  wisdom  of  the 
larger  area  to  control  the  actions  of  the  smaller, 
to  maintain  at  least  a  minimum  level  of  cul- 
tural uniformity,  and  thus  to  prevent  local 
developments  hostile  to  the  best  interests  of  the 
state.  The  state  may  determine  the  minimum 
amount  of  money  to  be  given  locally  to  public 
education;    it   maj*   aid   weaker  localities;    it 


may   inspect  the  results   of   local   educational 
effort:    and  it  ma.y  enforce  the  establishment 
of  new  types  of  education.     In  a  similar  way 
the  county  as  opposed  to  the  smaller  areas,  or 
the  city  as  ojjposed  to  its  divisions,  may  en- 
force conditions  of  efficiency  better  than  the 
more  minute  divisions,      (c)  It  makes  possible 
the  substitution  of  carefully  planned  and  co- 
ordinated   policies   for    the   vagaries   and   im- 
mature schemes  of  purely  local  administration 
with  its  popular  control  and  inexpert  manage- 
ment.    A  large  city,  or  county,  or  other  area, 
or  the  state,  in  inaugurating  new  policies,  may 
have  specialists   planning  the   work  even  for 
years  before  the  first  step  is  taken.     Informa- 
tion from  various  sources  may  be  assembled 
and   experiments    conducted,    before   the   pro- 
mulgation of  a  new  policj'.     (d)  Finally,  cen- 
tralized administration  makes  possible  the  in- 
troduction   and    development    of    the    expert. 
UndoubtecUy  this  is  its  most  important  contri- 
bution   to    efficiency.     In    proportion    as    the 
primitive  art  of  educational  administration  be- 
comes complex  and  is  transformed  into  a  field 
of  applied  science,   the   presence  of  specially 
qualified  experts  becomes  indispensable.     But 
the  development  of  the  expert  seems  to  be  pos- 
sible only  in  divisions  large  either  in  area  or 
population    and    under    conditions    of   control 
which  are  not  purely  democratic,  as  democracy 
was  understood  in  the  primitive  social  life  of 
America.     Among  the  types  of  expert  service 
already  past  the  experimental  stage  of  develop- 
ment  in   American    education    may   be   men- 
tioned:  the  architect  to  plan  and  supervise  the 
erection  of  school  buildings;    the  man  who  is 
at  once  physician  and  educator,  to  direct  the 
various  aspects  of  physical  education,  such  as 
medical     inspection,     and     to     supervise    the 
hygienic  conditions  of  instruction;  the  business 
manager  to  attend  to  the  financial  affairs  of 
the  school  system;  the  statistician,  who  directs 
the  making  of  school  records  and  reports,  and 
who  is  able  to  utilize  these  so  as  to  derive  con- 
clusions suggestive  of  new  administrative  pro- 
cedures; the  specialized  supervisor  of  instruc- 
tion, whether  of  some  division  of  the  educa- 
tional system,  as  kindergartens,  rural  schools, 
grammar  grades  so-called,   or  high  school,  or 
of  instruction  in  some  type  of  subject  matter, 
such  as  music,  or  manual  arts;    or,  finally,  the 
superintendent,  the  earliest  of  the  experts  to 
be  developed  and  the  man  w-ho  must  yet  stand 
at  the  head  of  any  system,  expressing  its  most 
genuine  demands  and  coordinating  the  various 
aspects  of  its  activities  in  the  interest,  first, 
of  the  individual  child,   and  secondly,  of  the 
final  welfare  of  the  state.     Not  only  have  the 
most  successful  attempts  at  centralization  thus 
far  made  possible  the  utilization  of  these  ex- 
perts;  they  create  in  turn  new  fields  of  leader- 
ship, for  which  we  may  soon  expect  able  men 
and  women  to  prepare  themselves.     American 
education  is  rapidly  developing  the  profession 
of  superintendent  of  schools,  an  office  which 


1 


558 


CENTRALIZATION 


CEREBELLUM 


has  no  exact  counterpart  elsewhere,  but  which 
must  become  indispensable  to  educational 
progress.  Other  types  of  specialized  experts 
must  soon  be  provided.  The  development  of 
physical  education  in  the  broad  sense  of  that 
word  must  give  us  yet  the  man  who  is  physician 
and  educator  combined;  the  direction  of  voca- 
tional education  will  reciuire  experts  who  can 
devote  their  lives  and  a  long  period  of  training 
to  this  work,  and  some  day  we  must  produce 
leaders  who  can  strike  out  plans  for  moral  or 
social  training  and  superintend  their  execution. 
It  is  in  evidence  that  the  finances,  the  archi- 
tecture, the  selection  of  textbooks,  the  educa- 
tion of  defectives  and  delinquents,  and  the 
adjustment  of  children  to  practical  life  through 
employment  bureaus  will  all  in  turn  demand 
their  experts.  These  are  all  conditions  of  true 
educational  efficiency;  and  their  development 
through  and  under  experts  requires  an  in- 
creasingly centralized  administration  of  public 
education. 

On  the  other  hand,  certain  evils  tend  to 
follow  in  the  train  of  centralized  administra- 
tion of  public  education.  The  most  conspicu- 
ous of  these  are:  (a)  Lack  of  adaptability. 
Communities  vary  in  their  characteristics, 
needs,  and  ability  to  support  varying  forms  of 
public  schools.  One  portion  of  a  city  may 
differ  from  another,  rural  areas  may  differ  from 
urban  areas,  and  districts  populated  by  for- 
eigners may  present  special  needs.  Uniform 
schemes  administered  by  central  authorities 
fail  in  flexibility,  and  become  mechanical. 
Until  we  know  much  better  than  we  now  do 
the  genuine  aims  of  public  education,  uniform 
schemes  may  work  marked  harm  through 
failure  to  meet  local  needs.  This  evil  is  not, 
of  course,  an  inherent  one  in  centralized  ad- 
ministration, since  expert  direction  may  eventu- 
ally produce  flexibility,  if  there  is  intelligent 
local  demand  for  it:  but  it  is  a  usual  accom- 
paniment, (h)  Akin  to  this  unwelcome  result 
is  the  waning  of  popular  interest.  Localized 
and  popular  administration  of  education  has 
produced  in  all  sections  of  America  a  more 
intense  public  interest  and  activity  than  has 
any  other  form  of  social  action.  Some  forms 
of  political  action  may  thrive  and  develop 
without  i)oinilar  interest;  not  so  public  educa- 
tion. The  best  of  school  education  must  blend 
intimately  with  home  and  community  in- 
terests; the  absence  or  withdrawal  of  this 
cooperation  cliills  and  mechanizes  school  agen- 
cies. Much  of  tiie  effectiveness  of  American 
education  has  been  realized,  in  spite  of  its  im- 
perfect administration,  largely  owing  to  the 
popular  devotion  to  its  ideals  and  processes. 
In  the  face  of  centralizing  tendencies  it  is 
hard  to  keep  alive  local  interest;  for  the  most 
genuine  reform  comes  only  when  the  immediate 
community  has  enough  control  of  the  adminis- 
trative machinery  to  make  its  will  felt, 
(c)  Equally  serious  is  the  effect  of  centraliza- 
tion in  diminishing  possibilities  for  variation 


and  experiment.  Spontaneity  is  the  charac- 
teristic feature  of  American  education.  Not 
only  has  the  public  school  itself  been  indigenous 
in  each  state,  but  to  a  large  extent  all  the 
special  features  of  public  education  have  had 
a  local  and  spontaneous  development.  Within 
each  state  communities  have  vied  with  each 
other,  have  embarked  upon  experiments,  have 
developed  and  fixed  variations  in  new  direc- 
tions. Speaking  in  biological  terms  the  vari- 
ability of  American  education  has  been  enor- 
mous, which,  considering  the  conditions,  has 
resulted  in  much  progress.  Ultimately  society 
will  reach  the  point  where,  as  now  in  the  case 
of  medicine,  it  will  support  conscious  experi- 
mentation on  a  large  scale  in  education,  but 
until  then  we  can  hardly  afford  to  surrender 
the  opportunities,  however  crude  and  wasteful, 
which  exist  in  a  decentralized  form  of  educa- 
tional administration,  especially  when  the 
spirit  of  experimentation  and  competition  still 
prevails.  Lack  of  variability  as  in  the  case  of 
adaptability  is  not  an  inherent  evil  of  cen- 
tralized administration,  but  a  probable  tend- 
ency in  the  pre-scientific  stages  in  which  public 
education  still  exists,  (d)  Finally,  we  have  to 
note  that  administrative  centralization  tends 
to  involve  the  evils  of  bureaucracy,  and  not 
less  when  it  is  in  charge  of  experts  with  more 
or  less  permanent  tenure.  These  experts  must 
inevital)ly  tend  toward  group  solidarity,  hav- 
ing kindred  sentiments  and  interests,  both  in 
pursuit  of  social  satisfaction  and  an  endeavor 
to  accomplish  mutual  improvement.  The  rela- 
tions of  the  experts  toward  the  public  tend  to 
become  official  and  formal.  In  time  a  bureau- 
cracy may  be  formed  with  distinctively  anti- 
social tendencies.  D.  S. 

References:  — 
BowMA.v,    H.    M.       The    Adminislralion    of   Imia;     a 

Htmhj     in     Centralizntion.      (Col.     Univ.     Studies. 

New  York,  190.3.)      Ch.  ii,  on  Eduration. 
CcBBERLEY,      E.     P.      The     Cerlificalioii     (//     Teachers. 

(Chicago,  1907.) 
DtTTTON  and  Snedden.     Educational  Administration  in 

the  United  States.      (New  York,  190S.) 
Fairlie,  J.  A.     Centralizing  of  Administration  in  .Veto 

York.     (New  York,  1898.) 
Lowell,    .\.  Lawrence.     The    Professional  and   Non- 
professional  Bodies  in  our  Public   School   Systems 

and  the  Functions  of  Each.    Proc.  Nat.  Ed.  Assn., 

1898,  p.  999. 
Orth,   S.   P.     The  Centralization  of  Administration  in 

Ohio.     (Col.    Univ.    Studies.     New    York,    190.3.) 

Ch.  i,  on  Education. 
Rawles,    W.    a.     Centralizing    Tendencies   in   Indiana. 

(New  York,  1903.)  .  . 

Rollins,  Frank.     School  Administration  in  Municipal 

Government.      (New  York,   1903.) 
Webster,    W.    C.     Recent    Centralizing    Tendencies    in 

Slate     Educational     Administration.     (New     York, 

1897.) 

CEOLFRID.  —  Sec  Brscop,  Benedict. 
CEPHALIC  INDEX.  —  See  Craniometry. 
CEREBELLUM.  —  See  Nervous  System. 


559 


CEREBRAL  HYGIENE 


CERTIFICATION  OF  TEACHERS 


CEREBRAL     HYGIENE.  —  See      Mental 
Hygiene. 


CEREBRUM. 


See  Nervous  Syste.m. 


CERTIFICATE  SYSTEM  OF  ADMISSION 
TO  COLLEGES.  —  See  Accrediting  System. 

CERTIFICATES,  TEACHERS'.  —  See  Cer- 

TIFIC.\TIO.\    OK    Te.\CIIERS. 

CERTIFICATION  OF  TEACHERS.  — 
United  States.  —  The  various  systems  for 
the  certification  of  teachers  in  use  in  the 
different  states,  while  varying  much  in  nature 
and  scope,  are  ncvcrtiieless  reducible  to  a 
few  types.  The  town  system  of  certification 
of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  forms  the 
first  and  the  lowest  type;  the  county  system 
of  certification,  as  found  in  Illinois  or  North 
Carolina,  forms  the  second  and  a  higher  type; 
and  the  state  system,  as  found  in  Arizona  or 
Alabama,  forms  the  third  and  the  most  unified 
type.  Independent  certification  by  cities  forms 
a  fourth  type.  In  certain  states,  as  Indiana 
and  Connecticut,  the  state  and  local  sj^stems 
exist  side  by  side,  the  two  overlapping,  and 
may  be  said  to  constitute  a  fifth  tj-pe. 

Under  the  town  system  of  certification  the 
certificating  and  employing  functions  are  com- 
bined in  the  same  body  of  laymen,  who  are  re- 
quired by  law  to  satisfy  themselves  as  to  the 
moral  character  of  the  applicant  and  as  to  his 
or  her  ability  to  teach  the  common  school  sub- 
jects. When  this  has  been  done,  by  oral  or 
by  written  examination,  a  certificate  is  granted 
to  the  applicant,  authorizing  him  or  her  to 
teach  in  the  public  schools  of  the  town,  so  long 
as  desired.  This  form  is  a  survival  of  the 
old  colonial  system  of  personal  examination, 
and  doubtless  will  be  supplanted  by  a  better 
system  before  long.  The  cities  have  abandoned 
it,  and  Connecticut  has  instituted  a  state  cer- 
tification system  designed  ultimately  to  sup- 
plant the  local  sj'stems. 

Under  the  strict  count}''  system  of  certifica- 
tion, the  County  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
or  the  County  Board  of  Education,  prepares 
the  examination  questions,  examines  the  appli- 
cants for  certificates,  and  grants  certificates  to 
teach  to  those  who  pass;  but  in  a  number  of 
states  having  a  county  system  of  certification 
certain  modifications  of  this  system  are  found, 
usually  of  a  kind  that  look  toward  the  sub- 
stitution of  a  more  general  system  of  certifica- 
tion than  the  strict  county  system  provides. 
In  Indiana,  for  example,  the  questions  are  pre- 
pared by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  instead 
of  by  the  county  superintendents,  thus  secur- 
ing state  uniformity  of  questions.  In  Michi- 
gan examination  papers  written  in  one  county 
may  be  forwarded  to  another  county  to  be 
graded,  and  for  a  certificate  to  teach.  In 
Indiana  papers  may  be  forwarded  to  the  state 
superintendent  for  grading,  and  if  he  approves 


of  the  answers,  a  certificate,  valid  in  any 
county  in  the  state,  will  be  issued.  In  Cali- 
fornia a  certificate  granted  on  examination  in 
one  county  is  recognized  freely  in  any  other, 
without  further  examination.  All  of  these  are 
forces  operating  to  break  down  the  strict  county 
system  and  to  establish  in  its  place  a  more 
general  and  a  more  liberal  sj'stem  of  certifica- 
tion for  the  teachers  of  the  state. 

Other  forces  tending  to  break  down  the 
strict  county  system  are  the  establishment  of 
coordinate  systems  of  state  examination  and 
state  certification,  with  certificates  of  higher 
standing  and  wider  validity;  the  increase  in 
the  educational  and  professional  standards, 
which  has  led  to  the  abolition  of  the  lower 
grades  of  certificates;  the  recognition  of  nor- 
mal school  and  university  documents,  in  the 
place  of  an  examination;  and  the  growing  force 
of  public  opinion,  as  the  teaching  force  has 
come  to  express  itself  more  forcibly  on  educa- 
tional questions,  and  to  object  to  unnecessary 
and  artificial  barriers.  The  freedom  of  move- 
ment of  good  teachers  ought  to  be  restricted  as 
little  as  possible.  The  strict  county  system 
inevitably  shields  the  weak  by  protecting  them 
from  the  open  competition  of  the  strong. 

Another  force  tending  slightly  to  break 
down  the  strict  county  system,  but  tending  in 
particular  to  elevate  the  standard  of  certificates 
in  the  state,  is  the  fact  that  the  cities  have 
been  unable  to  use  the  low-grade  teachers  cer- 
tificated under  the  county  systems,  and  have 
been  forced,  for  their  own  protection,  to  estab- 
lish independent  certificating  systems  of  their 
own.  The  larger  the  city  and  the  more  im- 
portant the  school  system,  the  greater  the 
justification  for  special  examination  systems 
and  higher  .standards  to  enter  the  work.  The 
city  examinations  are  of  two  kinds.  In  the 
first  the  city  examination  parallels  the  county 
or  state  examination,  with  perhaps  a  few  more 
branches  added,  and  frequently  certain  edu- 
cational prerequisites  are  set  up  for  admission 
to  the  examination,  such  as  graduation  from 
a  high  school,  or  a  normal  school.  In  this  case 
the  city  examination  system  is  a  form  of  local 
certification,  doing  the  same  kind  of  work  as 
is  done  by  the  county  or  state,  and  with  the 
same  ends  in  view.  The  standard  is  usually 
higher,  and  an  elevation  of  standard  on  the 
part  of  the  state  as  a  whole  would  lead  in  most 
cases  to  an  abandonment  of  the  local  systems 
and  to  an  acceptance  of  the  county  or  state 
certificates.  To  the  second  kind  of  city  exami- 
nation no  one  is  admitted  who  does  not  possess 
a  certain  grade  of  county  or  state  certificate, 
and  then  the  applicants  are  examined,  usually 
orally  as  well  as  by  written  test,  with  a  view 
to  selecting  the  most  capable  and  promising 
for  teachers  in  the  city.  In  this  case  the  city 
examination  is  a  kind  of  civil  service  test  of 
fitness  and  competency,  erected  on  top  of  the 
county  or  state  requirements.  Many  cities 
also  conduct  a  series  of  annual  examinations 


560 


CERTIFICATION  OF  TEACHERS 


CERTIFICATION  OF  TEACHERS 


for  the  teachers  belonging  to  the  city  system, 
using  the  results  of  these  as  a  basis  for  making 
promotions  and  salary  increases. 

In  the  strict  state  system  the  state  examina- 
tion has  completely  superseded  the  local  exam- 
ination, and  the  state  certificate  has  taken 
the  place  of  the  local  certificate.  Most  state 
systems,  however,  are  of  a  modified  type.  In 
the  strict  state  system  all  questions  are  made 
out  by  a  central  authority,  such  as  the  State 
Superintendent,  or  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, or  the  State  Board  of  Examination,  and 
all  papers  are  graded,  and  all  certificates  are 
issued,  by  this  same  central  authority.  The 
county  superintendents  usually  act  as  agents, 
giving  the  examinations  and  forwarding  the 
papers  to  the  central  authority  for  grading. 
Alabama  and  Arizona  are  examples  of  a  com- 
pletely developed  state  system,  while  North 
Dakota,  South  Dakota,  and  Nebraska  are  ex- 
amples of  a  state  system  in  the  process  of  evo- 
lution, but  not  as  yet  completely  developed. 

About  three  fourths  of  the  states  of  the  Union 
provide  some  form  of  a  state  system  of  examina- 
tion and  certification  for  the  granting  of  pro- 
fessional and  life  certificates  to  experienced  and 
successful  teachers.  The  local  certificating 
system  here  continues  its  local  work,  the  state 
system  confining  its  work  to  the  granting  of 
higher  certificates  and  diplomas  to  those  who 
have  served  a  preliminary  apprenticeship  under 
the  local  system.  This  constitutes  the  fourth 
typo.  The  theory  underlying  this  higher  cer- 
tificating system  is  that  of  rewarding  successful 
teaching  experience  and  professional  effort 
by  a  certificate  of  a  distinctly  professional 
character.  If  the  attainment  of  this  higher 
state  certificate  is  based  on  further  study  and 
evidence  of  growth,  as  well  as  teaching  experi- 
ence, it  forms  one  of  the  best  means  of  certificat- 
ing teachers  for  a  state  that  can  be  devised;  but 
if  the  attaiimient  of  a  higher  certificate  is  con- 
tingent only  on  teaching  or  keeping  school  for 
a  certain  number  of  months,  then  it  may  be- 
come a  reward  for  laziness  and  incompetency 
as  well  as  for  proficiency.  To  secure  the  best 
results  those  higher  and  professional  state 
certificates  and  diplomas  should  be  led  up  to  by 
a  graded  system  of  certificates,  each  presuppos- 
ing added  knowledge  and  professional  growth, 
and  the  higher  certificate  or  diploma  should  be 
granted  only  after  a  further  examination,  pro- 
fessional rather  than  academic  in  its  nature. 
Such  state  credentials  should  carry  interstate 
recognition,  as  they  should  stamp  the  holder 
as  a  person  of  broad  general  education,  con- 
siderable professional  success,  and  high  personal 
character. 

In  most  states  a  certificate  is  a  certificate 
qualifying  to  teach  in  any  school  in  which  the 
holder  can  secure  employment.  Gradually  a 
few  states  are  beginning  to  erect  a  new  class 
of  certificate  for  high  school  work,  ba.sed  in  part 
upon  collegiate  training,  and  in  a  very  few  states 
the  beginnings  have  been   made  for  a  super- 


visory certificate,  for  those  who  wish  to  be 
principals  or  superintendents.  It  may  be  laid 
down  as  a  safe  standard  that  a  teacher  is  not 
prepared  to  teach  in  a  high  school  who  has  not 
had  some  study  beyond  the  high  school  or  the 
normal  school  in  an  institution  where  new  ways 
of  thinking  as  well  as  new  subject  matter  are 
put  before  the  student.  As  this  standard  can- 
not be  secured  by  an  examination  on  the  high 
school  subjects,  the  only  sure  way  is  to  require 
additional  study  and  training  for  a  high  school 
certificate,  and  to  accept  credentials  and  di- 
plomas of  graduation  in  the  place  of  any  aca- 
demic tests.  California,  with  its  high  school 
certificate  based  on  college  training  only,  offers 
a  commendable  example  in  this  regard.  In  a 
similar  manner,  there  is  great  need  of  the  intro- 
duction of  a  supervisory  certificate  by  which 
men  of  training  and  ability  may  be  singled  out 
from  the  old  successful  practitioners.  The  need 
is  especially  strong  to-day  of  men  for  leadership 
who  have  had  a  good  general  education,  and, 
in  addition,  have  made  a  careful  study  of  edu- 
cational theory  and  problems.  An  examina- 
tion in  school  law  is  not  enough;  a  knowledge 
of  administrative  theory  and  practice  should  be 
required.  The  beginnings  which  Connecticut 
has  made  in  this  direction  are  commendable. 

The  great  diversity  of  the  requirements  for  cer- 
tificates in  the  different  states,  and  the  general 
unwillingness  of  the  states  to  recognize  equiva- 
lents or  training,  are  two  of  the  most  marked 
characteristics  of  our  educational  system.  A 
good  teacher  to-day  is  unnecessarily  ham- 
pered in  his  ability  to  move  about,  not  only  from 
one  state  to  another,  but  from  county  to  county, 
and  often  from  city  to  city  or  town  to  town. 
Many  of  these  restrictions  have  no  educa- 
tional significance,  but  are  merely  a  tariff  bar- 
rier levied  against  brains  and  training  from 
abroad,  and  in  favor  of  local  teachers  and  home 
production.  The  81  fee  so  commonlj-  charged 
teachers  for  each  trial  at  the  examination  and 
commonly  used  for  the  institute  fund,  and  the 
per  diem  paid  to  the  county  superintendent 
or  the  examiners  so  long  as  they  keep  busy,  are 
serious  temptations  to  these  officials  to  stand 
in  the  way  of  a  better  and  a  more  intelligent 
system  of  certification.  Barriers  are  fre- 
quently raised  within  a  state  against  the  train- 
ing given  at  the  expense  of  the  state.  In 
14  states  it  is  impossible  to  enter  the  teach- 
ing profession  except  by  pa.ssing  an  ex- 
amination. No  amount  of  training  in  any  kind 
of  a  school  or  college  serves  to  make  one  able  to 
enter  the  work.  Tiie  graduates  of  the  normal 
schools  maintained  by  the  state  are  placed  on  a 
par  with  the  "  graduates  "  of  the  county  ex- 
amination. In  about  one  fourth  of  the  states 
there  is  no  recognition  of  certificates  from  one 
county  to  anotlier.  Many  of  these  barriers 
are  indefensible,  as  they  only  serve  to  keep  out 
brains  and  training  and  to  greatly  restrict  the 
movements  of  competent  teachers,  while  the 
defense  of  others  can   be  removed  by  simply 


-2o 


561 


CERTIFICATION  OF  TEACHERS 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS 


raising  the  professional  standards.  In  19  states 
absolutely  no  recognition  is  given  to  any  kind  of 
a  credential  or  diploma  from  any  other  state. 

There  is  great  need  of  an  attemjit  to  (nolve 
.some  more  uniform  standards  of  certification 
from  out  of  the  diversity  of  re(iuirenients  now 
in  e.xistence.  Certain  educational  prercciuisites 
should  be  cstalilislietl,  certain  common  re(iuire- 
ments  or  norms  laid  down,  options  or  e<iuiva- 
lents  should  be  recognized,  and  certain  meaning- 
less subjects  now  in  the  examination  lists  of 
some  states  should  be  eliminated.  So  far  as  a 
candidate  can  sujjply  evidences  of  training, 
certificates  obtained,  and  satisfactory  evidence 
of  successful  experience,  these  should  be  ac- 
cepted, leaving  the  candidate  to  sujjply  only 
the  deficiencies  by  an  examination  instead  of 
requiring  him  to  pass  on  the  entire  examination 
list.  What  has  been  done  in  the  matter  of 
college  entrance  requirements  should  be  done  in 
the  certification  of  teachers.  Each  state  must, 
of  course,  be  allowed  to  set  its  own  standards, 
and  a  state  cannot  be  expected  to  accept  cer- 
tificates coming  from  .states  which  represent 
lower  professional  standards  than  its  own. 
This  should  be  recognized  and  accepted  as  a 
matter  of  cour.se,  and  reciprocity  should  not  be 
expected.  Instead  of  striking  back  by  way  of 
retaliation,  as  certain  states  do  because  their 
low  credentials  are  not  accepted  in  return, 
they  should,  on  the  contrary,  welcome  the 
teacher  from  the  state  with  higher  standards 
than  their  own.  It  is  po.ssible  for  every  state 
to  evaluate  the  credentials  from  other  states  in 
terms  of  its  own,  if  equivalents  are  accepted 
and  a  little  flexibility  is  allowed.  If  this  is 
done,  it  is  then  po.ssible  to  arrange  an  accredited 
list  of  normal  schools  in  and  credentials  from 
other  states,  which  may  be  accepted  by  the 
local  certificating  authorities  in  place  of  an 
examination.  A  fundamental  principle  of  ac- 
tion should  be  that  the  certification  door  should 
always  be  kept  open  for  competency,  from 
whatever  quarter  this  competency  may  come. 

In  the  matter  of  examinations,  there  is  great 
need  of  decreasing  the  emphasis  now  placed  on 
the  written  test.  As  fast  as  this  can  be  done, 
the  examination  ought  to  be  decreased  in  fre- 
cjuency  and  in  importance  as  a  means  of  recruit- 
ing teachers  for  the  schools  of  the  state,  and 
more  ways  should  be  provided  to  secure  the 
educated  and  the  trained  teacher  instead  of  the 
raw  recruit.  The  plan  of  Arizona  and  Califor- 
nia, for  example,  where  normal  training  ob- 
tained elsewhere  is  freely  recognized,  has  done 
much  to  help  draw  to  them  the  best  teachers 
from  the  eastern  states,  greatly  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  schools  of  Arizona  and  Cali- 
fornia. Insuch  matters  as  the  validity  of  certifi- 
cates, renewals  without  examination,  abolition 
of  the  objectionable  fees  exacted  from  teachers 
for  examinations,  and  inter-county  and  inter- 
state recognition  of  certificates,  there  is  con- 
siderable room  for  improvement  and  reform  in 
nearly  all  of  our  states. 


See  Teachers,  Training  of;  also  the  special 
articles  on  the  different  state  school  systems,  as 
Alabama,  California,  etc.,  and  under  the  head- 
ing TcdclwrK  and  Training,  for  a  statement  of 
conditions  and  requirements  in  each  of  the  states. 

E.  P.  C. 

England.  —  The  Board  of  Education  will 
recognize  as  on  the  staff  of  an  elementary  school 
certificated,  uncertificated,  provisionally  certifi- 
cated, and  student  teachers,  with  a  distinction 
as  to  the  number  of  pupils  for  which  each  type 
may  be  responsible.  The  Certificate  of  the 
Board  of  Education  may  be  obtained  either  by 
direct  examination,  set  by  the  Board,  or  by  the 
final  examination  in  a  training  college;  there  is 
in  addition  a  liberal  recognition  of  equivalents. 
The  uncertificated  teacher  must  have  passed  a 
term  of  ai)prenticeship  and  the  Preliminary 
Examination  for  the  Elementary  School 
Teachers'  Certificate  or  any  of  the  number  of 
equivalents.  Both  examinations  confer  per- 
mission to  teach  for  life.  The  provisional 
teacher  is  only  recognized  up  to  the  twenty- 
sixth  year,  and  the  student  teacher  only  for  one 
year.  For  employment  in  secondary  schools 
the  Board  may  insist  on  a  recognized  course 
of  training  as  a  qualification  where  it  thinks 
fit.  At  present,  however,  this  reciuirement  is 
not  insisted  upon,  nor  is  there  any  certification 
of  teachers  for  secondary  schools  by  the  Board, 
although  the  question  is  still  under  debate. 

Germany.  —  It  is  the  universal  practice  in 
Germany  that  no  person  can  be  permitted  to 
teach  who  has  not  passed  a  state  examination. 
The  usual  requirements  are  tliree  (Prussia)  to 
six  (Saxony)  years'  training  in  a  normal  school, 
the  passing  of  a  state  leaving  examination  from 
the  normal  school,  two  years'  service  as  a  proba- 
tioner, and  the  passing  of  another  examination 
for  permanent  appointment.  For  appointment 
in  the  secondary  schools  a  candidate  must  pass 
a  state  examination  in  academic  subjects, 
must  spend  one  year  in  a  training  department  at- 
tached to  a  high  school,  and  serve  another  year 
as  a  probationer. 

France.  —  Two  classes  of  primary  school 
teachers  are  recognized  —  the  Stagiaires  and 
the  Titulaires.  Tlie  former  serve  as  probation- 
ers for  at  least  two  years  and  must  have  passed 
an  examination  in  the  subjects  of  the  highest 
class  of  a  primary  school  {brevet  eUmcnlaire). 
The  latter  are  regular  teachers  appointed  after 
passing  the  examination  for  the  certificat  d'ap- 
titude  pedagogique,  for  which  candidates  are 
eligible  after  a  course  at  a  normal  school  or  the 
2  years'  service  as  stagiaires.  The  qualifi- 
cations of  candidates  for  appointment  in  sec- 
ondary schools  vary  somewhat  according  to  the 
age  of  the  pupils  to  be  taught,  and  according 
as  the  school  is  supported  by  the  state  (lycee) 
or  by  the  local  authority  {college).  Teachers 
of  purely  secondarj'  school  subjects  must  for  the 
lyc^e  have  had  a  course  at  a  university  or  the 
higher  normal  school  and  must  have  pas.sed 
the  state  examination    (agregation),   which    is 


562 


CEYLON 


CEYLON 


competitive  and  very  severe.  The  qualifica- 
tions for  the  college  are  somewhat  lower.  Both 
classes  of  teachers  are,  however,  state  servants. 
See  the  separate  articles  on  the  National 
Systems,  and  also  the  article  on  Training  of 
Teachers. 

References:  — 
CuBBERLEY,  E.  P.  The  Certification  of  Teachers. 
The  Fifth  Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for 
the  Scientific  Study  of  Education,  Part  II.  (Chi- 
cago, 1906.)  88  pp. 
Jack.son,  W.  R.  The  present  status  of  the  CertiBca- 
tion  of  Teachers  in  the  United  States,  in  Rept.  U.  S. 
Com.  Bduc.,  1903,  Vol.  I,  pp.  463-520. 

CEYLON,  EDUCATION  IN.  — Ceylon, 
which  came  under  British  control  in  1S15,  pre- 
sents similar  social  and  religious  conditions  to 
those  of  India,  but  the  educational  problem  of  the 
island  is  le.ss  complicated  and  difficult  because  of 
the  smaller  area  and  population.  Moreover,  since 
the  third  century,  B.C.,  when  Buddhism  was  intro- 
duced into  Ceylon,  its  influence,  which  is  liberal- 
izing and  democratic,  has  prevailed  among  the 
natives.  The  census  of  1891  gave  the  popula- 
tion of  the  island  as  3,595,954,  of  whom  60  per 
cent  were  Buddhists,  23  per  cent  Hindus,  10 
per  cent  Christians,  and  7  per  cent  Moham- 
medans. The  Christians  numbered  349,239, 
of  whom  287,419,  or  82.3  per  cent,  were  Roman 
Catholics. 

Elementary  education,  so  far  as  it  is  under 
state  supervision,  is  carried  on  by  government 
schools  and  aided  schools.  The  former  are 
controlled  by  local  authorities  under  the  charge 
of  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  which 
appoints  and  pays  the  teachers,  and  provides 
the  schools  with  books,  furniture,  and  appara- 
tus, the  funds  for  this  purpose  being  voted 
annually  to  the  Department  from  the  general 
revenue.  The  construction  and  care  of  the 
buildings  and  the  enforcement  of  school  attend- 
ance are  duties  which  fall  upon  the  village  com- 
mittees. Attendance  at  school  is  enforced  by  the 
prosecution  of  delinquent  parents  before  the  "Vil- 
lage Triljunal,"  which  has  the  power  of  inflicting 
small  fines.  Aided  schools  are  carried  on  cither 
by  religious  bodies  or  by  private  individuals. 
They  are  inspected  and  examined  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Puijlic  Instruction,  which  pays  them  a 
grant  on  the  results  of  an  annual  examination,  the 
funds  for  this  ])urpose  being  also  voted  annually 
from  the  general  revenue.  The  managers  are 
responsible  for  the  maintenance  and  upkeep  of 
buildings,  and  for  all  other  expen-ses.  Ceylon 
has  long  been  a  field  of  missionary  activity,  and 
nearly  all  the  religious  denominations  of  America 
and  Great  Britain  maintain  schools  which  have 
been  recognized  by  the  go\ernment.  There  are 
also  many  Buddhi.^  schools,  which  as  a  rule 
are  under  the  Buddhist  Theosophical  Society; 
a  large  number  of  Sivite  schools,  which  arc 
under  private  management;  and  a  few  Mo- 
hammedan schools. 

According  to  the  range  and  nature  of  the 
instruction  given,  schools  are  classified  as  ele- 


mentary and  secondary,  but  these  terms  are 
very  nearly  synonymous  with  vernacular  and 
English.  The  children  attending  vernacular 
schools  are  a  majority,  about  85  per  cent  of  the 
total  number  under  instruction;  these  schools 
are  free,  and  provide  a  good  education  in  Sin- 
halese or  Tamil,  in  accordance  with  a  syllabus, 
the  range  of  which  corresponds  closely  with  that 
of  English  elementary  schools  as  they  were  a  few 
years  ago.  In  the  English  schools  fees  are 
charged,  and  these  schools  provide  the  higher 
education  of  the  island.  Statistics  covering 
the  decade  1875  to  1907  show  a  steady  increase 
in  both  government  and  aided  schools.  The 
former  cla.ss  numbered  479  schools  in  1898,  with 
46,279  pupils;  in  1907  they  numbered  616 
schools  and  75,589  pupils.  The  corresponding 
numbers  for  the  aided  schools  were  in  1898, 
schools  1220,  pupils  103,951;  in  1907,  schools 
1680,  pupils  166,234.  There  were  also  in  1898, 
unaided  schools  2330,  with  34,805  pupils,  and 
in  1907,  unaided  schools  1758,  with  33,699 
pupils.  Of  the  total  number  of  government 
and  aided  schools  in  1907,  viz.  2296,  the  vernacu- 
lar schools  comprised  2051,  w-ith  an  enrollment 
of  145,639  boys  and  60,945  girls;  total  206,584, 
or  85  per  cent  of  the  enrollment  in  the  schools 
of  both  classes.  The  number  of  English  schools 
in  1907  was  195,  with  an  enrolhiient  of  27,948, 
of  whom  22,376  were  boys,  and  5572  girls. 
Although  these  schools  offer  courses  of  instruc- 
tion leading  up  to  the  college  entrance  require- 
ments, the  greater  part  of  their  work  is  elemen- 
tary. 

The  increasing  number  and  patronage  of 
the  English  schools  are  signs  of  the  advance  of 
the  population  in  prosperity  and  in  the  ways 
of  modern  civilization.  Hence  special  efforts 
have  recently  been  made  by  the  Department  to 
systematize  the  higher  work  of  these  schools  and 
to  reclassify  the  elementary  sections  with  a 
view  to  meeting  the  different  requirements  of 
young  children  and  of  older  pupils  who  have 
passed  through  the  vernacular  scliools.  At 
the  present  time,  therefore,  Ceylon  is  the  field 
of  an  interesting  experiment  in  adjusting  in- 
struction in  a  foreign  language  and  in  unfamiliar 
branches  to  a  native  people  of  unusual  intel- 
ligence and  occupying  a  strategic  position  in 
the  commercial  movement  of  the  world.  The 
statistics  pertaining  to  vernacular  and  lOnglish 
schools  include  schools  for  girls,  which  arc  the 
subjects  of  special  regulations.  The  English 
schools  have  been  placed  under  a  special  in- 
spector, and  the  director  of  public  instruction  in 
his  latest  official  report  emphasizes  the  need  of 
a  body  of  trained  women  teachers  for  the  in- 
struction of  girls.  In  common  witli  the  English 
schools  for  boys,  those  for  girls  prepare  students 
for  the  Cambridge  University  local  examinations, 
which  are  conducted  in  the  island.  In  1907  the 
number  of  pupils  who  took  the  junior  examina- 
tion was  5(i5,  of  whom  463  were  boys  and  102 
girls.  The  number  who  passed  was  247  boys  (21 
with  honors)  and  57  girls  (7  with  honors).     The 


563 


CEYLON 


CHALMERS 


number  of  candidates  at  the  senior  examination 
was  333,  viz.  299  boys,  34  girls;  the  number 
wlio  passed  was  100,  boys  140,  girls  20;  13  boj's 
and  1  girl  secured  honors. 

Training  of  Teachers.  —  The  religious  de- 
nominations have  established  schools  for  the 
training  of  teachers  which  are  aided  by  public 
funds;  but  the  results  of  the  training  have  been 
unsatisfactory,  and  in  1903  a  government  train- 
ing college  was  opened  which  was  intended  to 
set  standards  for  the  service.  In  1908  the  order 
was  issued  that  after  the  close  of  1909  no  one 
should  be  admitted  to  the  examination  for  the 
second-class  teacher's  certificate  who  had  not 
gone  through  a  course  of  one  year  at  the  gov- 
ernment training  college  and  passed  the  first 
year's  examination  in  the  theory  and  practice 
of  teaching.  It  was  also  determined  to  admit 
women  to  the  English  Department  of  the  school, 
whereas,  at  first,  they  were  only  admitted  to  the 
vernacular  class.  This  action  has  already  been 
justified  by  the  success  of  the  women  students 
at  the  examinations,  and  the  consequent  in- 
crease in  the  supply  of  teachers  qualified  to 
teach  English  to  the  natives. 

Special  Institutions.  —  One  of  the  most 
interesting  educational  works  in  the  island  is 
that  of  the  Maggona  reformatory  for  boys  con- 
ducted by  the  Roman  Catholics.  All  boys  re- 
manded to  the  institution  are  taught  some  use- 
ful trade  which  they  are  able  to  follow  after 
their  discharge.  This  suggestive  example  has 
had  much  to  do  with  the  development  of  a  gen- 
eral movement  in  favor  of  industrial  training. 
There  are  already  37  industrial  schools,  10  for 
boys,  23  for  girls,  and  4  mixed.  The  preferred 
industry  for  boys  is  carpentry;  for  girls  lace 
making.  The  schools  of  this  class  received  in 
1907  government  grants  amounting  to  51,175 
rupees  (.516,581).  School  gardens  are  rapidly 
multiplying,  above  150  being  in  operation 
in  1909.  The  government  encourages  the  work 
by  special  grants. 

Special  Problems.  —  As  in  British  India,  the 
education  of  Mohammedans  offers  a  special 
problem  in  Ceylon.  Whereas  the  children  at 
school  represent  1  in  13  of  the  entire  population, 
for  the  Mohammedans  alone  the  jjroportion  is 
only  1  in  48.  Special  measures  have  been  re- 
cently adopted  to  overcome  the  indifference 
of  this  part  of  the  population.  The  needs  of 
the  children  of  laborers  on  the  large  estates  have 
also  excited  attention,  and  recent  regulations 
make  it  the  duty  of  the  superintendent  of  every 
estate  to  provide  suitable  premises  for  the  con- 
duct of  a  school  and  order  that  all  plantation 
schools  shall  be  subject  to  inspection  by  a  gov- 
ernment official. 

Higher  Education  is  represented  in  the  island 
by  the  technical  school  and  the  Royal  College 
at  Colombo.  The  former  has  admirable  equip- 
ment for  civil  and  chemical  engineering;  rail- 
way business,  physics,  a  special  chemistry 
course  for  medical  students,  stenography  and 
commercial    branches.       The    average    enroll- 


ment in  all  departments  is  about  250  students. 
In  1908  diplomas  were  conferred  on  23  grad- 
uates. The  Royal  College,  which  is  within  the 
circuit  of  Madras  University,  is  conducted  on  the 
plan  of  an  English  college.  It  has  two  scholar- 
ships available  at  London  University  for  stu- 
dents who  passed  the  competitive  examina- 
tion, and  its  course  of  instruction  prepares  stu- 
dents for  matriculation  at  London  University. 

The  annual  expenditure  by  Government  for 
education  in  the  island  is  about  1,300,000  ru- 
pees, equivalent  to  $421,200.  A.  T.  S. 

References: — ■ 

Ceylon.  Administration  reports,  1907.  Public  In- 
struction, Report  of  J.  Harvard,  Director  of  Publio 
Instruction. 

Great  Britain.  Parliavientary  papers.  Ceylon.  Cor- 
respondence relating  to  elementary  education  in 
Ceylon.     (London,  1906.)     (Ed.  2S73.) 

CHADBOURNE,  PAUL  ANSEL  (1823- 
1883).  —  Educator;  born  at  North  Berwick, 
Me.,  on  Oct.  21,  1823,  and  graduated  from 
WiUiams  College  in  1824.  For  several  years  he 
was  engaged  in  teaching  in  New  Jersey  and 
Massachusetts,  and  later  served  as  professor 
at  Williams  and  Bowdoin  Colleges.  For  three 
j'ears  he  was  president  of  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin, and  in  1872  he  succeeded  Mark  Hopkins 
as  president  of  Williams  College.  The  last  year 
of  his  life  he  was  president  of  the  Agricultural 
College  at  Amherst.  Author  of  Relation  of 
the  Natural  Sciences  to  the  Intellect  (1860)  and 
Instinct  (1872).  He  died  in  New  York  City  on 
Feb.  23,  1883.  W.  S.  M. 

CHALMERS,  THOMAS  (1780-1847).  — A 
Scottish  theologian  and  philosopher.  He  was 
born  at  Anstruther  in  Fifeshire,  and  studied  at 
St.  Andrews  University,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  in  mathematics,  political  science, 
and  natural  history,  studies  to  which  he 
devoted  much  of  his  attention  even  after 
being  licensed  to  preach  in  1799.  In  1802  he 
was  appointed  assistant  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  his  university.  In  1809  he  contrib- 
uted an  article  on  Christianity  to  Brewster's 
Edinburgh  Encijclopcedia.  In  1815  he  was 
elected  minister  of  Tron  Church,  Glasgow,  where 
he  soon  estalilished  a  reputation  for  brilliant 
oratory,  which  he  augmented  on  a  visit  in  1817 
to  London.  While  in  Glasgow  he  interested 
himself  in  the  moral  uplifting  of  the  members  of 
his  parish.  Mo-\-ing  to  St.  John's  Parish,  where 
he  found  an  itinerant  population  steeped  in  vice, 
he  divided  in  into  districts  for  administrative 
purposes  and  established  week-day  and  Sunday 
schools,  which  were  well  attended.  He  em- 
bodied his  experience  in  his  book  on  Christian 
and  Civic  Economy  of  Large  Toirns  (1821-1826). 
In  1823  he  became  Professor  of  Moral  Philoso- 
phy at  St.  Andrews  University,  and  in  1828 
Professor  of  Theology  at  Edinburgh  University. 
In  1833  he  wrote  the  book  which  attracted 
considerable   attention   On   the    Adaptation   oj 


564 


CHAMPEAUX 


CHANCELLOR'S   SCHOOLS 


External  Nature  to  the  Moral  and  Intellectual 
Constitution  of  Man.  This  work  brought  him 
recognition  from  the  Royal  Society,  the  honor- 
ary degree  of  D.C.L.  from  Oxford,  and  election 
as  corresponding  member  of  the  French  In- 
stitute. When  the  schism  m  the  Church  of 
Scotland  took  place  (1843),  Chalmers  seceded 
with  a  large  following,  and  was  instrumental 
in  organizing  the  Free  Church.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Principal  of  the  Free  Church  College, 
and  died  in  1847. 

References:  — 

Hann.\.  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Thomas 
Chalmers.     (Edinburgh,  1850-1852.) 

Henderson,  C.  R.  Education  of  Christian  and  Civic 
Economy  uf  Large  Towns.      (London,  1900.) 

Oliph-int,  Theo.  Life  of  Thomas  Oudmers.  (Lon- 
don, 1893.) 

CHAMPEAUX,  WILLIAM  OF  (c.  1070- 
1121).  —  A  scholastic  philosopher  who  maybe 
credited  with  laying  the  foundations  of  the 
future  University  of  Paris.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Anselm  de  Laon.  He  was  the  Chancellor  or 
Scholasticus  of  the  Cathedral  School,  and  en- 
joyed a  wide  reputation  as  the  greatest  expo- 
nent of  realism  (q.v.).  His  fame  drew  students 
from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  contributed  to 
place  the  schools  of  Paris  above  those  of  Tours, 
Bee,  and  Chartres  (qq.v.).  William  was,  how- 
ever, rapidly  eclipsed  by  his  more  brilliant  pupil, 
Abelard  (q.v.),  who  took  the  nominalistic  view. 
The  master  retired  through  mortification  to  the 
Abbey  and  School  of  St.  Victor,  the  stronghold 
of  realism  (1113).  Soon  after  this  period  he  be- 
came Bishop  of  Chalons-sur-Marne.  William 
had  the  reputation  of  being  the  first  dialec- 
tician of  France,  and  was  known  as  the  "pillar 
of  doctors." 

References  :  — 
McC.iBE,  J.     Peter  Abilard.     (New  York,  and  London, 

1901.) 
Rashd.\ll,    H.     The    Universities    of    Europe    in    the 

Middle  Ages,  Vol.  I.     (Oxford,  1895.) 

CHAMPLIN,  JAMES  TIFT  (1811-1882).— 
Educator,  graduated  at  Brown  in  1834.  He  was 
three  years  instructor  at  Brown,  fourteen  years 
(1841-1857)  professor  at  Waterville  (now  Colby) 
College,  and  fifteen  years  president  of  that  insti- 
tution. Author  of  several  Greek  textbooks  and 
works  on  intellectual  philosophy,  ethics,  and 
political  economy.  W.  S.  M. 

CHANCE.  —  See  Probability,  Theory  of. 

CHANCELLOR    OF    UNIVERSITY.  — The 

chief  exocuti\'e  officer  in  Enjilish  universities. 
Originally  he  was  the  representative  of  the 
bishops  in  educational  affairs  of  the  diocese,  his 
chief  function  being  to  issue  licenses  to  masters. 
When  the  universities  arose,  the  bishops 
claimed  the  right  of  control,  and  the  chancellors 
continued  to  act  as  their  representatives. 
This  system  of  authority  on  the  part  of  officials 


who  stood  outside  the  universities  led  to  fric- 
tion, as  at  Paris.  O.xford  and  Cambridge,  how- 
ever, gained  their  independence  from  their 
bishops  at  an  early  date,  and  obtained  the  right 
to  elect  their  own  chancellors.  The  result  was 
to  endow  the  chancellors  with  the  full  author- 
ity of  the  universities,  and  they  now  became  the 
chief  executive  officers,  with  power  to  grant 
degrees  and  to  maintain  order  among  the  stu- 
dent body  and  to  sanction  all  university  regu- 
lations. Until  1588,  the  chancellors  were  always 
ecclesiastics,  but  at  that  date  the  Earl  of  Leices- 
ter was  appointed  chancellor  at  Oxford.  The 
chancellors  continued  to  exercise  their  powers 
until  the  Stuart  period,  when  Laud,  as  Chancel- 
lor of  Oxford,  issued  the  Caroline  Statutes  in 
1636.  Since  then  the  function  of  the  chancellor 
came  to  be  performed  by  the  resident  academic 
vice-chancellor,  nominated  by  the  chancellor 
and  approved  by  Convocation  (q.v.).  The 
newer  universities  adopted  the  same  system  as 
the  older.  The  chancellors  are  elected  by 
Convocation  (q.v.)  and  the  vice-chancellors 
by  the  Senate.  The  chancellors  hold  office 
for  life;  the  vice-chancellors  either  for  life  or  for 
one  year,  with  the  right  to  be  reelected.  At 
present  the  office  of  chancellor  is  largely  honor- 
ary and  is  given  to  men  who  have  gained  dis- 
tinction in  political  life.  All  the  e.xecutive 
functions  are  performed  by  the  vice-chancellors, 
and  the  presence  of  the  chancellors  is  only 
expected  on  occasions  of  special  importance. 
In  most  universities  it  is  the  common  practice 
to  appoint  pro-vice-chancellors  to  take  the 
place  of  the  vice-chancellor  during  his  absence  or 
illness. 

See  UNn'ERSiTiES;  also  the  articles  on  the 
leading  universities. 

CHANCELLORS  SCHOOLS.  —  The  Chan- 
cellor's Schools  are  the  creation  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  twelfth  century.  From  the  time 
the  schoolmaster  assumed  the  title  of  chan- 
cellor he  dropped  all  other  teaching  and  re- 
stricted himself  to  theology,  and  the  chancellor's 
school  and  the  theological  school  became 
convertible  terms.  We  can  almost  see  the 
change  taking  place.  While  in  1183  Master 
Richard  of  Stortford  signed  a  deed  as  School- 
master (Magisler  Scholartim)  of  London,  Master 
Ralph  the  Theologian,  evidently  a  theological 
lecturer,  signed  below  him.  In  1205  John  of 
Kent  (Cantia)  signed  a  deed  as  chancellor.  In 
1215  a  Lateran  Council  ordered  that  every' 
cathedral  church  should  keep,  in  addition  to  a 
grammar  school,  ordered  by  several  previous 
councils,  a  theologician  to  teach  the  priests  and 
others  the  sacred  page,  and  that  a  prebend 
should  be  given  him.  In  1212  the  customs  of 
Lincoln  Cathedral  were  sent  for  use  as  a  model 
of  the  newlv  established  chapter  of  Moray 
(Elgin  Cathedral),  and  written  down  there. 
They  say  that  the  chancellor  — the  title  first 
appears  at  Lincoln  about  11()3  —  preside 
over   the   school.       In    1220-1230    in    Bishop 


565 


CHANCELLOR'S  SCHOOLS 


CHANCERY 


Welles'  Register  there  are  several  instances  of 
clerics  being  instituted  to  churches  on  con- 
dition that  they  attended  the  chancellor's 
school  at  Lincoln  to  learn  theology.  In  1236 
the  Lincoln  customs  were  written  down,  and 
the  office  of  the  chancellor  is  then  said  to  be  in 
the  first  place  to  teach  the  theological  school 
and  to  preach  in  the  church.  At  Salisbury, 
apart  from  a  much  suspect  deed  of  1108,  the 
first  api)carance  of  a  chancellor  under  that  name 
is  in  a  deed  of  1175-llSO.  In  1240  we  find  the 
bishop  on  the  ground  of  the  thin  and  scanty 
fruits  of  the  chancellorship,  annexing  a  rec- 
tory to  it,  on  condition  that  the  chancellor 
cause  theological  lectures  to  be  given  in  the 
city  by  duly  qualified  doctors  or  do  so  in  person, 
if  they  so  desire.  In  1250  Richard  of  Graves- 
end,  bishop  of  London,  remarking  that  in  other 
cathedrals  in  England  the  lecturer  in  theology 
had  always  been  a  member  of  the  chapter,  but 
in  St.  Paul's  they  had  resorted  to  outsiders, 
decreed  that  the  chancellor  should  always  per- 
form this  iluty  and  that  only  Masters  or  Bache- 
lors in  theology  should  be  eligilsle  for  the  office. 
In  1308,  finding  the  endowment  insufficient,  his 
successor,  Ralph  Baldock,  annexed  Ealing 
rectory  to  the  chancellorship  with  stringent 
gifts  over  if  the  lectures  were  not  given.  In 
1332  a  dean  gave  a  piece  of  land  from  the 
"  chapter  door  as  far  as  the  school  where  the 
chancellor  lectured,"  to  build  a  cloister,  which 
there  had  never  been  before,  and  a  chapter 
house,  which  was  built  over  the  chancellor's 
school.  At  York  the  dignitary,  called  in  1189 
schoolmaster,  in  1191  is  for  the  first  time 
called  chancellor  and  declared  to  rank  third  in 
the  cathedral.  In  1293  Archbishop  Romanus, 
desiring  to  increase  the  students  of  theology, 
gave  notice  to  all  rectors  of  churches  in  his  dio- 
cese that  if  they  attended  the  theological  lectures 
of  his  beloved  son  the  Chancellor  of  York  they 
should  not  be  disquieted  for  non-residence. 
About  1330,  Robert  of  Riplingham,  who  had 
been  a  fellow  of  Merton  College,  O.xford,  put 
up  a  stained  glass  window  in  the  new  nave  of 
York  Minster,  which  contains  a  picture  of  him  in 
blue  robes  teaching  in  his  theological  school  at 
York,  and  by  his  will  in  1332  he  bequeathed  to 
his  successor  as  chancellor  his  chair  {cathedram) 
and  desk  and  £300  to  provide  exhibitions  for 
JVI.A's.  studying  theology  at  Oxford.  In  1369 
another  chancellor  of  York  bequeathed  a  blue 
gown  to  the  clerk  who  attended  him  in  his 
theology  school,  and  his  great  Brevnary  to 
his  successor  as  chancellor.  The  bishops' 
registers  in  the  fourteenth  century  are  full  of 
dispensations  for  residence  to  attend  schools, 
and  though  many  of  them  were  expressly  for 
the  university  and  others  for  grammar  schools, 
the  chancellor's  schools  were  certainly  included 
in  some  cases.  These  schools  were  still  flourish- 
ing, in  London  at  all  events,  in  the  second  half 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  Doctor  Ive,  who 
had  been  Headmaster  of  Winchester  College, 
"  kepte  the  scole  at  Paulys  that  ys  undjT  the 


chapter-house  and  there  radde  many  full  nobyll 
lessenings  to  prove"  against  certain  friars  who 
had  been  preaching  socialism  and  communism 
"  that  Cryste  was  lord  of  all  and  noo  beggar." 
He  did  it  in  state  "  after  the  forme  of  scholys," 
i.e.  the  university,  for  he  had  his  habit  and  pel- 
yon  (pilciim,  the  doctor's  round  cap)  and  a 
verger  with  a  silver  rod  waiting  on  him.  He 
kept  this  school  more  than  two  years.  At 
York,  however,  in  1481  and  14S2,  complaint 
was  made  that  the  chancellor,  who  ought  to 
reside  and  actually  lecture  and  keep  school, 
was  non-resident.  He  was,  in  fact,  also  Dean 
of  Hereford.  Accunuilation  of  many  jirofer- 
ments  in  the  same  hands  was  destroying  the 
cathedral  and  collegiate  churches.  At  St. 
Paul's,  about  1409,  the  bishop,  Fitzjames,  found 
in  a  visitation  that  the  chancellor's  lectures 
had  for  many  years  been  neglected  and  had 
practically  ceased,  and  when  called  on  to  do  his 
duty  the  then  chancellor  pleaded  that  the  deed 
of  1308  required  continuous  lectures,  and  to 
lecture  continually  was  a  condition  too  grievous 
and  hard  to  perform  —  a  quaint  excuse  for  not 
lecturing  at  all.  The  bishop  therefore  made  a 
new  statute,  defining  continuous  to  mean  three 
days  a  week,  or,  if  there  were  only  two  "  legible  " 
days  in  the  week,  then  two  days  a  week.  At 
the  Reformation  the  chancellors  seem  to  have 
been  left  untroubled  for  the  neglect  of  their 
schools.  Edward  VI's  Injunctions  to  the  cathe- 
drals rather  lessen  even  their  preaching  duties; 
at  Lincoln,  for  instance,  limiting  them  to  twelve 
a  year.  In  Elizabeth's  reign,  Injunctions  is- 
sued in  1559  provided  that  the  chancellor 
should  appoint  a  lecturer  to  read  thrice 
a  week  in  divinity  at  9  a.m.  They  were  still 
maintained  at  St.  Paul's  in  1598,  but  hardly 
any  one,  even  of  the  minor  canons  or  vicars- 
choral,  attended  them.  The  lectures  were  any- 
how no  longer  in  the  Chancellor's  Schools.  The 
theological  schools  of  the  Chancellor,  dying  in 
1480,  (lied  in  1547.  The  universities  provided 
all  the  theology  required.  Attempts  have  quite 
recently,  as  at  Lincoln  and  Truro,  been  made  to 
revive  them.  But  the  theological  colleges  of 
the  present  day  are  Bishops',  not  Chancellors', 
Schools.  A.  F.  L. 

See  Bishops'  Schools;  Church  Schools; 
etc. 

CHANCERY,  COURT  OF.  —  The  English 
Court  of  Chancery  has  an  importance  in  the 
history  of,  and  in  the  administration  of,  educa- 
tion from  the  fact  that  this  court  (and  its 
modern  representative,  the  Chancerj'  Division 
of  the  High  Court  of  Justice)  exercises  a  juris- 
diction over  trusts,  including  educational  trusts, 
and  possesses,  moreover,  a  certain  appellate 
jurisdiction.  In  the  eighteenth  century  the 
dilatory  methods  of  the  Court  of  Chancery 
had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  inefficiency  of 
the  grammar  schools  of  England.  The  origin 
of  the  appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  Court  of 
Chancery   marks   an   important   stage   in   the 


566 


CHANCERY 


CHANTRY  SCHOOLS 


history  of  English  education.  By  an  act  of 
1597  (39  Eliz.  c.  6.  Rep.  43  Eliz.  c.  9.  s.  30) 
Commissioners  for  Charitable  Uses  were  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  into  the  misemployment 
of  charitable  gifts  of  lands  and  goods.  An 
Act  of  1601  (43  Eliz.  c.  4)  took  the  place 
of  this  statute,  and  enacted  that,  whereas 
property  had  been  given  to  (among  other  ob- 
jects) schools  of  learning,  free  schools,  scholars 
in  universities,  and  the  education  and  prefer- 
ment of  orphans,  and  that  there  had  been 
frauds,  breaches  of  trust,  and  negligence  shown 
by  the  trustees,  for  redress  and  remedy  of  the 
same,  commissioners  be  appointed  by  the  Lord 
Chancellor  (and  the  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy 
of  Lancaster)  to  inquire  into  the  trusts  in  the 
various  dioceses  and  make  orders  for  the  exe- 
cution of  the  trusts  in  accordance  with  the 
directions  of  the  donors  or  founders.  But  the 
commissioners  had  no  power  of  inquiry  into 
the  endowments  of  the  colleges  and  Halls  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  or  of  the  colleges  of 
Westminster,  Eton,  Winchester,  or  of  any 
cathedral  school  or  of  any  college  or  free  school 
which  had  special  visitors  or  governors  or  over- 
seers appointed  by  the  founders.  The  eighth 
section  provided  that  all  decrees  of  the  com- 
missioners should  be  certified  into  the  Court  of 
Chancery  (or  the  Palatine  Court  as  the  case 
might  be),  and  the  Lord  Chancellor  (or  the 
chancellor  of  the  duchy,  as  the  case  might  be) 
should  undertake  the  enforcement  of  the  de- 
crees. The  tenth  section  gave  an  appeal  to 
any  person  aggrieved  by  a  decree  to  the  Lord 
Chancellor  (or  the  chancellor  of  the  duchy  in 
the  case  of  Lancashire).  It  was  fortunate  that 
the  above  exceptions  were  made,  for  it  was 
found  in  practice  during  the  eighteenth  century 
that  the  law  expenses,  appeals,  and  delays  were 
ruinous.  Some  33  schools  were,  however,  re- 
formed by  the  commissioners  between  1601 
and  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  Act  of  1601  was  repealed  in  18SS.  But 
apart  altogether  from  statutes  the  Court  of 
Chancery  (now  the  Chancery  Division  of  the 
Higli  Court  of  Judicature)  has  an  inherent  juris- 
diction in  relation  to  educational  trusts.  Apart 
from  the  powers  of  a  "  Visitor  "  of  a  school  (as 
to  which  see  A.  H.  H.Maclean's  Lain  of  Second- 
ary and  Preparatory  Schoolf,  1909,  pp.  109- 
114),  "  the  court  will  exercise  its  jurisdiction  to 
enforce  performance  and  redress  breaches  of 
trust  on  the  part  of  Trustees  and  Governors 
even  if  they  are  Vi.sitors  or  the  Governors 
have  visitatorial  powers."  There  is  no  appeal 
from  the  exercise  of  the  powers  of  a  Visitor,  but 
the  Court  will  compel  him  by  mandamus  to  exer- 
cise his  power  and  exercise  it  properly.  In 
special  circum.stances  the  Court  can  appoint 
Visitors  under  the  Grammar  Schools  Act,  1S4() 
(ss.  15,  16).  Under  the  Charitable  Trusts 
Acts  (1853  to  1891)  and  the  Education  Act, 
(1899)  and  the  Orders  in  Council  made  thereunder, 
the  Court  may  be  called  in  to  decide  questions 
that  arise  on  the  trust  by  way  of  appeal  from 


the  Board  of  Education,  while  the  Court,  cither 
by  consent  of  the  Board  of  Education  or  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  the  construction  of  docu- 
ments, may  have  to  deal  with  educational 
trusts.  Under  the  Endowed  Schools  Act  (1869 
to  1889)  the  consent  of  the  Board  of  Education 
is  necessary  before  the  Court  can  make  an 
educational  scheme.  From  the  point  of  view 
of  the  history  of  education  the  cases  decided 
from  about  1670  to  1840  by  the  Court  of 
Chancery  on  appeal  from  the  commissioners  of 
charitable  uses  and  by  virtue  of  its  inherent 
jurisdiction  are  all  most  important.  Some  of 
these  cases  are  discussed  in  State  Intervention 
in  English  Education  (Cambridge,  1902,  by 
the  present  writer),  but  the  whole  field  is  by 
no  means  fully  surveyed,  and  until  this  is  done 
the  history  of  secondary  education  in  England 
remains  in  part  unwritten.  Eden  v.  Foster 
(2  Peere  Williams  Reports  pp.  325-326)  is  a  lead- 
ing case.  There  is  a  large  and  valuable  collection 
of  references  to  education  cases  decided  in  Chan- 
cery in  Mr.  Maclean's  recent  work  referred  to 
above.  From  some  of  these  chancery  cases 
we  learn  a  good  deal  about  the  conditions  of 
education  in  the  eighteenth  century.  In  the 
case  of  the  King  v.  Archbishop  of  York  (Term 
Reports,  Vol.  VI,  p.  490),  in  1795  Lord  Kenyon 
in  giving  judgment  said:  "  Whoever  will  ex- 
amine the  state  of  the  grammar  schools  in 
different  parts  of  this  kingdom  will  see  to  what 
a  lamentable  condition  most  of  them  are  re- 
duced, and  would  wish  tliat  those  who  have 
any  superintendence  or  control  over  them  had 
been  as  circumspect  as  the  Archbishop  of  York 
(Dr.  Markham,  formerly  Headmaster  of  West- 
minster School)  has  been  on  the  present  occa- 
sion. If  other  persons  had  equally  done  their 
duty,  we  should  not  find,  as  is  now  the  case, 
empty  walls  without  scholars,  and  everything 
neglected  but  the  receipt  of  the  salaries  and 
emoluments.  In  some  instances  that  have 
lately  come  within  my  own  knowledge,  there 
was  not  a  single  scholar  in  the  schools  though 
there  were  verj'  large  endowments  to  them." 
This  is  an  instance  of  the  value  of  these  cases. 
Lord  Eldon's  judgments  in  Atturncy-Gencral  v. 
Whitehy  (Vesey's  Chancery  Reports,  Vol.  XI, 
p.  241)  and  Attorney-General  v.  Earl  of  Mans- 
field (Russell's  Reports  in  Chancery,  Vol.  II, 
p.  501)  will  be  found  full  of  valuable  material. 

J.  E.  O.  DE  M. 

CHANTER.  —  See  Precentor;  also  Ca- 
thedral Schools;    Church  Schools. 

CHANTRY  SCHOOLS.  —  A  chantry  \yas 
an  endowment  for  one  or  more  priests  to  sing 
masses  and  other  services  for  the  souls  of  the 
dead.  In  point  of  fact,  except  that  monks 
were  not  necessarily  priests,  most  monasteries, 
at  all  events  of  post-Conquest  times,  were  noth- 
ing more  than  large  chantries,  being  ostensibly 
founded  for  the  same  purpose  of  commemorat- 
ing their  founders  and  praying  for  their  good 


507 


CHANTRY  SCHOOLS 


CHANTRY   SCHOOLS 


estate  when  alive  and  their  souls  when  dead. 
So  too  the  colleges  of  Winchester  and  All  Souls, 
Oxford,  which  last  was  particularly  to  pray 
for  the  souls  of  those  who  fell  in  the  wars  of 
Henry  V  with  France,  have  been  called  large 
chantries.  But  the  term  "chantry"  is  usually 
confined  to  smaller  establishments  of  secular 
i.e.  ordinary  priests.  The  earlier  chantries,  which 
begin  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  were 
generally  special  endowments  for  single  priests 
attached  to  larger  foundations,  such  as  the 
great  cathedral  churches.  There  were,  for  in- 
stance, 50  chantry  jiriests  at  St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, 24  at  York  Minster,  where  they  were  in- 
corporated into  a  sejjarate  though  subordinate 
college  in  1460,  16  at  Southwell  Minster,  and  so 
on.  These  had  nothing  to  do  with  education 
except  that  it  was  usual  to  supplement  the 
miserable  stipends  of  £2  a  year  or  so  which 
were  the  ancient  and  accustomed  pay  of  the 
grammar  or  of  the  song  schoolmasters  of  the 
great  and  ancient  churches  by  appointing  them 
also  to  chantries.  (See  Cathedr.\l  Schools.) 
Thus  at  Southwell  JNIinster  in  1504,  when  St. 
Cuthbert's  chantry  fell  vacant  by  the  death 
of  William  Barthorp,  who  had  for  many  years 
been  acting  master  of  the  grammar  school, 
and  one  of  the  canons'  vicars  by  a  sort  of  pre- 
scriptive right  asked  to  be  presented  to  it,  the 
chapter  asked  him  to  waive  his  claim  in  order 
that  they  might  present  to  it  a  fit  chaplain 
who  would  be  able  to  teach  the  grammar 
school.  The  claim  was  waived  and  another 
man  appointed  who  swore  voluntarily  on  ad- 
mission to  teach  the  grammar  school  while  he 
held  the  chantry. 

The  fact  was  that  the  chantry  duties  occu- 
pied a  very  small  portion  of  the  day,  and  it 
was  soon  discovered  that  in  the  interests  of  the 
morals  of  the  chantry  priests  themselves  it 
was  desirable  to  find  them  other  work  to  do. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  and  onwards,  when 
these  chantries  began  to  be  established  all 
over  the  country,  the  priests  were  largely 
utilized  as  what  are  now  called  curates, 
properly  speaking  assistant  curates  and  incum- 
bents of  chapels  of  case.  They  had  to  assist 
the  parish  priest  in  choir  and  also  in  parochial 
work.  Among  other  ecclesiastical  employments 
that  of  teaching  school  was  early  recognized  as 
one  of  the  most  useful  to  which  the  chantry 
priest  could  be  put.  It  is  difficult  to  say  which 
is  the  earliest  case  of  these  chantry  priests  be- 
ing directed  by  the  founder  to  keep  a  school. 
As  the  foundation  statutes  are  very  rarely 
forthcoming,  and  the  license  in  mortmain,  that 
is,  exemption  from  the  Statute  of  Mortmain  of 
Edward  I,  which  confiscated  lands  given  to 
religious  corporations  to  the  King,  hardly  ever 
mentions  anji,hing  but  the  chantrj-.  Prob- 
ably among  the  earliest  known  are  those  of 
Crewkerne  in  Somerset,  founded  in  1310,  Har- 
low, Essex,  in  1324,  of  Bolton-upon-Dern  in 
Yorkshire  in  132S,  Whitwell  in  Rutland  in  1345. 
In  1384,  when   Lady  Berkeley  (g.v.)  founded 


her  chantry  school  at  Wootton-under-Edge  in 
Gloucestershire,  we  get  perhaps  the  earliest 
case  in  which  the  license  in  mortmain  specifi- 
cally mentions  the  chantry  used  also  for  a 
school.  A  large  number  of  chantries  which 
were  also  schools  arc  reputed  to  have  been 
founded  in  1390  and  the  immediately  succeed- 
ing years,  but  a  great  many  of  these  were  pre- 
viously existing  foundations,  which  had  then 
to  take  out  licenses  in  mortmain  in  conse- 
quence of  the  inquiry  into  guilds,  which  in- 
cluded many  chantry  priests,  ordered  after  the 
Peasants'  Revolt.  It  became  a  not  uncom- 
mon practice  to  found  in  imitation  of  the  col- 
legiate churches  a  chantry  of  two  priests,  one  to 
teach  a  grammar  school  and  the  other  a  song 
school.  This  was  done  by  Langley,  Bishop  of 
Durham,  at  Durham  in  1412,  at  Alnwick  by  a 
Percy,  William  of  Alnwick,  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
in  1445,  at  Towcester  by  Archdeacon  Spone 
in  1449.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  special 
epoch  more  distinguished  than  another  for 
founding  these  chantry  schools.  There  was  a 
considerable  outburst  in  the  latter  daj's  of 
Edward  III.  Many  were  founded  during  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI,  until  the  Wars  of  the  Roses 
put  a  stop  to  the  movement,  and  it  began 
with  renewed  vigor  as  soon  as  things  settled 
down  from  about  1475  onwards.  The  reign  of 
Henry  VIII  was  no  more  distinguished  for  the 
foundation  of  schools  than  that  of  his  father 
or  of  Henry  VI.  Only  in  the  latter  part  of 
his  reign,  when  dissolution  appeared  to  be  im- 
pending, were  many  chantries,  not  schools  by 
foundation,  converted  into  school  foundations. 
The  chantry  schools  were  nearly  all  from  the 
beginning  free  schools,  which  means  free  from 
tuition  fees,  and  was  always  so  understood 
until  the  theory  was  started  by  Dr.  Kennedy 
in  1865  that  it  meant  free  from  ecclesiastical 
control,  which  until  1670  (see  Church  Schools 
and  C.\NON  L.\w)  no  school  ever  was.  Some, 
such  as  Langley's  foundation  at  Durham,  were 
free  only  to  poor  children  whose  parents  asked 
for  it,  some  were  free  only  for  parishioners, 
but  most  were  free  altogether,  the  priest  being 
required  to  "  teach  gratis,  without  asking  any- 
thing beyond  his  stipend  for  his  pains."  One 
singular  foundation,  that  of  Gryndour's  Chan- 
try at  Newland  in  Gloucestershire,  was  to 
"  kepe  a  grammer  scoole  half-free,  that  ys, 
taking  of  scolers  lerning  gramer  8d  the  quar- 
ter, and  of  others  lerning  to  rede,  4d."  This 
was  an  attempt  which  has  been  often  made 
and  invariably  without  success,  to  combine  a 
secondary  school  and  an  elementary  school  in 
one.  As  a  rule  the  song  school  was  the  ele- 
mentary school,  and  that  was  why  the  two  were 
founded  in  pairs.  The  chantry  grammar 
schools  were  intended  to  do  the  same  work 
as  the  great  cathedral  and  coUegiate  schools, 
and  prepare  boys  for  the  universities,  as  may 
be  most  clearly  seen  from  such  instances  as 
W'imborne,  where  the  Lady  Margaret,  mother 
of  Henry  VII,  directed  (c.  1497)  that  it  should 


568 


CHAPPELL   HILL  FEMALE  COLLEGE 


CHARACTER 


be  in  the  form  and  fashion  of  Winchester  and 
Eton,  as  did  Mr.  John  Lecuc,  vicar  at  Saffron 
Waldcn  in  Essex  and  Edward  Flower,  tailor, 
at  Cuckfield  in  Sussex,  quoted  in  1503-1528. 
By  the  Act  which  dissolved  chantries  in  1547 
it  was  stated  that  their  endowments  were  to 
be  taken  from  superstitious  and  devoted  to 
pious  uses  such  as  grammar  schools.  But  the 
chantry  schools,  about  100  in  number,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  collegiate  church  and  guild 
schools,  shared  the  fate  of  the  collegiate  church 
schools  iq.v.).  The  song  schools  disappeared 
altogether,  save  at  Newark.  Three  grammar 
schools,  namely,  Pocklington  in  Yorkshire, 
Berkhampstead  in  Herts,  and  Ratcliffcs  School 
at  Stamford,  all  hardly  founded  or  claimed  not 
to  be  properly  founded,  were  at  once  refounded 
by  Act  of  Parliament.  Some  14  were  re- 
founded  on  a  larger  scale  by  Letters  Patent 
of  Edward  \T  with  scraps  of  chantry  lands 
and  a  few  by  Letters  Patent  of  Queen  EHza- 
beth  and  James  L  Some  subsequently  re- 
ceived new  endowments  from  private  persons. 
Those  that  did  not,  if  they  did  not  perish  out- 
right, gradually  perished  of  inanition. 

A.  F.  L. 
Reference  :  — 
Le.\ch,    a.    F.     English    Schools    at    the    Reformation. 
(London,  1896.) 

CHAPPELL  HILL  FEMALE  COLLEGE, 
CHAPPELL  HILL,  TEX.  —  A  school  for  young 
ladies  established  in  1852  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South. 
Primary  and  preparatory,  collegiate,  normal, 
and  fine  arts  departments  are  maintained. 
Admission  requirements  to  the  college  are 
about  equivalent  to  graduation  from  a  public 
school.     Diplomas  are  conferred. 

CHARACTER.  —  That  formation  of  charac- 
ter is  the  end  of  education  is  a  commonplace  of 
pedagogical  theory,  if  not  of  school  procedure. 
Practically  the  acquisition  of  various  forms  of 
skill  and  of  information  in  various  school  sub- 
jects are  usually  the  conscious  and  direct  aims 
of  the  teacher,  and  character  formation  an  in- 
direct result.  Even  discipline,  which  has  ap- 
parently a  more  direct  relation  to  character 
than  have  skill  and  knowledge,  is  often  so 
hemmed  in  by  peculiar  school  conditions  (an 
unduly  large  number  of  pupils,  the  lack  of 
material  and  appliances  for  con.structive  work, 
etc.)  as  to  have  only  a  somewhat  remote  con- 
nection with  developing  the  kind  of  character 
most  efficient  in  life  beyond  the  school  walls. 
These  discrepancies  between  the  universally 
acknowledged  end  of  education  and  the  means 
at  hand  for  realizing  it  have  been  the  occasion 
of  efforts  at  educational  reforms  during  all 
periods.  Although  their  causes  are  too  deep- 
seated  to  have  yielded  comijletely  to  the  at- 
tempts at  reform,  individual  teachers,  animated 
by  an  adc(iuate  consciousness  of  the  nature  of 
character   and    of   the   factors   of   its   genetic 


development,  can  do  much  to  close  the  gap 
between  the  scholastic  means  and  the  moral 
end. 

The  elements  of  character  may  conveniently 
be  grouped  under  three  heads:  (1)  discriminat- 
ing judgment  as  to  relative  values,  (2)  direct 
emotional  susceptibility  to  values  as  presented 
in  experience,  and  (3)  force  in  execution. 

1.  Judgment  is  impossible  without  knowl- 
edge, and  yet  it  is  so  different  from  knowledge 
that  an  individual  may  possess  an  extensive 
amount  of  the  latter  and  yet  be  rated  low  in 
judgment.  Judgment  is  power  to  perceive  the 
bearings  of  what  is  known.  To  conceive 
known  facts  and  laws  in  terms  of  what  they 
prognosticate,  what  they  point  or  lead  to,  is 
judgment.  Knowledge  simply  as  information 
is  relatively  inert  and  static;  it  represents  learn- 
ing and  the  accumulation  of  memory.  Judg- 
ment takes  what  is  known  with  reference  to 
what  may  come  out  of  it,  through  action,  or 
as  amounting  to  something,  and  hence  as 
dynamic.  Items  of  information  are  connected 
simply  with  one  another;  materials  of  fact  are 
connected  with  the  consequences  in  which 
they  issue,  and  never  have  a  dynamic  or  motor 
quality. 

Ability  to  judge  implies,  moreover,  insight, 
penetration,  getting  behind  the  immediate  ap- 
pearance of  things  so  as  to  see  what  they  inean. 
This  insight  is  known  as  discernment,  dis- 
crimination, that  is  to  say,  dividing,  or  parting, 
matters  according  to  the  value  of  what  they 
stand  for,  sifting  out  the  significant  from  the 
trivial.  Judgment  is  thus  opposed  to  stu- 
pidity, or  failure  to  pass  from  immediate  fact 
to  the  meaning  it  indicates,  and  also  to  foolish- 
ness or  failure  to  discriminate  the  relative  im- 
portance of  various  meanings.  Since  judgment 
is  a  sense  of  relative  values,  it  is  equivalent  to 
valuation,  appraisal,  estimation  on  the  basis  of 
a  principle. 

Judgment  is  obviously  the  intellectual  ele- 
ment in  character.  It  has  been  the  fortune  of 
this  element  to  suffer  from  both  over-appre- 
ciation and  extreme  depreciation.  Among  the 
Greeks,  knowledge  was  often  identified  with 
virtue  or  moral  excellence.  The  will  was  con- 
ceived as  the  intellect  in  active  operation;  to 
know  the  good  was  to  act  in  its  behalf.  That 
no  man  does  evil  voluntarily,  but  only  from 
ignorance,  was  almost  an  axiom  with  Socrates. 
And  wliile  Ari.'^totlc  criticized  his  view  on  the 
ground  that  it  ignored  the  importance  of  habit- 
uation through  exercise  and  also  the  counter- 
acting force  of  excessive  desire,  Aristotle  still 
held  that  practical  judgment  or  insight  is  cen- 
tral among  the  virtues,  since  the  key  to  all 
the  others.  Later  development  played  havoc 
with  this  intellcctualism.  The  will  was  sharply 
severed,  in  much  medieval  speculation,  from 
the  intelligence,  and  was  regarded  as  the  only 
essential  factor  in  character  and  virtue.  The 
excellence  of  the  will  is  docility,  obedience, 
subordination  to  law;   its  deadliest  vice,  pride 


569 


CHARACTER 


CHARACTER 


or  the  rebellious  following  of  its  own  law. 
Knowledge  vv;is  often  looked  upon  with  sus- 
picion as  fostering  a  questioning  and  proud 
spirit  hostile  to  implicit  obedience  to  moral 
law  and  authority.  Recently,  the  emotions 
rather  than  the  will  have  been  set  over  against 
intelligence  as  the  central  element  in  character. 
The  feelings  have  been  held  to  be  the  only 
moving  springs  to  action,  and  certain  feelings 
—  pity  or  sympathy  —  have  been  selected  for 
special  moral  eulogy.  The  "  heart  "  has  been 
opposed  to  the  "  head  "  as  the  source  of  gen- 
uinely moral  activity.  Yet  an  impartial  sur- 
vey reveals  that  "  feelings  "  a|)art  from  intel- 
ligence lead  inevitably  to  scntimentalism,  to 
blind  action  and  reaction,  and  to  social  condi- 
tions in  which  hard-headed  men,  who  know 
what  they  want  and  who  ha\'e  made  a  study 
of  how  to  get  it,  easily  manipulate  other  per- 
sons to  their  own  profit. 

In  many  respects,  the  present  day  is  witness- 
ing a  return  from  arbitrary  will  and  blind 
emotionality  to  the  Greek  principle  of  intelli- 
gence, though  with  a  change  in  the  conception 
of  intelligence.  It  was  natural  for  the  Greeks 
to  conceive  of  a  close  relation  between  knowl- 
edge and  conduct  because  they  were  acquainted 
with  so  little  secondhand  and  bookish  knowl- 
edge. They  unconsciously  included  in  their 
notion  of  knowledge  what  we  shall  call  appre- 
ciation, a  realizing  sense  of  the  object.  Facts  and 
ideas  acquired  from  another  person,  no  matter 
how  certain,  were  only  opinion,  not  knowl- 
edge. Abstract  conceptions  did  not  constitute 
knowledge  till  they  were  matters  of  direct  in- 
tuition or  insight.  Now  the  whole  tendency 
of  modern  psychology  and  logic  is  to  in- 
stitute a  distinction  between  two  types  of 
knowledge,  one  of  which  is  simply  symbolic, 
while  the  other  is  direct.  There  are  many 
things  which  we  know  about  through  com- 
munication by  others  in  language  symbols,  or 
which  we  know  by  elaboration  of  symbols  — 
such  as  mathematics  and  abstract  conceptions 
in  general.  The  influence  of  such  knowledge 
upon  character  is  very  remote  and  superficial, 
except  as  technical  or  professional  skill  is  an 
important  factor  in  character.  The  other  type 
of  knowledge  consists  of  direct  insight  (or  dis- 
cernment), and  intimate  acquaintance,  method 
of  information  about  things,  or  ability  to  manipu- 
late symbols  that  represent  them.  Possession 
of  this  sort  of  knowledge  always  expresses  some 
modification  of  character,  and  is  expressed  in 
behavior. 

Wherever  intimate  acquaintance  exists,  we 
know  things  not  simply  in  their  abstract  and 
impersonal  relations  to  one  another,  but  in 
their  connections  with  ourselves  and  their 
bearings  on  our  achievement  and  well-being. 
We  know  them  in  terms  of  our  own  proper 
adjustments  and  responses  to  them.  In  ab- 
stract or  symbolic  knowledge  all  facts  are  of 
equal  importance  or  value;  perception  of  their 
relation  to  ourselves  as  agents  and  to  their  con- 


sequences with  respect  to  our  success  and 
failure,  to  our  efforts  and  accomplishments, 
confer  upon  objects  a  scale  of  relative  values. 
So  far  as  knowledge  takes  this  form  of  genuine, 
deep,  and  intimate  sense  of  values,  action  fol- 
lows insight,  for  this  sort  of  insight  is  obtain- 
able only  through  constant  activity  in  the 
way  of  adjustment,  response,  experimentation, 
and  trial.  (See  Judgjlent  and  Knowledge.) 
The  problem  of  intellectual  instruction  in  refer- 
ence to  character  is  to  lay  a  deep  and  firmly 
united  foundation  of  knowledge  of  this  inti- 
mate and  active  sort,  and  to  estal)lish  as  many 
lines  of  association  as  possible  between  it  and 
the  abstract  and  symbolic  information  that  is 
ac<iuired.  (See  Course  of  Study.)  So  far 
as  this  result  is  secured,  teachers  are  quite 
ju.stified  in  holding  that  thej'  arc  engaged  in 
character  building  "  all  the  time,"  irrespective 
of  direct  moral  teachings. 

2.  The  discussion  of  knowledge  makes  it 
clear  that  the  distinction  between  knowledge 
and  emotion  is  somewhat  arbitrary,  or  at  least 
that  it  marks  only  a  distinction,  not  a  separa- 
tion. Not  even  the  more  abstract  and  purely 
logical  knowledge  is  without  its  emotional 
accompaniment,  or  an  immediate  reaction  of  in- 
clination and  disinclination.  Its  development 
m  any  individual  depends  upon  the  liveliness 
and  persistence  of  the  emotion  of  curiosity, 
love  of  following  matters  up  to  see  how  they 
come  out,  and  delight  in  inquiring  for  its  own 
sake  —  what  is  usually  termed  love  of  truth  for 
its  own  sake.  Our  intimate  accpiaintance  with 
things  is  even  more  indissolubly  welded  with 
our  life  of  affections  and  aversions.  Attention 
and  interest  are  cither  two  phases  of  the  same 
process,  or  else  always  accompanj'  each  other. 
The  vivacity  of  instinct  and  impulse  in  the 
child,  the  newness  of  things  and  persons,  the 
absence  of  the  dulling  of  emotion  that  arises 
through  long  familiarity  and  drilling,  cause  the 
nature  of  the  emotional  life  to  be  a  much  more 
important  con.sideration  with  respect  to  build- 
ing up  the  child's  judgments  and  ideas  than  is 
the  case  with  the  adult.  What  was  said  about 
the  Greek  identification  of  knowledge  with  a 
"  realizing  sense  "  of  a  thing  is  borne  out  by 
the  fact  that  their  educational  practice  and 
theory  laid  chief  stress  upon  direct  emotional 
susceptibility  to  values  presented  in  experi- 
ence. To  lead  the  young  to  take  pleasure  in 
—  to  love  —  the  things  that  are  worthy,  and  to 
feel  pain  in  —  to  hate  and  fear  —  the  things 
that  are  unworthy,  was  considered  by  both 
Plato  and  Aristotle  to  be  the  end  of  education. 
This  reference  to  the  Greeks  also  indicates 
the  connection  of  the  aesthetic  factor — in  its 
broad  sense —  with  direct  sensitiveness  to  differ- 
ences of  worth.  While  Plato  and  Aristotle  in- 
sisted upon  early  habituation  and  practice 
preceding  conscious  reason  with  reference  to 
distinctions  of  good  and  bad,  habituation  was 
never  understood  to  mean  purely  external 
modes  of  action,  or  routine,  formed  by  repeti- 


570 


CHARACTER 


CHARACTER 


tion,  but  an  exercise  of  the  affections  upon  ap- 
propriate objects  so  as  to  form  strong  and 
abiding  emotional  associations.  Rhythm  in 
action  and  in  music,  melody  of  song,  decorum 
and  grace  in  posture  and  gesture,  order  and 
proportion  in  visual  objects,  —  in  short,  aesthetic 
qualities,  —  were  the  chief  instruments,  the 
end  being  to  create  a  direct  feeling  of  the  beauty 
of  good  and  the  ugliness  and  disgrace  of  evil. 
Hence  the  wide  scope  of  "  music  "  in  Greek 
education.  On  the  same  grounds,  Plato  stands 
almost  alone,  till  the  eighteenth  century,  in  his 
recognition  of  the  fundamental  importance  of 
the  very  early  years  of  life,  before  technical 
skill  and  conscious  reasoning  are  possible. 
The  earliest  years  are  those  in  which  the  emo- 
tions are  most  intensely  active,  and  when, 
being  as  yet  unattached  to  any  particular 
objects,  they  may  be  firmly  associated  with 
objects  so  that  later  in  Ufe  some  objects  will 
always  be  attractive  and  others  alwaj's  repul- 
sive. The  monastic  and  ascetic  factors  in  the 
Christian  Church,  together  with  the  lack  of 
artistic  capacity  and  opportunity  among  the 
northern  barbarians,  gradually  eliminated  the 
asthetic  factor  (save  in  ecclesiastical  music) 
from  education.  At  the  Renaissance,  it  was 
reintroduced,  but  rather  as  a  work  of  the  cul- 
ture of  a  gentleman  than  as  a  moral  force. 
Puritanism  and  the  utilitarian  spirit  of  motlern 
industry  have  tended  to  minimize  the  culture 
of  direct  sensitiveness  to  distinctions  of  worth 
in  English  and  American  education;  and  per- 
haps the  greatest  deficiency  in  our  educational 
systems  with  respect  to  character  building  is 
found  in  their  comparative  failure  to  recognize 
the  fundamental  importance  of  an  acute  and 
sensitive  direct  response,  independent  of  con- 
scious reflection,  of  the  affections  to  distinctions 
of  worth  in  arts  and  objects. 

3.  Force,  patience,  and  persistency  in  exe- 
cution are  also  indispensable  factors  in  char- 
acter. When  it  is  said  of  a  person,  without 
qualification,  that  "  he  has  character,"  inde- 
pendence, initiative,  and  energy  in  pursuit  of 
ends  are  almost  always  signified.  In  Greek 
education  at  its  best,  "  gymnastic  "  was  not 
employed  chiefly  for  athletic  results,  nor  even 
for  health  alone,  but  as  a  training  of  executive 
efficiency.  The  centuries  in  which  the  body 
was  held  in  contempt  were  also  centuries  in 
which  the  contemplative  life  was  ranked  higher 
than  the  active,  and  an  educational  tradition 
was  built  up  opposed  to  manual  and  construc- 
tive activities  in  education.  They  formed  no 
part  of  the  .scheme  of  "  liberal  arts  "  which 
were  the  true  concern  of  education,  but  only 
of  the  base  meclianica!  arts  which  wore  learned 
in  the  course  of  routine  apprenticeship.  When 
productive  activity  was  encouraged  at  all  in 
the  regular  .system  of  education,  it  was  in  ele- 
mentary schools  supported  by  charity  for  the 
benefit  of  the  poor.  When,  .  as  frequently 
happened,  these  schools  were  taken  over  l)y 
the  state   or  local  community,   the  invidious 


stigma  of  "  charity "  attached  to  manual 
activity,  so  that  the  subjects  of  woodwork, 
etc.,  for  the  boys  and  cooking  and  sewing  for 
the  girls  were  usually  eliminated  from  schools 
supported  by  public  taxation. 

Various  reasons  have  conspired  to  effect  in 
the  last  generation  a  juster  estimate  of  the 
moral  value  of  practical  activity.  The  success- 
ful use  of  various  games,  plays,  and  forms  of 
manual  activity  in  the  Froebelian  kindergarten 
naturally  occasioned  a  feeling  in  favor  of  the 
introduction  of  similar  methods  and  materials 
in  the  elementary  school.  Growth  of  knowl- 
edge of  hygiene  and  physiology  has  tended  to 
restore  the  body  to  its  proper  place  as  an  in- 
dispensable instrument  of  right  action.  Purelj* 
utilitarian  and  commercial  demands  have 
pressed  the  claims  of  practical  efficiency  as 
distinct  from  mere  scholarship.  Psychology 
and  biology  have  revealed  the  basic  impor- 
tance of  in.stincts  and  impulses,  the  active  side 
of  our  nature,  in  one  whole  mental  and  moral 
life.  While  perhaps  the  narrower  utilitarian 
motive  has  often  been  too  conspicuous,  at  the 
expense  of  value  in  character  training,  as  a 
motive  for  the  reintroduction  of  active  and 
constructive  work  into  the  schools,  still  the 
net  effect  of  the  convergence  of  the  different 
factors  mentioned  has  been  to  create  a  grow- 
ing recognition  of  the  moral  onesidcdness  of 
any  educational  scheme  which  appeals  simply 
to  the  absorption  of  information  and  its  more 
or  less  passive  reproduction,  instead  of  culti- 
vating a  love  of  active  doing  and  efTective 
executive  capacity.  The  social  aspect  of  this 
phase  of  character  training  is  exhibited  in  the 
demand  that  education  shall  prepare  students 
for  an  intelligent  choice  of  a  calling  in  which 
they  may  be  most  serviceable  to  the  com- 
munity. It  is  not  to  be  inferred  from  the 
above  that  the  mere  introduction  of  physical 
activity,  manual  training,  etc.,  will  work  auto- 
matically for  the  development  of  force  of  char- 
acter. These  subjects  may  of  course  be  re- 
duced to  a  mechanical  or  routine  place  about 
as  easily  as  any  subjects  of  the  curriculum. 
But  these  subjects  furnish  opportunities  and 
tools  for  a  development  of  the  initiative  and 
executive  side  of  our  nature  which  mere  book- 
ish objects  cannot  afford,  and  therefore,  with 
wise  treatment,  are  indispensal)le  factors  in 
the  formation  of  a  character  which  is  not 
satisfied  with  being  simply  a  spectator,  or  pas- 
sive absorber,  but  that  strives  earnestly  to  put 
right  intention  and  good  desire  into  actual 
and  concrete  effect. 

The  analysis  of  character  into  aspects  of 
wise  judgment,  sensitive  emotional  responsive- 
ness, and  force  in  action  reveals  how  largely 
character  forming  mu.st  be  indirect,  slow, 
gradual,  and  unconscious.  The  part  that  can 
be  played  in  forming  character  liy  direct  moral 
precept,  by  learning  of  moral  rules  and  prin- 
ciples froni  others  or  from  books,  is  compara- 
tively   slight,    because    the    isolation    of    such 


571 


CHARACTEROLOGY 


CHARACTEROLOGY 


precepts  and  lessons  from  the  general  flow  of 
experience  (the  very  fact  that  they  arc  taught 
only  on  special  occasions  as  special  lessons),  is 
unfavorable  to  their  being  deeply  knit  into 
the  body  of  active  tendencies,  affections,  and 
ideas  that  form  the  substance  of  character. 
There  is,  tiien,  no  reason  for  denying  that 
educational  methods  and  materials  which,  on 
their  face,  have  little  to  do  with  securing 
moral  results,  may  nevertheless  be  so  treated 
that  character  formation  is  their  more  abiding 
and  significant  end,  albeit  largely  an  uncon- 
scious and  indirect  end.  J.  D. 

See  Course  of  Study,  Theory  of;  Cul- 
TuiiE;  Formal  Discipline;  Moral  Instruc- 
tion'. 

CHARACTEROLOGY.  —  Scientific  study 
of  character  according  to  the  established 
rubrics  of  psycholog.y  is  more  a  program 
than  an  available  reality.  The  problems 
which  it  proposes  relate  to  the  underlying 
basal  traits  of  human  nature  and  the  manner 
of  modification,  indeed,  of  transformation  of 
these  by  the  cumulative  and  diverse  influences 
of  civilization.  Accompanying  the  primary 
characteristics,  which,  while  present  in  all 
normal  individuals,  yet  make  possible  a  con- 
siderable variation  in  degree  and  manner  of 
their  effectiveness,  is  a  great  array  of  second- 
ary and  more  remotely  derivative  traits,  which 
in  turn  in  the  variety  of  their  blends  and  com- 
binations compose  the  complex  sorts  and  con- 
ditions of  men.  The  principle  is  justified  that 
such  secondary  and  tertiary  traits  have  inti- 
mate relations  to  the  more  simple  elements  of 
character,  and  present  more  refined  and  indirect 
as  well  as  more  complex  modes  of  their  expres- 
sion. This  relation  appears  nowhere  more 
strikingly  than  in  the  varied  ramifications  of 
the  distinctive  traits  of  the  sexes  whose  differ- 
entia of  an  elusive  yet  real  mental  type  are 
traceable  "  to  a  third  and  a  fourth  generation  " 
from  their  parent  origin  in  the  physical  and 
psychological  attractions  aroused  by  the  re- 
productive instincts. 

The  formulation  of  the  primitively  human 
traits  is  thus  a  biological  problem,  such  traits 
finding  their  justification  in  their  service  for 
survival  and  supremacy,  and  in  turn  subject 
to  the  laws  of  heredity,  while  equally  adaptable 
to  the  needs  of  the  shifting  environment.  The 
inherited  dispositions  must  be  reducible  to  a 
limited  group  of  directly  efficient  qualities, 
which  in  turn  are  capable  of  large  varieties  of 
expression.  Such  are  the  traits  of  self-assertion, 
the  sex  promptings  and  displays,  the  social  or 
simply  gregarious  instincts,  the  emotional  sym- 
pathies, muscular  energizing,  creative  or  in- 
ventive resourcefulness.  Combined  with  this 
objective  exposition  is  the  attempt  to  trace 
such  differences  of  expression  back  to  some 
types  of  nervous  disposition;  and  this  again 
with  recognition  of  the  blends  or  combinations 
of  such  traits  which  is  comprehended  in  the 


word  "  temperament."  Historically  the  types 
have  been  recognized  as  the  sanguine,  choleric, 
melancholic,  and  phlegmatic;  but  this  classifica- 
tion is  interesting  mainly  as  a  curious  intrusion 
of  crude  anatomical  distinction  into  the  psy- 
chological field.  The  chief  distinction  in- 
volved, that  of  the  active,  interested,  alert, 
passionate,  and  fitful,  contrasted  with  the 
sober,  staid,  even  dull,  steady,  unemotional,  is 
a  real  one;  and  the  former  must  be  recognized 
in  all  classifications,  being  more  commonly 
referred  to  as  the  nervous  type  of  temperament. 
Other  and  more  minute  classifications  have  been 
proposed,  but  are  in  the  main  but  variants  and 
derivatives  of  the  distinction  between  active 
and  sensitive:  while  quite  a  number  of  the 
systems  recognize  a  threefold  division  accord- 
ing to  the  dominance  of  feeling,  intellect,  or  irill 
in  the  make-up.  Thus,  great  men  are  classified 
as  men  of  feeling  (poets,  musicians,  etc.),  men 
of  intellect  (philosophers,  men  of  science),  or 
men  of  action  (soldiers,  men  of  affairs,  or- 
ganizers), ^'ery  significant  are  the  attempts  to 
base  fundamental  distinctions  of  character  upon 
their  morbid  exaggerations  in  disease.  The 
melancholic  temperament  of  the  older  writers 
is  substantially  such  a  recognition.  The 
hysterical  temperament  as  a  type,  which  in 
pronounced  hysteria  exhibits  its  abnormal 
manifestations,  suggests  a  most  distinctive  and 
adequate  variety  of  character;  while  other 
varieties,  though  less  distinct,  are  yet  related 
to  their  exaggerated  and  morbid  counterparts. 

A  prominent  problem  in  the  study  of  char- 
acter is  that  of  correlation;  the  determination, 
so  far  as  may  be  reached,  of  the  groups  of 
traits  that  readily  combine  in  close  correlation, 
and  through  such  correlation  establish  the 
naturalness  of  the  type:  while  yet  within  the 
type  the  variety  of  the  degrees  of  possession  of 
the  con.stituent  qualities  leaves  room  for  the 
more  detailed  subspecies.  Thus  within  the 
musical  group,  the  question  arises  as  to  the 
correlation  of  powers  of  criticism  with  those 
of  execution,  and  of  these  in  turn  with  original 
composition.  This  trio  of  appreciation  (with 
analysis),  execution,  and  invention  may  be 
carried  over  to  the  pictorial  artist  or  the  literary 
or  other  group;  while  the  correlation  of  the 
artistic  qualities  with  the  scientific  is  usually 
regarded  as  slight  or  negative.  Here,  how- 
ever, as  in  other  fields,  it  is  a  program  of 
questions  rather  than  a  series  of  conclusions 
that  is  available. 

Psychology  has  recognized  the  problem  of 
character  in  yet  another  field,  that  of  "  indi- 
vidual psychology,"  which  in  turn  has  given 
rise  to  a  psychology  of  social  and  national  and 
racial  groups.  Description  rather  than  sys- 
tematic analysis  has  been  the  chief  method; 
and  suggestive  formulas  have  been  proposed. 
Individual  psychology  has  for  its  aim  the 
determination  of  the  superiorities  and  defi- 
ciencies of  each  person.  It  attempts  this  partly 
upon    the    basis    of    specially    devised    tests. 


572 


CHARITABLE   TRUSTS 


CHARITABLE  TRUSTS 


utilizes  the  methods  of  correlation,  and  corrob- 
orates its  principles  by  studying  the  achieve- 
ments as  correlated  with  the  qualities  analyzed. 
The  group  study  has  been  applied  to  the  artist 
class,  to  men  of  science,  to  men  of  genius  in 
general,  and  again  to  the  determination  of 
national  traits.  The  difficulty  of  separating 
natural  from  acquired  quality  is  inevitable;  it 
is  but  a  phase  of  the  conflict  of  nature  and 
nurture,  the  difficulty  of  determining  what 
men  are  independently  of  what  they  do. 

The  practical  interest  in  character,  and  its 
relation  to  the  delineation  of  talent  and  pre- 
diction of  success,  has  given  rise  to  a  great 
variety  of  systems,  such  as  palmistry,  phre- 
nology iq-v.),  physiognomj',  graphology,  all  of 
which  attempt  to  read  character  in  outward 
signs.  The  confusion  and  arbitrary  classifica- 
tions and  principles  thus  resulting  form  the 
best  proof  of  the  need  for  a  thorough  recon- 
struction upon  an  accepted  scientific  basis. 
The  educational  interest  in  the  training  of 
character  and  the  literary  interest  in  its  de- 
lineation and  analysis,  support  and  contribute 
to  the  psychological  analyses  and  form  one 
of  the  most  permanently  engaging  objects  of 
human  study.  J.  J. 

See  Ch.^r.vcter;  Moral  Education;  Re- 
ligious Educatio.\. 

References  :  — 
FouiLLEE,  .v.  J.  E.     Temperament  et  caractire.     (Paris, 

1901.) 
HiRT,    E.     Die   Temperamente,  ihr  Weaen,  ihre  Bedeu- 

tungfuT  das  seelische  Leben,  utid  ihre  besondere  Gestal- 

tung.     (Wiesbaden,  1905.) 
Jastrow,  J.     The  Qxtalities  of  Men.     (New  York,  1910.) 

Character  and  Temperament.     (New  York,  1910.) 
Levy,  A.     Psyckologie  du  Caractire.      (Brussels,   1896.) 
Malapert,  P.     Le  Caractire.      (Paris,  1902.) 
MuscYNSKi,   F.     Die   Temperamente,   ihre  psychologisch 

begriindete   Erkenntni-is    und   pUdagogiscke   Behand- 

lung.     (Padcrborn.  1907.) 
Paulhas.     Les  Caractire^.      (Paris,  1902.) 
RiBERG,      C.     Classification     naturelle     du     Caractire. 

(Paris,  1902.) 
Stern,  L.  W.     Psychologie  der  individiiellen  Differenzen. 

(Leipzig.  1900.) 
Whitby,  C.  S.     Logic  of  Human  Character.     (London, 

190.5.) 
Other  writings  of  interest  are  the  Chapter  on  Ethology 

in  Mill's   Logic  (London,    1872)  ;    Bain,    A.,  Study 

of  Character,  1807. 

CHARITABLE  TRUSTS  FOR  EDUCA- 
TION. -  Thiiui;h  we  find  uuicli  earlier  than 
the  lifteenth  century  something  that  may  be 
called  educational  trusts,  yet  that  century  was 
the  period  when  the  trusts  (levelo])ed  into  a 
universal  institution  and  cliaritable  trusts  of 
lands  and  moneys  became  common.  Earlier 
foundations  were  scarcely  trusts  in  the  sense 
that  was  used  from  the  fifteenth  century  on- 
ward. A  grant  of  land  or  of  a  church  (as  in 
the  case  of  the  Church  of  Odiham  for  the 
schoolmaster  of  Sarum  l)y  King  Stephen  in 
11.39)  was  made  for  an  educational  i)urposc, 
and  that  purpose  was  fulfilled  without  any 
legal  question.  One  of  the  earliest  trusts  of 
the   recognized   type   was   the   foundation    by 


Katherine  Lady  Berkeley  ((?.('.)  in  1384  (8  Ric.  II), 
under  license  of  letters  patent,  of  the  Wootton- 
under-Edge  Free  Grammar  School.  After  this 
date  charitable  educational  trusts  multiply 
rapidly.  Noticeable  examples  are  the  Grim- 
stone  Free  School  in  Norfolk  founded  by  deed 
in  1394;  the  Higham  Ferrers  School  in  North- 
amptonshire founded  by  Archbishop  Chicheley 
in  1422;  the  Sevenoaks  Free  Grammar  School 
founded  under  the  will  of  Sir  W.  Sennoeke  in 
1432  (this  school  seems  to  have  been  incorpo- 
rated by  letters  patent  of  July  1,  I.'jOO  (2  Eliz.]; 
see  Certiorari  Roll,  Bundle  8,  No.  fi"  [unprinted] 
Rolls  office;  and  regulated  by  statute  39  Eliz.); 
Kingston-upon-Hull  School  founded  by  J.  Al- 
cock.  Bishop  of  Ely  in  1486;  Stockjiort  Free 
Grammar  School  (Cheshire)  founded  by  the  will 
of  Sir  E.  Shaa  in  1487  (for  will  see  Lysons'  Magna 
Britannia,  pp.  780-781);  the  Chipiiing  Camp- 
den  Free  Grammar  School  founded  by  deed  of 
J.  Verby,  c.  1487  (see  Rudder's  Gloucester- 
shire, p.  324);  Burton's  school  at  Loughborough 
(Leicestershire)  founded  by  deed  in  1495;  Crew- 
kerne  Free  Grammar  School  (Somerset)  founded 
by  John  de  Combe  in  1499;  Prestbury  School 
(Cheshire)  founded  by  the  will  of  Sir  J.  Per- 
ceval in  1502;  Cromer  Free  School  (Norfolk) 
founded  by  the  will  of  Sir  B.  Read  in  1505;  IMil- 
ton  Abbas  School  (Dorset)  founded  by  the  deed 
of  the  Abbot  (with  the  consent  of  the  Convent)  of 
Milton  in  1520;  Saffron  Walden  Free  Grammar 
School  (Essex)  by  the  deed  of  Dame  J.  Bradbury 
in  1525.  Many  other  instances  of  pre-Reforma- 
tion  free  grammar  schools  of  non-ecclesiastical 
origin  created  by  way  of  charitable  trust  can 
no  doubt  be  cited.  The  educational  losses  of 
the  Reformation  were  in  some  measure  made 
up  by  the  acceleration  of  this  Charitable 
Trust  movement.  The  need  for  the  multipli- 
cation of  grammar  schools  was  generally  recog- 
nized, and  the  well-known  Sir  Thomas  Smith 
on  becoming  Secretary  of  State  in  1548  intro- 
duced on  Jan.  23,  1548,  into  the  Commons  a 
"  Bill  for  making  of  schools  and  giving  lands 
thereto,"  which  was  at  once  read  the  first  time, 
and  the  second  time  on  Jan.  31,  and  on  Feb.  9, 
1548,  was  read  a  third  time  and  passed.  It 
did  not,  however,  become  law.  But  neverthe- 
less, in  Elizabeth's  reign,  108  grammar  schools 
were  founded  and  27  were  additionally  en- 
dowed, while  40  nonclassical  schools  were 
founded  and  7  additionally  endowed,  making 
in  all  182  schools  (see  Digest  of  Scliouls  and 
Charities  for  Educatiun  presented  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1842,  and  sec  ]\Iulcaster's  Po.'titions, 
p.  327).  As  to  charitable  trusts  for  education 
in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  see 
de  Montmorency's  State  Iiiteri'ention  in  English 
Education,  pp.  243-247,  and  the  above  Digest. 
As  to  Elizabethan  and  later  legislation  for  the 
enforcement  of  educational  trusts,  see  article  on 
Court  of  Chancery  i.n  Education;  for  the 
extent  of  such  foundations  sec  also  Charity 
Schools.  For  the  American  experience  see 
Colleges,  American;    the  special  articles  on 


573 


CHARITY 


CHARITY  SCHOOL 


the  older  colleges  and  universities,  and  Philan- 
thropy, Educational.  J.  E.  G.  de  M. 

CHARITY,  EDUCATIONAL  ASPECTS  OF 
MODERN.  —  See  Philanthropy,  Educa- 
Tio.NAL  Aspects  of  Modern. 

CHARITY  SCHOOL. —  In  its  narrower 
sense  a  term  applied  to  a  particular  tj-pe  of 
school  which  sprang  up  in  England  during  the 
latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  and 
flourished  throughout  the  eighteenth  century. 
Such  a  school  was  open  free  to  the  children  of 
the  poor,  and  usually  attended  only  by  such; 
was  supported  ordinarily  by  private  contribu- 
tion; and  most  frecpieutly  was  controlled  by 
some  ecclesiastical  or  religious  body.  The  in- 
stitution itself  was  common  in  America  and  on 
the  Continent  during  the  same  period,  but  the 
term  was  not  so  frequently  used. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  exaggerate  the  im- 
portance for  England  of  the  history  of  the 
educational  movement  which  is  always  con- 
nected with  the  name  of  the  charity  schools, 
for  this  movement,  in  association  with  the 
school  endowment  movement  that  took  place 
between  1670  and  1730,  and  the  Sunday  school 
movement  (q.v.),  which  began  soon  after  1750, 
laid  the  foundations  upon  which  was  reared 
during  the  nineteenth  century  the  English 
system  of  elementary  education.  It  is  not 
easy  to  indicate  the  exact  origin  of  the  charity 
school  movement.  Upon  this  question  opinions 
differ.  It  is  probable  that  the  establishment 
of  the  charity  schools  that  rapidly  covered 
England  in  the  early  j-ears  of  the  eighteenth 
century  was  only  one  manifestation  of  a  wider 
movement  which  not  only  includes  the  school 
endowment  movement  of  1670-1730,  and 
extends  back  to  include  Griffith  Jones'  Cir- 
culating Schools,  but  stretches  back  to  cer- 
tain movements  in  the  mid-sixteenth  century 
and  forward  to  the  monitorial  schools  in  the 
early  nineteenth  century.  The  medieval  sys- 
tem of  elementary  education,  though  not  abso- 
lutely destro.ycd  by  the  Reformation,  received 
shock  after  shock  from  the  forces  that  the 
Reformation  set  in  motion.  The  destruction 
of  the  chantry  elementary  schools  (q.v.)  in 
154S  swept  away  a  great  educational  instru- 
ment, and  though  the  fundamental  idea  of 
parochial  education  survived  the  Reformation 
and  survives  to  this  day,  yet  the  organized 
practice  of  parochial  teaching  decayed.  It  was 
necessary  from  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury to  restore  the  parochial  ideal  and  the 
parochial  schools.  Much  was  done,  but  the 
conformity  legislation  and  the  system  of  episco- 
pal licenses  for  teachers  made  it  increasingly 
difficult,  as  time  went  on,  to  find  sufficient 
teachers  of  sound  churchmanship,  and  this  diffi- 
culty became  insuperable  when  the  conformity 
legislation  of  1662  and  1665  instituted  an  in- 
quisition into  the  opinions  of  teachers  at  a 
time  when  the  aftermath  of  the  Great  Revolu- 


tion of  1649  made  it  impossible  for  thousands 
of  earnest  teachers  to  accept  the  tenets  of  the 
established  church.  Hence  we  might  expect 
to  find,  as  we  do  find,  successive  efforts,  paro- 
chial in  their  results,  but  often  extra-parochial 
in  their  origin,  to  create  an  elementary  system 
of  education  which  should  be,  at  any  rate,  not 
less  efficient  for  its  time  and  generation  than 
the  elementary  system  which  during  the 
Middle  Ages  in  face  of  numberless  disadvan- 
tages did  such  admirable  work  in  the  matter 
both  of  character  forming  and  of  ])reparing  a 
percentage  of  children  for  higher  education. 
But  these  successive  efforts  were  continually 
checked  by  political,  religious,  social,  and 
economic  hindrances.  In  the  second  half  of 
the  sixteenth  century  substantial  results  were 
achieved,  but  these  were  largely  neutralized  by 


Charity  ^cIkh.I,  ]iun>;iii  Meeting  House,  LonUun. 

the  political  and  religious  unrest  of  England 
from  (say)  1625  to  1660.  The  conformity 
legislation  of  1662-1665  gave  a  definite  check 
to  all  forms  of  education,  and  the  tremendous 
efforts  of  the  century  that  followed,  shown  in 
the  founding  of  charity  schools,  endowed  ele- 
mentary schools  and  Sunday  schools,  were  un- 
able to  overcome  the  vis  inerliae  of  a  state 
policy  which  had  denuded  the  universities  and 
cut  off  the  supply  of  trained  teachers.  There 
was  Uttle  or  no  trained  teaching  in  the  eight- 
eenth century  in  England,  and  when  the  great 
monitorial  school  revival  under  Bell  and  Lan- 
caster came  at  the  very  end  of  the  century 
there  were  no  teachers  available,  while  the 
new  industrial  movement  with  its  vast  ag- 
gregations of  population  had  created  social  and 
economic  obstacles  to  progress  which  have 
only  been  quite  recently  overcome.  Thus 
there  was  one  long,  organic,  wavelike  move- 
ment from  about  1570  to  1870,  a  succession  of 
impulses  which  represent  the  relationship  of 
the  Renaissance  to  elementary  education. 

The  exact  place  of  the  charity  schools  in 
this  long  movement  must  be  described.  The 
barbarism  of  Wales  seems  to  have  been  the 
object  lesson  which  drew  men's  attention  to 
needs  nearer  home.     When  that  most  learned 


574 


CHARITY   SCHOOL 


CHARITY  SCHOOL 


man,  William  Salesbury,  in  1550  translated  into 
Welsh  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  as  used  in  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  he  gave  a  new  impetus 
to  the  old  movement  which  led  to  the  trans- 
lation into  Welsh  under  the  patronage  of  Parlia- 
ment (5  Eliz.,  c.  28)  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
evangelization  of  Wales  drew  men's  minds  to 
the  same  need  in  England,  and  it  must  be 
remembered  that  this  whole  movement  was 
essentially  religious.  A  complete  Welsh  Bible 
was  issued  from  London  in  1588  and  "  a  port- 
ably-sized  Bible  "  was,  in  1630,  "  printed  at 
the  expense  of  one  or  more  citizens  of  London." 
The  spiritual  needs  of  Wales  were  very  close 
to  the  heart  of  London,  and  not  very  long  after 
the  time  of  the  Welsh  Bible  of  1630,  Vavasor 
Powell  began  active  evangelizing  work  in 
Wales.  This  was  followed  by  the  Common- 
wealth Act  of  1649,  which  appointed  Church 
and  School  Commissioners  for  Wales  to  grant 
(among  other  duties)  certificates  to  school- 
masters in  order  that  "  fit  persons  of  approved 
piety  and  learning  may  have  encouragement  to 
employ  themselves  in  the  education  of  children 
in  piety  and  good  literature";  and  lastly  we 
reach  the  stage  in  which  the  evangelization  of 
Wales  finally  reacts  on  London  and  England 
and  creates  the  imi)ulse  which  produces  the 
charity  schools.  This  last  stage  was  due  to 
the  efforts  of  Thomas  Gouge  (q.v.),  a  clergyman 
of  the  Established  Church,  who,  having  been 
ejected  from  his  London  living  under  the  Act 
of  Uniformity  on  St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  1662, 
eventually  took  up  in  1672  the  Welsh  social 
and  educational  work,  which  still  attracted  the 
attention  of  philanthropic  Londoners.  Gouge 
in  taking  up  this  work  was  following  up  the 
ideas  of  Joseph  AUeine  (1636-166S),  another 
nonconforming  clergyman  of  fame.  On 
Gouge's  "  first  journey  into  the  borders  of 
South  Wales  he  inquired  in  each  town  how 
many  were  willing  that  their  children  should 
learn  to  read  and  write  English,  and  to  repeat 
the  catechism.  He  engaged  teachers  for  both 
sexes,  paying  them  at  the  rate  of  Irf.  or  2d.  a 
week  per  scholar  "  (see  Did.  of  Nat.  Biog.). 
Strype's  edition  in  1720,  of  Stow's  Survey  of 
London,  must  now  be  cjuoted.  Writing  on  the 
charit}'  schools  in  his  time,  he  says:  "  This 
favour  of  the  Londoners  towards  poor  children 
began  divers  years  ago,  in  North  and  South 
Wales.  When,  about  the  year  1670,  the 
Poverty  and  Ignorance  of  those  Parts  raised 
a  compassion  in  the  Hearts  of  many  good 
citizens,  which  must  be  recorded  to  their 
Honor:  so  that  they  and  their  Interest  con- 
tributed such  sums  of  Money,  as  maintained 
a  great  number  of  poor  Welch  Children  at 
School,  to  read  English,  write,  and  cast  Ac- 
compts;  and  Schools  for  that  Purpose  were 
erected  and  settled  in  many  Places  in  tho.se 
Countries;  and  this  pious  Practice  so  flourished 
that  in  the  year  1674,  or  1675,  ("ertificate  was 
made  that,  in  eighty-six  of  the  chief  Towns  and 
Parishes  in  Wales,  1162  poor  children  were  put 


to  School,  over  and  above  200  put  to  School  the 
last  year  by  the  Charity  of  others.  And  this 
Charity  had  already  provoked  divers  land- 
lords and  Inhabitants  of  several  Towns  and 
Parishes  in  Wales  to  put  863  of  tlie  poorest 
Welch  Children  to  School,  upon  their  own  Ac- 
counts; so  that  2225,  in  all,  were  already  put 
to  school  to  learn,  as  before."  Tlie  movement 
did  not  end  with  education.  Gouge  desired  to 
furnish  the  rest  of  the  Welsh  peojjle  "  with 
Christian  Knowledge."  Gouge  started  the  dis- 
tribution of  religious  books,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose a  famous  "Trust  was  formed  in  London 
consisting  of  Churchmen  and  nonconformists: 
Tillotson,      Whichcot,     Simon     Ford,     Bates, 


»^^^-^;-g5^t?eg-^^j^c-j?T«^ 


"T-T  k 


Childruu  of  the  Charity  Schools  vjtwiny  a  Ilu\  ai 
Procession;  London,  17i;i. 

Owtram,  Patrick,  Stillingfleet,  and  Fowler  were 
the  Churchmen;  Durham,  !Meriton,  Hezekiah 
Burton,  Richard  Baxter,  Matthew  Poole,  and 
Gouge  were  the  nonconformists,  ^'arious 
citizens  of  London,  Thomas  Firmin,  Henry 
Norton,  John  DuBois,  and  others  also  joined. 
The  committee  did  excellent  work,  but  after 
Gouge's  death  in  1681  the  results  declined. 

Now  the  point  that  is  in  doubt  and  which 
must  be  considered  is  whether  these  charity 
schools  were  directly  connected  with  Gouge, 
his  school  movement,  and  the  Tru.st  of  1674. 
It  is  necessary  to  consider  briefly  the  history 
of  elementary  education  between  this  date 
and  the  date  of  the  formation  of  the  Society 
for  Promoting  Children's  Knowledge  {q.v.) 
which  was  founded  by  Dr.  Bray  (^.r.)  in  1698, 
and  admittedly  controlled  in  a  very  large  meas- 
ure the  charity  schools  from  about  that  time. 
In  1674  Baxter  and  Tillotson,  both  signatories 
to  the  Trust,  drew  up  a  "  Healing  Bill  "  for  a 
union  between  conformists  and  nonconformists 
and  allowing  dissenters  in  certain  cases  to  be 
schoolmasters.  The  proposal  fell  through  in 
April,  as  the  Bishops  wo\il(l  not  concur.  Almost 
at  this  very  date  the  Report  of  the  Trust  was 
i.ssued,  ancl  certainly  Gouge  and  Tillotson  re- 
mained on  intimate  terms,  as  in  1681  Tillot- 
son preached  Gouge's  funeral  sermon  in  "  a 
strain  of  fervid  eulogy."  The  Trust  con- 
tinued after  Gouge's  death,  for  we  know  that 
the  distribution  of  Welsh  Bibles,  one  of  the 
objects  of  the  Trust,  continued.  There  is  no 
real  reason  to  suppo.se  that  the  Welsh  schools, 
which  contained  1850  children  in  1675,  suddenly 
ceased  to  exist  in  1681  on  fiouge's  death; 
especially  as  they  were  in  part  supported  by 
Welsh  voluntary  subscriptions.     The  writer  on 


575 


CHARITY  SCHOOL 


CHARITY  SCHOOL 


Gouge  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography 
thinks  that  they  ceased  at  his  death;  but  this 
is  incredible,  thougli  they  probably  soon  ceased 
to  bear  his  name.  Now  Strype's  account  of 
the  origin  of  charity  schools,  given  above,  says 
that  these  schools  began  in  isolated  efforts  in 
particular  parishes  of  London.  This  was  un- 
doubtedly the  case.  Fortunately  something 
is  known  of  these  early  schools  (see  Stryi)e"s 
Slow  and  Maitland's  Hixtury  of  London,  1756, 
Vol.  2,  pp.  1274-1278).  The  elementary 
school  movement  was  active  in  London  before 
Gouge's  time  and  during  the  period  that  so 
much  interest  was  being  taken  in  Wales.  But 
the  earliest  elementary  schools  were  endowed 
schools  and  not  subscription  schools.  Thus 
we  have  the  All  Hallow's  Staining  elementary 
school  founded  and  endowed  by  William  Winter 
in  1658;  the  Lambeth  School  founded  and  en- 
dowed by  Richard  Lawrence  in  1661;  the 
Parker's  Lane  School  near  Drury  Lane  founded 
and  endowed  in  1663  by  William  Skelton;  the 
Bunhill  Fields  School,  Cripplegate,  founded 
and  endowed  by  Throgmorton  Trotman  in  1673 
through  the  Haberdashers  Company;  the 
Almonry  School  and  the  Tothill  Fields  School, 
both  in  Westminster,  founded  by  Emery  Hill 
in  1677;  the  school  in  the  churchyard  of  St. 
Saviour's,  Southwark,  founded  by  Dorothy 
Applebee  in  1681.  We  get  two  schools  of  pe- 
culiar interest  in  1685  and  1687.  "  A  crafty 
Jesuit,  who  in  the  year  1685  erected  a  Free 
School  in  the  suburbs  of  London,"  aroused  the 
efforts  of  Dr.  Thomas  Tenison  (then  Vicar  of 
St.  ^NLirtin's  in  the  Fields  and  in  later  years 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury),  who  erected  a  Free 
School  in  Castle  Street  "  for  the  educating  of 
divers  poor  boys  of  his  parish,  in  opposition  to 
that  of  the  Jesuit."  The  Archbishop  subse- 
quently (1697)  endowed  this  school  with  £1000 
of  his  own  money,  and  later  with  £500  which 
had  been  left  to  him  and  Dr.  Patrick  for 
charitable  uses.  In  1687  one  Poulter,  a  Papist, 
started  a  school  in  Southwark,  and  thereupon 
certain  members  of  a  Presbyterian  congrega- 
tion, taking  advantage  (as  in  the  former  case) 
of  the  liberty  allowed  by  King  James  II  to 
Dissenters  as  well  as  Catholics,  built  a  chapel 
(in  which  Bunyan  preached)  with  a  school 
under  it  known  to  history  as  the  Zoar  Street 
Gravel  Lane  Charity  School.  The  first  pastor 
and  master  was  John  Chester.  This  was  the 
first  nonconformist  school  that  was  openly 
held. 

This  incomplete  list  of  schools,  which  were,  in 
effect,  though  not  in  name  (except  the  last), 
charity  schools,  must  be  concluded  by  three  men- 
tioned byStrjT)e,  the  St.  Margaret  Westminster 
Boys  Bluccoat  School  founded  in  1688,  the  Nor- 
ton Falgate  Charitj'  School  founded  in  1691, 
and  St.  James'  Westminster,  founded  in  1697. 
These  schools  existed  before  the  foundation  of 
the  S.P.C.K.,  and  most  of  them  come  within 
Gouge's  period  of  activity,  though  they  were 
not  connected  with  Gouge.     They  prove  that 


there  was  in  London  as  well  as  in  Wales  during 
the  period  of  the  activity  of  the  Trust  an  active 
elementary  school  movement.  It  was  the  year 
after  the  St.  James'  School  was  founded  (1698) 
when  the  never-to-be-forgotten  Dr.  Bray  in 
his  "  plan  for  the  constitution  of  a  protestant 
congregation  for  propagating  Christian  knowl- 
edge "  proposed  that  the  members  of  the  con- 
gregation should  "proceed  to  set  up  catechetical 
schools  for  the  education  of  poor  children  in 
reading,  writing,  and  more  especially  in  the 
principles  of  the  Christian  religion."  This 
proposal  undoubtedly  stimulated  a  movement 
which  Londoners  already  had  at  heart,  a  move- 
ment that  had  been  extended  to  remote  Wales 
by  Gouge.  From  1698  the  charity  schools  in 
London  rapidly  multiplied.  In  that  year  were 
founded  the  two  schools  of  St.  Anne  West- 
minster, of  St.  Botolph  (Aldgate  Within),  St. 
Giles  (Cripplegate  Without)  in  Redcross  Street, 
St.  Margaret  Westminster  (Greycoat  School), 
and  St.  Stephen  Walbrook.  In  1699  were 
founded  the  schools  of  St.  Andrew  Holborn,  St. 
Martin  in  the  Fields,  St.  Paul  Shadwell.  In 
1700  we  get  additional  schools  in  St.  Andrew 
Holborn,  St.  Alfege  Greenwich,  St.  James 
Clerkenwell,  St.  Sepulchre  Within.  So  the 
number  grew  year  by  year,  and  not  only  in 
London,  but  through  the  country.  The  fol- 
lowing table  supplied  by  Strype  marks  the 
growth  from  1708  to  1718:  — 


But  we  have  to  note  that  it  was  not  until 
1704  that  the  charity  school  system  had  really 
secured  a  grip  upon  the  country.  In  1704 
there  were  54  charity  schools  in  London,  and 
35  in  the  country.  Strype.  writing  in  1720  with 
respect  to  the  year  1704,  tells  us  that  "  all  these 
(London)  schools  were  set  up  within  the  space 
of  eight  or  nine  years  last  past,  except  one  or 
two,  which  were  set  up  three  or  four  years  before ; 
whereof  one  was  that  in  Norton  Falgalc  (1691) 
and  another  that  in  St.  Margaret's  Westminster 
(1688)."  Thus  it  is  clear  that  Strype  bears 
witness  to  the  position  adopted  above,  that 
the  charity  school  movement  began  some  years 
before  Bray  took  up  education.  It  has  already 
been  mentioned  that  in  1685  a  Jesuit  set  up 


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CHARITY   SCHOOL 


CHARITY   SCHOOL 


a  school  in  or  about  Castle  Street  and  that 
in  1687  another  Papist  (Poulter)  set  up  a  school 
in     Southwark.     These     schools     respectively 
awakened     the     educational     energy     of    the 
Church   and   of   the   nonconformists,  and   Dr. 
Tenison's  Castle  Street  School  of  1685  and  the 
Presbyterian   Zoar   Street   School   were   really 
the  formal  beginning  of  charity  subscription 
schools.     In   1756  the   128  charity  schools  of 
London  included  5  Presbyterian  schools,  3  inde- 
pendent schools,    1    Quaker  school,   2   French 
schools,  and  1  school  for  Portuguese  Jews.     The 
nonconformist   schools   educated  rather  under 
400  boj's  and  100  girls  (see  ^Maitland's    Hmory 
of  London,  ed.    l756,   p.    1277).     Technically 
their  origin  cannot  be  connected  with  Gouge 
or  with  Bray,  with    the  Welsh  Trust  or  with 
the  Society  for   Promoting  Cliristian    Knowl- 
edge.    But  these   men   and   societies   were   all 
part  of  a  larger  wave  of  progress  which  was 
not  limited  to  England   or   even   to   Europe. 
The  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowl- 
edge extended  its  educational  activities  even 
into  the  far  East  (see  Strype  passim),  while 
a  German  movement   analogous  to  the  Eng- 
lish   was    in   organic  relation   to  it.      August 
Hermann   Francke    (,q.i>.)    (1663-1727)   started 
his    free    schools    for    poor   children    in    1695, 
and   from    the    first    he   was    m     close    corre- 
spondence with    the  Society    for    Promoting 
Christian    Knowledge   (see    J.    W.   Adamson, 
Pioneers   of  Modern    Education,  p.  242),  and 
his    work   was    definitely    based  on  religion. 
It   strongly   supports   the   view   here  adopted 
that  the  charity  school  movement  was  part  of 
a  great  renaissance  wave  extending  from  the 
middle  sixteenth  century  into  modern  times; 
that  while  on  the  one  hand  Francke's  methods 
reach  back  to  Luther,  on  the  other  his  methods 
and  his  schools  have  to-day  a  definite  place  in 
Prussian  education.     Francke  gave  to  elemen- 
tary education  a  pedagogical  significance  that 
it  was  not  to  attain  in  England  until  the  nine- 
teenth century.    In  the  history  of  education  there 
are  few  more  significant  and  far-reaching  facts 
than   the    revival  of  elementary   education  at 
the  end   of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  the 
outward  and  visible  sign  of  that  revival  which 
is    most    notable   in    our   eyes   is   the   charity 
schools  of  England  and  Germany,  of  Gouge  and 
Bray,  of  Francke  and  Hccker  (q.v.).     This  re- 
ligious educational  movement  had  its  counter- 
part in  the  English  colonies  of  America.     In- 
deed, in  some   respects  the   movement   began 
earlier  in  .Vmerica  than  even  in  Wales.     The 
English  Parliament  in  1640  passed  an  act  for 
the   purpose   of   "  promoting   and   propagating 
the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  in  New  England," 
and  founded  a  statutory  society  for  the  pur- 
pose of  educating  native  children.     A  voluntary 
rate  was  levied  throughout    England    to  pro- 
vide  this   society   with   funds.     The   action    of 
the  society  was  ratified  by  the  Crown  in  1062, 
and  another  voluntary  rate  granted. 

J.  E.  G.  DE  M. 


The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gos- 
pel in  Foreign  Parts  supported  schools  in  prac- 
tically all  of  the  colonies,  throughout  the 
eighteenth-century  colonial  period.  The  edu- 
cational activities  of  this  society  are  discussed 
under  Colonial  Period  IN  American  Education 
and  in  the  article  on  the  Society.  But  charitj' 
schools,  called  either  by  this  or  other  terms, 
were  also  of  indigenous  growth  and  widely 
scattered.  The  school  founded  by  Franklin 
(q.v.)  (1749),  which  later  grew  into  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  {q.v.),  was  first  called 
"  The  Academy  and  Charitable  School  of  Phila- 
delphia in  Pennsylvania'";  and  the  university 
continued  such  a  scliool  for  poor  children  until 
late  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Outside  of  the 
New  England  colonies  most  free  schools  were 
of  the  nature  of  charity  schools  until  well  into 
the  nineteenth  century.  But  with  the  open- 
ing of  the  nineteenth  century  various  organi- 
zations, such  as  the  Public  School  Society  (q.v.) 
of  New  York  City,  undertook  the  task  of  edu- 
cating the  children  of  the  poor.  While  pre- 
vious to  this  period  the  term  "  poor  school  "  or 
"  pauper  school"  was  frequently  used, — the  term 
"  charity  school  "  was  .seldom  used  in  America, 
—  such  schools  were  now  commonly  connected 
with  the  Lancasterian  or  monitorial  schools 
(q.v.),  or  with  various  societies  interested  in  the 
establishment  and  support  of  various  types  of 
schools  for  poor  children.  Tliese,  however, 
are  discussed  under  tlie  appropriate  captions. 

After  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  greater  part  of  the  work  similar  to  that  of 
the  charity  schools  of  England  was  accom- 
plished in  American  states,  outside  of  New 
England,  by  the  levying  of  rates  and  the  pay- 
ment of  tuition  of  poor  children  by  the  public 
authorities.  In  many  regions  schools  thus 
largely  attended  were  known  as  pauper  or  poor 
schools.  In  the  cities  the  schools  controlled 
by  the  various  school  societies  fell  under  the 
same  prejudice,  and  escaped  it  finally  through 
its  transfer  of  all  authority  over  such  schools 
to  city  school  boards,  the  discontinuance  of  all 
tuition  fees,  and  the  opening  of  all  such  schools 
to  the  populace  at  large.  This  was  commonly 
accomplished  by  the  middle  of  the  century,  — 
in  New  York  City  in  1852;  in  Best  on  as  early 
as  1817,  though  the  administration  was  not 
unified  until  1854.  In  small  towns  and  rural 
regions  the  discontiiuiance  of  tuition  charges 
and  the  discrimination  between  charity  pupils 
and  tuition  pupils  commonly  survived  until 
past  the  middle  of  the  century,  and  in  numer- 
ous states  was  not  discontinued  by  law  until 
after  the  Civil  War. 

See  Free  Schools;  and  the  articles  on  the 
various  state  systems  of  education. 

References:  — 
Ai).\Ms.  F.     Hixtiiry  o/  Ihc  Elementary  School  Contest  in 

England.     (London.  1S82.) 
Allkn,    W.    R..   and    MrOLURE,    Ed.     History    of   the 

S.P.C.K.      (London.  ISOS.) 
Greookt,  R.     Elementary  Education.     (London,  1895.) 


577 


CHARKOW 


CHARLEMAGNE  AND  EDUCATION 


HoLMAN,   H.     Engluh  National  Education.     (London, 

1S98.) 
Mandeville.     Essay    on    Charity  and    Charily-Scliools. 

(1723.) 
MoNTMouENOY,  J.  E.  G.  DE.      The  Progress  of  National 

Education  in  England.     (Loudon,  1904.) 
State  Intenention    in  English    Education.      (London, 

1902.) 
Salmon,   D.     Education  of  the  Poor  in  the  Eighteenth 

Centurt/.      (Loudon,  1908.) 
Welsh  Charity  ScIku/Is.     (Loudon,  1900.) 
Webeb,    S.    E.      Charity   School   Movement   in   Colonial 

Pennsylvania.     (Philadelphia,  1905.) 

CHARKOW,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  An  Im- 
perial IlussiiUi  university  founded  in  1S04  and 
opened  in  the  next  year.  Faculties  of  law, 
medicine,  arts,  and  sciences  are  maintained. 
In  1908-1909  there  were  enrolled  4537  students 
and  399  auditors. 

See  Russia,  Education  in. 

CHARLEMAGNE    AND    EDUCATION.— 

The  reign  of  Charlemagne  ushered  in  the 
"  Benedictine  Age  "  of  learning,  which  lasted 
from  the  close  of  the  Dark  Ages  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  twelfth  century  Renaissance. 
Charles  initiated  a  revival  of  letters  which 
owed  its  success  partly  to  his  own  determined 
will,  partly  to  the  skill  of  the  men  whom  he 
called  to  his  assistance.  Its  main  features 
were  four:  the  gathering  of  scholars  from  all 
parts  to  make  the  Frankish  Court  a  model  for 
learned  Europe;  the  rehabilitation  of  the 
Palace  School;  the  systematic  promotion  of 
clerical  education;  and  the  fostering  of  teach- 
ing work  in  both  cathedrals  and  monasteries. 
As  in  other  matters,  so  here,  Charles'  policy 
was  to  some  extent  anticipated  under  his  im- 
mediate predecessors.  Charles  Martel,  Carlo- 
man,  and  Pippin  had  supported  the  West- 
Saxon  missionary,  Boniface,  in  reforms  which, 
though  primarily  moral  and  ecclesiastical, 
were  an  essential  condition  of  any  literary  re- 
vival. Under  Pippin  English  and  Irish  mis- 
sionaries and  other  scholars  had  here  and 
there  stirred  the  dying  embers  of  learning  into 
fresh  life,  and  the  Palace  School,  whose  origin 
is  lost  in  the  darkness  of  the  iMcrovingian  age, 
had  acquired  increased  importance,  and  had 
even  been  endowed  by  Paul  I  himself  with  a 
collection  of  Greek  Mss.  But  Charlemagne 
was  the  first  to  make  a  systematic  effort  at  a 
real  restoration  of  learning.  He  himself  com- 
bined remarkable  intellectual  powers  with  a 
keen  craving  for  knowledge,  —  and,  if  he  was 
never  able  to  write  with  ease,  he  was  as  con- 
versant with  collociuial  Latin  as  with  his  native 
tongue ;  he  knew  something  of  the  pure 
Latinity  of  scholars;  he  was  not  wholly  igno- 
rant of  Greek;  and  he  was  interested  on  the 
one  hand  in  the  vernacular  poetry  of  his  age 
and  on  the  other  in  astronomy  and  kindred 
studies.  But  the  realization  of  his  aims  de- 
manded men  more  learned,  if  not  more  able, 
than  himself.  Hence  he  summoned  to  his 
court  scholars  from  far  and  near.  Peter  of 
Pisa,    the    grammarian    of    Tuscany;     Paulus 


Diaconus,  the  Lombard  historian;  Arno, 
the  Bavarian  Archbishop  of  Salzburg;  Theo- 
dulph,  the  Visigothic  Archbishop  of  Orleans; 
Paulinus,  the  Patriarch  of  Aquilcia;  Clement, 
"  the  Scot,"  and  his  fellow  Irishmen;  and 
many  others,  —  above  all  Alcuin  of  York  iq.v.), 
the  representative  of  that  Anglo-Saxon  in- 
fluence which  played  so  large  a  part  in  the 
movement,  —  came  at  his  call.  All  these 
scholars,  perhaps,  took  part  in  the  revival  of  the 
activities  of  the  Palace  School,  where,  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  fashion,  distinctions  of  age  and  race 
and  rank  were  disguised  by  the  general  adop- 
tion of  biblical  or  classical  pseudonyms.  Al- 
cuin, when  not  in  England,  apparently  directed 
the  school  from  782  to  796.  It  seems  to  have 
included  pupils  differing  widely  in  years  and  in 
position,  and  women  as  well  as  men,  and  the 
instruction  must  have  varied  accordingly  from 
the  formal  class  teaching  of  boys  to  the  indi- 
vidual tuition  of  more  advanced  pupils,  the 
private  talks  in  which  Alcuin  sought  to  satisfy 
his  patron's  thirst  for  knowledge,  or  the  general 
discussions  in  which  the  scholars  of  the  Court 
crossed  swords,  with  the  master  himself,  per- 
haps, as  moderator.  In  a  migratory  court, 
under  a  warlike  monarch,  interrupted  studies 
were  inevitable,  at  least  for  the  adult  pupils; 
and  it  was  difficult  to  carry  about  a  library 
sufficient  for  all  the  branches  of  study.  Yet 
the  school  fulfilled  effectively  two  important 
tasks.  It  formed  the  center  of  intellectual  life 
in  the  kingdom,  encouraging  friendly  emulation 
between  the  scholars  who  sought  Charles' 
patronage,  and  bringing  all  the  chief  person- 
ages of  Church  and  State  into  living  contact 
with  the  new  movement.  And  it  helped  to 
train  up  a  generation  of  men  who,  when 
scattered  far  and  wide  throughout  the  empire, 
still  kept  alive  the  Carolingian  tradition  in  a 
dark  time. 

Charles'  insistence  on  a  minimum  of  educa- 
tion for  the  clergy,  for  which  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Church  supplied  a  precedent,  was  perhaps  due 
to  Alcuin.  The  Admonitio  Generalis  of  789 
enjoined  an  inquiry  into  the  fides  et  vita  of 
ordinands,  —  periodical  examinations  of  dioce- 
san clergy  by  their  bishops,  —  the  establish- 
ment of  reading  schools,  the  correction  of  cor- 
rupted Mss.,  and  the  restriction  of  copying 
work  to  competent  scribes;  a  circular  letter, 
of  uncertain  date,  to  church  dignitaries  (the 
extant  copy  is  addressed  to  Baugulf,  Abbot  of 
Fulda  from  780  to  802),  ordered  the  -study  of 
letters  in  all  monastic  and  episcopal  establish- 
ments; while  other  capitularies  defined  a 
minimum  of  learning  to  be  possessed  by  every 
clerk.  By  confining  promotion  to  educated 
men,  and  threatening  the  ignorant  with  sus- 
pension or  even  deprivation,  Charles  brought 
the  self-interest  of  the  clergy  to  the  aid  of 
higher  motives.  His  success  was  remarkable. 
Cathedral  and  monastic  schools  displayed  an 
unprecedented  vigor,  of  which  the  scholae 
Icclorum  and  cantorurn   of   Leidrad  at   Lyons, 


578 


CHARLEMAGNE  AND  EDUCATION 


CHARTERHOUSE 


the  scripto7-ium  of  Theodulf  at  Orleans,  Alcuin's 
model  abbey  school  at  Tours,  and  Angilbert's 
library  for  a  hundred  scholars  or  more  at  S. 
Ricjuier,  are  only  some  of  the  most  notable 
illustrations.  Moreover,  in  the  diocese  of  Or- 
leans and  elsewhere,  the  order  of  the  Council 
of  Vaison  (a.d.  529),  that  parish  priests  should 
aid  in  the  work  of  education,  was  revived,  and 
one  Bavarian  prelate  even  attempted  to  com- 
pel every  man  to  keep  his  son  at  school  till  he 
was  well  instructed.  And,  while  Charles'  in- 
sistence on  the  careful  emendation  of  Mss.  — 
biblical,  liturgical,  and  educational  —  tended 
to  secure  more  uniform  and  accurate  texts,  a 
reform  of  handwriting  began  which  ended  in 
the  triumph  of  the  Carolingian  minuscule  over 
the  uncial  script  of  the  preceding  age.  A 
general  rise  in  the  standard  of  learning  ensued. 
A  correct  Latinity  —  of  which  Einhard's  Sue- 
tonian  prose  is  the  leading  example  —  was  re- 
vived. A  knowledge  of  Greek  became  com- 
moner than  it  had  been  for  a  century  past. 
Historical  writings,  inspired  perhaps  by  the 
work  of  Bede,  multiplied;  monastic  clironiclca 
were  written  in  East  and  West;  Einhard's 
own  life  of  Charles  set  a  precedent  for  secular 
biography.  And  if,  at  first,  the  movement 
was  essentially  conservative,  remarkable  less 
for  originality  than  for  fidelity  to  venerated 
models,  this  ceased  presently  to  be  everywhere 
the  case.  In  the  East  Prankish  realm,  it  is 
true,  Alcuin's  greatest  pupil,  Rabanus  Maurus 
(g.v.),  if  more  learned  than  his  master,  was  also 
still  more  inclined  to  prefer  acceptance  of 
tradition  to  discussion  and  inquiry,  and  under 
his  successors  German  learning  became  in- 
creasingly barren,  and  more  and  more  the  pro- 
fessional monopoly  of  the  clergy.  Yet  in  the 
West  the  writers  of  the  ninth  century  —  Ago- 
bard,  with  his  political  tracts;  Servatus  Lupus, 
whose  letters  reveal  a  love  of  learning  which 
anticipates  the  Humanism  of  the  Renaissance; 
Hincmar  and  the  forgers  of  the  false  Decretals; 
above  all  John  the  Scot,  in  his  daring  philo- 
sopliical  speculations  —  far  excelled  the  men 
of  Charles'  own  time  in  the  variety,  brilliance, 
and  originality  of  their  work.  This  intellectual 
vigor  was  indeed  only  transient.  Already  the 
Capilitlare  Mnnasticum  of  817  had  tried  to 
shut  monastic  schools  against  all  except  ohlnti, 
and  the  political  troubles  of  the  time  doubtless 
prevented  the  fruitfulness  of  schemes,  suggested 
by  bishops  and  promulgated  by  synods,  for 
the  cstal)lislnnent  of  "  public  schools."  Danish 
and  Magyar  and  Saracen  invasions,  feudal 
strife  and  anarchy,  the  decay  of  the  dynasty, 
the  collapse  of  the  central  government,  seemed 
indeeil  almost  to  bring  back  the  Dark  Ages. 
But  the  work  of  the  Carolingian  revival  was 
never  wliolly  undone;  an  unbroken  succession 
of  teachers — Rabanus  Maurus  (</.('.),  Serva- 
tus  I>upus.  Heric  of  Auxerre,  Remigius  — 
linked  Alcuin  to  Odo  of  Cluny,  and  the 
scholars  of  the  twelfth  century  only  reared  a 
more  siilendid  structure  on  tlie   solid  founda- 


tion laid  under  the  eye  of  Charles  the  Great, 
and  carried  on  the  speculative  movement  fore- 
shadowed at  the  court  of  Charles  the  Bald. 

C.  J.  B.  G. 
See  also  article  on  Alcuin. 

References :  — 
Gaskoin,  C.    J.    B.      Alcuin,  His  Life  and  His  Work. 

(Loudon,  1904.) 
Masids,  H.      Die  Erziehung  im  MiltduUer  in  Schmid, 

K.  A.,  Geschichteder  Erziehung,  II,  Vol.  I.  pp.  94-333. 
..  (Stuttgart,  1892.) 
MuHLBACHER,  E.     Deutsche  Geschichte  untcr  diTi  Karo- 

linger?!.     (Stuttgart,  1890.) 
MnLLiNGER,  J.  B.       The  Schools  of  CharlcK  the  Great  mid 

the   Restoration    of  Learning  in  the  Ninth    Century. 

(London,  1877.) 
Roger,    M.     L'Enseignement   des   classiques  d'Ausone  h 

Alcuin.      (Paris,  1905.) 
Sandys,  J.  E.     A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,    from 

the   end   of   the   sixth    century   to   tlie   end   of   th(^ 

Middle   Ages,  Vol.    I,    2d    ed.      (Cambridge.  lOOti.) 
Specht,    F.    a.      Geschichte     des     Vnterrichtswescns    in 

Dcutschland.      (Stuttgart,  1883.) 
See  the  references  given  under  Alcuin. 

CHARLES  CITY  COLLEGE,  CHARLES 
CITY,  IA.  —  Founded  in  1891  as  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Preparatory, 
academic,  collegiate,  normal,  fine  arts,  and 
commercial  departments  are  maintained.  The 
entrance  requirements  into  the  college  are 
about  12  points  of  high  school  work.  The 
college  offers  classical,  philosophical,  and  scien- 
tific courses,  leading  to  their  appropriate  de- 
grees. There  are  12  professors  and  7  assistants 
on  the  faculty. 

CHARLESTON,  COLLEGE  OF,  CHARLES- 
TON, S.C.  —  Opened  in  1790  and  contin- 
ued as  a  high  school  until  1824.  In  1837 
the  property,  rights,  and  interests  of  the  col- 
lege were  transferred  to  the  City  (^ouncil, 
which  agreed  to  maintain  the  institution.  Ap- 
proximately 12  points  of  high  school  work  are 
required  for  entrance  into  the  freshman  cla.ss. 
Degrees  are  conferred  in  arts  and  science. 
There  is  a  faculty  of  S  professors  and  2  assist- 
ants. 

CHARTER  PROVISIONS.  —  See  City 
School  Organization. 

CHARTERHOUSE.  —  One  of  the  nine  great 
English  Public  Schools.  Founded  in  ICll  by 
a  wealthy  merchant.  Sir  Thomas  Sutton.  The 
foundation  included  a  hospital  or  asylum  for 
old  men  in  addition  to  the  school.  The  will 
was  contested,  but  on  the  advice  of  Bacon  the 
decision  went  in  favor  of  the  foundation.  The 
site  of  the  school  was  an  old  Carthusian  mon- 
astery. The  hospital  and  the  school  remained 
under  the  control  of  one  body  of  governors 
and  a  master  until  the  Public  Schools  Act  of 
1868.  The  hospital  and  the  Poor  Brethren 
are  described  in  Thackeray's  Xewcnme.t.  The 
school  was  intended  only  for  foundation  scholars, 
or  gown  boys,  who  were  nominated  by  the  go\- 


079 


CHARTRES 


CHAUNCEY 


ernors,  and  the  nonfoundationer  was  a  late 
introduction.  The  career  of  the  school  has 
always  been  marked  by  success,  as  evidenced 
by  the  large  number  of  old  Carthusians  who 
have  won  a  place  in  the  annals  of  English  his- 
tory. In  1873  the  school  was  removed  from 
London  to  Godalming,  where  the  numbers  in- 
creased rajiidly  under  Dr.  Haig  Brown,  who  was 
headmaster  for  a  period  of  more  than  30  years. 
In  1897,  Rev.  George  Henry  Rendall  was  ap- 
pointed to  succeed  Dr.  Brown.  The  school  is 
divided  into  classical  and  modern  sides,  and 
arrangements  are  made  for  preparation  for  the 
army  and  navy  examinations. 
See  GRAMM.iR  Schools,  E.xgush. 

References:  — 
MiNCHiN,  .1.  C.     Our  Public  Schools.      (London.  1901.) 
WiLMOT.   E.  P.    E.,  and  Streatfield.   E.   C.     Charter- 
house, Old  and  New.     (London,  1895.) 

CHARTRES,    SCHOOL  OF.  —  One  of    the 

most  famous  of  the  medieval  cathedral  schools. 
The  title  of  chancellor  in  connection  with  it  ap- 
pears as  early  as  931,  but  nothing  definite  is 
known  of  the  school  until  the  next  century. 
Fulbert  became  Bishop  of  Chartres  in  990. 
He  was  himself  one  of  the  most  learned  of  men 
in  those  days,  and  under  his  influence  the  school 
soon  outstripped  the  schools  of  Laon  and  Paris. 
Its  earliest  reputation  was  based  on  lectures 
which  were  given  on  Hippocrates,  Galen,  and 
Sorenus,  but  Fulbert  turned  it  in  the  direction 
of  the  seven  liberal  arts.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, however,  under  Bernard  Silvester  of 
Chartres,  who  was  chancellor  from  1119  to  1126, 
the  school  acquired  a  unique  position  as  a  cen- 
ter of  classical  scholarship.  Perhaps  the  best 
account  of  the  work  of  the  school  is  given  by 
John  of  Salisbury  {q.v.),  who  was  at  Chartres 
for  three  years.  The  method  of  Quintilian  was 
introduced  by  Bernard  and  was  adopted  by 
Theodorie,  his  brother,  and  other  successors. 
By  this  a  foundation  was  laid  in  grammar  and 
rhetoric  for  the  proper  understanding  of  classi- 
cal literature,  which  was  widely  read.  In  ad- 
dition to  reading  and  explaining  the  grammar 
and  contents  of  the  classics,  the  pupils  practiced 
writing  Latin  verse  and  prose.  John's  teachers 
were  William  of  Conches,  the  grammarian,  and 
Richard  I'Eveque,  "  a  man  who  was  master 
of  every  kind  of  learning,"  and  who  taught 
the  quadrivium.  That  Chartres  afforded  the 
best  opportunity  of  the  time  for  the  study  of 
the  seven  liberal  arts  (q.v.)  is  clear.  Theodorie, 
already  mentioned,  who  was  chancellor  from 
1141  toe.  1150,  was  the  author  of  an  Eptateitchoti, 
a  treatise  on  the  seven  liberal  arts.  The  door- 
way of  the  West  Front  of  the  Cathedral  was 
adorned  with  figures  of  the  seven  liberal  arts, 
each  represented  by  some  early  authority.  So 
far  as  the  studies  of  the  classics  are  concerned 
Chartres  seems  to  have  been  the  center  of  an 
early  Renaissance.  Only  the  new  discovery 
of  Aristotle  diverted  the  attention  of  scholars 
from  the  humanities  to  logic  and  philosophy  and 


from  Chartres  to  Paris.  While  it  flourished, 
the  school  of  Chartres  contributed  to  purify 
Latin  style,  as  is  represented  by  the  Metalogicus 
of  John  of  Salisbury.  The  control  of  the  Cathe- 
dral Chapter  over  the  higher  education  of  Char- 
tres continued  until  the  sixteenth  century. 

References  :  — 
Clerval,  a.     Les  Ecoles  de  Chartres.     (Paris,  1896.) 
Norton,  A.  O.     Readings  in  the  History  of  Education, 

Medieral  Universities.      (Cambridge,    Mass.,  1909.) 
Rashdall.    H.      Cnirersilies   of  Europe   in   the   Middle 

Ages.  Vol.  L      (O.xford,  1895.) 
S.4.NDYS,  J.  E.     A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  Vol. 

I.     (Cambridge,  1903.) 

CHARTS,  SCHOOL.— See  Pictures,  Use 
of;  Maps;  Objective  Methods;  Visual  Aids 
TO  Teaching. 

CHASE,  THOMAS  (1827-1892).  — Educator 
and  textbook  writer,  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1848,  and  was  for  3  years  a  tutor  there.  He 
sub.sequcntly  studied  in  Germany  and  France, 
and  in  1855  became  professor  in  Haverford 
College  and  20  years  later  president  of  that 
institution.  He  was  senior  editor  of  the  Chase 
and  Stuart  series  of  classical  textbooks. 

W.  S.  M. 

CHATTANOOGA.UNIVERSITY  OF.CHAT- 
TANOOGA,  TENN.  — a  coeducational  in- 
stitution under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  offering  collegiate  and  pro- 
fessional training.  The  admission  require- 
ments are  equivalent  to  about  14  or  15 
units  of  high  school  work.  Certificates  from 
accredited  schools  are  accepted  in  lieu  of  an 
examination.  Degrees  in  arts,  science,  and 
literature  are  granted  in  the  college.  The  last 
year  of  the  college  course  maj'  be  taken  in  the 
university,  which  offers  training  in  law,  medicine, 
and  theology.  The  law  course  extends  over 
2  years,  and  is  open  to  all  students  of  suffi- 
cient education  to  follow  the  work;  but  candi- 
dates for  degrees  must  be  over  21  years  of  age. 
The  school  of  medicine  gives  a  4  years'  course 
to  students  of  sufficient  qualifications;  with 
the  school  is  associated  the  Erlanger  Ho.spital. 
The  theological  course  extends  over  3  years 
and  is  open  to  members  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  and  other  denominations.  The 
university  has  a  department  at  Athens,  Tenn., 
in  which  a  preparatory  education  of  high  school 
grade  is  given.  There  were  enrolled  in  1909- 
1910  in  the  Athens  school  310  students,  in  the 
college  107,  in  the  school  of  law  130,  in  the 
school  of  medicine  108,  in  the  school  of  theol- 
ogy 29.  There  is  a  faculty  of  27  professors, 
2  associate  professors,  and  22  lecturers  and 
assistants.  Rev.  John  H.  Pace,  A.M.,  D.D.,  is 
the  president. 

CHAUNCEY,  CHARLES  (1592-1672).  — The 
second  president  of  Harvard  College,  was  born 
at  Yardleybury,  England,  in  1592.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Westminster  School  and  Trinity 


580 


i 


CHAUTAUQUA  MOVEMENT 


CHAUTAUQUA  MOVEMENT 


College,  Cambridge.  He  was  for  a  time  in- 
structor of  Greek  in  Trinity  College.  He  came 
to  America  in  1638  and  for  16  years  engaged 
in  the  work  of  the  ministry.  In  1654  he 
was  chosen  to  succeed  Dunster  {q.v.)  as  presi- 
dent of  Harvard  College,  and  tliis  i)osition  he 
held  until  the  time  of  his  death.  Author  of 
Advaiitagcts  uf  Schools  and  of  several  theological 
essays.  He  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  on 
Feb.   19,   1672.  W.  S.  M. 

CHAUTAUQUA  MOVEMENT.— The  meth- 
ods and  ideas  of  popular  education  a.ssociated 
with  the  name  Chautauqua  are  traceable  to  the 
original  Cluiutauqua  As.sembly,  its  summer 
schools,  and  its  home  reading  circle.  In  the 
seventies  the  economic  development  of  the 
country  had  created  and  distributed  a  margin 
of  leisure  to  large  numbers  of  Americans  who 
felt  the  lack  of  early  educational  opportunities 
and  vaguely  missed  contact  with  the  cultural 
tradition.  The  Chautauqua  plans  were  pro- 
posed at  ju.st  the  right  time  to  give  definite 
stimulus  and  guidance  to  thousands  of  eager, 
ambitious  people. 

The  Original  Chautauqua.  —  In  1S74  the 
Chautauqua  Sunday  School  Assembly  was 
founded  by  Lewis  Aliller,  of  Akron,  Ohio,  and 
Dr.  John  H.  Vincent,  now  a  l)ishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  The  first  session 
was  held  for  ten  days  in  August  on  the  shores 
of  Chautauqua  Lake  in  southwestern  New  York. 
The  fundamental  idea  of  tlic  assembly  was  to 
afford  a  broader  training  for  Sunday  school 
teachers,  to  combine  formal  instruction  with 
informal  conferences,  and  to  jjrovide  recreation 
and  entertainment.  Although  the  founders 
were  members  of  the  Methodist  Episcoi)al 
Church,  the  assembly  was  consciously  made 
from  the  outset  unsectarian.  Among  the 
speakers  were  representatives  of  all  the  leading 
denominations.  More  than  1000  persons  in- 
terested in  progressive  Sunday  school  ideas  at- 
tended the  first  session,  which  aroused  an  endur- 
ing enthusiasm.  The  next  year  the  plan  was 
continued  and  extended.  Instruction  in  Hebrew 
and  Greek  from  a  Biblical  point  of  view  was 
begun  in  1875.  The  following  year  English 
literature  was  included.  By  1878  French  and 
German  had  been  added  to  the  list  of  studies, 
and  in  the  same  year  courses  for  public  school 
teachers  were  inaugurated  under  the  charge  of 
Dr.  J.  W.  Dickinson  of  Boston.  Each  succes- 
sive year  saw  a  lengthening  of  the  session,  an 
enrichment  of  the  popular  lecture  program,  an 
enlargement  of  the  curriculum  of  tlie  summer 
schools.  In  18S3  the  late  Dr.  William  R. 
Harper  became  the  head  of  the  summer  school 
department  of  Chautauqua,  and  for  14 
years  rendered  service  of  the  greatest  value  in 
building  up  the  distinctively  educational  side 
of  Chautauciua  work. 

The  Home  Reading  Circle.  —  In    1878  the 
Chautauqua   Literary  and  Scientific  Circle  was   . 
founded.     William    CuUen    Bryant    gave    his 

581 


hearty  approval.  Lyman  Aljbott,  Edward 
Everett  Hale,  and  Henry  C.  Warren  were  from 
the  first  members  of  the  Council.  This  plan 
of  home  reading  extending  over  four  years  and 
offering  to  mature  people  what  was  described 
as  "  the  college  outlook  "  met  with  instant 
succe.ss.  The  first  year  over  7000  readers  were 
enrolled,  and  within  a  few  years  60,000  were 
pursuing  the  prescriljcd  courses  of  the  circle. 
Each  year  is  organized  about  some  central  idea, 
e.g.  "  The  English  Year,"  "  The  American 
Year,"  "  The  Classical  Year,"  "  The  Modern 
European  Year."  The  year's  course  consists  of 
four  books  and  twelve  numbers  of  a  special 
magazine,  The  Chaidanquan,  which  contains 
series  of  articles  related  to  the  main  topics  of 
the  year,  bibliographies,  excerpts  from  standard 
literature,  notes,  etc.  The  extension  of  the 
library  movement,  the  growth  of  study  clubs 
and  university  extension  courses,  the  organiza- 
tion of  philanthropic  effort  have  all  been  aided 
by  the  widespread  influence  of  Chautau(iua 
circles.  Although  the  many  contemporary 
forms  of  jjopular  education  have  modified 
Chautauqua's  unique,  pioneer  position,  the 
circle  counts  a  steadily  maintained  member- 
ship of  about  10,000  readers. 

Correspondence  Instruction.  —  In  1883  under 
the  direction  of  Dr.  Harper  correspondence  in- 
struction was  started.  This  was  continued  for 
several  years.  At  one  time,  under  a  charter 
from  the  state  of  New  York,  Chautauqua  was 
empowered  to  confer  degrees.  A  few  degrees 
were  granted,  chiefly  to  Bachelors  of  Divinity 
and  to,  perhaps,  a  score  of  Bachelors  of  Arts. 
With  the  assumption  of  correspondence  in- 
struction by  two  or  three  leading  universities, 
Chautauqua  was  relieved  from  work  of  this 
type  and  surrendered  the  degree-conferring 
power.  In  1902  a  new  charter  issued  to  Chau- 
tauqua changed  its  official  name  to  Chautauciua 
Institution. 

Control,  Organization,  etc.  —  Chautauqua 
In.stitution  is  adiftinistered  by  a  board  of  24 
trustees  —  20  chosen  by  the  trustees  them- 
selves and  4  by  the  leaseholders  of  Cliau- 
tauqua  property.  The  work  of  the  admin- 
istrative offices  is  distributed  among  the 
following  departments:  Instruction,  Adminis- 
tration, Press,  and  Grounds  and  Buildings. 
The  property  of  the  Institution  is  conservatively 
valued  at  about  .?750,000.  The  annual  income 
amounts  to  aliout  .5175,000  —  the  main  reve- 
nue being  divided  between  tuition  fees  (admis- 
sions to  the  grounds,  and  fees  in  the  summer 
schools),  which  api)roximatc  $75,000;  license 
fees,  rents,  and  commercial  concessions,  taxes, 
and  service  fees,  about  .535,000;  income  from 
the  Press  about  §50,000;  sundrj'  income  of 
about  S5000.  There  is  no  element  of  private 
profit  connected  with  the  Institution;  no  stock 
or  dividends;  all  surplus  is  devoted  to  the  growth 
of  the  work. 

A  Summer  Community. — ^Chautauciua  is  a 
summer  community  with  a  maxinmm  resident 


CHAUTAUQUA  MOVEMENT 


CHAUTAUQUA  MOVEMENT 


population  of  10,000  to  12,000  people.  More 
than  30  public  buildings  provide  accommoda- 
tious  for  the  educational  work.  In  1909  95 
instructors  offered  188  courses  to  2315  students 
in  13  different  schools.  In  connection  witli  the 
popular  program,  there  were  197  lectures,  64 
religious  addresses,  14  illustrated  lectures,  41 
readings,  6  entertainments,  66  concerts,  and  9 
sermons.  The  Chautauqua  platform  is  open  to 
representatives  of  all  sane,  disinterested  move- 
ments for  social  betterment,  and  thus  serves  as  a 
valuable  clearing  house  of  ideas  which  gain  rapid 
and  wide  distribution  because  of  the  nationally 
representative  character  of  the  summer  attend- 
ance. Chautauqua  is  more  than  a  summer 
school  and  a  popular  program.  It  is  a  commun- 
ity and  an  institution.  From  the  very  begin- 
ning the  sentiment  of  loyalty  has  been  fostered 
by  many  devices.  Ritual,  ceremony,  proces- 
sions, anniversaries,  songs,  have  all  played  their 
part  in  developing  an  esprit  de  corps  which 
gives  the  place  a  distinctive  character.  The 
strong  religious  motive  which  was  present  at  the 
beginning  has  dominated  the  whole  life  of  the 
institution.  This  religious  motive  has  not, 
however,  taken  a  narrow  or  sectarian  form. 
The  institution  recognizes  the  symmetry  of  a 
life  which  includes  intellectual,  testhetic,  rec- 
reative, associative,  as  well  as  distinctively 
religious  elements.  It  attempts  to  combine 
these  in  the  summer  into  a  stimulating  and  sane 
environment,  and  throughout  the  year  to  direct 
and  encourage  the  reading  of  thousands  of  per- 
sons to  whom  regular  educational  opportunities 
are  denied. 

The  Spread  of  Chautauquas.  The  original 
assembly  has  been  widely  imitated  until  the 
word  "  Chautauqua  "  has  become  a  common 
noun.  In  1909  reports  were  received  from  554 
of  these  Chautauquas,  distributed  as  follows: 
North  Atlantic  states  28,  South  Atlantic  44, 
North  Central  407,  South  Central  51,  Western 
24.  Canada  reported  one.  There  is  a  British 
Chautauqua,  a  combination  of  the  National 
Home  Reading  Union  and  the  Cooperative 
Holidays'  Association  (q.v.)  which  meets  annu- 
ally at  different  seaside  and  country  places. 
It  is  estimated  that  in  a  single  season  nearly 
2,000,000  different  people  attend  the  Chautau- 
quas of  the  United  States.  These  assemblies 
fall  into  groups:  (a)  a  half  dozen  which  include 
all  or  most  of  the  features  of  the  original  As- 
sembly; (b)  a  score  established  1880- 1895 
which  preserve  something  of  the  earlier  tra- 
dition; (c)  a  hundred  or  more  which  add  to  a 
popular  program  a  few  classes  in  Bible 
study,  elocution,  physical  culture,  cookery, 
etc.;  (d)  a  large  number  which  confine  their 
attention  solely  to  presenting  celebrities  and 
entertainers;  and  (e)  the  remainder,  which 
are  doing  the  same  thing  on  a  lower  plane.  A 
few  of  these  Chautauquas  are  managed  by 
trustees  as  corporations  not  for  profit,  many  are 
supported  by  towns  from  local  pride,  others  are 
purely   commercial   enterprises,  and   some   are 


subsidized  by  street  railway  companies  and 
Boards  of  Trade.  Save  for  a  merely  fraternal 
"  Alliance  "  which  includes  40  of  the  older 
and  stronger  assemblies,  these  Chautauquas 
have  no  connection  with  each  other.  There  is 
no  central  authority  to  standardize,  censor,  or 
organize  the  500  platforms.  The  lecture  bureaus 
by  preempting  and  distributing  the  speakers 
most  in  demand,  as  well  as  the  wide  influence 
of  imitation,  introduce  a  good  deal  of  uniformity. 
During  the  last  few  seasons  certain  political 
leaders  have  turned  the  Chautauqua  platforms 
to  account,  until  the  "Chautauqua  circuit " 
has  become  a  part  of  the  current  political  vo- 
cabulary. These  Chautauquas  are  a  character- 
istic and  unique  feature  of  American  life.  They 
are  susceptible  of  abuse,  are  sometimes  ex- 
ploited by  demagogues,  offer  a  good  deal  tliat  is 
commonplace,  misleading,  and  meretricious, 
but  on  the  whole  are  centers  from  which  stimu- 
lating suggestions,  important  information,  and 
wholesome  entertainment  are  being  distributed 
to  hundreds  of  thousands  of  men,  women,  and 
children.  G.  E.  V. 

The  following  list  contains  all  the  Chautauqua 
centers  reported  for  1910.  Those  prnited  in 
italics  are  members  of  the  International  Chau- 
tauqua Alliance. 

Alabam.\.  —  Anniston,  Citronelle,  Elliott  Park,  Eu- 
faula,  Florala,  Gadsen,  New  Decatur,  Talladega. 

Arizona.  —  Bisljee. 

Arkansas.  —  Benton\Tlle,  Conway,  Eureka  Springs, 
Fayetteville,  Fort  Smith,  Hot  Springs,  Mammoth 
Springs,  Russellvillc.  Searcy,  Siloam  Springs,  Springdale. 

CALiFOENi.i.  —  Huntington  Beach,  Long  Beach, 
Millards  Canyon,  Oakland,  Pacific  Grove,  Placerv'ille, 
Venice,  Yosemite  Valley. 

Colorado.  —  Boulder.  Canon  City,  Fort  Collins, 
Groeloy,  Montrose,  Palmer,  Salida. 

Connecticut.  —  Canaan,  Plainville. 

Florida.  —  De  Funiak  Springs,  Gainesville,  Lake 
City,  Melbourne,  Orlando,  St.  Petersburg. 

Georgia.  —  Albany,  Atlanta,  Barnesville,  Blue 
Ridge,  Dougla.s,  Dublin,  Eatonville,  Gaines%alle,  Haw- 
kinsvUle,  Marictte,  Milledgeville,  Newman,  Sanders- 
ville,  Tcnnelle,  Washington. 

Illinois.  —  Aurora,  .\von,  Camargo  (Patterson 
Springs),  Camp  Point,  Canton,  Charleston,  Chautauqua 
(Piasa),  Clinton  (Weldon  Springs),  De  Kalh,  Dixon 
(Rock  River),  EtEngham,  Elgin,  Eureka,  Freeport, 
Galesburg,  Geneseo,  Hamilton,  Havana  (Illinois  State 
Epworth  League),  Hoopestown,  Kankakee,  Lincoln, 
Litchfiiid-Hilhhoro,  Lithia  Springs,  Mechanicsburg- 
Buffalo,  Monmouth,  Mt.  Vernon,  Nokomis,  Ottawa, 
Pana,  Paris,  Pa.xton,  Petersburg  (Old  Salem),  Plainfield, 
Pontiac,  Quincy,  Sandwich,  SIreator,  Sycamore,  Urbana. 

Indi.\n.\.  —  Attica,  Batesville,  Brooklyn,  Columbus, 
Culver.  Delphi,  Elkhart,  Greenfield,  Jefferson\'ille,  New 
Albany,  Kokomo,  Lafayette,  Lake  George,  La  Porte, 
Madison,  Mcrom,  Oakland  Citj',  Princeton,  Remington 
(Fountain  Park),  Richmotid,  Rush\-Ule,  Syracuse,  Terre 
Haute,  Valparaiso,  Vincennes,  Waveland,  Winchester, 
Winona  Lake,  Zionsville. 

Iowa.  —  AJbia,  Algona,  Allerton,  Ames,  Anamosa, 
Atlantic.  Audubon,  Bedford,  Belle  Plain,  Benson, 
Bloomfield,  Boone,  Carson,  Cedar  Falls,  Cedar  Rapids, 
Charles  City,  Cherokee,  Clarinda,  Clear  Lake,  Clinton, 
Colfax  (Iowa  State  Epworth  League),  Columbus  Junc- 
tion, Cresco,  Creston,  Decorah,  Dennison,  Des  Moines, 
Dubuoue,  Eagle  Grove,  Eddyville,  Emmetsburg,  Esther- 
\i\\v,  Fairfield,  Farmington,  Forest  City,  Glenwood, 
Goldfield,  Greenfield,  Guthrie  Center,  Hampton,  Har- 
lan, Hedrick,  Humboldt,  Ida  Grove,  Independence, 
Indianola,  Iowa  City,  Iowa  Falls,  Jefferson,  Lake  City, 


582 


CHAUTAUQUA  MOVEMENT 


CHECKS  ON  COMPUTATIONS 


LeMars,  Leon,  Malvern,  Maquoketa,  Marcclinc,  Mar- 
shalltown,  Mediapolis,  Missouri  Valley,  Montezuma, 
Mt.  Ayer,  Mt.  Pheasant,  Muscatine.  Oakland,  Osage, 
Osceola,  Oskaloosa,  Ottuinwa.  Xrw  Hampton.  Newton, 
Northwood,  Ptlla.  Perr.\-,  Ked  (  hik,  Rockwell  City,  Sac 
City,  Seymour.  Sheldon,  Shenandoah,  Sibley,  Sidney, 
Sigourney,  Spencer,  Spirit  Lake,  State  Senter,  Stoi^i 
Lake,  Tipton,  Toledo  Tama  (Central  Iowa),  Vinton, 
Washington,  Waterlim,  Waukon,  Wavcrly,  Webster  City, 
West  Liberty,  West  Union,  \\'infield,  Wintcrset. 

Kans.^s.  —  Abiline,  Beloit.  Blue  Rapids,  Bonner 
S]jrings,  Cawker  City  (Lincoln  Park),  Clay  Center, 
Coffe>-\'iUe,  Concordia,  Eldorado.  Emporia,  Fort  Scott, 
Fredonia,  Hiawatha,  lola,  Lawrence,  Manhattan,  New- 
ton, Oberlin,  Ottawa,  Paola,  Parsons,  Peabody,  Pittsburg, 
Salina,  Sobetha,  Sterling,  Topeka,  Wathana,  Winficld. 

Kentucky.  —  Asliland,  Glenwood,  High  Bridge, 
Kingwood,  Lebanon. 

Louisiana.  — •  Louisville,  Monroe,  New  Iberia,  Pres- 
ton, Huston. 

Maine.  —  Frj'cburg,  Ocean  Park. 

Maryland.  —  Cumberland.  Emory  Grove,  Glj-ndon 
Park,  Mountain  Lake  Park,  Washington  Grove. 

Massachusetts.  —  Northampton. 

Michigan.  —  Adrian.  Battle  Creek,  Bay  View,  Ca- 
dillac, Charlotte,  Grand  Rapids,  Hillsdale,  Hudson, 
Jackson,  Kalamazoo,  Lake  Orion,  Lansing,  Ludington 
(Epworth),  Marquette,  Owasso,  Paw  Paw,  South 
Haven. 

Minnesota.  —  Albert  Lea,  Austin,  Blue  Earth, 
Clear  Lake,  Detroit  Lake,  Fairmount,  Green  Lake, 
Luverne,  Mankato,  Marshall,  Minneapolis,  Orton\ille, 
Redwood  Falls,  Rochester,  Spicer,  Waseca,  Willniar, 
Winona,  Worthington. 

Mississippi.  —  Crystal  Springs,  Gloster,  Gulfport, 
Hattiesburg,  Jackson. 

Missouri.  —  Arcadia,  Aurora.  Bethany,  Bismarck, 
Burlington,  Cameron,  Canton,  CarroUton,  Carthage, 
Centralia,  Chillicothe,  Clarnece,  Clinton,  Columbia, 
Columbus,  Dexter,  Excelsior  Springs,  Fayette,  Fulton, 
Grant  City.  Hamilton,  Hannibal,  Holder,  Kahoka, 
King  City.  Kirksville,  Liberty,  Louisiana.  Macon,  Mar- 
celine,  Mar>'ville,  NIarshall.  Mays\-ille,  Mcad\-ille, 
Memphis,  Mexico,  Moberly,  Monroe  City,  Montgomery', 
Mt.  Vernon,  Neosho,  Odessa,  Oregon,  Paris,  Pertle 
Springs,  Pittsburg,  Plattsburg,  Princeton.  Richmond, 
Rockport.  Salisbury,  Savannah,  Sedalia.  Seneca.  Spring- 
field. Stanbcrry.  St.  Joseph,  Trenton,  Unionville, 
Warrensburg,   Windsor. 

Nebraska.  —  Albion,  Ashland,  Auburn,  Aurora, 
Beaver  Cro.ssing,  Bellcvue,  Broken  Bow,  Cambridge, 
Crawford,  David  Cit.w  Elmwood,  Fairbury,  Fairmont, 
Falls  City,  FuUerton,  Grand  Island.  Hastings,  Holdredge, 
Kearney,  Lexington,  Lincoln  (Nebraska  Epworth),  Ne- 
braska City,  North  Platte,  Pawnee  City,  Peru,  Red 
Cloud,  Salem,  Scott's  Bluff,  Seward,  Takama,  Tecum- 
seh,  Wahoo,  Wa.vne,  York. 

New  Hampshire.  —  Hedding. 

New  Jersey.  —  Atlantic  City  (Jewish  Assembly). 

New  Mexico.  —  Mountainair. 

New  York.  —  Assembly  Park,  Carmel  Grove, 
Chautauqua,  Clarendon,  Cliffhaven  (Catholic  Summer 
School),  East  Aurora.  Kindlcy  Lake,  Jamesport,  Lake- 
side, Lily  Dale.  Onondago,  Round  Lake,  Stony  Brook, 
Syracuse,  TuUey  Lake. 

North  Carolina. — Asheville,  Charlotte,  Hender- 
sonville. 

North  Dakota.  —  Devil's  Lake. 

Ohio.  —  Alliance,  Antwerp,  Arcanum,  Attica,  Ba- 
ta\da,  Bellefontaine,  Bethesda,  Bowling  Green.  BucjTUS, 
Cadiz,  Cambridge,  CarroUton,  Carthage,  Cclina,  Chau- 
tauqua (Minai  V'alley),  Chillicothe,  Clarksliurg,  Con- 
neaut,  Coshocton,  Covington,  Cumberland,  Ca.vuhoga 
Falls,  Defiance,  Dresden,  Epworth  Heights,  Fayette, 
Freeport,  Galliopf)lis.  Georgetown.  Greenfield,  Hillsboro, 
Lakeside,  Lancaster,  Lima,  Mansfield.  Marj'sville,  Mas- 
sillon,  Millersburg,  Millersport.  McConnellsville,  Mt. 
Gilead,  Mt.  Pleiusant,  Aft.  Vermm  (Hiawatha  Laki'), 
Montpelier,  New  Phil.-irlclphia.  Newtownville,  Orrville, 
Peebles,  Plain  City,  Portsmouth,  Hiigclcs  Beach.  .Scio, 
Sidney.  Smithville,  Somerset.  .^Springfield.  Steubenville, 
Van  Wert,  Tiffin,  Urbaua,  Wellston,  Wilmington,  Woods- 
field,  Yellow  Springs. 


Oklahoma.  —  Berlin,  Guthrie,  Hobart,  Lawton,  Mc- 
Alcstcr,   Muskogee,  Sulphur,  Tulsa,  Vinita. 

ORE(iON.  —  Ashland,  Astoria.  Oregon  City. 

Pennsylvania.  —  Eagles  Mere,  Ebensb'urg,  Mount 
Gretna  (Pennsylvania),  Poeomo  Pines,  Ridgeway  Park, 
Salix. 

South  Carolina. — Johnston,  Spartanburg,  Wil- 
liamston. 

South  Dakota.  —  Big  Stone,  Canton,  Columbia, 
Forcstburg,  Hot  Springs,  Madison. 

Tennessee.  —  Bristol,  Jefferson  City,  MonteagU, 
Nashville. 

Texas.  —  Paris. 

Virginia.  —  Lexington,  Purcellville,  Petersburg, 
W'hite  Post,  Wj'thes\Tlle. 

Washington.  —  Birch  Bay,  Puget  Sound,  Seattle. 

West  Virginia.  —  Elkins,  Fairmount,  Parkersburg, 
Roncoverto,  Shenandoah,  Wellsburg,  Wheeling. 

Wisconsin.  —  Chetak,  Delacan,  Eau  Claire.  La  Crosse, 
Manitowoc,  Marinette  (Northern),  Plattcville,  Racine, 
Watertown,  Waukesha,  Waupaca. 

Wyo.ming.  —  Cheyenne. 

C.\N.\DA.  —  Grimsby  Park. 

References:  — 
Bray,    Frank   Ch.^pin.      A    Reading  Journey   Through 

Chautauqua.      (Chautauqua  Press,  1905.) 
Daily  Chautauquan,  The  (July  and  August),  continuing 

the  Assembly  Herald  (1S75-1906). 
Chautauquan    Magazine.      (Meadville,    Pa.,  from    1880, 

now  Chautauqua,  N.Y.) 
James,    William.     Talks    to    Teachers    on    Psychology, 

..  Part  II.  ch.  ii.      (New  York,  1902.) 
Munsterburg,     Hugo.     American      Traits,    ch.    xvi. 

(Boston.   1902.) 
Vincent,  G.   E.     Monographs   on    Education,  No.    16. 

(St.  Louis,  1904.) 
Vincent.  J.  H.     The  Chautauqua  Movement.     (Boston, 

1886.) 

CHEATING.  — See  Honor  System;  School 

GoV'ERNMENT. 

CHECKS  ON  COMPUTATIONS.  —  In  prac- 
tical computation  it  is  necessary  to  verify  the 
results,  and  this  is  done  by  various  means, 
known  collectively  as  "  checks."  In  general 
a  theoretically  good  check  is  some  form  of  in- 
verse operation;  thus,  if  we  add  a  column 
upwards  we  may  check  it  by  adding  downwards, 
or  we  may  check  subtraction  by  addition,  and 
division  by  multiplication.  For  example,  if 
1728  -^  144  is  found  to  equal  12,  we  may  check 
this  result  by  seeing  if  12  X  144  =  1728. 
Practically,  however,  the  in<-erse  operation  is 
often  too  long  to  be  used  easily,  and  recourse  is 
had  to  simpler  moans,  particularly  in  the 
cases  of  multiplication  and  division.  The 
check  most  commonly  used  in  tlie  early  schools, 
and  now  coming  into  use  again,  is  tliat  of  "cast- 
ing out  nines."  It  is  applied  practically  as 
follows :  — 


786 

85 

3930 

6288 
66810 


3 

3    \ 


If  we  wish  to  know  if  66.810  is  the  product  of  85 
and  786,  we  add  the  digits  in  85,  thus:  8  -I-  5  = 
l.S,  and  add  the  digits  in  13.  having  1+3  =4. 
Tills  gives  us  the  remainder  that  arises  from 
dividing  85  by  9,  as  is  evident  in  this  case  inas- 


583 


CHEEVER 


CHEKE 


much  as  85  =  9  X  9  +  4.  Write  this  4  at 
the  right  of  the  cross.  Proceed  in  the  same  way 
for  78G ;  7  +  8  +  6  =  21,  and  2+1  =  3, 
and  this  is  the  excess  of  nines  in  786.  It  may 
more  easily  be  found  by  taking  7  +  8  =  15, 
and  "  casting  out  nine,"  leaving  6 ;  then  tak- 
ing 6  +  6  =  12,  and  "  cast  out  nine,"  leaving 
3.  Write  this  3  to  the  left  of  the  cross.  Now 
take  3X4  (the  product  of  the  excesses  of  nine), 
and  this  equals  12,  of  which  the  "  excess  of  nine  " 
is  3,  which  write  at  the  top  of  the  cross.  The 
excess  of  nines  in  the  product,  66,810,  must 
equal  this  number  (3)  if  the  work  is  correct. 
This  is  the  case,  since  6  +  6  =  12  (excess  3), 
and  8  +  1  +  0  =  9  (excess  0).  The  proof  of 
this  law  is  a  simple  matter,  and  depends  upon 
two  principles:  (1)  The  excess  of  nines  in  a  number 
is  the  excess  in  the  sum  of  its  digits,  which 
is  evident  inasmuch  as  anv  number  may  be 
represented  bv  o  +  106  +  10' c  +  W  d  +  .  .  .  , 
or  a  +  6  +  c  +  rf  +  .  .  .  +  9  6  +  99  c  +  999  rf  + 
.  .  .  ,  where  the  only  remainder  arising  from 
dividing  bv  9  must  arise  from  dividing 
a  +  b  +  c  +  d  +  .  .  .  hy  9.  (2)  The  excess 
of  nines  in  a  product  equals  the  excess  in  the 
product  of  the  excesses  of  the  factors,  which  is 
e\'ident  because  any  two  numbers  may  be  repre- 
sented by  9  o  +  6  and  9  x  +  y,  and  the 
product  will  then  be  9"  ax  +  9  (z6  +  ay)  +  by, 
which  is  all  divisible  by  9  except  by,  and  this 
is  the  product  of  the  excesses.  This  check  is 
easily  used  by  children,  and  a  sufficiently  simple 
inductive  explanation  is  easily  given.  It  checks 
most  of  the  common  errors,  but  of  course  does 
not  check  one  that  arises  through  a  cause  that 
does  not  affect  the  excess  of  nines,  like  an  extra 
0,  or  9,  or  a  transportation  of  figures.  It 
evidently  applies  also  to  division  and  to  other 
operations.  There  is  also  a  check  of  elevens, 
and  this  is  better  than  that  of  nines  in  some 
respects,  but  it  is  not  so  readily  applied. 

The  check  of  nines  goes  back  to  India. 
Thence  it  was  introduced  into  the  Arab  schools, 
and  thence  into  Europe.  It  was  almost  in- 
variably found  in  printed  arithmetics  before 
1600,  and  Paciuolo  (q.v.)  speaks  of  it  (1494)  as 
corrcnte  mercatoria  e  presla.  In  the  first  native 
American  arithmetic  (Greenwood,  1729)  much 
use  is  made  of  it,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century 
it  was  apparently  well  known  in  our  schools. 

Educationally  the  use  of  checks  is  to  be  recom- 
mended. They  detect  a  large  per  cent  of  errors, 
and  the  effect  on  the  pupil  is  salutary.  He  be- 
comes more  confident  of  his  results  and  more 
careful  in  his  work,  if  he  discovers  his  own 
errors  without  waiting  to  have  them  pointed  out. 
In  the  business  of  computing  much  use  is  made 
of  checks,  so  that  the  subject  has  a  definite 
practical  value.  D.  E.  S. 

CHEEVER.EZEKIEL  (1614-1708).— School- 
master, born  in  London  on  Jan.  25,  1614, 
and  educated  at  Cambridge  University.  He 
came  to  America  in  1637,  and  a  year  later  he 
opened  a  grammar  school  at  New  Haven  "  to 


prepare  young  men  for  college."  The  school 
was  semi-public,  the  town  paying  from  £20 
to  £  30  a  year,  "  while  parents  who  were 
able  were  assessed  a  certain  rate  accord- 
ing to  the  time  of  attendance  and  number  of 
children."  In  1650  he  was  called  to  Ipswich, 
Mass.,  to  take  charge  of  a  grammar  school 
which  had  been  established  by  grants  of  the 
town  and  donations  from  public-spirited  citi- 
zens. In  1661  "  after  making  the  free  school  in 
Ipswich  famous  in  all  the  country  and  making 
that  town  rank  in  literature  and  population 
above  all  other  towns  in  the  county  of  Essex," 
he  was  called  to  Charlestown  to  take  charge  of 
the  free  school.  He  was  called  to  the  principal- 
ship  of  the  Boston  Latin  School  in  1670,  and 
held  this  post  for  38  years.  His  compensation 
from  the  town  was  "  sixtie  pounds  p.  an.  for 
his  service  in  the  schoolc  out  of  the  towne 
rates,  and  rents  that  belong  to  the  schoole,  and 
the  possession  and  use  of  ye  schoole  house." 
Under  Cheever  the  school  became  "the  princijjal 
classical  school  not  only  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
but  of  the  British  Colonies  and  of  all  America." 
Mather  says  of  him,  "  He  had  been  a  skilful, 
painful,  faithful  schoolmaster  for  seventy 
years,  and  had  the  singular  favor  of  heaven, 
that  though  he  had  usefully  spent  his  life  among 
children,  yet  he  was  not  twice  become  a  child, 
but  held  his  abilities,  in  an  unusual  degree,  to 
the  very  last."  Besides  a  volume  of  three 
essays  on  religious  subjects,  he  was  the  author 
of  A  short  intruduction  to  the  Latin  tongue  for 
use  in  the  lower  forms  in  the  Latin  school,  being 
the  accidence,  abridged  and  compiled  in  the  most 
easy  and  accurate  method,  which,  for  more  than 
a  century,  was  the  most  popular  Latin  textbook 
in  use  in  America.  President  Josiah  Quincy  of 
Harvard  College  says  of  an  edition  of  the 
Accidence  which  appeared  as  late  as  1838,  "  It 
is  distinguished  for  simplicity,  comprehensive- 
ness, and  exactness;  and,  as  a  primer  or  first 
elementary  book,  I  do  not  believe  it  is  exceeded 
by  any  other  work."  Cheever  died  Aug. 
21,  17()8,  and  "  was  buried  from  the  school 
house,  the  Governor,  Councillors,  Ministers, 
Justices,  and  Gentlemen  being  there." 

W.  S.  M. 
References  :  — 
B.^RNARD,   H.     Ameritan  Journal  of  Education,    1856, 

Vol.  I,  pp.  297-.314. 
GonLD.     Account  of  Free  Schools  in  Boston.     (Boston, 

1823.) 
Gould,  E.  P.     Ezekiel  Cheever,  Schoolmaster.     (Boston, 

1904.) 

CHEEVER,  GEORGE  BARRELL  (1807- 
1S90).  —  Theologian,  graduated  from  Bowdoin 
College  in  1825  and  at  the  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  in  1830.  He  was  chiefly  engaged  in 
religious  activity,  and  wrote  numerous  works 
on  the  religious  education  of  children.  The 
mo.st  important  was  Right  of  the  Bible  in  our 
Public  Schools  {IS54).  W.  S.  M. 

CHEKE,  SIR  JOHN.—  One  of  the  chief  Greek 
scholars  in  England  in  the  sixteenth  century. 


584 


CHEKE 


CHEMISTRY 


Born  in  Cambridge  in  1514,  he  proceeded  to 
St.  John's  College,  where  he  became  fellow  and 
tutor.  His  influence  in  the  college  was  strong, 
and  Ascham  says  of  him  that  he  "  laid  the  verj- 
foundations  of  learning  in  that  College." 
But  he  soon  attracted  attention  in  the  univer- 
sity. He  was  appointed  university  Greek 
lecturer  without  a  salary,  but  on  the  foundation 
of  Regius  Professorships  in  1540  he  was  made 
Professor  of  Greek  at  a  salary  of  40.s.  a 
year.  In  1544  he  became  Public  Orator,  in 
which  oflScc  he  was  succeeded  by  Ascham,  when 
in  the  same  year  he  received  a  royal  summons 
to  undertake  the  tutorship  of  Prince  Edward. 
On  his  departure  Ascham  regrets  the  withdrawal 
of  "  our  most  help  and  furtherance  to  learning." 
From  this  time,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
years  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Marj',  Cheke 


Sir  John  Chckc  (1514-1557). 

enjoyed  ro.yal  patronage.  In  1540  he  was 
appointed  Provost  of  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  1552  was  knighted.  During 
Mary's  reign  he  was  twice  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower  and  compelled  to  return  to  the  Roman 
Church.  The  shame  of  his  recantation  brought 
about  his  death  in  1557.  His  services  to 
the  restoration  of  Greek  were  great.  He  not 
only  turned  the  attention  of  his  students  to  the 
best  that  the  classical  literature  could  offer,  but 
contributed  largely  to  save  the  promiiiciation 
of  Greek  from  the  confusion  ami  corruption 
into  which  it  had  fallen,  .\lthougli  his  efforts 
in  the  direction  of  reform  met  with  strong  oppo- 
sition from  the  Chancellor,  the  reformed  pro- 
nunciation ultimately  ))re vailed.  Again  on  the 
testimony  of  Ascham,  Cheke  read  Homer, 
Sophocles,  Euripides,    Herodotus,  Thucydides, 


Xenophon,  Isocrates,  and  Plato  with  his  stu- 
dents. In  addition  to  his  interest  in  the  res- 
toration of  Greek,  Cheke  directed  his  attention 
to  the  reform  of  English  spelling  and  the  puri- 
fication of  the  English  language  of  non-,Saxon 
elements.  For  this  purpose  he  translated  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  into  this  reformed  Eng- 
lish. Although  his  writings  were  numerous 
and  consisted  mainly  of  translations  from  Greek 
into  Latin,  Cheke's  most  important  work  was 
the  letters  to  the  Bishop  of  Winchester  on  the 
Greek  pronunciation  controversy;  de  pronun- 
liatiune  (iraecae  pnlissimum  linguae dii^putationes 
cum  Stephana  Winloni  episcopo,  seplem  con- 
trnriis  cpintolis  comprehensac,  magna  quadam  et 
elegantia  et  eruditione  refertae.     (Basle,  1555.) 

References  :  — 

B-\RNARD,  H.  American  Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  28. 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

Strype,  JoH.v.     Life  of  Sir  John  Cheke.     (London.  1705, 
Oxford,  1821.) 

CHEMISTRY.— As  a  University  Subject; 
its  History,  Scope,  and  Status.  —  Probalily 
no  science  possesses,  in  any  two  institutions 
of  university  rank,  exactly  the  same  scope 
and  status,  and  none  is  therefore  taught  liy 
any  two  men  from  exactly  the  same  wwpoint 
or  with  exactly  the  same  aims.  In  the  case  of 
chemistry,  however,  the  innumerable  applica- 
tions of  the  science  in  industry,  agriculture, 
medicine,  pharmacy,  and  the  like,  introduce  an 
unusual  number  of  po-ssibilities  of  variation. 
Hence,  it  follows  that,  aside  from  the  art  of 
chemical  analysis  which  is  common  to  all  a|> 
plications,  there  is  much  variability  in  the 
aspects  of  the  subject  which,  in  different  insti- 
tutions, receive  the  greatest  emphasis.  In  dis- 
cussing the  place  of  the  science  in  institutions  of 
learning,  it  will  simplify  matters  if  we  treat  first 
the  hi.story,  scope,  and  status  of  pure  chemistry, 
and  then  take  up  the  same  aspects  of  the  various 
branches  of  applied  chemistry.  In  connection 
with  the  former,  we  shall  consider,  in  succes- 
sion, the  organization  of  the  instruction  anil  the 
content  of  the  chemical  curriculum,  adding  some 
remarks  on  the  development  in  each  of  these 
respects  in  different  countries. 

Pure  Chemistry  in  the  University.  —  The 
first  courses  in  chemistry  as  a  distinct  subject  of 
study  were  given  to  students  of  medicine  and  of 
pharmacy,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century  sepa- 
rate chairs  of  chemistry,  established  for  the 
instruction  of  such  students,  became  common. 
Students  not  of  those  classes  could  obtain  a 
knowledge  of  the  science  from  no  other  source. 
The  teaching  was,  however,  wholly  by  lectures. 
Xo  laboratory  work  was  offered,  and  even  such 
slight  practical  knowledge  of  the  science  as 
lecture  experiments  afford  was  almost  nowhere 
obtainable.  Rouclle  (1703-1770)  was  the  first, 
and  for  long  almost  the  only  chemist  who 
exhibited  and  explained  the  phenomena  of 
chemistry,  instead  of  merely  describing  them. 
Gay  Lussac  and  Th6nard  continued  the  prac- 


585 


CHEMISTRY 


CHEMISTRY 


ticc,  and  Lii'big  writes  with  enthusiasm  of  the 
experimental  lectures  of  the  former.  This  great 
improvement  in  the  mode  of  instruction  was 
introduced  in  the  beginning  of  tlie  nineteenth 
century  into  England  by  Davy,  and  was  there 
brought  to  a  high  state  of  perfection  by  Hof- 
mann  (1845). 

Up  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  no 
university  had  provided  means  or  accommoda- 
tion for  the  training  of  chemists,  and  even  after 
that,  progress  in  this  direction  was  very  slow. 
Many  who  subseiiuently  attained  fame,  such 
as  Vauquelin,  Liebig,  and  even  Frankland  (in 
1840),  began  their  careers  as  students  by  the 
toilsome  and  relatively  barren  route  of  ap- 
prenticeship to  an  apothecary.  It  was  Thomas 
Thomson,  the  early  historian  of  chemistry, 
who  opened  in  Edinburgh  (1800-1807)  the  first 
laboratory  for  the  teaching  of  the  science.  After 
his  call  to  Glasgow,  he  did  a  like  service  for 
chemistry  in  the  west  of  Scotland.  Far  more 
influential  was  the  laboratory  established  by 
Liebig  at  the  University  of  Giesscn  (1824). 
The  example  of  these  early  attempts  was  fol- 
lowed slowly.  In  1833  Graham  brought  the 
idea  from  Glasgow  to  London.  In  1840  Liebig 
found  Berlin  still  without  accommodation  for  the 
training  of  students.  In  France,  even  in  1869, 
Wurtz  reported  only  one  laboratory  as  being 
properly  eciuipped  for  instruction.  In  America 
the  first  nonprofessional  institution  to  establish 
a  chair  of  chemistry  was  Princeton  (1795),  and 
the  first  laboratory  for  instruction  was  that  of 
Hor.sford  in  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School 
(1848). 

In  Giessen,  the  inspiring  personality  of  Lie- 
big  attracted  so  many  students  that  the  devising 
of  o  systematic  course  of  instruction  became  nec- 
essary. The  learner  began  by  preparing  some 
of  the  gases,  and  then  underwent  a  systematic 
training  in  qualitative  analysis.  Exercises  in 
quantitative  analysis  and  in  the  preparation  of 
chemical  substances  followed,  and  the  pupil 
was  ready  to  begin  some  original  investigation 
under  Licbig's  direction.  As  other  laboratories 
arose,  this  curriculum  was  everywhere  copied, 
and  remains  to  this  day,  after  the  lapse  of 
nearly  a  century,  the  universal  method  for  the 
training  of  chemists.  With  the  exception 
of  the  qualitative  analysis,  however,  little  is 
known  of  the  details  of  these  courses.  Will's 
treatise  (1840),  embodying  the  exercises  in 
qualitative  analysis,  gave  to  this  part  of  the 
curriculum  a  disproportionate  publicity.  This 
book  was  used,  in  the  original  or  in  transla- 
tion, in  every  laboratory,  and  the  preliminary 
training  in  inorganic  chemistry,  essential 
though  it  was,  not  having  been  provided  with 
similar  means  of  transplantation,  was  ignored 
and  omitted.  On  the  other  hand,  the  exercises 
in  preparing  pure  substances,  which  preceded 
the  research,  were  most  necessary  at  that  time, 
for  the  chemists  had  to  make  their  own  re- 
agents, like  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  their 
own  pure  mineral  acids,  and  even  their  own 


"spirits  of  wine"  for  burning.  In  spite  of  the 
fact  that  everysubstance  required  by  the  analyst, 
and  almost  every  substance  required  for  re- 
search, can  now  be  purchased,  a  course  entitled 
"  Preparations  "  is  still  given  in  every  univer- 
sity. Thus,  Licbig's  course  was  first  distorted, 
and  then,  as  distorted,  was  preserved  in  stereo- 
typed form,  regardless  of  reason  and  of  changed 
conditions.  In  Germany  a  few  chemists  are 
only  now  awakening  to  the  situation;  in  Great 
Britain  preliminary  training  in  inorganic  chem- 
istry is  becoming  common;  in  the  United  States 
it  is  practically  universal. 

The  universities,  responding  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  science,  have  added  organic  and 
physical  chemistry  to  the  branches  recognized 
by  Liebig's  curriculum.  After  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  the  study  of  the  com- 
pounds of  carbon,  indeed,  was  pursued  with 
such  vigor  that  within  a  few  decades  separate 
chairs  of  organic  chemistry  were  estabhshed  in 
many  universities,  and  the  volume  of  original 
work  in  this  branch  of  the  science  became  so 
great  as  to  exceed  that  in  all  other  branches  put 
together. 

In  most  of  this  work,  the  physical  means  of 
observation  and  experiment,  on  which  the 
chemist  depends  for  his  information,  were  very 
limited.  They  were  such  as  weighing,  filtra- 
tion, distillation,  and  observation  of  melting 
points,  boiling  points,  and  crystalline  form. 
Other  methods  were  not  unknown,  but  the 
next  development,  toward  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  consisted  in  the  application  and 
more  general  adoption  of  a  wider  range  of 
methods.  Index  of  refraction,  power  to  rotate 
the  plane  of  polarization,  electrical  conductivity, 
and  electromotive  relations,  were  measured  and 
the  results  received  chemical  interpretation. 
Methods  of  studying  speeds  of  chemical  re- 
action, conditions  of  chemical  equilibrium  in 
gases,  in  solutions,  and  in  complexes  like  alloys 
and  steel,  were  devised.  Thermochemistry 
emerged  from  the  routine  into  which  it  had 
fallen,  and  thermodynamic  chemistry  arose. 
The  enlarged  experimental  machinery  and  the 
greatly  elalwrated  chemical  theory,  which  in- 
terpreted the  results,  were  so  marked  a  depar- 
ture from  the  modes  of  work  and  thought  of  the 
organic  chemist  and  of  the  analyst  that  they 
constituted  a  new  phase  of  the  science  and  re- 
ceived the  name  "  physical  chemistry."  The 
greatest  single  impetus  which  this  new  develop- 
ment received  came  from  the  founding  of  the 
Zcitschrift  fiir  physihalische  Chcrnie  (1887)  by 
Ostwald,  and  the  Leipzig  laboratory,  although 
only  one  of  many  seats  of  physico-chemical 
w-ork,  was  the  most  active  and  influential.  The 
movement  quickly  affected  university  policy, 
and  the  Prussian  Ministry  of  Education,  for  ex- 
ample, decided  to  establish  in  every  university 
a  separate  chair  of  physical  chemistry,  with 
rank  equal  to  the  older  chairs  of  inorganic, 
analytical,  and  organic  chemistry. 

The  latest  phase  of  chemistry,  dealing  with 


586 


CHEMISTRY 


CHEMISTRY 


radioactivity  and  radioactive  substances,  of 
which  radium  is  the  most  familiar  example, 
has  already  made  a  large  place  for  itself  in  many 
universities,  and  courses  of  instruction  and  op- 
portunities for  research  along  this  line  are  now 
offered  in  many  laboratories. 

The  chief  glory  of  German  university  chem- 
istry has  been  the  unrelaxed  devotion  to  re- 
search and  the  ample  means  which  there,  as  in 
no  other  country,  has  been  at  the  disposal  of 
the  investigator.  It  was  this  that  made  Ger- 
many for  years  the  Mecca  of  all  who  desired 
a  complete  training  in  chemistry.  In  other 
countries,  parts  of  Liebig's  program  were 
adopted,  but  the  stage  of  research,  in  the  in- 
terest of  which  the  whole  program  was  origi- 
nally devised,  for  lack  of  men,  means,  and  en- 
couragement, was  seldom  reached.  In  Great 
Britain,  many  new  laboratories  have  been 
erected,  new  chairs  are  being  founded,  and  bet- 
ter facilities  for  research  are  therefore  being 
offered.  In  France,  the  bureaucratic  govern- 
ment of  the  universities  has  hindered  develop- 
ment, but  every  branch  of  chemistry,  and  all 
stages  of  advancement  in  training,  are  repre- 
sented. In  Italy,  chemistry  has  shared  in  the 
general  scientific  revival,  and  all  phases  of  the 
subject  are  taught  in  the  universities,  and  re- 
search is  pursued  with  enthusiasm.  In  Japan, 
whether  we  consider  the  size  and  reputation  of 
the  chemical  staffs,  or  the  facilities  which  they 
enjoy,  the  universities  put  to  shame  the  ma- 
joritv  of  the  educational  establishments  of  the 
Old  "World. 

In  the  United  States,  prior  to  the  founding 
of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  students 
went  to  Germany  for  their  training.  Since 
that  period,  the  development  of  the  graduate 
school  of  Harvard  University,  and  the  founding 
of  Clark  University  and  of  the  University  of 
Chicago,  have  led  to  a  great  development  of 
higher  education.  In  a  number  of  institutions, 
training  in  chemistry,  which  is  in  all  respects 
equal,  and  in  some  respects  superior,  to  that 
given  in  Germany,  can  now  be  secured.  Mag- 
nificent laboratories  arc  dotted  over  the  coun- 
try from  coast  to  coast,  chairs  in  every  branch 
of  chemistry  are  numerous,  and  facilities  for 
and  guidance  in  research  are  accessible  to  all 
who  possess  the  necessary  ability. 

Chemislry  related  to  Medicine.  —  Medicine 
is  based  on  three  fundamental  sciences:  chem- 
istry, physiology,  and  anatomy.  At  present, 
the  amount  of  i)uro  chemistry,  and  esi)ecially 
of  practical  chemistry,  legally  required  in  the 
training  of  physicians  in  Europe  is  very  small. 
Usually,  a  five  months'  course  suffices.  In  the 
United  States,  in  the  better  class  of  institu- 
tions, a  year  of  general  chemistry,  some  quali- 
tative analysis  and  organic  chemistry,  and  in 
many  cases  also  quantitative  analysis,  each 
with  appropriate  laboratory  practice,  with  a 
staff  and  facilities  for  giving  this  amount  of 
work,  are  considered  necessary.  But  this  is 
only  the  pure  chemistry,  introductory  to  the 


technical  courses.  The  latter  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  two  kinds.  Chemical  physiology 
deals  with  the  chemistry  of  the  normal  organism. 
Chemical  pathology  deals  with  the  chemical 
changes  connected  w-ith  disease,  with  the 
chemical  effects  of  bacteria  within  and  without 
the  body,  and  with  similar  problems.  Courses 
in  immuno-chemistry  and  other  subjects  are 
given,  and  chairs  exist  for  their  cultivation. 
In  all  these  lines,  chemical  methods  of  experi- 
mentation and  of  reasoning  are  applied  to 
special  classes  of  substances  and  processes.  It 
is  at  present  impossible  to  foretell  precisely 
where  the  dividing  lines  will  be  drawn,  and  what 
distinct  branches  will  ultimately  crystallize  out 
of  the  rapidly  developing  region  of  biochem- 
istry. 

Chemistry  and  medicine  come  together  also 
in  the  examination  of  water  and  of  foods,  and 
in  other  matters  pertaining  to  the  chair  of 
public  health  or  hygiene.  Again,  pharmaceu- 
tical chemistry  deals  with  the  preparation, 
analysis,  and  standardization  of  drugs,  and  is 
represented  in  all  schools  of  medicine  and  of 
pharmacy. 

Agricultural  chemistry,  which  deals  with  the 
analysis  and  chemistrj'  of  soils,  fertilizers,  and 
crops,  is  taught  in  comparatively  few  univer- 
sities. It  is  an  important  part  of  the  work  of 
the  schools  of  agriculture,  which  are  frequently 
of  university  rank,  however,  and  is  there  asso- 
ciated with  instruction  in  the  necessary  pure 
chemistry,  and  particularly  with  training  in 
analytical  chemistry. 

Chemical  Geology,  Mineralogy,  and  Crystal- 
lography. —  In  no  science  does  chemistry  play 
a  greater  isart  than  in  geology.  The  study  of 
the  modes  of  deposition  and  transformation  of 
the  materials  found  in  veins,  including  gold, 
silver,  and  ores  of  other  valuable  metals,  is  a 
chemical  problem  of  the  greatest  economic  and 
scientific  importance.  The  formation  of  salt 
deposits  and  sedimentary  rocks,  and  the  origin 
and  constitution  of  igneous  rocks  are  chemical 
questions,  and  are  studied  in  the  laboratory  as 
well  as  in  the  field.  Chemical  geology  is  there- 
fore a  recognized  university  subject.  Again, 
mineralogy  is  simply  chemistry  limited  to  sub- 
stances which  occur  in  nature.  It  treats  of 
the  formation,  the  chemical  constitution,  and 
the  chemical  classification  of  such  substances. 
Crystallography  is  by  tradition  attached  to 
mineralogy,  and  in  the  universities  is  most 
commonh-  taught  in  connection  with  it.  But 
all  pure  substances,  when  solid,  have  crystal- 
line forms,  and  the  study  of  such  forms  and  of 
their  relations  is  a  branch  of  the  study  of  the 
sub.stances  themselves,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  a 
branch  of  chemistry.  In  a  few  instances,  in- 
deed, chemical  crystallography  is  a  distinct 
subject  of  instruction  and  research. 

Technological  Applications  of  Chemistry.  — 
The  appearance  of  chemistry  in  connection 
with  instruction  in  industrial  subjects  is  so 
constant  that  onlv   a   few   of  the   more   con- 


587 


CHEIMISTRY 


CHEMISTRY 


siiicuous  cases  can  be  mentioned.  Where  the 
school  of  technology  is  not  a  part  of  a  univer- 
sity, it  is  usually  of  university  rank.  In  (ler- 
mauy,  indeed,  technical  chemistry  was  fonncrly 
a  department  of  most  of  the  universities,  but 
when  the  separate  schools  of  technology  were 
established,  these  chairs  were  given  up.  In 
the  technical  schools,  complete  liepartments  of 
pure  as  well  as  of  applied  chemistry  are  main- 
tained, the  former  being  ccjual  in  all  respects 
to  those  in  the  universities.  One  of  the  most 
important  branches  of  industrial  chemistry  is 
metallurgical  chemistry,  which  deals  with  the 
extraction,  preparation,  and  application  of 
metals.  A  special  subdivision,  known  as 
metallography,  applies  physical  chemistry  to 
the  study  of  alloys  and  mixtures  like  steel. 
Other  branches  can  only  be  named,  although 
naming  them  gives  little  idea  to  the  layman  of 
the  great  extent  of  the  fields  they  cover,  of 
their  commercial  importance,  or  of  the  large 
drafts  which  the  study  of  them  makes  upon 
pure  chemistry.  They  are  such  as  the  chemis- 
try of  fuels,  natural  waters,  soda  and  alkalies, 
soap  and  bleaching  materials,  lime  and  cement, 
glass  and  pottery,  pigments,  paints,  and  var- 
nishes, spirits,  oils,  gums,  and  waxes,  starch 
and  sugar,  brew-ing,  wine-making,  and  distill- 
ing, explosives,  dyes  and  dyeing,  paper,  leather, 
and  glue.  The  manufacture  of  these  sub- 
stances, from  the  purchase  of  the  raw  ma- 
terials, to  the  testing  of  the  finished  product, 
is  controlled  by  the  chemist.  In  composite 
establishments,  like  railways  and  packing 
houses,  where  supplies  of  various  sorts  are  used, 
the  chemist  again  controls  the  purchasing  by 
scientific  specifications,  tests  the  materials  re- 
ceived, and  studies  the  uses  to  which  they  are 
put.  He  applies  to  innumerable  ends  the  dis- 
cipline, the  principles,  and  facts  which  he  has 
derived  from  the  university  or  technical  school. 

The  number,  diversity,  and  importance  of 
the  various  divisions  of  chemistry,  of  which 
the  chief  have  been  briefly  characterized,  is, 
after  all,  not  surprising.  Chemistry  deals 
with  the  changes  in  composition  of  matter, 
and  \\^th  the  conditions  which  cause  or  accom- 
pany such  changes.  Every  one  of  the  physical 
or  natural  sciences  deals  with  some  aspect  of 
matter  or  some  class  of  materials,  and  must 
therefore  present  an  opportunity  for  funda- 
mental chemical  work.  There  is  even  a 
chemistry  of  the  stars,  which  is  experimental 
as  well  as  observational.  What  wonder  then 
that  in  the  university,  while  the  center  of 
chemical  work  may  lie  in  the  department  of 
pure  chemistry,  the  scope  of  the  science  is 
limited  only  by  the  extreme  boundaries  of  all 
the  departments  of  science,  pure  and  applied, 
which  such  an  institution  ever  includes. 

Chemistry  in  the  Schools.  —  Chemistry 
gained  entrance  to  the  secondary  schools  as  a 
fragment  of  a  very  slight  course  in  physical 
or  in  general  science.  The  purpose  of  the 
course    was    informational    solely.     With    the 


establishment  of  modern,  as  distinct  from 
classical  curricula,  chemistry  has  slowly  gained 
greater  recognition. 

The  first  secondary  school  to  open  a  labora- 
tory for  individual  work  of  the  pupils  was  the 
City  of  London  School  (Mr.  Hill,  1S47).  The 
first  of  the  English  Public  Schools  to  take  this 
step  was  Rugby  (Canon  Wilson,  18(50).  In  the 
United  States,  the  Girls'  High  and  Normal 
School  of  Boston  (18G5)  led  the  way  in  this 
important  particular.  At  the  present  time, 
chemistry  is  taught  as  a  distinct  subject,  with 
laboratory  work,  in  the  majority  of  the  English 
Public  Schools,  in  nearly  all  the  local  high 
schools  of  Great  Britain,  and  in  all  the  larger 
high  schools  of  the  United  States.  The  aim  is 
to  teach  elementary  chemistry,  as  well  as  to 
make  the  science  a  means  of  general  education. 
(See  Chemistry,  Methods  of  Teaching.) 

In  Germany  the  teaching  of  science  was 
introduced  into  schools  toward  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century  with  the  rise  of  the  Riltcr- 
akademicn,  but  was  not  firmly  established  until 
the  spread  of  the  Realschulen  {q.v.)  began. 
Science,  however,  was  taught  as  an  undiffer- 
entiated mass  covering  every  branch  which 
comes  under  that  name.  Chemistry  could 
not  receive  separate  treatment  in  the  schools, 
so  long  as  it  was  kept  in  the  background  at 
the  universities.  An  impetus  to  the  teaching 
of  chemistry  in  the  higher  schools  was  given 
by  the  increasing  importance  of  the  subject  in 
industry.  In  1822  chemistry  was  introduced 
definitely  in  the  reorganized  konigliche  Real- 
schule  of  Berlin.  The  subject  did  not  become 
generally  established  in  all  the  secondary 
schools  until  the  Syllabus  of  1882  was  passed. 
The  realistic  tendency  was  further  confirmed 
by  the  Syllabus  of  1892,  reinforced  by  the 
decree  of  the  Kaiser  issued  in  1900. 

The  following  numbers  of  periods  are  given 
to  natural  science  in  the  different  types  of 
schools.  No  definite  assignment  is  made  to 
chemistry,  with  the  exception  of  that  here 
mentioned.  In  the  gj'mnasium  two  hours  a 
week  are  gi\-en;  in  the  real-gymnasium,  2  hours 
a  week  in  the  first  5  years,  4  in  the  sixth,  and 
5  in  the  last  3  years.  In  the  real-schools 
2  hours  a  week  for  the  first  4  years,  4  in  the 
fifth,  and  6  in  each  of  the  remaining  years  are 
allotted  to  natural  science.  In  the  gymnasiums 
chemistry  is  still  included  in  the  general  sub- 
ject of  natural  science.  In  the  real-schools  of 
the  three  different  types  the  subject  becomes 
differentiated  in  Sekunda,  and  is  then  taught 
for  2  hours  a  week.  Individual  laboratory 
work  is  frequently  done,  but  many  schools 
have  no  laboratories,  and  some  do  not  use 
those  which  they  have.  The  science  is  taught 
in  all  schools  in  the  classroom,  but  not  for  its 
own  sake  so  much  as  for  calling  out  the  powers 
of  observation  and  of  reasoning  of  the  pupils, 
and  for  teaching  exact  expression.  Even  where 
laboratory  work  is  offered,  the  experiments 
are  repetitions  of  those  shown  in  the  classroom, 


588 


CHEMISTRY 


CHEMISTRY 


and  the  work  is  optional  and  is  usually  taken 
by  very  few  of  the  pupils. 

In  France  the  interest  in  modern  studies  dates 
from  the  encouragement  given  by  Sully,  the 
minister  of  Louis  XIV,  to  trade  and  industry. 
Richelieu  on  one  occasion  wrote  that  in  a 
well-regulated  state  there  was  a  need  of  more 
masters  of  the  mechanical  arts  than  of  the 
liberal  arts.  From  that  time  facilities  for  the 
training  suitable  to  industry  and  agriculture 
began  to  be  demanded.  In  1762  Holland,  as 
the  result  of  an  inquiry  into  secondary  educa- 
tion, found  that  all  pupils  of  all  ages  were  put 
through  the  same  course,  involving  for  many 
waste  of  time  and  no  benefit.  Both  Talley- 
rand (q.v.)  (1791)  and  Condorcet  iq.v.)  (1792) 
proposed  schemes  of  education  involving  ex- 
perimental chemistry.  In  179.3  the  subject 
was  included  in  a  decree  on  secondary  educa- 
tion, and  ever  since  has  found  a  place  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  in  the  program  of  the 
secondary  school.  The  attitude  toward  chcmi.s- 
try,  as  to  the  sciences  generally,  as  subjects 
of  instruction,  has  been  determined  by  their 
applicability  in  industrial,  commercial,  and 
agricultural  life.  Until  1S47  no  special  facili- 
ties were  offered  in  the  secondary  schools  for 
specializing  in  science.  By  a  statute  of  that 
date  a  bifurcation  was  introduced  in  the  last 
three  years  of  the  course,  so  that  in  one  division 
greater  attention  was  paid  to  science  (cnseignc- 
ment  special).  Further  emphasis  was  placed  on 
these  subjects  after  the  expositions  of  18,55 
and  1862,  as  a  measure  to  promote  the  prog- 
ress of  French  industries.  In  1880  4  hours 
a  week  were  given  to  science  in  all  the  classes 
except  the  highest,  which  received  10  hours. 
In  1886  in  the  enseignemenl  special,  2  hours  a 
week  were  given  to  chemistry  from  the  third 
year.  Under  the  reorganization  of  1902  there 
are  assigned  3  to  5  hours  to  physics  and  chemis- 
try, together,  in  the  special  modern-scientific 
course.  In  the  undifferentiated  course  2  hours 
a  week  are  given  to  classroom  work  in  physics 
and  chemistry,  although  only  one  fifth  of  the 
time  is  given  to  the  latter.  Only  in  the  upper 
cycle  is  laboratory  work  introduced,  and  this 
to  the  extent  of  only  2  hours  per  week  for  all 
the  sciences  together.  The  aim  of  the  teaching 
is  informational. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Chemistry.  —  Before 
methods  of  teaching  are  actually  disoissed,  we 
must  note  the  fact  that  the  kinds  of  chemistry 
taught  in  the  secondary  schools  of  the  United 
States  and  of  (Jreat  Britain  are,  in  typical 
cases,  essentially  different.  Apart  from  the 
fact  that  the  lecture  method  is  not  generally 
used  in  imparting  the  instruction,  the  chemis- 
try of  the  American  high  school  is,  in  its 
essence,  simply  a  lighter  university  course. 
In  the  secondary  schools  of  Great  Britain, 
greater  emphasis  is  laid  on  mental  training 
and  on  arousing  scientific  habits  of  thought,  and 
less  consideration  is  given  to  how  far  a  com- 
plete survey  of  the  outlines  of  the  science  is 


accomplished.  This  difference  appears  clearly 
in  the  books  of  the  two  countries,  respectively. 
The  books  most  used  in  the  United  States,  of 
which  those  by  Remsen,  Newell,  McPherson 
and  Henderson,  and  Brownlee  are  tyi)ieal 
samples,  offer  simply  a  scientific  treatment  of 
the  elements  of  the  science.  They  differ  from 
university  books,  like  Newth,  Richter,  Rem- 
sen {College  ChemiMry),  and  Smith,  mainly  in 
being  much  more  limited  in  scope.  An  Ameri- 
can syllabus,  such  as  that  of  the  National 
Education  Association,  which  is  identical 
with  the  one  u.sed  by  the  College  Entrance 
Examination  Board  of  the  Middle  States  and 
Maryland  (q.v.),^  seems  to  define  secondary 
school  chemistry  of  the  same  conventional 
type.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  Eng- 
lish books,  of  which  those  of  McNair,  and 
Perkin  and  Lean  are  types,  place  the  chief 
emphasis  on  pedagogical  qualities.  The  con- 
ventional methods  of  treatment  are  conspic- 
uous by  their  absence.  A  British  syllabus,  such 
as  the  Alternative  Elementary  Course  of  the 
Board  of  Education  in  England  and  the  Irish 
syllabus,  emphasizes  training  in  scientific 
method  rather  than  the  completion  of  a 
sj\stematic  outline  of  the  science.  The  science 
work  in  the  secondary  schools  of  France 
and  Germany  presents  no  distinct  types  of 
instructional  method,  except  those  which,  like 
the  frequent  substitution  of  classroom  work 
for  all  laboratory  work,  are  generally  acknowl- 
edged to  be  anachronisms. 

In  spite  of  this  difference  between  the  pur- 
poses of  elementary  chemistry  instruction  in 
the  secondary  schools  of  the  two  English- 
speaking  countries,  there  are  many  matters  of 
method  which  are  necessarily  in  more  or  less 
universal  use,  and  which  even  appear  with 
little  change  in  the  elementary  course  of  the 
university.  We  proceed,  therefore,  now  to  dis- 
cuss the  fundamental  methods  of  all  elementary 
chemistry  instruction,  noting  when  we  reach 
them  those  points  in  which  the  treatments  in 
the  two  countries  differ. 

A  more  complete  treatment  of  all  of  these 
subjects,  together  with  references  to  all  the 
available  sources  of  information  and  sugges- 
tion, will  be  found  in  The  Teaching  of  Chemistry 
and  Physics  by  Alexander  Smith  and  E.  H. 
Hall.  This  general  statement  will  take  the 
place  of  separate  references  to  various  parts  of 
this  book,  which  would  otherwise  have  to  ap- 
pear in  almost  every  paragraph. 

The  Means  of  Instruction.  —  The  Labora- 
tory Work.  —  A  description  of  the  modern 
laboratory  would  be  out  of  place  here.  The 
articles  by  Baskcrville  and  Gill  contain  im- 
portant information  not  included  in  Smith 
and  Hall.  In  general  it  may  he  said  that, 
if  means  are  available,  the  fittings  of  the 
laboratory  should  be  as  complete  as  they  can 
be  made.     At  the  same  time  it  may  be  noted 

'  For  tlie  full  titles  of  some  of  the  books  referred  to, 
sec  the  Bibliography  at  the  end. 


589 


CHEMISTRY 


CHEMISTRY 


that  a  magnificent  laboratory  does  not  neces- 
rarily  prove  that  even  passable  instruction  is 
boing  given.  Satisfactory  work  can  be  done 
with  simple  api)liances  and  simiile  fittings. 
The  completeness  of  the  cquiiimcnt  of  tlie 
laboratory  alTccts  the  quantity  of  work  wliich 
can  l)e  done  by  a  student  in  a  given  time,  but 
not,  in  anytliing  like  tlie  same  degree,  tiie 
quality.  Tlie  indispensable  things  are  water 
and  gas,  or  some  substitute  for  the  latter,  and 
a  sufficient  amount  of  apparatus  to  enable  in- 
structive experiments  to  be  done.  It  i.s  also 
important  that  system  and  order  should  prevail 
in  the  minutest  details  of  everj'thing  con- 
nected with  the  laboratory  materials  and  ap- 
pliances. 

The  laboratory  furnishes  the  basis  for  all 
the  real  knowledge  of  chemistry  which  the 
pupil  acquires.  It  is  here  only  that  he  comes 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  subject.  The 
whole  course  is  so  arranged  in  relation  to  the 
laboratory  work  that  the  other  means  of  in- 
struction arc  subsidiary  to  it  and  appear,  in 
relation  to  it,  in  the  light  of  subordinate  and 
supplementary  agencies.  Thus,  the  discus- 
sions in  the  classroom  interpret  the  personal 
observations;  the  experimental  demonstrations 
are  extensions  of  them;  and  the  reading  in  the 
book  is  simply  for  the  amplification  of  the 
knowledge  which  the  laboratory  work  furnishes. 
Those  facts  and  conceptions  which  are  not 
derived  directly  from  the  laboratory  work  — 
and  they  are  many  —  nevertheless  depend  for 
their  full  apprehension,  and  for  the  possession 
of  life  and  reality,  on  the  fact  that  they  are 
shown  to  be  made  up  of  features  encountered 
in  various  actual  experiments.  All  real  knowl- 
edge in  chemistry  is  either  obtained  by  experi- 
ment, or  by  the  application  of  experimental 
knowledge  througli  the  use  of  the  imagination. 

That  the  laboratory  work  may  retain  this 
dominant  position  in  the  system  of  instruction, 
it  must  be  adequate  in  scope;  it  must  amply 
illustrate  the  facts  about  each  element  and 
compound  found  in  the  syllabus;  it  must  con- 
tain examples  of  all  the  classes  of  facts  which 
are  to  be  represented  in  the  course;  and  it 
must  deal  with  every  important  principle  or 
law  in  like  manner.  It  is  in  this  last  respect 
that  most  laboratory  outlines  are  notably  defi- 
cient. Yet  the  laws  and  principles,  being  of  a 
more  or  less  abstract  nature,  demand  illustra- 
tion more  urgently  than  do  the  single  facts. 
The  quantitative  laws  of  chemical  composition, 
to  the  discussion  of  which  so  much  time  is 
applied  and  the  use  of  which,  as  they  express 
themselves  in  formula  and  equation,  is  so  con- 
stant, are  too  often  ignored.  Quantitative 
experiments,  and  the  proper  utilization  of  the 
data  which  they  give,  are  indispensable  parts 
of  the  laboratory  work. 

The  directions  for  laboratory  work  should 
be  so  simple,  clear,  and  full  that  the  experi- 
ments can  be  done  with  the  minimum  of  indi- 
vidual supervision.     The  object  of  the  experi- 


ment, the  apparatus,  the  kind  and  quantity  of 
the  materials,  and  the  method  of  manipulation 
should  be  clearly  explained.  This  part  of  the 
directions  is  imjjortant  in  order  that  we  may 
be  certain  that  each  separate  pupil  has  before 
him  exactly  the  desired  phenomenon.  Ques- 
tion marks  should  call  attention  to  the  matters 
to  be  observed,  and  direct  questions,  calling 
for  reflection,  should  be  asked.  The  questions 
should  be  of  two  kinds,  which  should  be  care- 
fully distinguished.  One  class  includes  ques- 
tions, the  answers  to  which  are  obtainable  by 
observation  and  reasoning  alone.  The  answers 
to  the  other  class  of  questions  will  require 
reference  to  the  book,  or  some  other  source  of 
information,  as  well.  The  pupil  requires  to  be 
notified  which  sort  of  question  he  is  handling, 
in  order  thiit  he  may  not,  on  the  one  hand, 
use  the  book  when  he  should  be  employing  his 
own  eyes  or  head,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  en- 
deavor to  answer  from  his  own  observations, 
supplemented  by  a  little  speculation,  a  ques- 
tion which  calls  for  actual  information  that  he 
is  not  in  a  position  to  supply. 

The  laboratory  work  should  be  an  intellec- 
tual occupation.  Every  device  must  be  used 
in  order  to  make  it  impossible  for  the  pupil  to 
feel  that  he  has  satisfied  the  requirements  of 
the  course  by  the  mere  performance  of  certain 
mechanical  operations.  The  outline,  and  the 
subsequent  treatment  of  the  experimental  re- 
sults hy  the  instructor,  should  demand  the  use 
of  intelligence  and  should  assist  in  its  cultiva- 
tion. In  this  connection,  the  type  of  labora- 
tory work  prevailing  in  CJreat  Britain  has  a 
great  advantage  over  that  commonly  employed 
in  the  United  States.  In  the  former  case,  the 
pupil  cannot  help  feeling  that  he  is  wrestling 
with  a  problem  and  mastering  it  step  by  step. 
He  covers  a  smaller  number  of  topics,  but  his 
experience  with  each  is  most  conspicuously  an 
intellectual  effort.  In  many  British  schools, 
the  so-called  heuristic  method  (q.».)  is  employed 
to  a  large  extent.  This  method  has  been  placed 
prominently  before  the  teachers,  and  has  been 
widely  introduced,  mainly  through  the  influence 
of  Professor  Arm.strong.  The  principle  is 
that  of  investigation,  with  the  encouragement 
and  advice  of  the  teacher,  the  whole  being 
conducted  in  such  a  way  that  the  pupil  is, 
as  far  as  possible,  held  responsible  for  defining 
the  problem  at  each  step  and  for  devis- 
ing means  of  solving  it.  By  this  means  less 
ground  is  covered  in  a  given  time  than  by  the 
conventional  method,  but  interest  and  enthu- 
siasm are  more  easily  aroused  and  educational 
ends,  as  distinct  from  informational  ends,  are 
better  served. 

In  all  laboratory  work  the  experimental 
technique  must  receive  special  attention.  The 
pupil  should  learn  to  discover  when  an  appa- 
ratus is  air-tight,  the  difference  between  the 
behavior  of  thick  and  thin  glass  when  heated, 
how  to  fold  a  filter  paper,  how  to  bend  glass 
tubing,  and  how  to  weigh.     The  proper  per- 


590 


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CHEMISTRY 


formance  of  these  and  other  operations  is 
necessary  to  the  success  of  the  experiments, 
and  at  the  same  time  a  consideration  of  experi- 
mental precautions  furnishes  valuable  oppor- 
tunities for  mental  training. 

The  notebook  is  an  important  feature  of 
laboratory  instruction.  It  furnishes  oppor- 
tunity for  exercise  in  simple  and  correct  ex- 
pression, and  it  enables  the  student  also  to 
practice  the  technical  language  of  the  chemist, 
and  so  imperceptibly  to  acquire  some  of  his 
habits  of  thought.  The  preparation  of  the 
notebook  is  still  further  educative  because  it 
involves  analysis  of  the  observations  made  in 
the  laboratory  and  organization  of  the  ideas 
secured  from  them.  The  operation  necessarily 
calls  attention  to  gaps  in  the  pupil's  knowl- 
edge, of  which  before  he  was  unconscious,  and 
furnishes  him  with  definite  objects  for  reading. 
Reading  of  this  kind  is  incomparably  more 
profitable  than  the  perfunctory  reading  of  ten 
consecutive  pages,  in  which  no  one  thing  in 
particular  is  being  sought.  Most  important 
also  is  the  reading  and  criticism  of  the  results 
by  the  teacher  and  the  subsequent  adjustment 
of  the  notes  by  the  pupil. 

The  activity  of  the  teacher  during  the  whole 
laboratory  period  is  required,  both  to  make 
the  work  of  each  student  successful  mechani- 
cally, and  to  maintain  the  whole  work  on  the 
plane  of  an  intellectual  exercise.  The  labora- 
tory work  to  be  valuable  must  be  supervised, 
just  as  surely  as  it  must  be  subsequently  tested 
and  applied  in  the  classroom.  The  teacher 
should  not  be  distracted  from  teaching  by  the 
necessity  for  giving  out  apparatus,  and  all  ar- 
rangements for  the  work  of  the  class  should  be 
made  in  advance. 

Textbook-!^.  —  There  are  two  distinct  types 
of  elementary  textbooks  in  chemistry,  and  an 
analysis  of  their  respective  qualities  is  desir- 
able. The  first  type,  in  which  we  can  distin- 
guish two  subvarieties,  is  that  of  the  .systematic 
description.  It  resembles  the  university  text- 
books, and  in  many  respects  is  not  unlike  the 
larger  works  of  reference.  The  first  sub- 
variety  of  this  kind  of  book  places  the  theory 
in  the  foreground.  After  the  briefest  descrip- 
tion of  the  properties  of  one  or  two  gases,  the 
pupil  is  led  as  directly  as  possible  to  Avogadro's 
hypothesis,  in  order  that,  through  the  applica- 
tion of  this  hypothesis,  he  may  he  furnished 
at  the  earliest  moment  and  in  a  strictly  logical 
fashion  with  the  basis  for  the  development  and 
ai)plication  of  formuLc  and  equations.  There- 
after, the  systematic  survey  of  the  science  is 
completed  in  the  conventional  manner.  In 
the  second  subvarietj',  the  study  of  chemical 
substances  in  a  more  or  less  conventional  man- 
ner is  placed  in  the  foreground.  The  theory 
does  not  appear  so  early,  is  not  always  in 
strictly  logical  order,  and  is  introduced  at  con- 
venient intervals.  In  both  these  varieties,  the 
arrangement  is  that  which  appeals  to  the 
mature  chemist.     The  satisfactoriness  of  the 

591 


performance  is  measured,  rather  by  the  com- 
pleteness with  which  the  whole  science  has  been 
outlined,  than  by  the  appropriateness  of  the 
content  or  of  the  arrangement  to  the  purpose  of 
instructing  immature  minds. 

The  second  type  of  textbook,  which  is  quite 
distinct  from  the  first,  places  pedagogical  prin- 
ciples in  the  foreground.  Such  texts  do  not 
endeavor  to  present  chemistry  as  a  science, 
but  attempt  simply  to  use  chemistry  as  a 
means  of  general  education.  They  have  the 
air  of  a  laljoratory  manual,  expanded  so  as  to 
convey  also  a  considerable  amount  of  informa- 
tion. The  books  already  referred  to  by 
McNair,  and  by  Perkin  and  Lean  are  typical 
examples.  Perhaps  the  qualities  of  the  two 
distinct  types  of  books  may  be  shown  best  by 
contrasting  certain  of  their  features.  In  the 
former  type,  formulfr,  equations,  valence,  and 
other  paraphernalia  of  the  science  are  neces- 
sarily conspicuous;  from  the  latter  variety  of 
book  they  may  be  entirely  absent:  the  former, 
since  its  contents  are  arranged  to  harmonize 
with  the  way  in  which  the  teacher  himself  was 
trained,  can  be  used  more  or  less  successfully 
by  a  novice;  the  latter  requires  a  more  broadly 
trained,  intelligent,  and  mature  teacher.  The 
former  is  used  almost  universally  in  the  United 
States,  the  latter  very  frequently  in  Great 
Britain. 

In  point  of  fact,  every  one  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  second,  or  pedagogical  class  of 
l)ooks,  is  an  indispensable  feature  in  all  sound 
instruction  in  elementary  chemistry,  and  should 
be  a  part  of  the  course  whether  conspicuous 
in  the  actual  textbook  or  not.  These  charac- 
teristics are  not  stated  explicitly  in  the  sys- 
tematic variety  of  text,  but  are  presumably  to 
be  read  by  the  teacher  between  the  lines.  It 
is  to  be  feared  that  the  author  of  the  systematic 
book  presumes  far  too  much  on  the  intelligence 
and  experience  of  the  great  majority  of  teachers, 
and  that  in  most  cases  a  book  of  the  second 
class  could  usefully  he  employed,  at  least  by 
the  teacher,  as  a  supplement  to  the  one  of  the 
first  class. 

The  elaboration  of  the  pedagogical  side  will 
neces.sarily  restrict  the  ground  that  can  be 
covered  in  the  .systematic  point  of  view,  and 
it  is  appropriate  to  inquire  how  far  this  en- 
croachment may  be  permitted.  The  pupil  who 
takes  chemistry  in  the  secondary  school  takes 
it  cither  as  part  of  an  education  to  bo  used 
later  in  teaching  in  the  lower  schools,  or  as 
part  of  a  preparation  for  a  college  or  univer- 
sity course,  or,  finally,  as  part  of  an  education 
for  business.  In  business,  mental  training  and 
intelligence  count  for  more  than  a  slight  knowl- 
edge of  individual  facts  in  chemi.stry.  In 
teaching  in  the  lower  schools,  systematic  chem- 
istry is  of  little  use,  while  scientific  habits  of 
mind  are  invaluable  as  a  basis  for  the  develop- 
ment of  pedagogical  skill.  Finally,  the  uni- 
versity should  appreciate  more  highly  mental 
training    than    a    knowledge    of    a    somewhat 


CHEMISTRY 


CHEMISTRY 


larger  assemblage  of  facts,  since  chemistry  is 
only  one  of  a  large  number  of  studies  which 
have  an  equal  claim  to  form  part  of  the  attain- 
ments of  the  freshman.  Without  question, 
less  mechanical  acquisition  of  S3'stematic  chem- 
istry and  more  attention  to  mental  develop- 
ment would  enable  the  chemistry  of  the 
secondary  schools  better  to  serve  all  of  tiie 
purposes  for  which  we  may  presume  it  is 
intended. 

Classroom  Work.  —  Without  subsequent 
treatment,  the  results  of  laboratory  work 
would  remain  largely  incoherent  and  mean- 
ingless. The  discussions  in  the  classroom  are 
largely  for  the  purpose,  first,  of  establishing 
what  were  the  facts  observed.  In  addition  to 
this,  they  serve  to  recall  unheeded  but  sig- 
nificant phenomena.  These  exercises  are  fur- 
ther useful  in  exercising  the  pupils  in  the 
language  of  chemistry,  and  correcting  errors 
in  the  use  of  this  language;  in  the  correlation 
of  the  observed  facts  with  the  contents  of  the 
book;  and  in  integrating  the  separate  facts 
into  knowledge.  Amongst  the  special  func- 
tions of  the  classroom  work  are  the  develop- 
ment of  principles  from  isolated  facts,  and  the 
rationalizing  and  explaining  of  the  facts  (ob- 
served and  read)  by  the  use  of  other  facts  and 
by  the  employment  of  hypotheses.  In  con- 
nection with  this  operation,  the  pupil  receives 
some  training  in  the  conservative  use  of  the 
imagination.  Interest  is  maintained  by  con- 
tinual references  to,  and  apphcations  of,  every- 
day phenomena. 

Demonstration  experiments  are  used,  in  the 
first  place,  to  initiate  the  pupils  into  experi- 
mental methods,  and  later  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  experiments  additional  to  those  per- 
formed in  the  laboratory,  particularly  those 
which  are  too  difficult  for  individual  perform- 
ance by  the  pupils.  Written  exercises  are  given, 
but  not  so  much  for  the  purpose  of  testing,  as 
for  the  purpose  of  instruction.  Single  ques- 
tions, susceptible  of  brief  answer,  set  at  the 
beginning  of  a  number  of  meetings  of  the  class 
fulfill  the  purpose  better  than  a  similar  num- 
ber of  questions  occupying  a  whole  period. 
The  pupil  learns  much  from  examination  of  the 
papers,  after  they  have  been  marked  and 
criticized  by  the  teacher. 

The  Teacher.  —  It  is  unfortunate  that  no 
machinery  is  in  existence  which  is  devised 
specifically  for  the  training  of  the  secondary 
school  teacher  in  chemistry.  He  usually  ob- 
tains his  training  in  the  college  or  university, 
but  the  courses  in  such  an  institution  are  de- 
vised primarily  for  the  training  of  the  profes- 
sional chemist,  or  rather  of  the  mere  analyst. 
Even  if  the  training  has  been  in  the  highest 
degree  scientific  and  to  the  smallest  extent 
mechanical  —  a  condition  which  seldom  exists 
—  the  chemical  facts  dealt  with  are  limited  in 
their  range.  The  teacher  in  training  should 
have  an  extensive,  thorough,  and  eminently 
modern  course  in  general  chemistry.     In  ad- 


592 


dition,  he  requires,  what  no  course  in  analysis 
ever  gives,  much  more  knowledge  of  the  ordi- 
nary facts  of  the  science  and  some  acquaint- 
ance with  its  history.  He  needs  also  a  greater 
knowledge  of  theoretical  and  physical  chemis- 
try obtained  by  reading  and  practical  work, 
more  ability  to  handle  the  literature  of  the 
subject,  and  a  firmer  grasp  of  the  ramifications 
of  the  science  in  industry,  agriculture,  geology, 
physiology,  and  hygiene. 

Teaching  how  to  Study.  —  The  student  of  a 
foreign  language  knows  by  experience  some- 
thing of  how  to  study  a  foreign  language  before 
he  begins  the  new  course.  As  a  rule,  the  stu- 
dent of  chemistry  has  no  idea  at  all  how  to 
study  the  science,  and  wastes  a  great  amount 
of  time  without  making  corresponding  progress. 
A  feature  of  chemistry  teaching  which  should 
never  be  omitted,  therefore,  is  the  repeated 
instruction  of  the  class  in  regard  to  how  to 
study  the  assigned  lesson.  Another  feature 
closely  related  to  this  is  that  of  insisting  upon 
continual  repetition  of  fundamental  ideas  and 
facts.  In  language  work,  a  prodigious  amount 
of  repetition  is  inevitable,  yet  never  too  great 
for  the  purpose  of  thorough  mastery.  In 
science,  the  book  usually  makes  each  statement 
but  once,  and  the  repetition  and  interweaving 
at  every  opportunity  are  left  to  the  initiative 
of  the  teacher. 

Illvstralio7is.  —  Another  important  feature 
is  the  continual  reference  to  illustrations  from 
practical  life.  Attention  should  frequently  be 
called  to  the  occurrences  and  uses  of  various 
chemical  substances  and  phenomena.  It  is 
possible  to  teach  geometry  or  algebra  as  if  it 
were  purely  an  artificial  discipline.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  see  how  a  subject  like  chemistry,  with 
its  innumerable  bearings  on  natural  occurrences, 
its  close  connection  with  almost  all  industries, 
and  its  vast  commercial  importance,  could  be 
treated  in  an  equally  barren  fashion.  Yet  this 
marvel  is  too  frequently  realized.  Similarly, 
correlation  of  the  chemistry  with  the  previous 
knowledge  of  the  pupil  and  with  all  the  sciences 
included  in  the  curriculum  is  a  pedagogical 
obligation  which  must  be  scrupulously  fulfilled, 
especially  in  the  secondary  school. 

Arithmetical  Problems.  —  The  solving  of 
numerous  arithmetical  problems  is  an  exercise 
too  much  neglected.  No  amount  of  mere  ex- 
planation can  confer  a  mastery  of  the  meaning 
and  use  of  equations  that  is  anything  like  as 
definite  or  complete  as  that  which  is  given  by 
the  working  of  such  problems. 

Physical  Chemistry.  —  Many  teachers  in- 
quire whether  modern  physical  chemistry 
should  be  taught  in  the  high  school.  All 
chemLstry  is  studied  through  phj^sical  means 
of  observation,  but  only  those  physical  proper- 
ties which  are  actually  used  in  the  laboratory 
can  profitably  be  discussed  in  detail.  While 
the  more  elaborate  physical  methods  cannot 
themselves  be  profitably  discussed,  the  general 
conclusions  may  often  be  utilized.     Certainly 


CHEMISTRY 


CHEMISTRY 


the  teacher  ought  to  be  familiar  with  modern 
views,  not  necessarily  that  he  may  communi- 
cate them  to  his  pupils,  but  that  they  may 
influence  his  viewpoint  and  so  guard  him 
against  inculcating  ideas  now  known  to  be 
erroneous. 

Qualitative  Analysis.  —  A  similar  question 
arises  in  regard  to  qualitative  analysis.  In 
qualitative  analysis  a  beautifully  logical  ar- 
rangement of  certain  physical  and  chemical 
facts  has  been  devised,  and  the  study  of  this 
system  is  undoubtedly  educative.  The  facts, 
however,  which  are  utilized,  particularly  the 
facts  in  regard  to  solubility  and  insolubility, 
are  in  themselves  uninteresting  and  infertile. 
If  this  system,  which  has  been  devised  for 
purely  investigative  and  commercial  purposes, 
has  good  pedagogical  qualities  also,  a  similar 
system  should  be  devised  for  pedagogical  pur- 
poses and  applied  to  those  facts  of  greater 
general  importance  which  are  alone  worthy  of 
the  attention  of  the  pupil  in  the  elementary 
course. 

General  Features.  —  Among  the  problems 
which  teachers  of  chemistrj',  when  they  meet, 
are  prone  to  discuss  is,  What  are  the  "  essen- 
tials of  elementary  chemistry"?  Sometimes 
this  much-sought  entity  is  designated  the 
"  minimum  content  "  of  an  elementary  course. 
The  response  to  the  real  need  which  underlies 
this  question  is  sought  in  the  wrong  direction. 
Usually  a  syllabus,  containing  the  names  of  a 
number  of  chemical  substances,  the  titles  of 
several  chemical  laws  and  chemical  theories, 
with  a  very  few  comments,  is  all  that  is  offered 
in  answer  to  the  demand.  Such  a  catalogue 
does  not  really  answer  the  question  at  all. 
For  example,  bromine  may  appear  in  the  list 
of  elements,  but  the  question  still  remains 
whether  this  item  in  the  requirement  is  satisfied 
if  the  element  bromine  is  sinijjly  named  by 
the  teacher  as  one  of  the  members  of  the  halo- 
gen family.  Another  teacher  may  feel  that  it 
is  expected  that  this  element  will  be  studied 
in  as  nnich  detail  as  is  chlorine.  Or,  again, 
thermochemistry  may  be  specified,  but  the 
writer  of  the  syllabus  may  not  have  intended 
any  detailed  discussion  of  this  subject,  but  have 
aimed  simply  to  indicate  that,  at  some  stage, 
attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that,  in 
certain  chemical  actions,  heat  is  evolved. 
Even  when  the  syllabus  has  been  expanded 
to  the  size  of  a  textbook,  as  has  already  been 
done  by  a  very  large  number  of  authors,  tlie 
problem  seems  still  to  remain.  Evidently  the 
problem  refers,  at  least  in  part,  to  something 
which  is  not  contained  even  in  the  textbook, 
and  must  be  sought  between  the  lines  and  in 
the  methods  in  wliich  the  sul)ject  is  liandled 
in  the  classroom.  A  list  of  topics  tells  little, 
unless  we  can,  in  some  way,  define  the  aims 
which  are  to  be  kept  in  view  in  the  instruction 
and  describe  tlie  viewpoint  of  the  teaclier  who 
handles  the  matter  outlined  in  the  syllabus. 
Some  attempt  must,  therefore,  now  be  made 


to  define,  along  these  lines,  the  modes  of  hand- 
ling the  content. 

The  Ainif!  to  be  Kept  in  View  in  Teaching 
Elementary  Chemistry.  —  One  aim,  clearly, 
should  be  to  utilize  the  previous  knowledge  of 
the  pupil.  A  little  consideration  will  show 
that  a  good  deal  is  involved  in  this  statement. 
We  assume  that  the  pupil  as  he  comes  to  us 
has  thoroughly  mastered  arithmetic  and  can 
employ  it  without  further  in.struction.  We 
assume  that,  in  the  study  of  mathematics, 
language,  and  history,  he  has  learned  to  look 
for  the  main  facts  by  the  processes  of  observa- 
tion, repetition,  and  comparison.  We  are  con- 
vinced that  the  pupil  has  learned  to  avoid 
speculation.  We  assume  that  he  knows  how 
principles  or  laws  are  formulated,  and  how 
laws  and  hypotheses  are  to  be  used.  It  is  true 
that  these  terms  may  not  have  been  employed 
in  the  study  of  language,  but  the  conceptions 
and  processes  underlying  them,  we  judge,  must 
be  thoroughly  familiar.  In  other  words,  we 
a.ssume  the  pupil's  familiarity  with  scientific 
method. 

In  addition  to  this,  in  many  instances  we 
have  a  right  to  assume  that  the  pupil  has 
studied  physics  and  knows  a  good  deal  about 
the  science.  Too  often,  however,  we  assume 
still  further  that  he  will  be  able  spontane- 
ously to  apply  his  arithmetic,  his  knowledge 
of  scientific  method,  and  his  acquisitions  in 
physics  to  the  study  of  chemistry.  It 
is  only  gradually  that  we  realize  that  the 
habits  of  mind  we  are  assuming,  if  they  exist, 
are  permanently  attached  to  the  subject  in 
connection  with  which  they  were  acquired,  and 
that  as  a  matter  of  fact  there  is  not  the  slightest 
tendency  to  apply  them  to  the  new  subject. 
The  ability  to  take  an  idea  from  its  accustomed 
surroundings  and  apply  it  in  an  entirely  new 
relation  is,  after  all,  one  of  the  characteristics 
of  genius,  and  to  assume  that  the  high  school 
pujjil  will  exhibit  any  such  characteristic,  in 
however  small  a  degree,  is  undoubtedly  assum- 
ing too  much.  The  teacher  of  chemistry  must 
do  practically  the  whole  of  this  work  over 
again.  The  scientific  method,  as  it  may  exist 
loosely  in  the  mind  of  the  pui)il  when  he  is 
studying  language  or  liistory,  must  be  de- 
veloped, crystallized,  and  used,  until  its  con- 
scious application  in  chemistry  becomes  spon- 
taneous. The  study  of  chemical  phenomena, 
by  noting  jiarticular  occurrences  and  inter- 
preting them  in  accordance  with  jihysical  prin- 
ciples, must  be  carried  out  almost  with  the 
same  care  tiiat  would  be  necessary  if  physics 
never  had  been  studied  before.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  many  of  the  parts  of  physics 
used  in  chemistry  receive  little  attention  in 
the  course  on  physics  and  are  in  themselves 
difTicult  —  the  ideas  in  connection,  for  ex- 
ample, with  vaporization  and  condensation. 
Tiie  conceptions  by  means  of  wliich  we  dis- 
tinguish between  the  decomposition  of  a  molten 
substance  and  mere  boiling  are  not  acquired 


593 


CHEMISTRY 


CHEMISTRY 


in  elementary  physics.  Then,  too,  the  physics 
used  in  chemistry  is  not  presented  in  tlie  same 
lofjical  way  as  in  the  textbook  on  physics. 
Tlie  phenomena  turn  up  unexpectedly,  and 
have  to  be  identified  before  they  can  be  under- 
stood. A  fairly  complete  mastery  of  physics 
has  gradually  to  be  acquired  dining  tiie  work 
in  chemistry,  if  this  work  is  to  be  of  an  intelli- 
gent description.  Chemical  phenomena  talk 
to  the  observer  in  the  language  of  physics,  and 
a  colloquial  knowledge  of  this  language,  such 
as  the  graduate  from  the  course  in  physics 
cannot  be  expected  to  have,  is  indispensable  in 
chemical  observation.  Even  arithmetic,  es- 
pecially the  rule  of  proportion,  has  deliberately 
to  be  taught  in  the  class  in  chemistry,  because, 
although  the  pupils  are  familiar  with  its  appli- 
cation to  common  objects,  they  are  completely 
noniilussed  when  asked  to  apply  it  to  chemi- 
cal substances.  A  very  large  proportion,  there- 
fore, of  the  true  content  of  the  course  in 
chemistry  consists  in  studj-ing  arithmetic, 
physics,  and  the  scientific  method,  in  their 
application  to  chemistrj-. 

In  addition  to  this,  we  have  the  more 
strictly  chemical  part  of  the  course.  This  in- 
volves, among  others,  the  following  items: 
(1)  The  technique  of  apparatus  and  experi- 
mentation. (2)  The  chemical  facts,  which 
must  be  neither  too  many  nor  too  few,  and 
should  include,  as  far  as  possible,  familiar  ma- 
terials, familiar  processes,  and  famiUar  phe- 
nomena. (3)  The  construction  and  reinter- 
pretation  of  generalizations,  which  sum  up  the 
facts  and  make  them  memorable  and  signifi- 
cant. (4)  The  hypotheses,  and  their  use  in 
explaining  the  facts  and  laws  of  the  science 
and  in  furnishing  an  interpretation  of  chemical 
behavior.  (5)  The  application  to  daily  ex- 
perience, to  common  substances,  and  to  com- 
mercial processes  and  products,  of  all  that  is 
learned,  to  the  end  that  interest  may  always 
be  awakened  and  maintained. 

By  way  of  limitation,  the  course  is  not  to 
be  distorted,  or  in  any  way  affected,  by  college 
preparatory  ideals.  Most  emphatically,  the 
course  has  no  relation  to  preparation  for  the 
study  of  medicine  or  engineering  —  it  is  not 
pre-professional.  Its  sole  object  is  preparation 
for  life. 

The  test  of  success  in  following  such  an  out- 
line is  not  what  particular  facts  or  how  many 
facts  have  been  acquired,  nor  whether  the 
laws  can  be  recited  with  accuracy  or  the 
theories  expounded,  but  whether  the  pupil 
acquires  any  ability  to  think  chemically.  Can 
he,  in  however  small  a  way  and  within  what- 
ever narrow  limits,  employ  his  knowledge  in  a 
rational  fashion?  After  studying  the  necessary 
facts,  could  he  suggest  a  method  of  separating 
a  mixture  of  hydrogen  and  carbon  dioxide,  or 
of  hydrogen  and  ammonia,  or  would  he  be  in- 
clined to  say  that  he  could  not  find  the  answer 
in  the  book? 

Tills  sketch  is  an  ideal.     It  is  not  a  goal 


to  be  reached,  but  only  an  aim  to  be  kept  in 
view;  a  direction  in  which  to  strive;  a  set  of 
guideposts  suggesting  the  better  way;  a 
series  of  touckstoncs  for  testing  the  appro- 
priateness of  every  word,  printed  or  spoken, 
with  which  the  pupil  comes  in  contact  during 
his  year  of  chemistry. 

The  program  outlined  is  far  from  light,  and 
carrying  it  out  may  limit  the  ground  covered, 
as  measured  by  the  nundjcr  of  facts  of  .system- 
atic chemistry  which  can  be  included;  but  it 
emphasizes  the  fundamental  things.  Whatever 
else  is  omitted,  we  must  not  omit  those  things 
which  alone  make  the  study  of  chemistry  a 
rational  exercise.  The  study  of  chemical 
phenomena  as  consisting  chiefly  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  physical  observations  is  funda- 
mental; and,  in  cutting  our  course  to  fit  the 
time,  we  can  no  more  reduce,  with  reason,  the 
attention  given  to  physics  than,  in  buililing  a 
house,  we  can  save  expense  by  leaving  out  the 
foundation. 

The  Viewpoint.  —  The  whole  cfTect  of  the 
instruction  may  be  destroyed  if  it  is  presented 
from  a  faulty  viewpoint.  The  most  important 
characteristic  of  the  viewpoint  is  that  it  should 
be  exjjerimental.  The  experimental  chemical 
difference  between  oxygen  and  ozone  is  not 
that  the  formula  of  the  one  is  Oj,  and  of  the 
other  Os,  but  that  the  latter  is  more  active, 
and  oxidizes  silver,  for  example,  while  the 
former  does  not.  The  experimental  reason  for 
writing  the  formula  of  hydrogen  H,  is  not 
that  there  are  two  atoms  in  this  molecule, 
but  that  a  given  volume  of  hj'drogen  contains 
twice  as  much  of  the  clement  as  does  an  equal 
volume  of  hydrogen  chloride.  The  current 
statements  of  definitions  and  laws  are  usually 
mixed  —  some  theoretical  and  others  experi- 
mental. All  the  laws  or  definitions  that  are 
given  should  be  based  on  experimental  facts 
and  should  be  finallj-  stated  in  experimental 
terms.  Valency,  for  example,  is  an  experi- 
mental fact,  and  not  the  theoretical  matter 
that  the  common  definition  would  lead  us  to 
suppose. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  viewpoint  is 
that  it  should  be  rational,  rather  than  dog- 
matic. For  example,  when  simply  told  that 
matter  is  a  combination  of  atoms  which  join 
to  form  molecules,  we  naturally  suppose  that 
this  fact  will  explain  all  the  circumstances 
connected  with  combination  and  we  may  state 
dogmatically  in  each  particular  instance  that  it 
does  so.  When,  however,  we  learn  that  the 
atomic  theory  was  suggested  originally  by 
Dalton  to  explain  the  independent  behavior 
of  gases  when  mixed,  and  was  later  applied  to 
account  for  the  fact  that  each  chemical  element 
uses  an  individual  combining  weight,  by  which 
the  proportions  of  it  in  all  forms  of  combina- 
tion can  be  accurately  expressed,  and  that 
until  recently  little  more  than  this  amount  of 
use  could  logically  be  made  of  the  atomic 
theory  in  inorganic  chemistry,  we  see  at  once 


594 


CHEMISTRY 


CHEMISTRY 


that  there  arc  many  things  in  explaining 
which  this  theory  may  not  be  used.  It  does 
not  profess  to  explain  the  tendency  to  com- 
bine (affinity),  or  the  way  in  which  the  sub- 
stances cohere  when  combined,  or  the  new 
properties  of  the  compound  formed,  or,  in  fact, 
anything  excepting  only  the  quantities  of  each 
kind  of  matter  involved  in  the  change.  The 
hypothesis,  then,  has  no  experimental  applica- 
tion in  chemistry  until  combining  proportions 
are  discussed,  and  sheds  no  light  on  any  facts 
other  than  those  of  combining  proportions. 
Recent  discoveries,  indeed,  show,  or  come  very 
near  to  showing,  that  matter  is  really  com- 
posed of  atoms  and  molecules  (see  Professor 
Rutherford's  aildress) ;  but,  unless  the  opening 
lessons  could  deal  with  the  experimental  study 
of  radioactive  substances,  there  would  be  no 
logical  way  of  introducing  atoms  and  molecules 
at  this  stage. 

We  may  summarize  our  conclusions  under 
the  head  of  the  viewpoint  as  follows:  (1)  Ob- 
servation should  be  shown  consistently  to  be 
the  sole  source  of  all  facts;  none  being  obtained 
by  speculation,  by  the  interpretation  of  laws, 
or  otherwise.  (2)  Experimental,  literal  terms 
are  to  be  used  in  stating  all  facts.  (3)  Hy- 
potheses are  to  be  used  only  in  explaining  and 
relating  facts,  and  are  to  be  eliminated  from 
the  final  statement. 

Needless  to  say,  the  point  of  view  is  not 
something  to  be  explained  to  the  pupil,  but 
something  that  is  to  be  used  by  the  teacher. 
To  study  our  own  viewpoint  and  correct  it 
is  a  difficult  matter,  for  we  are  not  even  con- 
scious that  we  have  a  viewpoint  until  it  sud- 
denly shifts  in  some  important  particular. 
The  teacher  must  gradually  realize  and  adjust 
his  own  viewpoint.  The  viewpoint  is  some- 
thing not  obtainable  directly  from  books,  for 
it  is  there  contained  implicitly,  and  not  ex- 
plicitly. In  its  details  it  is  an  individual  pos- 
session of  each  chemist.  We  can  observe  its 
importance  best  by  imagining  the  viewpoint 
to  be  entirely  removed.  A  course  in  chemistry 
absolutely  without  a  viewpoint  would  evi- 
dently be  a  wholly  uninstructive  chaos. 

The  Aiiiix  of  Umversity  Elementary  Chemis- 
try. —  Although  in  the  United  States  the  aims 
of  the  high  school  and  university  courses  are 
almost  identical,  this  is  due,  in  all  probability, 
not  so  much  to  the  unanimous  and  conscious 
decision  that  the  courses  should  be  identical, 
as  to  the  fact  that  the  teachers  are  trained  in 
the  university  and  teach  most  easily  what 
they  themselves  were  taught.  In  theory,  the 
two  courses  might  be  different.  The  nature 
of  the  secondary  school  course  should  depend 
solely  on  pedagogical,  practical  considerations; 
the  nature  of  the  university  course  is  largely 
predetermined  by  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
graduates  of  the  university  become  teachers  of 
chemistry  or  go  into  medicine  or  engineering. 
In  either  of  those  three  cases  the  elementary 
course   is  followed,  cither   by  more   advanced 


courses  in  chemistry,  or  by  courses  in  physiol- 
ogy, physiological  chemistry,  geology,  and  other 
sciences,  or  by  uniting  of  both  kinds,  in  all  of 
which  it  will  be  assumed  that  the  student  has 
a  knowledge  of  chemistry  of  the  conventional 
description.  A  course  which  has  for  its  main 
purpose  mental  training  will  not  suffice  to  fit 
the  student  for  the  study  of  physiology  or 
analysis.  The  university  course  is  therefore  a 
pre-professional  course.  The  university  course 
involves  education  in  chemistry,  while  the  pur- 
pose of  the  high  school  course  has  been  simply 
education  through  chemistry.  The  high  school 
course  may  be  admirable  without  being  con- 
ventional. The  university  course  has  no  such 
option. 

One  of  the  most  pressing  unsettled  problems 
is  the  proper  articulation  of  high  school  with 
college  chemistry.  The  pupil  who  has  studied 
'  chemistry  in  the  secondary  school  —  where 
should  he  be  placed  if  he  continues  the  study 
in  the  university?  He  is  not  prepared  to  take 
up  analysis  until  after  he  receives  further  in- 
struction in  general  chemistrj',  given  in  a  modern 
way.  It  is  certainly  unjust  to  the  instructor 
in  the  university,  to  the  pupil  himself,  and  to 
the  previous  instructor,  to  put  the  pupil  in  the 
same  class  with  beginners.  Only  two  solutions 
are  possible:  one  is  to  give  in  the  university 
an  exact  equivalent  of  the  high  school  course, 
followed  by  a  supplementary  course  in  prepara- 
tion for  more  advanced  work.  The  other  is  to 
have  two  distinct  courses,  one  for  beginners 
and  the  other  open  to  those  who  have  studied 
the  science  for  a  year  in  the  high  school.  Both 
of  these  methods  are  in  successful  operation  in 
the  few  institutions  in  which  they  have  been 
tried. 

More  Advanced  Courses  in  Chemistry.  — 
The  subdivision  of  the  science  of  chemistry  for 
the  purpose  of  instruction  is  tolerably  uniform 
in  all  institutions.  Elementary  general  chemis- 
try is  followed  by  qualitative  and  then  by  quan- 
titative analysis.  As  taught  in  the  modern 
way,  these  courses  do  not  deal  simply  with 
routine  methods,  which  might  almost  as  suc- 
cessfully be  imparted  to  a  youth  without  pre- 
vious education.  They  aim  to  develop  the 
pupil's  knowledge  of  the  science  in  the  broader 
sense,  and  to  prepare  him,  not  for  the  routine 
work  of  the  analyst,  but  for  intelligent  work 
in  scientific  chemistry,  industrial  chemistry,  or 
chemical  engineering. 

The  compounds  of  carbon,  on  account  of 
their  number  and  rather  unusual  modes  of 
behavior,  are  generally  taught  in  a  separate 
course  known  as  organic  chemistry.  The 
special  physical  methocls  which  have  recently 
been  introduced  for  the  ascertainment  of  facts 
and  for  the  elucidation  of  chemical  i)lienomena 
are  practiced,  and  their  applications  are  de- 
scribed, in  special  courses  in  physical  chemistry. 
Finally,  in  certain  instances  an  attempt  has 
been  made  to  realize  in  the  laijoratory  to  some 
extent  the  conditions  of  manufacturing  clieniis- 


595 


CHEMISTRY 


CHESTERFIELD 


try.  In  such  a  course,  the  pupil  handles 
larger  masses  of  material,  considers  the  cost 
of  the  original  substances,  the  expense  of  each 
operation,  and  the  yield.  He  considers  also 
the  purposes  for  which  the  product  is  employed 
in  commerce,  and  tests  its  quality  by  ciuanti- 
tative  methods  in  order  to  learn  from  practical 
experience  what  kind  and  amount  of  impuri- 
ties are  permissible  in  each  instance.  A  course 
of  this  kind  is  not  in  any  sense  a  substitute 
for  practical  experience  in  a  chemical  industry, 
but  may  plausibly  be  supposed  to  diminish  the 
awkwardness  of  the  man  of  academic  training 
when  he  suddenly  assumes  the  position  of 
chemist  in  a  factory.  A.  S. 

References  :  — 

Academic  Status  of  Chemistry:  — 

Long,  John  H.  Early  History  and  Present  Conditions 
of  the  Tcaehing  of  Chemistrj'  in  the  Medical  Schools 
of  the  United  States.     Science.  N.S.,  Vol.  14.  p.  360. 

Perkin,  W.  H.  .Jr.  The  Modem  System  of  Teaching 
Practical  Inorganic  Chemistry  and  its  Development. 
British  Association  Report,  1900  :  Nature,  62,  p.  476. 

VON  Meyer,  Ernst.  History  of  Chemistry.  (London 
and  New  York,  1906.)  This  work  contains  refer- 
ences to  other  sources  of  information. 

Chemistry  in  the  Schools :  — 

CoMPAYRE,  Gabriel.     The  Reform  in  Secondary  Edu- 
cation in  France.  Educational  Review,  Vol.  25  (1903), 
,p.  130. 

Greard,  O.  Education  et  Instruction.  Enseignemenl 
Secondaire.     (Paris,  1889.) 

Lexis,  W.  Das  deutsche  U  nterrichtswesen.  Vol.  IL 
(Berlin,  1904.) 

Plan  d'Etudes  et  Programmes  de  V Enseignemenl  Secon- 
daire.    (Paris.) 

RnssELL,  J.  E.     German  Higher  Schools.     (New  York, 
1899.) 
See    also    Bibliography    on    Chemistry,    Methods   of 

Teaching. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Chemistry :  — 

Allen,  C.  R.  Report  of  Laboratory  Construction. 
School  Science.  1903,  p.  471. 

Armstrono,  Henry  E.  The  Teaching  of  Scientific 
Method  and  Other  Papers  on  Education.  (London 
and  New  York,  1903.) 

Baskerville,  Charles.  Some  Principles  in  Labora- 
tory Construction.  Science,  N.S.,  Vol.  28  (1908), 
p.  665. 

Dannemann,  Friedr.  Der  naturwissenschafUiche  Vn- 
terrichtauf  praktisch-heuristischer  Grundlage.  (Han- 
nover u.  Leipzig,  1907.) 

Directory,  with  Regulations  for  Science  and  Art  Classes. 
(London,  issued  annually  by  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion.) The  Syllabus  of  Chemistry  may  be  had 
separately. 

Gill,  A.  H.  Suggestions  for  the  Construction  of 
Chemical  Laboratories.  Scierux,  N.S.,  Vol.  30 
(1909),  p.  548. 

McN.uR,  D.  S.  An  Introduction  to  Chemistry.  (Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1902.) 

Perkin  and  Lean.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Chemistry.     (London  and  New  Y'ork.  1896.) 

Report  of  the  subcommittee  on  chemistry  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  College  Entrance  Requirements  of  the 
National  Educational  .Association.  Report  of  the 
N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  26  and  165. 

Rutherford,  Ernest  W.  Presidential  Address,  sec- 
tion of  Mathematics  and  Physics  of  the  British 
Association  (1909).  A^afurc,  Vol.  81.  p.  257.  Science. 
N.S.,  Vol.  30,  p.  289. 

Smith.  Alexander.  Comment  on  "  Another  Point  of 
View."  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  1907, 
June. 


Smith,   Alexander.     The   Articulation  of  School  and 

College  Work  in  the  Sciences.     The  School  Review, 

Vol.  7,  pp.  411,  453,  527. 
The      Experimental      View     Point     in     Chemistry. 

School  Science  and  Mathematics,   1908,  October. 
The   Point   of   View   in   Chemistry.      School  Science 

and  Mathematics,  1907,  February. 
The     Pupil    Before    and    After    Taking    Chemistry. 

School  Science,  1903.  October. 
The    Rehabilitation   of   the   American   College,   and 

the  Place  of  Chemistry   in   it.     Science,  N.S.,  Vol. 

30  (1909).  p.  457. 
and   Hall,   Edwin   H.      The   Teaching  of  Chemistry 

and  Physics.     (London  and  New  York,   1902.) 

CHESTERFIELD,  LORD.  —  Philip  Dormer 
Stanhope,  fourth  Karl  of  Chesterfield,  was  born 
in  London,  Sept.  22,  1694.     Neglected  by  his 
father,  the  third  Earl,  he  was  educated  under 
the  direction  of  his  maternal  grandmother,  the 
Marchioness    of    Halifax.     He    had    mastered 
French  at  18  with  the  aid  of  a  foreign  tutor, 
and  in  1714  he  left  Cambridge  after  a  year's 
stay,   convinced  that  "  the  classics  contained 
everji;hing  that  was  either  necessary,   useful, 
or   ornamental   to   men."     He   was   soon   dis- 
abused of  this  notion  by  a  tour  in  Flanders, 
where  he  was  introduced  to  the  best  society, 
and  learned  the  arts  of  the  polite  world.     Re- 
called to  England  at  the  death  of  Queen  Anne, 
he  was  appointed  in  1715  gentleman  of  the  bed- 
chamber to  the  Prince  of  Wales.     In  the  same 
year   he   made   his   first   speech  in  the  House 
of    Commons.     For    some   years   his  political 
activity  was  restricted  by  the  friction  between 
the  Prince  and  the  King.      He  employed  his 
leisure    pretty    gayly    in    company    with    the 
best  wits  of  the  day,  made  friends  of  Addison, 
Pope,  Arbuthnot,   and  Swift,   and  judiciously 
courted  the  Prince's  mi.stress.     On  his  father's 
death  in  1726  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  and  soon  after  the  accession  of  George 
II  he  was  appointed  ambassador  at  The  Hague. 
During  this  period  he  formed  a  gallant  alliance 
with  a   Mile,   du   Bouchet,   who  in   1732  pre- 
sented him  with  a  natural  son.     In   1733,  for 
the  sake  of  money  and  influence,  he  married 
Melusina  von  der  Schulenburg,  natural  daugh- 
ter of  George  I.     In  the  House  of  Lords  he 
distinguished  himself  by  a  brilliant  opposition 
to  the  government  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  and 
his  part  was  considerable  in  tlie  downfall  of 
that  minister  in  1742.     Aside  from  his  various 
important  diplomatic  missions,  his  most  con- 
spicuous political  services  were  performed  as 
Viceroy  in  Ireland  in   1745,   and  as    Secretary 
of  State  from   1746  to   1748.     He  resigned  in 
1748,  and  to   his   death  in    1773  remained  in 
practical   retirement   from   public   life.     Deaf- 
ness drove  him  more  and  more  upon  his  own 
resources.     He  spent  his  last  25  years  largely 
in  reading  and  writing  and  in  attending  to  the 
education  of  his  natural  son  and  his  godson, 
who  inherited  his  title. 

The  principal  materials  for  the  study  of  his 
ideas  on  education  are:  the  letters  to  his  son, 
first  published  in  1774  by  the  son's  widow; 
the  letters  to  his  godson,  of   which  the   first 


596 


CHESTERFIELD 


CHESTERFIELD 


complete  edition  appeared  in  1S90;  and  the 
letters  to  tlie  fatiier  of  his  godson,  A.  C.  Stan- 
hope, which  were  published  in  1817.  It  should 
be  constantly  borne  in  mind  that  none  of  these 
letters  were  intended  to  reach  the  [jublic. 

As  an  educator,  Chesterfield  is  not  a  ])ropliet, 
but  a  representative;  his  importance  consists 
in  the  fullness  and  precision  with  which  he 
expresses  the  Gallicized  classicism  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Lord,  linguist,  diplomat, 
man  of  letters,  man  of  fashion,  acquainted 
with  the  most  eminent  Englishmen  and  French- 
men of  three  generations,  he  was  perhaps 
as  adequately  qualified  to  formulate  the  edu- 
cational ideal  of  the  age  as  Reynolds  to  formu- 
late its  ideals  in  art,  Johnson  in  literature, 
or  Burke  in  politics.  Every  one  agrees  that 
he  embraced  some  of  the  vices  of  his  time; 
it  is  still  necessary  to  insist  that  he  also 
embraced  most  of  its  virtues.  The  popular 
conception  of  him  as  merely  the  master  of  an 
exigent  etiquette  and  a  licentious  heart  —  the 
morals  of  a  courtesan  and  the  manners  of  a 
dancing  master  —  ridiculously  distorts  the 
facts.  He  has  been  fiercely  attacked  for  his 
dissimulation;  he  has  suffered  chiefly  for  his 
candor.  Furthermore,  his  use  of  the  peda- 
gogical art  of  varied  repetition,  his  habit  of 
attending  to  but  one  thing  at  a  time,  and  his 
power  of  making  the  matter  in  hand  seem  for 
the  moment  paramount,  lay  him  open  to  the 
caricaturist.  He  advocates  the  cultivation  of 
the  graces  with  such  reiterated  empliasis  that 
one  temporarily  forgets  how  frequently  and 
emphatically  he  pleads  for  wisdom  and  virtue. 
When  he  urges  attention  to  the  classics,  he 
seems  to  be  all  for  the  ancients;  when  he  sets 
forth  the  claims  of  living  literature  and  lan- 
guages, he  seems  to  be  all  for  the  moderns. 
For  a  dozen  years  he  cries,  "  Approfondissez;  go 
to  the  bottom  of  things";  when  his  son  visits 
Paris,  he  declares  that  external  finish  is  every- 
thing. The  exaggeration  is  pedagogical,  timed 
to  the  boy's  development,  carefully  adjusted 
to  his  particular  needs,  and  confusing  or  in- 
consistent only  to  the  inattentive.  In  his 
minute  regard  for  detail,  Chesterfield  himself 
never  loses  sight  of  le  lout  ensemble.  One  may 
dip  into  the  letters  here  and  there,  and  conclude 
witli  Walpole  and  .Johnson  that  this  great  man 
was  but  a  maker  of  bans  mots,  a  profligate  lord- 
among  wits;  but  no  person  of  intelligence  can 
read  them  through  without  being  impressed 
by  the  compreiiensivencss,  the  passionate 
unity,  mass,  and  coherence  of  the  writer's 
thought.  He  has,  indeed,  as  he  often  declares, 
attempted  to  give  his  son  the  best  education 
of  any  man  in  England.  He  has  this  vast  su- 
periority over  many  subsequent  educators, 
that  he  knows  exactly  what  he  wants.  His  is 
not  the  role  of  a  Plato  or  a  Rousseau;  he  has 
no  germinating  or  visionary  ideas,  no  revolu- 
tionary dreams.  Like  the  majority  of  his 
great  English  contemporaries,  he  accepts  tlie 
universe  —  that  is  to  say,  polite  London  —  and 


makes  the  most  of  it.  His  educational  ideal  is 
not  an  experimental  theory;  it  is  entirely  wliat 
he  regards  as  the  best  practice  of  his  time 
reduced  to  principles  and  corrected  bj'  the  ex- 
perience of  a  master  of  the  arts  of  life. 

Chesterfield's  sj-stem,  as  distinguished  from 
that  of  Rou.sseau  and  his  followers,  rests  upon 
an  unshaken  belief  in  civilization  and  a  i)ro- 
fouud  distrust  of  undisciplined  human  nature. 
His  i)rimary  concern  is  the  tran.«lation  of  man 
to  gentleman.  From  La  Bruyerc,  Pascal,  and 
La  Rochefoucauld,  from  intercourse  with  so- 
ciety, from  looking  keenly  into  his  own  heart, 
he  has  come  to  believe  that  natural  man  is  a 
vain,  vicious,  and  self-interested  animal.  Hence, 
he  is  no  individualist.  Such  maxims  as  "  Be 
natural,"  "  Trust  thyself,"  "  To  thine  own  self 
be  true,"  epitomize  a  doctrine  anti]5odal  to  his. 
For  him  not  the  individual  man  but  the  most 
cultivated  society  is  the  measure  of  all  things. 
If  he  urges  conformity,  it  is  not  from  hypo- 
critical servility;  it  is  from  real  humility, 
genuine  faith  in  the  usages  established  b3'  the 
majority  of  the  well  bred.  Hence  the  first 
step  in  moral  education  is  the  repression  of 
egotism,  passion,  instinctive  impulses.  The 
burden  of  his  counsel  of  dissimulation  is  this: 
Never  talk  of  yourself;  do  not  give  way  to  fits 
of  temper;  suppress  feelings  of  boredom,  su- 
periority, and  personal  antipathy.  In  short, 
keep  within  door  those  vices  which  every  man 
ought,  so  far  as  is  possible,  to  extirpate.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  he  makes  little  direct 
attempt  to  cultivate  the  heart,  it  is  perhaps 
because  he  unconsciously  antici])atcs  the  motlern 
theory  of  the  emotions  —  make  the  right  mo- 
tions and  the  emotions  will  be  right,  or  will 
tend  to  be  right.  At  anj-  rate,  Chesterfield  is 
certain  that  the  external  l)ehavior  is  within 
the  control  of  the  reasonable  will;  it  is  no 
part  of  his  scheme  to  recommend  the  impossi- 
ble, and  he  maj'  devote  himself  to  behavior 
because  he  believes  with  Arnold  that  conduct 
is  the  controllable  three  fourths  of  life.  In- 
directly, he  does  provide  for  the  cultivation  of 
the  heart  through  imitation  of  models.  A\'ith 
indefatigable  pains  he  points  out  those  whom 
he  regards  as  the  masters  of  manners  and 
morals,  and  entreats  his  pupil  to  sit  at  their 
feet;  to  be  true  not  to  the  whim  of  tlic  mo- 
ment, but  to  the  experience  of  the  best  men 
of  his  own  and  ancient  times:  to  live  as  ever 
in  the  sight  of  Aristotle,  Cicero,  Horace. 
Moliere,  Racine,  Addison,  Swift,  and  Boling- 
broke.  So  far  as  he  understands  the  cla.^sical 
spirit,  he  aspires  to  be  classical.  The  entire 
tendency  of  his  mind  is  toward  a  rational  but 
almost  impassioned  conservation  of  tliosc 
things  which  mark  man's  i)rogrcss  from  rus- 
ticity, barbarism,  and  animalism  to  urbanity, 
civility,  and  the  life  of  reason. 

He  determines  the  content  of  education  with 
strict  regard  to  its  immediate  objects,  namely, 
to  prepare  a  man  to  move  with  ease  in  good 
society,    and    to    participate    with    success    in 


597 


CHESTERFIELD 


CHESTERFIELD 


public  life.  Hence  an  apparent  paradox:  its 
substance  is  that  of  a  very  liberal  culture, 
while  its  spirit  seems  intensely  utilitarian.  It 
aims  to  provide  for  the  whole  nature  of  man 
as  a  moral,  intellectual,  political,  and  social 
being;  but  it  subordinates  the  search  for  trutii 
to  the  pursuit  of  culture,  and  culture  in  turn 
to  success.  The  external  measures  of  success 
are:  the  power  to  please,  dependent  on  per- 
sonal charm;  the  power  to  exact  esteem,  de- 
pendent on  character;  the  power  to  excite 
admiration,  dependent  on  abilities.  Though 
friendly  to  pleasure,  Chesterfield  is  too 
thoroughly  ambitious  to  propose  pleasure  as 
the  ultimate  end.  But  though  femininely 
sensitive  to  opinion  and  greedy  for  applause, 
he,  at  least,  despises  the  world  too  much  to 
find  the  ultimate  sanction  of  effort  in  political 
or  social  power.  The  solution  of  the  paradox 
is  this:  his  internal  measure  of  succe.ss  is  full 
self-realization  under  the  laws  imposed  by 
reason,  and  the  consent  of  the  well  bred.  He 
approaches  the  notion  of  art  for  art's  sake;  it 
is  not  life  that  he  loves,  but  the  art  of  life,  the 
mastery  of  its  technique.  In  the  main  features, 
his  plan  was  molded  on  his  own  career,  though 
he  has  much  in  common  with  the  ideas  of 
Locke,  and,  indeed,  with  the  aristocratic  train- 
ing of  two  hundred  years. 

His  utterances  on  religion,  perhaps  more 
than  on  any  other  topic,  were  influenced 
by  the  Age  of  Reason.  To  his  godson  he 
avows  belief  in  conscience  and  in  God  as  the 
supreme  being;  he  significantly  cites  Voltaire 
in  support  of  the  mercy  and  justice  of  God; 
on  subsidiary  points  he  is  not  much  more  or 
less  explicit  than  Locke.  To  his  son  he  com- 
mends the  observance  of  religious  forms  as  due 
to  society,  and  a  tentative  faith  in  religion  as 
collateral  security.  He  is  doubtful  whether 
philosophers  should  permit  themselves  to  shake 
the  social  edifice  by  open  declaration  of  skep- 
ticism; and  he  expresses  unequivocal  detesta- 
tion for  professed  atheists.  His  son's  rehgious 
training,  however,  he  entrusts  to  a  clergyman, 
for  he  is  invincibly  opposed  to  givang  instruc- 
tion except  upon  positive  knowledge.  His 
deeper  conviction  on  this  matter  may  be  sug- 
gested by  the  following  sentence:  "  Seneca 
says,  very  prettily,  that  one  should  ask  noth- 
ing of  God,  but  what  one  should  be  willing 
that  men  should  know;  nor  of  men,  but  what 
one  should  be  willing  that  God  should  know; 
I  advise  you  to  say  or  do  nothing  at  Paris,  but 
what  you  would  be  willing  that  I  should 
know."  In  other  words,  Chesterfield  under- 
takes to  be  the  voice  of  good  society,  which 
for  him  is  the  supreme  authority,  if  not  the 
Vicar  of  God. 

On  moral  questions  he  speaks  forcibly,  ex- 
plicitly, and  for  the  most  part  —  contrary  to 
popular  opinion  —  soundly.  "  For  God's  sake," 
he  exclaims,  "  be  scrupulously  jealous  of  the 
purity  of  your  moral  character;  keep  it  im- 
maculate,   unblemished,    unsullied."     In    the 


society  which  he  represents,  the  cardinal  points 
of  moral  character  are  justice,  benevolence, 
trustworthiness,  veracity,  temperance,  and 
self-control;  on  these  points  he  is  inflexible. 
His  duly  execrated  attitude  toward  sexual 
morality  he  does  not  himself  attempt  wholly 
to  justify;  he  maintains  merely  that  decently 
conducted  liaisons  do  not  in  his  world  damage 
a  man's  reputation;  and  from  his  own  experi- 
ence he  believes  that  they  may  be  extremely 
useful.  In  this  opinion  it  needs  to  be  said 
that  he  is  not  an  innovator;  he  is  an  eight- 
eenth-century inheritor  of  an  ancient  aristo- 
cratic tradition  of  which  physical  chastity  was 
not  a  part.  The  licenses  of  the  aristocratic 
code  were  veiled  in  the  sixteenth  century  under 
the  name  of  chivalry,  and  in  the  seventeenth 
century  under  the  name  of  gallantry;  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  they  became  cynical  and, 
therefore,  shocking.  But  it  was  rather  the 
spirit  than  the  facts  that  had  changed.  Op- 
probrium attaches  to  Chesterfield's  code,  not 
so  much  because  it  permits  as  because  it  tries 
to  rationalize,  restrict,  and  utilize  vice;  so  far 
he  would  extend  the  sway  of  reason. 

In  planning  his  course  of  studies,  Chester- 
field contemplates  a  pupil  who  is  to  be  both  a 
scholar  and  a  gentleman.  Ancient  and  modern 
languages,  history  and  geography,  philosophy, 
logic,  and  rhetoric  he  considers  absolutely  funda- 
mental. Nor  is  he  content  with  a  smattering 
of  these  subjects.  Latin,  he  declares,  it  is 
only  a  shame  not  to  know  perfectly,  for  every 
one  knows  Latin.  But  for  his  son  he  also  in- 
sists upon  Greek  from  the  outset  to  the 
finishing  of  his  education  in  Paris,  "  for  to 
know  Greek  well  is  to  be  really  learned." 
Italian,  French,  and  German  —  then  little 
known  in  England  —  his  son  must  speak,  read, 
and  write  like  a  native.  Yet  he  cannot  ap- 
prove the  "  natural "  method  of  learning 
languages  without  grammar  advocated  by 
Locke;  and  in  general  he  is  more  austere  than 
Locke  in  insisting  upon  solid  acquisition  as 
well  as  discipline.  History  is  to  be  studied 
with  especial  diligence,  and  the  future  diplo- 
mat must  become  perfectly  familiar  'with  the 
constitution,  and  the  civil  and  military  state, 
of  every  country  in  Europe.  Command  of  a 
polished  English  style  both  in  writing  and  in 
speaking  must  be  acquired  at  all  costs;  the 
means  are  the  imitation  of  models,  translating 
classics,  and  conistant  practice.  I'pon  mathe- 
matics and  "  jimcrack  natural  history,"  Ches- 
terfield lays  light  stress;  yet  he  would  not 
have  a  gentleman  wholly  ignorant  of  any  pos- 
sible topic  of  conversation.  At  the  same  time, 
the  range  of  his  curriculum  precludes  eccen- 
tricity and  antiquarianism.  "  Let  blockheads 
read  what  blockheads  wrote  ";  "  Stick  to  the 
best  established  books  in  every  language." 
Even  in  travel  there  is  danger  of  becoming  a 
mere  frivolous  virtuoso;  to  travel  with  profit 
one  should  consider  a  country  "  classically  and 
politically."     Knowledge    of   the    world   is    of 


598 


CHESTERFIELD 


CHICAGO 


equal  importance  with  knowledge  of  books; 
tlie  educator's  task  is  not  ended  till  he  has 
shown  his  charge  the  value  of  going  much  into 
fashionable  society,  and  has  directed  his 
course  through  the  principal  courts  of  Europe. 
Not  for  the  fouiulation,  but  for  the  finishing 
touches,  Chesterfield  prescribes  courtship,  fenc- 
ing, and  the  dancing  master. 

It  is  in  every  one's  mouth  that  he  recom- 
mends sacrificing  to  the  graces;  the  subtlety 
of  his  intentions,  however,  exposes  him  to  mis- 
representation. The  grace  that  he  worships 
is  in  the  last  analysis  no  external  accompHsh- 
ment;  it  is  a  pervading  spirit  entering  into  and 
controlling  every  activity  of  mind  and  body. 
It  is  a  vital  sense  of  decorum  operating  not 
merely  in  manners,  but  also  in  morals,  in  re- 
ligion, in  studies,  in  the  whole  conduct  of  life. 
It  is  not  grace  in  the  abstract,  but  grace  in 
action  that  Chesterfield  adores  —  suaviter  in 
modo,  fortiter  in  re.  Seldom  has  attention 
been  called  to  his  unflagging  incitement  to 
strenuous  living;  though  rarer  than  either 
grace  or  energy  is  the  union  of  the  two.  Of 
noble  rank  —  he  refused  a  dukedom  —  and 
immensely  wealthy,  he  consistently  ignores 
every  honor  not  won  by  merit.  The  distinc- 
tive quality  of  his  educational  ideal  is  the  more 
than  traditional  ardor  with  which  it  fuses  solid 
classical  and  modern  learning  with  French  poli- 
tesse  —  the  purpose  which  underlay  the  found- 
ing of  the  French  Academy.  He  abhors  equally 
the  uncouth  pedant  and  the  empty  man  of 
fashion;  but  he  hopes  by  pouring  the  virtues 
of  both  into  one  mold  to  produce  I'hornme 
universel. 

Chesterfield's  Letters  to  his  Son  were  first 
published  in  two  volumes,  1774.  In  1800  the 
eleventh  English  edition  appeared  in  four 
volumes.  There  was  a  French  translation  in 
1775,  a  German  translation  in  1774-1776, 
and  an  American  edition  in  1779.  The  letters 
to  A.  C  Stanhope  were  pulilished  in  1817. 
The  Miscellaneous  Works  were  published  in 
1777.  two  volumes  with  an  important  memoir 
by  Maty;  in  1778  a  third  volume  of  tracts, 
letters,  and  poems  was  added;  in  1779  a  second 
edition  in  four  volumes  came  out  with  an  ap- 
pendix containing  six-teen  characters.  Innu- 
merable selections,  adaptations,  parodies,  and 
burlesques  have  appeared  in  many  languages. 
Most  of  the  popular  editions  on  the  market  are 
very  much  abridged.  Contemporary  comment 
on  Chesterfield  may  be  found  widely  scattered 
through  eighteenth-century  letters;  see  the 
memoirs  and  letters  of  Lord  Hervey  and  Horace 
Walpole,  Colley  Gibber's  Apology,  Boswell's 
Life  of  Johnson.  S.  P.  S. 

References  :  — 

Adams,  C.  F.  Xorth  Ameriean  R<Ti>tr.  Vol.  82.  p.  421. 
Br.\dsh.\w,   J.     Lcltrr.1  <)/  P.   D.   .Stanhope.     (London. 

1892.) 
Brocouam.  Lord.     Quarterly  Rrrirrr.  \'ol.  76.  p.  459. 
Carvarvox.  Lord.      Chetterficltl'a  Leiiers  to  his  Godson. 

(London.  ISUO.) 


Chanhtng,  E.  T.  Xorlh  American  Review,  Vol.  50.  p.  404. 
Collins,    Churton.     Essays    and    Studies.     (London, 

1895.) 
Duff,  M.  E.  G.     Fortnighily  Review,  Vol.  31,  p.  824. 
Er.vst.    \V.     Memoirs    of  the    Life    of  Philip    Dormer 

Stanhope.     (London,  1893.) 
Hatward.  a.     Edinburgh  Review,  Vol.  82,  p.  421. 
Hill.      Worldly    Wisdom    of    Lord    Chesterfield.     (New 

York,  1891.) 
JoH-vsoN-,    R.    B.     Eighteenth    Century  Letters,    Vol.    I. 

(New  York.   1898.) 
Lee,  Sidney.     Dictionary    of  National  Biography,  s.v. 

Stanhope,  Philip  Dormer. 
Mahon,   Lord.     Letters  of  P.  D.  Stanhope.     (London, 

1845-1853.) 
More,  P.  E.     Shelbvme  Essays.     Fifth  Series.     (New 

York.  1908.) 
S.un-te-Becve.     Letters  and  Maxims. 
Sayle.   C.     Selections  from  Lord  Chesterfield's  Letters. 

(London,  1889.) 

CHEVY  CHASE  COLLEGE  AND  SEMI 
NARY,  WASHINGTON,  DC.  —  A  proprie- 
tary resident  school  for  girls  and  young  ladies. 
Academic,  coUegiate,  fine  and  domestic  arts 
departments  are  maintained.  Admission  re- 
quirements are  not  definite.  There  is  a  faculty 
of  18  instructors. 

CHICAGO,  CITY  OF.  —  The  largest  city  in 
the  state  of  Illinois,  the  second  largest  in  the 
L'nited  States,  and  the  chief  commercial  city 
in  the  North  Central  states.  Organized  as  a 
town  in  1833,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1837,  the  city  has  had  a  wonderful  growth.  In 
1900  its  total  population  was  1,698,  575.  and  its 
estimated  population  in  1909  was  2,224,491. 
Its  school  census,  6-21  years  of  age,  was 
517,224  in  1909,  and  its  total  school  enrollment 
was  296,427  in  day  schools  and  24.520  in  night 
schools.  The  enrollment  in  private  and  paro- 
chial schools  was  100,862  additional.  Of  the 
total  population  of  1900,  35  per  cent  were  foreign 
born,  and  2  per  cent  were  of  the  colored  race. 
Among  the  foreign  born  every  race  is  repre- 
sented, the  largest  percentages  of  the  total 
foreign  born  of  1900,  being  31  per  cent  Ger- 
mans, 13  per  cent  Irish,  12  per  cent  Scandina- 
vian, 10  per  cent  Poles,  10  per  cent  English 
and  English  Canadians,  6  per  cent  Bohemians, 
4  per  cent  Russians,  and  3  per  cent  Dutch. 

History.  —  An  agent  of  the  fur  company 
opened  the  first  school  at  Ft.  Dearborn  for  the 
seven  or  eight  children  there  in  1816.  Records 
show  that  private  schools  were  in  existence  there 
in  1820  and  in  1829.  In  1830  the  first  school, 
not  originating  with  the  parents  of  the  children, 
was  opened.  In  1831  Cook  County  was  or- 
ganized and  a  commissioner  of  school  lands  was 
appointed,  and  in  1832  he  employed  a  teacher 
for  a  school  on  the  north  side  of  the  river.  A 
number  of  private  schools,  one  of  which  was  for 
girls,  were  opened  in  this  year.  In  1833,  on 
the  incorporation  of  the  town,  the  less  than  100 
voters  petitioned  for  the  sale  of  the  school  lands, 
and,  with  the  income  from  the  money  derived 
from  the  sale  of  all  but  four  blocks  of  the  school 
section  (.?36,619.47),  grants  were  made  to  pri- 
vate teachers,  who  in  turn  certified  attendance 


599 


CHICAGO 


CHICAGO 


in  the  proper  manner.  This  form  of  subsidized 
private  schools  continued  until  1844. 

In  1835  the  legislature  passed  a  special  law 
for  Chicago,  which  established  what  was  in 
effect  a  modified  form  of  the  New  England 
district  system.  The  voters  were  to  elect  5 
or  7  inspectors,  who  were  to  examine  teach- 
ers, select  textbooks,  and  visit  schools.  Each 
city  district  was  also  to  elect  annually  a  dis- 
trict board  of  3  trustees,  who  employed  the 
teachers  for  the  district,  saw  that  a  sufficient 
numberof  free  schools  was  maintained,  and  levied 
district  taxes  for  all  expenses  except  teachers' 
salaries.  The  voters  were  to  fix  the  salaries  of 
the  teachers,  and  vote  taxes  to  pay  the  same. 
Two  years  later,  on  the  incorporation  of  the  city, 
the  control  of  the  schools  was  given  to  the  City 
Council,  and  the  immediate  management  was 
vested  in  inspectors,  appointed  by  the  Council, 
and  having  the  same  powers  as  under  the  1835 
law.  Each  district  still  elected  district  trustees 
to  employ  teachers,  levy  taxes,  and  provide 
buildings.  There  were  now  5  school  districts 
and  828  census  children.  Taxes  were  not  pop- 
ular, and  the  income  from  the  school  fund 
formed  the  chief  support  of  the  schools. 
The  first  city  schoolhouse  was  not  built  until 
1845. 

By  the  close  of  1853  the  school  enrollment  had 
increased  to  3086,  with  34  teachers  employed  in 
7  schools.  The  schools  were  ungraded  and 
practically  independent  in  methods,  textbooks, 
and  plan.  Though  the  inspectors  had  adopted 
five  textbooks  for  use  in  the  schools  in  1840, 
the  report  of  1854  would  indicate  that  no  uni- 
form usage  existed  even  at  that  time.  The 
schools  were  insufficient  in  numbers,  as  schools 
were  only  opened  when  the  demand  was  strong 
enough  to  ensure  taxes  being  voted,  and  the 
district  system  stood  in  the  way  of  progress. 
In  1853  the  schools  were  so  crowded  that  a 
thousand  children  had  to  be  turned  away  be- 
cause of  lack  of  seats,  and  the  continued  rapid 
growth  of  the  city  has  kept  the  schools  in  this 
condition  almost  continually  ever  since.  To 
secure  some  relief  a  coeducational  high  school 
was  organized  in  1856-1857,  and  in  1858  the 
minimum  age  for  admission  to  the  schools 
was  raised  to  6  years.  By  1870,  557  teachers 
were  employed,  as  against  123  in  1860,  21  in 
1850,  and  9  in  1845.  The  great  fire  of  1871 
destroyed  15  school  buildings,  threw  135 
teachers  out  of  work,  and  seriously  crippled  the 
work  of  the  schools  through  the  inability  of  the 
city  to  collect  taxes.  In  1875  there  were  10,000 
children  on  half  time,  and  many  buildings  wholly 
unfit  for  school  use  were  rented  in  an  effort  to 
p^o^^de  school  accommodations  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  rapidly  growing  city.  By  1885, 
1296  teachers  were  employed,  as  against  557 
in  1870.  Outlying  territory  was  annexed  dur- 
ing the  late  eighties,  and  in  1S90  the  number 
of  teachers  had  risen  to  3001,  and  still  15,773 
children  were  in  half-time  schools  because  of  the 


lack  of  school  facilities.  In  1900,  5806  teach- 
ers were  employed,  363  rented  schoolrooms  were 
in  use,  and  16,092  children  were  in  half-time 
schools.  In  1905  the  conditions  were  but 
slightly  improved.  Though  the  school  de- 
partment has  erected  many  excellent  modern 
buildings  every  year,  it  has  been  unable  to  pro- 
vide buildings  fast  enough  to  keep  up  with  the 
growth  of  the  city.  All  buildings  built  within 
the  past  twenty  years  have  been  the  best  of 
their  class,  most  of  them  being  provided  with 
assembly  rooms,  baths,  gymnasiums,  and  man- 
ual training  and  cooking  rooms. 

In  1851  the  Council  appointed  an  agent  to 
look  after  the  school  lands  remaining,  and  took 
a  step  in  the  direction  of  centralization  by  de- 
priving the  district  trustees  of  the  right  to  hire 
teachers,  transferring  this  function  to  the  cen- 
tral Board  of  Inspectors.  In  1853  a  still  more 
important  step  was  taken  by  the  creation  of  the 
office  of  City  Superintendent  of  Schools,  and  one 
of  the  duties  given  to  this  new  official  was  that 
of  introducing  order  and  unity  into  the  work  of 
the  schools.  The  new  Superintendent  at  once 
graded  the  schools  and  established  uniform 
records,  and  in  1856  he  established  public  oral 
examinations  for  candidates  for  admission  to 
the  high  schools.  These  awakened  great  in- 
terest in  the  work  of  the  schools.  In  1861  a 
graded  course  of  study  —  the  first  in  Illinois  — 
was  introduced,  the  work  of  both  grammar  and 
primary  schools  being  divided  into  5  grades. 
Evening  high  school  classes  were  formed  in  1868. 
In  1871  an  independent  normal  school  was 
created.  In  1875  the  Board  took  over  a  pri- 
vate school  for  the  deaf,  opened  in  1870,  and 
made  it  a  part  of  the  city  system. 

In  1857  the  legislature  granted  Chicago  a 
new  charter,  which  did  away  with  the  district 
organization  and  district  boards,  retained  the 
inspectors,  increased  their  number  to  15, 
changed  them  into  a  centralized  Board  of 
Education,  and  gave  them  full  control  of  the 
schools.  The  Council  still  elected  the  Board 
members  and  controlled  the  school  property. 
The  revised  charter  of  1863  contained  still  more 
detailed  provisions  for  the  management  of  the 
schools  of  the  city,  with  much  emphasis  on  the 
financial  side  of  the  administration  of  the  schools. 
In  1872,  following  a  new  state  constitution,  a 
new  legislative  act  proAaded  that  in  cities  of 
100,000  or  over  the  School  Board  should  consist 
of  15  members,  one  third  going  out  of  office 
each  year;  that  they  should  be  appointed  by 
the  Mayor  with  the  approval  of  the  Council;  def- 
initely transferred  all  school  property  from  the 
control  of  the  Council  to  that  of  the  School 
Board;  and  gave  the  Board  power  to  buy  sites, 
build,  and  secure  loans  with  the  approval  of  the 
Council.  In  1S79  a  city  school  tax  of  5  per 
cent,  three  fifths  for  buildings  and  sites,  was 
authorized  by  the  legislature. 

In  1874  the  first  laboratory  for  the  study  of 
science  was  pro\-ided  at  the  high  school,  and  in 


600 


CHICAGO 


CHICAGO 


1S90  laboratories  were  provided  for  all  of  the 
liigli  schools.  In  1S75  the  schools  were  re- 
graded  and  organized  into  S  grades  instead 
of  10;  schools  for  the  deaf  were  established; 
and  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  which  had 
been  practiced  since  1841,  was  proliibited. 
Woodworking  was  introduced  into  the  North 
Division  High  School  in  1SS6;  in  1890  the 
English  and  Manual  Training  High  School  was 
organized;  antl  in  1891  manual  training  was 
introduced  into  the  grammar  schools.  In 
1S92  the  Board  adopted  a  number  of  private 
kindergartens,  and  made  them  a  part  of  the 
public  school  s.y.stcm,  and  since  then  kinder- 
gartens have  been  established  in  all  parts  of 
the  city.  In  1899  the  first  truant  officers 
wore  appointed.  The  Board  also  established 
the  Waifs'  Mission  School  in  189 1,  and  the 
Bridewell  School  in  1894.  In  1893  the  city 
normal  school,  which  had  practically  cea.sed  to 
exist  in  1877,  was  revived,  and  in  1895-1896 
the  Cook  County  Normal  School  was  taken 
over  by  the  city,  made  a  part  of  the  city  school 
system,  and  substituted  for  the  city  normal 
school.  In  1892  teachers  were  elected  on  in- 
definite tenure  for  the  first  time.  A  city  teach- 
ers' pension  fund  was  authorized  in  1895.  In 
1895  a  school  for  crippled  children  was  estab- 
lished, medical  inspection  was  begun,  and  a 
department  of  child  study  organized.  In  1900 
the  legislature  ordered  Chicago  to  establish  a 
parental  school,  and  established  juvenile  courts. 
In  1903  the  first  aid  was  extended  to  the  vaca- 
tion schools,  which  had  been  maintained  by 
private  means  for  a  number  of  years.  In  1905 
promotional  examinations  for  teachers  were  es- 
tablished. 

The  history  of  the  development  of  the 
Chicago  schools  up  to  about  1900  dearly  indi- 
cates an  impersonal  development.  Circum- 
stances, rather  than  careful  planning,  have 
determined  what  has  been  done.  Unbusiness- 
like methods  have  characterized  the  work  of 
both  the  Council  and  the  Board  of  Education. 
In  1900  the  president  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion devoted  a  good  portion  of  his  annual  report 
to  an  arraignment  of  the  unbusinesslike  meth- 
ods of  the  school  sy.stem.  An  absence  of  any 
far-reaching  policy  is  evident.  Only  since 
about  1900  has  order,  system,  and  policy  begun 
to  direct  affairs.  An  effort  was  made,  in  1898, 
to  provide  Ciiicago  with  a  thorouglily  modern 
business  organization  through  the  work  of  the 
Chicago  Edvicational  Commission  {(/.v.),  but  the 
movement  failed.  With  the  election  of  Mr. 
Cooley  as  .Superintendent  of  Schools  in  1900  in- 
creased power  was  given  to  the  superintendent 
in  handling  the  educational  department,  and 
many  important  changes  and  reforms  were  in- 
troduced, though  against  serious  opposition. 
Business  reforms  were  also  introduced,  and  the 
management  of  the  school  system  was  placed 
on  a  much  better  business  basis  than  had  been 
the  case  before. 

Present  System.  —  The  schools  of  the  city 


are  governed  under  the  general  laws  of  the  state 
of  lUinois,  as  special  legislation  is  forbidden. 
The  general  state  school  law  and  the  law  apph- 
cable  to  all  cities  of  over  100,000  inhabitants 
(Chicago  is  the  only  city  in  the  state  of  this  size) 
form  the  governing  law  for  the  city,  except  such 
additional  provisions  as  are  contained  in  the  city 
charter  with  reference  to  the  size  of  the  Board 
of  Education,  manner  of  appointment,  etc.  The 
Board  of  Education  consi.sts  of  21  memljcrs, 
appointed  by  the  Mayor,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Council,  from  the  city  at  large.  The  term  of 
office  is  3  j'cars,  one  third  going  out  of  office 
each  year.  This  body  has  control  of  the  schools 
of  the  cit}',  except  that  the  concurrence  of  the 
City  Council  is  necessary  if  the  Board  desires 
to  erect  or  purchase  buildings;  sell,  buy,  or  lease 
school  sites;  issue  bonds  for  buildings  or  sites; 
or  borrow  money  for  school  purposes.  The 
Council  also  levies  the  annual  tax  for  schools, 
but  the  amount  is  fixed  by  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, and  is  not  subject  to  reduction  by  the 
council,  if  within  the  legal  limit  of  5  mills. 

The  Board  of  Education  elects  all  of  its  exec- 
utive officers.  On  the  business  side  there  is  a 
Secretary,  who  attends  to  all  of  the  clerical 
business  of  the  Board;  a  Business  Manager, 
who  looks  after  all  contracts,  leases,  and  col- 
lections, and  has  charge  of  the  financial  side  of 
the  work;  a  Superintendent  of  Supplies,  who 
has  charge  of  the  purchase  and  distribution  of 
school  supplies  of  all  kinds;  an  Autlitor,  who 
audits  all  bills,  and  prepares  a  statement  of  ac- 
counts; a  School  Architect,  who  prepares  all 
plans  for  new  buildings  and  additions,  and  who 
supervises  all  construction  and  repair  work; 
and  a  Chief  Engineer,  who  has  charge  of  the  in- 
stallation and  upkeep  of  all  heating  and  venti- 
lating apparatus,  and  who  acts  as  a  super- 
visor of  engineers  and  janitors. 

On  the  educational  side  the  Board  elects  a 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  for  one-year  terms, 
who  has  charge  of  the  educational  department, 
and  who  is  given  the  initiative  in  the  appoint- 
ment, promotion,  and  transfer  of  teachers.  The 
Superintendent  is  assi-sted  by  2  Assistant 
Superintendents  and  6  District  Superintend- 
ents; a  Superintendent  of  Compulsory  Educa- 
tion; a  Superintendent  of  the  Parental  School; 
a  Director  of  Scientific  Pedagogy  and  Child 
Study;  and  sjjecial  supervisors  of  physical 
culture,  manual  training,  and  household  arts, 
and  schools  for  the  blind. 

The  school  system  consisted,  in  1908-1909, 
of  1  normal  school,  organized  as  a  Teachers' 
College  for  the  city;  19  high  schools,  with  a 
large  commercial  high  school  under  way;  and 
244  elementary  schools.  Included  in  the  above 
were  a  large  and  well-equipped  parental  school; 
a  house  of  correction;  a  school  for  crippled 
children,  11  schools  for  the  deaf,  3  schools  for 
the  blind:  Gl  cooking  centers;  147  manual 
training  centers;  and  a  large  number  of  kinder- 
gartens, 2G2  kindergarten  teachers  having  been 
employed.     A  total  of  281  supervisory  officers 


601 


CHICAGO  COLLEGE 


CHICAGO  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY 


and  6015  regular  teachers  were  employed  in  day 
schools,  and  732  additional  teachers  in  evening 
schools  during  1908-1909.  The  total  current 
expense  for  maintenance  only  was  88,517,239 
in  the  same  year.  Of  this  amount,  $339,144 
came  from  state  sources;  .§581,466  from  the 
income  from  permanent  funds,  the  principal  of 
which  amounted  to  §1,263,190,  in  June,  1908; 
and  the  remainder  was  raised  by  local  taxa- 
tion. E.  P.  C. 

References  :  — 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Board  0/   Education,   1854-1908. 
Clark,  H.  B.     The  Public  Schools  0/  Chicago.     (Univ. 

Chic.  Pubs.,  1U07.) 
De  Weese,  T.  a.     Two  Years'  Progress  in  the  Chicago 

Schools  ;  Educ.  Rev..  Vol.  24,  pp.  325-337.     (Nov. 

1902.) 
Report  of  the  Chicago  Educational  Commission.    (Chicaeo 

1899.) 

CHICAGO  COLLEGE  OF  DENTAL  SUR- 
GERY,   CHICAGO,    ILL.  —  See    \  alpak.\iso 

U.NIVERSITY. 

CHICAGO  EDUCATIONAL  COMMIS- 
SION. —  This  was  a  special  commission,  author- 
ized by  the  City  Council  of  Chicago  in  De- 
cember, 1897,  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
Mayor;  appointed  by  the  Mayor  and  confirmed 
by  Council  in  January,  1898;  and  approved  by 
the  Board  of  Education  of  Chicago  in  May, 
1898.  The  Chairman  was  AVilliam  Rainey 
Harper,  the  President  of  the  University  of 
Chicago.  Professor  George  F.  James,  now 
Professor  of  Education  in  the  University  of 
Minnesota,  was  elected  Secretary  and  compiled 
the  report.  The  Committee  consisted  of  eleven 
members,  three  of  whom  were  members  of  the 
Council;  two  were  members  of  the  Board  of 
Education;  and  two  had  formerly  been  members 
of  that  body.  The  opinions  of  all  interested 
bodies  and  persons  were  sought,  both  in  ancl 
outside  of  Chicago.  After  five  months  of 
work,  with  weekly  meetings,  the  Committee 
met  continuously  for  a  week,  and  then  drew  up, 
and  had  printed,  a  preliminary  report.  This 
was  circulated  within  and  without  the  city 
and  criticism  was  sought.  Continuous  ses- 
sions were  held  for  a  time  again  in  November 
and  in  December,  and  finally  a  detailed  printed 
report  was  made  to  the  Mayor  and  Council  in 
December.  1899.  This  report  was  widely  cir- 
culated, and  was  welcomed  generally  through- 
out the  United  States  as  the  most  complete 
and  able  exposition  of  proper  school  manage- 
ment for  a  large  city  that  had  appeared  in 
print  up  to  that  time.  The  Committee  also 
submitted,  with  the  report,  a  draft  of  a  proposed 
law  to  carry  the  recommendations  into  effect. 
The  report  awakened  much  discussion,  both 
favorable  and  unfavorable,  in  the  city  of 
Chicago,  but  the  recommendations  of  the  Com- 
mittee were  never  carried  into  effect. 

The  report  was  afterwards  reprinted  by  the 
University  of  Chicago  Press,  and  has  been  ex- 
tensively used  as  a  text  in  college  classes  in 

60; 


City  School  Administration.  It  is  a  Report  of 
248  -I-  xvi  large  8vo  pages.  The  nature  of 
the  report  may  be  seen  from  the  Table  of  Con- 
tents, wliich  is  as  follows:  — 

L  The  Organization  of  the  Board  of  Education. 
II.  The   Business   Management   of   the   Board   of 
Education. 

III.  The  System  of  School  Supervision. 

IV.  The  E.xumination,   the  Appointment,   and  the 

Promotion  of  Teachers. 
V.   The  Elementary  Schools. 
VI.   The  High  Schools. 
VII.   The  Normal  School. 
VIII.  Special  Studies. 
IX.   Resident  Commissioners, 
X.   Text  Books.  , 

XI.   The  Evening  Schools  and  a  Free  Lecture  Sys- 
tem. 
XII.   Vacation  Schools  and  School  Playgrounds. 

XIII.  Ungraded  Rooms  and  Schools. 

XIV.  The  Compulsory  Attendance  Law  and  a  Pa- 

rental School. 

XV.  Teachers'  Institutes  and  a  Teachers'  Library. 

XVI.  School  Faculties  and  Councils. 

XVII.  The  School  Census. 

XVIII.  School  Accommodations. 

XIX.  Training  for  Citizenship. 

XX.  School  Buildings  and  Architecture. 

The  above  constitutes  three  fourths  of  the  re- 
port, and  the  remaining  one  fourth  consists  of 
12  Appendices  containing  documents  and  infor- 
mation supplementary  to  the  above  chapters. 

E.  P.  C. 
Reference  :  — 

Report   of  the  Educational  Commission    of  the   City   of 
Chicago.     (Chicago,  1899.) 

CHICAGO-KENT  COLLEGE  OF  LAW, 
CHICAGO,  ILL.  —  An  amalgamation  of  the 
Chicago  and  Kent  colleges  of  law,  made  in 
1900.  Courses  are  offered  in  the  evenings,  and 
extend  over  thi'ee  years.  Candidates  for  a  de- 
gree must  furnish  evidence  of  a  high  school 
education  or  its  equivalent  for  admission;  other 
candidates  are  admitted,  provided  they  have 
sufficient  education  to  follow  the  courses.  The 
undergraduate  course  leads  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Laws.  A  four  years'  graduate 
course  is  also  maintained.  There  is  a  faculty 
of  16  professors  and  15  lecturers. 

CHICAGO  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY, 
CHICAGO,  ILL. —  A  theological  college  or- 
ganized in  1854  and  offering  a  three  years' 
course  to  students  of  all  denominations  who 
have  had  a  collegiate  or  ecjuivalent  education. 
In  addition  to  the  purely  professional  work, 
courses  are  offered  in  principles  and  methods 
of  religious  instruction.  Sunday  school  work, 
and  social  economics.  The  Chicago  Commons, 
an  important  social  settlement,  affords  a  field 
for  sociological  investigations  and  practical 
work  by  the  students  of  the  seminary.  A 
school  of  church  music  is  also  maintained  in 
connection  with  the  seminary  to  afford  a 
musical  preparation  for  musical  directors, 
organists,  church  singers,  pastors'  musical  as- 
sistants, and  theological  students.  Ozora  Stearns 
Davis,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  is  the  president. 


CHICAGO   UNIVERSITY 


CHICAGO   UNIVERSITY 


CHICAGO,  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —His- 
torical Outline.  —  An  iii-stitutioii  known  as 
Chicago  University,  founded  under  Baptist 
auspices  in  1857,  surrendered  its  charter  in 
1SS6.  Within  two  years  a  grouj)  of  men  began 
to  plan  for  a  new  college.  The  American  Bap- 
tist Education  Society  interested  Mr.  John  D. 
Rockefeller,  wlio  in  1SS9  offered  .§600,000  on 
condition  that  .S400,000  be  raised  by  June  1, 
1890,  —  a  requirement  which  was  promptly 
met.  In  phuiiiing  for  the  new  institution  Mr. 
Rockefeller  and  tiic  officers  of  the  Baptist  Edu- 
cation Society  consulted  Dr.  William  Rainey 
Harper,  Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  at  Yale 
University.  It  was  due  chiefly  to  Dr.  Harper 
that  the  original  plans  for  a  college  were 
widened  to  include  the  founding  of  a  genuine 
university.  On  Sept.  10,  1890,  the  univer- 
sity was  incorporated  with  a  Board  of  Trustees 
which  included  a  number  of  Chicago's  most 
prominent  citizens.  The  charter  provides  that 
the  Presitlent  and  two  thirds  of  the  trustees 
must  be  members  of  Baptist  churches,  but  it 
also  explicitly  declares  that  no  theological  test 
of  any  kind  shall  be  applied  either  to  members  of 
the  teaching  staff  or  to  persons  who  seek  admis- 
sion as  students.  It  also  asserts  that  women  shall 
be  admitted  to  all  departments  on  eciual  terms 
with  men.  William  Rainey  Harper  was  elected 
the  first  President  of  the  University  of  Chicago 
and  entered  on  his  duties  July  1,  1891.  Further 
gifts  from  Mr.  Rockefeller  followed  at  frequent 
intervals.  At  the  .same  time  citizens  of  Chicago 
began  to  give  gencrou.sly  for  land,  buildings, 
and  equipment.  In  1892  the  Baptist  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  which  held  property 
in  the  suburb  of  Morgan  Park,  was  moved  to 
the  university  grounds  and  became  the  Divin- 
ity School  of  the  university.  In  1898  Univer- 
sity College  was  established,  and  for  6  years 
was  largely  supported  by  the  gifts  of  Mrs. 
Emmons  Blaine.  It  was  planned  primarily  to 
benefit  the  teachers  of  Chicago  by  providing 
courses  of  instruction  in  the  center  of  the  city. 
In  1901  the  Chicago  Institute,  founded  by  Mrs. 
Blaine  and  presided  over  by  (^olonel  Francis  W. 
Parker  {q.v.),  was  combined  with  the  University 
Laboratory  School,  established  i)y  Professor 
John  Dewey, the  South  Side  Academy,  and  the 
Chicago  Manual  Training  School  into  a  Scliool 
of  Education  with  a  practice  school  system 
which  included  kindergarten,  elementary,  and 
secondary  grades.  In  the  same  year,  by  arrange- 
ment with  the  Rush  Medical  College,  the  first 
two  years  of  medical  work  were  transferred  to 
the  university;  the  clinical  work  of  the  second 
two  years  remained  in  charge  of  the  Rush  Medi- 
cal faculty  on  the  West  Siclc  of  the  city.  Early 
in  191)2  a  law  school  was  created  and  law  instruc- 
tion was  offered  for  the  first  time  in  tiie  autumn 
of  that  year.  On  Jan.  10, 190(),  President  llar|)er 
died.  Professor  Harry  Pratt  Judson,  who  had 
served  as  Dean  of  the  faculties,  was  at  once 
appointed  Acting  President,  and  in  February, 
1907,  was  made  President  of  the  university. 


Organization.  —  The  university  is  organ- 
ized into  five  divisions:  (a)  The  schools  and 
colleges,  including  the  (Graduate  School  of  Arts 
and  Literature,  the  Ogden  Graduate  School  of 
Science,  the  Divinity  School,  the  School  of 
Education,  the  Law  School,  medical  courses 
which  in  combination  with  Rush  College  courses 
form  a  School  of  Medicine,  the  Colleges  of  Arts, 
Literature,  Philosophy,  and  Science,  the  College 
of  Commerce  and  Administration,  and  the  Uni- 
versity College.  Each  of  these  colleges,  which 
comprise  the  four-year  untlergraduatc  course,  is 
subdivided  into  Junior  (freshmen  and  sopho- 
mores) and  Senior  (juniors  and  seniors).  (6) 
The  University  Extension  division,  which  in- 
cludes lecture-study  courses  and  correspond- 
ence instruction.  (c)  University  Libraries, 
Laboratories,  and  Museums,  which  includes  the 
general  and  departmental  libraries  and  all  the 
museum  and  laboratory  resources  of  the  uni- 
versity. ((/)  The  University  Press,  which  in- 
cludes the  manufacture  and  puljlication  of  books 
and  periodicals,  the  retail  book  department, 
mailing  and  shipping  department,  and  a  depart- 
ment for  the  purchase  and  distribution  of 
laboratory  supplies,  (e)  University  Relations,  a 
division  which  sujjervises  secondary  schools 
and  colleges  with  which  the  university  sustains 
relations  of  affiliation  or  cooperation. 

Government.  —  The  Board  of  Trustees  repre- 
sent the  final  authority  in  the  affairs  of  the  in- 
stitution. All  appointments  to  the  staff,  all 
promotions  from  one  academic  grade  to  another, 
all  appropriations  for  salaries  and  other  pur- 
poses, are  made  by  the  trustees  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  President  of  the  university  or 
committees  of  the  board.  Responsibility  for  ed- 
ucational policies  and  ailministration  rests  with 
the  faculties,  organized  ujion  the  following  prin- 
ciples: (a)  The  autonomy  of  each  faculty  in 
deciding  its  own  problems,  subject  to  (b)  the 
control  of  a  central  body,  tli(>  Senate,  charged 
with  considering  and  furthering  the  interests  of 
the  uni\crsity  as  a  whole,  and  (c)  the  definite 
responsibility  of  each  administrative  board  to 
some  one  faculty  or  to  the  Senate.  The  Senate 
includes  all  professors  of  full  rank  in  all  divisions 
of  the  university.  In  case  the  enactments  or 
policies  of  two  faculties  are  inconsistent  or  in 
actual  conflict,  the  Senate  may  by  a  two  thirds 
vote  veto  the  action  which  has  proiluced  the 
difficulty.  In  a  .sense,  therefore,  the  Senate 
s(Tves  as  a  judicial  body.  It  may  also  initiate 
legislation  subject  to  acceptance  by  the  various 
faculties  in  so  far  as  their  prerogatives  may  be 
involved.  Executive  resiionsibility  is  intrusted 
to  a  series  of  boards  which  are  either  under  the 
different  faculties  or,  in  the  case  of  university 
boards,  subject  to  a  general  administrative 
boaril  made  up  of  the  deans  and  directors  of  the 
different  divisions  of  the  university.  This  gen- 
eral ailministrative  board  is  responsible  to  the 
Senate,  and  is  charged  with  coordinating  the 
administration  of  the  university  as  a  whole. 

The  Faculties.  —  In  organizing  the  teaching 


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CHICAGO  UNIVERSITY 


CHICAGO  UNIVERSITY 


staff  of  the  university  in  1891-1892,  President 
Harper  sought  as  heads  of  the  various  depart- 
ments men  of  academic  distinction.  In  order 
to  offer  necessary  inducements  the  ranl-c  of  Head 
Professor  was  created,  and  the  sahiry  was  fixed 
at  S7000.  The  original  head  professors  of  tlie 
university  were  Professor  Herman  E.  von 
Hoist  of  Freiburg,  Professor  John  Dewey  of  the 
University  of  Michigan,  Professor  J.  Laurence 
Laughlin  of  Cornell  University,  Professor  Harry 
Pratt  Judson  of  the  University  of  JNIinnesota, 
Professor  Albion  W.  Small  of  Colby  College, 
Professor  William  (larihier  Hale  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, Professor  William  I.  Knapp  of  Yale 
University,  Professor  A.  A.  Michelson  of  Clark 
University,  Professor  T.  C.  Chambcrlin  of 
the  University  of  Wisconsin,  Professor  Charles 
O.  Whitman  of  Clark  University,  Professors 
Galusha  Anderson  and  G.  W.  Northrup  of  the 
Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  Professor  Ernest 
D.  Burton  of  Xcwton  Theological  SeminarJ^ 
The  staff  was  rapidly  recruited  from  the  leading 
universities  and  colleges  of  the  country.  With 
the  growth  of  the  institution  and  the  passing  of 
pioneer  conditions  the  head  professor  system 
became  a  source  of  embarrassment.  The  ex- 
istence of  a  special  rank  of  this  kind  made  it 
difficult  to  secure  additional  professors  for  de- 
partments which  needed  more  than  one  man 
of  eminence.  At  the  request  of  the  head  pro- 
fessors themselves  the  rank  was  abolished  by 
the  trustees,  and  the  title  "  Professor  and  Head 
of  Department"  was  substituted.  A  movement 
looking  to  the  organization  of  departments  on 
a  still  more  democratic  basis  has  recently  re- 
ceived the  a])proval  of  the  university  Senate, 
and  will  doubtless  be  introduced  in  the  early 
future.  A  chairmanship  plan  which  may  dis- 
sociate distinction  in  scholarship  and  adminis- 
trative ability  seems  likely  to  meet  \\-ith 
favor.  The  faculties  of  the  university  in 
1909  numbered  330.  This  number  does 
not  include  18  assistants,  and  of  course  leaves 
out  of  account  all  teachers  in  the  practice 
grades  and  high  school.  A  large  number 
of  men  give  themselves  wholly  to  research 
work  and  to  the  direction  of  graduate  study. 
Still  others  devote  themselves  almost  entirely 
to  undergraduate  teaching,  while  a  third  group 
give  both  undergraduate  and  graduate  courses. 
From  the  outset  stress  has  been  laid  upon  re- 
search and  upon  scholarly  productivity  on  the 
part  of  members  of  the  faculty. 

Degrees.  —  On  the  recommendation  of  the 
various  faculties  the  trustees  of  the  Univer- 
sity confer  the  following  degrees:  Bachelor  of 
Arts,  for  an  undergraduate  curriculum  char- 
acterized by  the  ancient  languages:  Bachelor 
of  Science,  for  studies  which  are  predominantly 
mathematical  and  scientific:  and  Bachelor  of 
Philosophy,  for  a  curriculum  in  which  modern 
languages  and  the  social  sciences  form  the  chief 
elements;  Master  of  Arts,  Master  of  Philosophy, 
Master  of  Science,  for  advanced  work  involv- 
ing at  least  a  year  of  residence  and  requiring 


specialization  in  two  or  more  related  depart- 
ments; Doctor  of  Philosophy,  for  a  minimum 
of  tlu'ee  years  of  resident  work,  specialization 
in  two  related  departments,  and  the  preparation 
of  a  thesis  which  gives  evidence  of  alsility  to  do 
original  investigative  work;  Bachelor  of  Divinity, 
after  approximately  two  years'  graduate  work  in 
biblical,  theological,  and  ecclesiastical  subjects; 
Bachelor  of  Laws,  for  a  professional  law  course 
of  at  least  tlu-ee  years  in  which  a  grade  of  schol- 
arship has  been  achieved  10  per  cent  higher 
than  that  required  for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Law,  which  is  granted  to  candidates  who  have 
completed  a  three-year  professional  course  in 
addition  to  an  undergraduate  course  in  an  ap- 
proved college,  or  who  have  combined  a  three 
years'  professional  course  with  the  first  three 
years  of  the  college  course  in  such  a  way  as  to 
secure  both  the  Bachelor's  degree  and  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Law.  The  degree  of  M.D.  is  not 
conferred  by  the  university,  but  by  the  faculty 
of  Rush  iMedical  College  after  four  years  of 
medical  studies  in  addition  to  the  first  two 
years  of  a  regular  college  course  for  the  Bache- 
lor's degree. 

Grounds,  Buildings,  Equipment,  and  Endow- 
ment.—  The  university  is  .situated  on  the  Mid- 
way Plaisance  (Fifty-ninth  and  Sixtieth  streets 
on  the  south  side),  halfway  between  Was!,ing- 
ton  Park  on  the  west  and  Jackson  Park  (site 
of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893) 
on  the  east.  The  institution  owns  90  acres, 
which  include  a  three-quarter  mile  frontage 
on  each  side  of  the  Midway  Plaisance.  The 
31  university  buildings  comprise  3  recitation 
halls,  2  museums,  7  laboratories,  10  dormitories, 
2  gymnasiums,  an  assembly  hall,  men's  com- 
mons, a  men's  club,  a  law  school,  a  College  of 
Education,  a  Press  building,  power  house,  etc. 
The  Harper  Memorial  Library,  under  construc- 
tion in  the  spring  of  1910,  will  be  ready  for 
occupancy  early  in  1912.  AU  the  buildings 
of  the  university,  save  the  Press,  are  of  one 
tj'pe  of  architecture  —  a  Tudor  Gothic.  They 
are  faced  with  Indiana  limestone  and  roofed 
with  red  tile.  An  architectural  scheme  drawn 
up  at  the  outset  by  the  first  architect,  Henry 
Ives  Cobb,  has  since  been  modified  in  many 
ways.  All  buildings,  however,  have  been  de- 
signed in  harmony  with  the  original  type.  A 
considerable  range  of  variation  in  details  is 
maintained  within  the  limits  of  a  single  archi- 
tectural scheme.  The  firm  of  Shepley,  Rutan, 
and  Coolidge  of  Boston,  the  official  architects 
of  the  university,  have  modeled  some  of  the 
later  buildings  after  well-known  academic  halls 
of  the  English  colleges.  Thus  at  Chicago  the 
L'niversity  Tower  is  something  more  than  sug- 
gestive of  Magdalen  Tower  at  Oxford;  the  Chi- 
cago University  commons,  known  as  Hutchin- 
son Hall,  is  a  rather  close  reproduction  of  Christ 
Church  Hall,  O.xford,  while  the  Chicago  Univer- 
sity Law  School  brings  to  mind  King's  College 
Chapel,  Cambridge.  The  buildings  and  grounds 
of  the  university  were  valued,  July  1,  1909,  at 


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CHICAGO  UNIVERSITY 


CHICAGO  UNIVERSITY 


$8,917,708.  The  university  libraries  contained, 
on  July  1,  1909,  492,292  volumes;  the  labora- 
tory and  other  equipment  of  the  university 
was  valued  at  8670,527,  and  the  productive 
funds  amounted  to  814,008,778.  The  annual 
budget  of  expenditures  for  the  year  1909-1910 
was  fixed  at  81,431,565.  The  tuition  fees  in 
the  colleges  and  graduate  schools  amount  to 
$40  per  quarter,  or  8120  for  the  academic  year. 
In  addition  laboratory  and  incidental  fees  are 
required,  varying  in  amounts  with  the  courses 
taken.  In  the  Law  School  the  fees  are  $50 
per  quarter,  and  in  the  Medical  School,  $00 
per  quarter.  Fellowships  in  the  Graduate 
Schools  are  provided  to  the  amount  of  $21,500. 
The  stipends  vary  from  $450  to  $120  each. 
Tlirough  appropriation  by  the  Board  of 
Tru.stees,  and  from  endowment  funds  given 
especially  for  the  purpose,  the  sum  of  876,500 
in  honor  and  service  scholarships  is  available 
for  the  aid  of  aisle  and  worthy  students. 

Distinctive   Features   of   the   University.  — ■ 
The  university  year  is  divided  into  four  aj)- 
proximately  equal  academic  periods  known  as 
quarters,  the  autumn,  winter,  spring,  summer. 
The   summer    quarter   is   subdivided   into   two 
equal   periods   or  terms.     The   omi.ssion   of   a 
vacation  period  between  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer quarters  gives  a  free  period  of  about  three 
weeks  in   September  for  renovations   and   re- 
pairs.    Thus  the  university  plant  is  used  al- 
most   continuously.     Although    students    are 
matriculated  and  degrees  are  conferred  quar- 
terly, custom  and  convenience  cause  by  far  the 
largest   number   of   students   to   enter   in   the 
autumn.     Thus,  in   the   academic   year    1908- 
1909,  47  undergraduate  students  matriculated 
at  the  beginning  of  the  summer,  409  at  the 
beginning  of  the  autumn,  24  at  the  beginning 
of  the  winter,  and  24  at  the  beginning  of  the 
spring.     The  quarter  system  makes  each  quar- 
ter a  unit  of  study  as  well  as  a  unit  of   time. 
Regular  work  consists  of  3  courses,  which  meet 
5  hours  a  week,  or  the  equivalent  of  5  hours 
in  assigned   work.     Laboratory  courses  count 
at  the  rate  of  2  hours  in  the  laboratory  for 
1  hour  in  the  lecture  room.     This  plan  involves 
concentration  upon  a  few  studies  for  a  period 
of  3  months.     The  system  on  the  whole  has 
proved  a  success.     The  department  of  English 
is  of  the  opinion  that  introductory  composi- 
tion courses   might  with  advantage  be  distrili- 
utcd  over  two  or  three    ciuarters    instead    of 
concentrated    in    one.     In    the    Law    School 
what   amounts  to  a  semester  system   is   per- 
mitted,  i.e.   certain  courses  extend    over   one 
quarter  and  a  half.     Another  distinctive  feature 
of  Chicago  organization  is  the  division  of  the 
undergraduates    into  two  colleges,  the    Senior 
College,  including  the  third  and  fourth  years 
of  the  undergraduate  course,  and  the  Junior 
College,  induiiing  the  first  and  second  years. 
This  division  is  based  u[)on  the  belief  that  the 
first  two  years  of  college  have  more  in  common 
with  the    high   school    course   than    with    later 


undergraduate  pursuits.  The  transition  from 
the  one  kind  of  study  to  another  is  fixed  at 
the  middle  of  the  college  course,  and  is  sig- 
nalized by  the  title  of  Associate,  which  is 
granted  to  students  who  have  completed  the 
work  of  the  Junior  College.  The  undergraduate 
curriculum  puts  all  the  specific  requirements 
in  the  Junior  College,  leaving  the  Senior  Col- 
lege free  for  election,  limited  tiy  prerequisites, 
within  rather  generously  defined  groups  which 
lead  to  the  three  baccalaureate  degrees.  The 
University  Extension  is  an  organic  part  of  the 
university.  Lecture  study  courses  of  the  Eng- 
lish extension  type  are  conducted  by  the  uni- 
versitj'  in  cities  and  towns  of  the  Middle  West. 
Credit  is  granted  to  students  who,  by  attend- 
ance upon  these  lectures,  the  reailing  of  re- 
quired books,  the  preparation  of  written  work, 
and  the  passing  of  final  examinations  reach 
the  necessary  standard.  Another  form  of  Uni- 
versity Extension  consists  of  correspondence 
instruction.  This  is  conducted  by  members 
of  the  regular  university  staff  as  well  as  by 
members  of  faculties  of  other  colleges  and  uni- 
versities. The  work  is  thorough  in  its  char- 
acter, is  conscientiously  guarded,  and  is  a 
valuable  aid  to  hundreds  of  earnest  students. 
IVLany  ambitious  school  teachers  are  combining 
summer  residence  with  correspondence  in.struc- 
tion,  and  are  thus  working  gradually  toward 
bachelor  degrees.  No  correspondence  instruc- 
tion is  accepted  in  lieu  of  the  one-year  resi- 
dence requirement  for  the  Master's  degree. 
Only  under  exceptional  circumstances  com- 
pletely controlled  by  the  departments  con- 
cerned is  nonresident  work  credited  toward  a 
Doctor's  degree.  The  University  of  Chicago 
is  unique  in  including  in  its  organization  a  Press 
Department,  which,  in  addition  to  printing  all 
the  official  documents  of  the  university,  pub- 
lishes 14  scientific  journals  and  has  up  to  1910 
published  400  volumes.  The  scientific  journals 
of  the  Press  are  subsidized  to  the  amount  of 
the  income  on  a  half  million  of  dollars.  The 
university  regards  publication  of  a  scientific 
character  as  a  legitimate  university  function. 

Statistics  of  Registration.  —  The  quarter  sys- 
tem, and  especially  the  constituency  of  the 
summer  quarter,  cause  the  number  of  different 
students  connected  with  the  university  in  a 
single  year  to  reach  a  high  total,  5659  for  the 
year  1908-1909.  The  total  registration  for 
the  different  quarters  was:  summer  3050, 
autumn  2705,  winter  2758,  spring  2404.  In 
order  to  make  the  total  number  of  5659  com- 
parable with  the  statistics  of  other  institutions 
it  should  be  reduced  to  a  three-quarter  basis, 
that  is,  by  the  use  of  the  unit,  one  student  in 
residence"  for  9  months.  Calculated  on  this 
basis,  the  total  registration  becomes  3639.  Of 
the  number  in  the  graduate  schools  for  the 
year  1908-1909,  90S  were  men  and  .508  women. 
Of  the  undergraduates  the  men  numi)ered  1038 
and  the  women  859.  The  term  "  unclassified  " 
is  applied  to  students  over  21  years  of  age  who 


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CHICAGO  UNIVERSITY 


CHICAGO  UNIVERSITY 


for  satisfactory  reasons  arc  admitted  to  courses 
in  tlic  university,  but  are  not  candidates  for 
degrees.  Many  mature  and  earnest  men  and 
women  desire  to  pursue  courses  for  wliicli  they 
have  aptitude  and  need.  These  applicants  are 
carefully  sifted  on  admission,  to  eliminate  weak 
students  who  may  be  trying  to  evade  require- 
ments. These  unclassified  students  are  there- 
fore by  no  means  identical  with  "  Special  Stu- 
dents," in  the  sense  in  which  that  term  is  often 
used.  In  the  summer  quarter  many  teachers 
are  enrolled  as  "  unclassified,"  not  because 
they  could  not  present  proper  credentials,  but 
because  they  desire  to  postpone  the  routine  of 
registration  as  candidates  for  degrees. 

Graduate  and  Professional  Schools.  —  The 
Graduate  Schools  are  notable  for  the  large 
amount  of  research  in  progress,  the  cooperation 
in  investigative  work  of  the  faculty  and  ad- 
vanced students,  the  number  of  strong  men 
who  arc  engaged  in  research  and  are  also  in- 
terested in  teaching.  In  1908-1909  the  Gradu- 
ate Schools  of  Arts  and  Literature  registered  S70 
different  .students,  of  whom  398  were  women. 
The  Ogden  Graduate  School  of  Science  regis- 
tered S-if)  different  students,  of  whom  110  were 
women.  The  Divinity  School  is  distinguished 
by  the  fact  that  it  gives  its  degrees  only  to 
college  graduates;  it  insists  upon  the  necessity 
of  vocational  training;  it  has  an  unusually 
large  faculty,  and  in  the  academic  year  1908- 
1909  registered  397  different  students.  No 
money  subsidy  is  given  directly  to  students  of 
the  Graduate  Divinity  School.  This  depart- 
ment conducts  a  significant  work  through 
its  Scandinavian  seminaries.  Its  journal,  the 
Biblical  World,  and  the  American  Journal  of 
Theology,  are  important  organs  of  publication. 
The  students  represent  practically  all  the  chief 
denominations  in  the  country.  The  school  is 
an  integral  part  of  the  institution,  and  enjoys 
the  liberty  of  teaching  which  characterizes  a 
true  university.  The  School  of  Law  is  note- 
worthy from  the  fact  that  it  requires  three  years 
of  college  work  for  regular  admission,  that  the 
first  year  of  law  may  be  counted  as  the  fourth 
year  for  the  bachelor's  degree,  that  the  case 
system  of  instruction  is  made  a  prominent 
feature  of  the  training,  that  the  three-year 
course  is  not  local  in  its  scope,  but  prepares 
the  students  to  practice  in  any  English-speak- 
ing jurisdiction.  The  student  body  is  cosmo- 
politan; 123  different  colleges  were  represented 
in  the  school  last  year  (1908-1909).  The 
school  is  committed  to  the  princijile  that 
classes  shall  be  small  enough  to  afford  thorough 
individual  training.  The  library,  which  con- 
tains about  33,000  volumes,  is  in  size  and 
excellence  probably  the  best  library  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  for  the  scholarly  study  of 
English  and  American  law.  Almo.st  all  mem- 
bers of  the  faculty  give  their  entire  time  to  the 
professional  teaching  of  law.  The  faculty  con- 
tains at  present  (1908-1909)  8  men,  all  profes- 
sors of  full  rank.     The  total  registration  in  the 


606 


Law  School  for  last  year  (1908-1909)  was  303. 
The  School  of  Education  includes  four  organi- 
zations —  a  Graduate  Department  for  the 
scientific  study  of  educational  problems,  a 
College  of  Education  in  which  students  are 
prepared  for  positions  as  high  school  or  grade 
teachers,  a  University  High  School  for  practice 
and  observation  work,  and  an  Elementary 
School  including  a  Kindergarten  Department 
utilized  as  a  pedagogical  laboratory.  The 
College  of  Education  gives  through  its  depart- 
ments individual  attention  to  various  types  of 
constructive  work,  but  at  the  same  time  in- 
cludes all  the  conventional  materials  to  be 
found  in  other  schools.  Last  year  (190S-1909) 
the  registration  of  different  individuals  in  the 
College  of  Education  was  958,  of  whom  837 
were  women. 

Student  Life.  —  The  urban  location,  the  pre- 
dominance of  graduate  ideals,  and  the  early 
impress  of  university  standards  have  prevented 
the  development  of  a  strong  college  spirit 
among  the  undergraduates.  Sixteen  Greek 
Letter  fraternities  are  represented  at  the  uni- 
versity. A  number  of  women's  societies  are 
also  officially  recognized.  A  men's  club  pro- 
vides a  social  center  for  the  male  students, 
while  the  five  women's  halls,  with  their  common 
dining  rooms,  reception  rooms,  etc.,  afford 
social  life  for  many  women  students.  Nearly 
2.5  per  cent  of  the  students  live  in  the  dormi- 
tories of  the  university.  About  70  per  cent 
of  the  students  have  their  local  residences 
within  a  mile  and  a  half  of  the  university 
buildings.  From  the  outset  the  standards  of 
the  institution  have  opposed  undergraduate 
boisterousness  and  hoodlumism.  A  sane  and 
sound  student  sentiment  supports  this  tradi- 
tion. Many  undergraduates  are  interested 
in  athletics,  but  the  university  community  is 
by  no  means  dominated  by  athletic  excitement. 
A  department  of  Physical  Culture  and  Athletics 
makes  it  a  policy  to  intere.st  the  largest  possi- 
ble number  of  students  in  many  forms  of 
wholesome  and  recreative  exercise. 

Educational  Policy  of  the  University.  —  The 
University  of  Chicago  occupies  a  unique  posi- 
tion with  reference  to  higher  education  in  the 
Middle  West.  Upon  it  largely  re.sts  the  respon- 
sibility of  maintaining  and  extending  graduate 
work  of  the  highest  type,  and  the  ultimate 
establishment  of  professional  schools  upon  a 
graduate  basis.  On  the  other  hand,  the  loca- 
tion in  a  great  city  throws  upon  the  university 
the  obligation  to  provide  for  undergraduate 
teaching.  It  is  the  aim  of  the  university  to 
fulfill  both  these  functions  with  fidelity  to  the 
best  standards  and  without  sacrificing  either 
task  to  the  other.  If  technical  and  medical 
instruction  as  well  as  other  forms  of  profes- 
sional work  are  ever  established  or  extended, 
it  is  altogether  likely  that  they  will  be  main- 
tained upon  a  graduate  basis.  There  will  be 
no  attempt  to  compete  with  existing  institu- 
tions of  the  conventional  type.     So  far  as  col- 


CHICKASAW  COLLEGE 


CHILD   LABOR 


lege  instruction  goes,  the  university  will  con- 
tinue the  policy  recently  undertaken  of  raising 
steadily  the  standard  of  undergraduate  scholar- 
ship with  a  view  to  limiting  opportunities  to 
students  who  are  able  and  willing  to  do  work 
of  a  thorough  character.  G.  E.  V. 

References:  — 

Flint,  H.  The  University  of  Chicago,  A  Sketch.  (Chi- 
cago, 1904.) 

Harper,  W.  R.  President's  Report,  1892-1902.  (Chi- 
cago, 1903.) 

President's  Re/wrts.     (1903  to  date.) 

Slosson,  E.  E.  The  University  of  Chicago.  The  //»- 
dependent,  Jan.  6,   1910. 

Vincent,  G.  E.  The  University  of  Chicago.  Outlook, 
Aug.  2,  1902. 

CHICKASAW  COLLEGE,  PONTOTOC, 
MISS.  —  An  institution  for  the  education  of 
girls  and  young  women,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Presbytery  of  Mississippi.  Preparatory, 
collegiate,  normal,  and  fine  arts  departments 
are  maintained.  Admission  is  by  certificate  or 
examination,  the  requirements  for  which  are 
indefinite.  Degrees  are  conferred.  There  is  a 
faculty  of  8  instructors. 

CHILD,  GROWTH  OF. —See  Growth. 

CHILD,  THE  INCORRIGIBLE.  — See  Ab- 

NORM.\LiTiEs;  Deli-nquents;  Incorrigible 
Child;  Truant  Schools;  Parental  Schools. 

CHILD  LABOR.  —  In  the  social  economy 
of  primitive  peoples,  children  begin  to  share 
the  labors  of  the  family  or  clan  at  a  very  early 
age.  It  is  instinctive  on  the  part  of  even  very 
immature  boys  and  girls  to  participate  in  the 
activities  about  them,  to  imitate  occupational 
pursuits,  to  yield  to  authority  and  direction, 
and  through  these  activities  to  obtain  a  certain 
degree  of  education  on  a  natural  scale.  It  is 
also  customary,  if  not  instinctive,  for  their 
elders  to  assign  them  tasks,  to  encourage  their 
efforts  and  to  contribute  to  their  education. 
The  work  done  by  the  children  has  been  com- 
monl}'  of  a  fragmentary  character,  like  chores, 
errands,  and  other  minor  tasks.  There  is  no 
evidence  that  such  industrial  participation  has 
often  been  harmful  where  oversight  was  exer- 
cised by  those  having  a  family  or  philanthropic 
interest  in  the  child.  In  fact,  it  is  now  pretty 
certain  that  this  sharing  of  economic  activities 
is  (juite  essential  to  the  complete  development 
of  children  from  even  5  or  6  years  of  age  on- 
wards, when  constructive  workmanship  in- 
stincts begin  to  appear.  The  labor  of  children 
under  humane  conditions,  therefore,  has  been 
traditionally  established,  and  has  not  been  in 
general  an  evil.  It  became  rooted  in  custom, 
and  childish  instincts  allied  themselves  with  it. 
It  was  the  changed  industrial  and  educational 
conditions  of  the  latter  part  of  the  eiglitecnth 
and  of  the  nineteenth  centuries  which  caused 
a  hitherto  harmless  institution  to  become  an 
evil  of  large  magnitude.  Tiie  development  of 
machine    manufacture    enabled    employers    to 


use  children  in  gangs,  and  under  systematic 
divisions  of  labor  it  took  the  children  away 
from  the  sympathetic  control  of  their  parents; 
because  of  the  simplicity  of  nmch  labor  attend- 
ant on  machine  production,  cmiiloyers  were 
able  to  substitute  children  in  large  numbers  for 
adult  laborers.  Competition  among  manu- 
facturers and  the  ignorance  or  greed  of  parents 
or  guardians  steadily  reduced  the  age  at  which 
children  went  into  employment.  This  eco- 
nomic condition  was  the  primary  cause  of  harm- 
ful child  labor;  and  except  for  the  influence  of 
prohibitive  legislation,  these  conditions  have 
become  steadily  more  controlling.  Production 
through  machine  increases;  the  opportunities 
for  child  labor  grow;  and  competition  puts  a 
premium  on  managers  who  can  exact  the  utmost 
of  production  from  meagerly  paid  workers. 
Along  with  this  the  urbanization  of  peoples 
opens  up  a  variety  of  occu[)ations  like  street 
trading,  messenger  service,  and  minor  forms  of 
delivery  and  distribution,  which  in  themselves 
become  harmful. 

As  a  basis  for  the  modern  attitude  of  social 
economy  toward  child  labor,  it  is  commonly 
accepted  that  factory  labor  for  children  under 
14  years  (1)  is  almost  invariably  injurious 
owing  to  its  routine  character,  its  night  work 
and  unhygienic  surroundings,  its  unsympathetic 
supervision,  and  the  opportunities  it  opens  for 
immorality;  (2)  it  is  socially  injurious  in  that 
it  depresses  the  wages  of  adults  and  diminishes 
the  available  number  of  physically  developed 
workmen  for  the  next  generations;  (3)  it  is 
both  socially  and  individually  injurious  in  that 
it  deprives  the  child  of  opportunities  for  edu- 
cational development;  and  (4)  it  is  economi- 
cally unnecessary.  It  is  on  the  basis  of  these 
principles  that  humanitarians  have  for  up- 
ward of  a  century  carried  on  their  campaigns 
against  child  labor. 

England.  —  Naturally,  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject developed  first  in  areas  extensively  devoted 
to  manufacturing.  The  ra]iid  revolution  of 
industry  in  England  drew  attention  to  child 
labor  as  early  as  the  later  years  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  In  1802  the  Health  and 
Morals  of  Apprentices  Act,  the  first  factory 
act,  was  pa.ssed  primarily  to  protect  the 
pauper  orphan  children  who  were  being  herded 
into  the  woolen  mills.  These  pauper  children 
had  been  taken  from  parish  councils,  the  manu- 
facturers often  receiving  a  premium  for  taking 
them  as  apprentices.  The  helpless  children 
were  subjected  to  most  prolonged  hours  of 
labor,  the  death  rate  was  enormous,  and  the 
manufacturer  had  no  incentive  to  give  the 
children  adequate  care.  The  Act  of  1802 
limited  the  work  of  the  children  carried  on  in 
woolen  mills  —  many  of  the  children  being 
from  7  to  12  years  of  age  —  to  12  hours  a  day, 
provided  that  the  niglit  work  of  ajiprcnticcs 
was  to  be  gradually  discontinued,  and  to  cease 
altogether  after  June,  1804.  It  reciuircd  that 
apprentices   should   be   instructed   in   reading, 


007 


CHILD  LABOR 


CHILD   LABOR 


writing,  and  arithmetic,  and  a  suit  of  clothes 
given  to  each  yearly.  It  provided  that  factories 
were  to  be  whitewashed  twice  a  year,  and  at 
all  times  properly  ventilated.  Separate  sleep- 
ing apartments  were  to  be  provided  for  ap- 
prentices of  different  sexes,  and  not  more  than 
two  were  to  share  a  bed.  Apprentices  were  to 
attend  church  at  least  once  a  month,  and  the 
justices  were  to  appoint  two  inspectors  —  one 
of  whom  should  be  a  clergyman  —  to  visit  the 
factories.  All  mills  and  factories  were  to  be 
registered  annually  with  the  Clerk  of  the 
Peace,  and  justices  had  power  to  inflict  fines 
of  from  £2  to  €5  for  neglect  to  observe  the 
regulations.  The  Act  applied  to  cotton  fac- 
tories as  well  as  to  woolen,  and  the  preamble 
made  it  applicable  not  only  to  apprentices, 
but  to  all  cotton  and  woolen  factories  in 
which  20  or  more  persons  were  employed, 
although  the  clause  relating  to  restriction  of 
hours  and  providing  educational  facilities 
expressly  applied  to  apprentices  only.  (See 
Hutchins  and  Harrison's  History  of  Factory 
Legislation,  pp.  16-17).  Seventeen  years  later 
(1819)  a  more  extensive  act  aimed  at  all 
factory  work  was  passed,  but  it  failed  largely 
of  application,  owing  to  imperfect  agencies  of 
enforcement.  It  is  suggestive  to  note  that  it 
prohibited  the  employment  in  factories  of 
children  under  9  years  of  age  and  limited  the 
working  hours  of  children  from  9  to  16  years 
of  age  to  12  hours  per  day. 

From  this  time  for  upward  of  half  a  century 
the  humanitarians  struggled  with  the  laissez 
faire  prepossession  of  British  life  for  a  protected 
childhood.  The  law  of  1819  was  not  enforced, 
and  a  Royal  Commission  in  1833  found  chil- 
dren working  as  much  as  15  hours  daily.  The 
following  year  another  act  of  a  more  compre- 
hensive nature  was  passed,  which  (1)  fixed  a 
working  day  so  as  to  aboUsh  night  work; 
(2)  prescribed  at  least  two  hours'  schooling  for 
children  under  13;  (3)  limited  their  working 
hours  to  9;  and  (4)  accomplished  other  reforms 
like  fixing  the  length  of  the  working  week. 
The  required  schools,  however,  were  commonly 
kept  up  by  the  factories  themselves,  and  were 
of  little  educational  value  to  the  children.  (See 
Factory  Schools.) 

In  1843  began  the  system  of  "  half  time." 
This  was  a  compromise  between  the  forces 
which  sought  the  education  of  a  child  and  the 
employers  who  desired  cheap  labor.  The 
employment  of  a  child  under  13  was  made 
contingent  upon  his  regularly  producing  a  cer- 
tificate of  attendance  at  school  for  at  least  3 
hours  daily,  or  for  alternate  days.  The  amount 
of  daily  factory  work  was  limited  to  6^  hours. 
The  half-time  sj'stem,  it  will  be  seen,  had 
points  of  correspondence  with  the  situation  in 
which  children  usually  find  themselves  under 
primitive  economic  conditions  —  a  distribution 
of  time  between  school  and  work.  Luther 
long  before  had  said:  "  We  must  send  the 
boys  to  school  one  or  two  hours  a  day  and  have 


them  learn  a  trade  for  the  rest  of  the  time." 
But  the  opponents  of  child  labor  were  not 
satisfied  with  the  half-time  system.  The 
young  children  still  suffered  under  factory 
conditions,  and  the  school  was  often  farcical. 
In  1878  half  time  was  prohibited  for  children 
under  10,  and  this  limit  was  raised  to  11  in 
1891,  and  to  12  in  1899.  In  1904-1905  there 
were  still  over  80,000  half-time  workers,  nearly 
all  in  the  textile  districts  in  Lancashire,  with  a 
few  in  Dundee.  Under  existing  enactments 
half-time  labor  can  be  corrected  either  by 
further  parliamentary  legislation  or  by  acts  of 
local  councils.  In  1908-1909  a  strong  agi- 
tation began  to  end  half  time  for  children 
under  14. 

England  obtained  public  education  in  1870, 
and  the  comprehensive  act  of  1878  not  only 
restricted  child  labor  and  clarified  legislation 
pertaining  to  it,  but  also  made  education  com- 
pulsory. In  1909  the  age  of  exemption  from 
school  attendance  was  raised  to  14,  and  the 
conditions  of  employment  of  children  below 
that  age  who  had  completed  school  work 
were  more  regular  and  stringent.  Children 
under  11  cannot  be  employed  in  agricultural 
work,  and  over  that  age  must  have  completed 
the  fourth  grade.  The  next  great  step  was  in 
regulating  the  employment  of  children  on  the 
basis  of  the  character  of  the  work  done.  By 
the  legislation  of  1901,  a  variety  of  employ- 
ments were  prohibited  to  children  under  16; 
girls  and  women  were  exempted  from  night 
work;  physical  conditions  of  work  were  safe- 
guarded; and  in  factories  and  many  trades 
youth  under  16  must  have  a  certificate  of  phys- 
ical fitness.  The  next  point  of  attack  was  the 
occupations  of  children  outside  the  school 
hours.  The  number  so  employed  in  carrying 
milk  and  parcels  in  street  trades  and  in  home 
or  sweatshop  work  was  very  large.  So  far, 
legislation  has  not  overcome  the  evils  in  this 
field  where  work  outside  of  school  hours, 
coupled  with  school  instruction,  certainly  re- 
sults in  the  overtaxing  of  children.  The  Em- 
ployment of  Children  Act  of  1903,  the  result 
of  the  Interdepartmental  Committee's  report, 
greatly  restricted  such  employment,  and  gave 
local  authorities  power  to  still  further  restrict 
the  employment  of  children  outside  school 
hours.  The  Act  of  1903  regulated  street  trad- 
ing by  providing  for  the  licensing  of  children 
so  employed,  distinguishing,  by  the  badge  worn, 
children  under  school  age  and  children  above 
school  age,  in  allowing  the  former  to  engage 
in  trade  only  outside  of  school  hours,  but  limit- 
ing the  number  of  hours  both  with  respect  to 
the  total  number  per  day  and  the  exact  hours 
between  which  such  employment  is  legal.  (See 
Victor  Clark's  Women  and  Child  Wage  Earners 
in  Great  Britain,  Bulletin  of  United  States 
Bureau  of  Labor,  Washington,  January,  1909, 
No.  80,  pp.  27-36.)  Since  the  opening  of  the 
twentieth  century,  owing  to  a  keen  realization 
of  the  prevalence  of   physical   and   indu.strial 


608 


CHILD   LABOR 


CHILD   LABOR 


incompetency  among  the  population,  Great 
Britain  has  been  giving  increasing  attention 
to  the  problems  of  tlie  productive  work  of 
children.  The  trend  of  recent  legislation  is 
along  the  most  advanced  lines  described  here- 
after in  the  legislation  of  the  United  States,  and 
its  comprehensive  character  is  shown  in  the 
celebrated  "Children's  Act"  of  1908. 

France.  —  The  late  rise  of  manufacturing  in 
France  and  the  persistence  of  household  in- 
dustries has  deferred  develojiment  in  this  field 
in  that  country.  It  is  true  that  laws  regard- 
ing apprenticeship  date  back  many  centuries, 
and  that  these  .still  serve  to  safeguard  the  ap- 
prentice; but  as  a  means  of  meeting  the  objec- 
tions to  child  labor  they  are  now  futile.  In  fact, 
there  are  in  Paris  and  other  large  cities  a 
variety  of  abuses  which  in  a  sense  are  trace- 
able to  the  existence  of  these  laws.  E.xisting 
French  child  labor  legislation  is  simple.  To 
enter  on  regular  employment  children  must  be 
13,  or  must  have  completed  the  common  school 
course,  exceptions  being  made  in  certain  cases 
in  favor  of  seasonal  industries  like  fruit  pack- 
ing. Up  to  18,  night  labor  is  prohibited,  and 
all  labor  in  certain  dangerous  or  objectionable 
industries.  All  youths  under  18  must  have 
employment  certificates  showing  schooling, 
etc.,  and  for  those  under  16  in  many  trades 
certificates  of  physical  fitness  may  be  de- 
manded. Employment  for  youths  under  18 
is  limited  to  10  hours,  and  to  that  period  for 
all  women.  France  is  still  largely  agricultural, 
and  many  industries  are  still  domestic  in  char- 
acter. Families  are  prevailingly  small,  the 
children  well  cared  for,  and  relatively  few 
tendencies  toward  exploitation  exist.  There 
are  found  no  satisfactory  statistics  as  to  em- 
ployment of  children  below  14.  France  has 
little  legislation  restricting  household  or  agri- 
cultural labor,  ami  this  lack,  coupled  with  the 
inefficiency  of  factory  inspection,  is  at  present 
attracting  the  attention  of  social  workers. 

Germany.  —  Legislation  affecting  children 
comes  from  two  main  sources  —  the  Empire  and 
separate  states.  The  standard  set  by  the  im- 
perial enactments  expresses  minimum  condi- 
tions, the  chief  of  which  are:  (1)  All  children 
under  13  must  attend  school  full  time,  and 
may  not  work  in  industries  between  8  p.m. 
and  8  a.m.  (2)  Restrictions  on  employment 
are  greatly  affected  by  the  degree  of  relation- 
ship borne  to  the  worker  by  the  employer. 
Hours,  time  for  meals,  and  rest,  etc.,  are  care- 
fully regulated.  (3)  Children  in  school  may 
not  labor  more  than  3  hours  per  day,  and 
during  vacation  not  more  than  4  hours. 
(4)  Night  work  is  prohibited  to  males  under 
if)  and  to  all  females.  (5)  Under  14  the  fac- 
tory working  day  is  limited  to  6  hours,  and 
under  lO  to  lO"  hours.  In  1898  about  half 
a  million  children  under  14  were  employed 
in  industrial  establishments  which  were  not 
factories,  and  in  agriculture.  Only  9000 
children  of  the  above  age  were   in  factories. 


Obviously  the  large  number  above  were  in  small 
shops;  58  per  cent  were  reported  as  working 
in  industries,  and  25  per  cent  in  delivery  occu- 
pations. The  various  Cierman  states  are  at 
liberty  to  supplement  the  above  legislation  as 
they  see  fit.  While  the  standards  above  set 
forth  seem  low,  it  is  probable  that  a  compen- 
sation exists  in  the  rigid  system  of  inspection 
which  prevails  and  is  carried  out  by  the  local 
police.  Between  school  and  shop  almost  all 
the  time  of  the  German  child  above  12  is 
claimed,  but  the  paternal  attitude  which  is 
adopted  seems  to  contribute  much  toward  pre- 
venting harmful  results. 

United  States.  —  There  is  no  national  con- 
trol of  child  labor.  In  1907  five  measures 
were  brought  before  Congress,  the  aim  of 
which  was  to  enlist  the  services  of  the  national 
government.  The  first  was  a  bill  incorporat- 
ing a  National  Child  Labor  Committee;  the 
second,  a  model  child  labor  bill  for  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia;  the  third,  a  lull  to  provide 
for  a  National  Children's  Bureau;  the  fourth, 
providing  for  an  investigation  of  the  labor  of 
women  and  children  under  the  United  States 
Commission  of  Labor;  the  fifth,  known  as 
the  Beveridge-Parsons  Child  Labor  Bill,  .sought 
to  prohibit  the  transportation  in  interstate 
commerce  of  child-labor-made  goods  just  as 
con\-ict-made  goods  are  now  excluded  from 
foreign  commerce  under  tariff  laws.  Only 
the  finst  and  fourth  became  laws  that  year, 
whUe  the  second  was  passed  in  1908.  The 
Beveridge-Parsons  hill  aimed  to  penalize  in- 
terstate commerce  where  it  could  be  shown 
that  the  labor  of  children  had  been  employed, 
but  the  bill  did  not  come  to  a  vote  in  either 
house,  ow'ing  to  the  conviction  that  it  uncon- 
stitutionally extended  the  powers  of  Congress. 
Development  and  enforcement  of  child  labor 
legislation  and  stinmlation  of  public  opinion 
has  been  for  several  years  under  the  lead  of 
the  National  Child  Labor  Committee.  This 
society,  which  in  1910  had  over  4000  members 
and  a  budget  for  expenses  amounting  to  more 
than  $50,000  per  year,  holds  an  annual 
convention.  It  keeps  agents  at  work  in  those 
regions  where  the  development  of  manufac- 
turing industries  renders  the  need  most  press- 
ing. A  review  of  its  annual  Proceedings  pro- 
vides the  most  complete  commentary  on  recent 
developments.  In  its  work  this  committee  has 
laid  down  certain  standard  conditions  to  be 
met,  which  are  the  results  of  experience  in 
endeavors  to  secure  the  kind  of  administrative 
machinery  which  proves  effective  in  enforcing 
legislation.  Then,  according  to  local  condi- 
tions and  the  state  of  local  opposition,  it  makes 
accommodations  as  far  as  possible.  In  the 
course  of  this  procedure  it  has  become  evident 
that  the  entire  subjcH-t  of  child  labor  is  vastly 
complicated,  and  tlu-  somewhat  simple  prin- 
ciples, unless  adhered  to,  no  longer  suffice. 

Standards  for  Legislation.  —  The  following 
are  the  standards  now  usually  sought:  — 


-2r 


609 


CHILD   LABOR 


CHILD   LABOR 


L  Age  or  Development  of  the  Child.  -  No 
child  under  14  ought  to  work  in  factories, 
shops,  street  trades,  etc.,  and  under  16  or  1.S 
in  occupations  dangerous  to  health  or  morals, 
in  several  states  the  minimum  age  is  yet  12; 
and  even  10  or  no  age  limit  at  all  for  orphans, 
or  children  of  widowed  mothers  dependent 
on  their  earnings.  In  all  states  exceptions 
in  age  are  made  for  occupations  pursued 
outside  of  school  hours.  In  some  the  mini- 
mum age  is  changed  for  vacations,  espe- 
cially where  fruit  and  vegetable  packing  are 
important  sources  of  employment.  Obviously 
the  age  of  the  child  is  but  a  poor  index  of  his 
development  or  his  capacity  for  work.  Hence 
physical  tests  are  being  imposed,  as  weight 
and  height  standards,  like  the  minimum  weight 
of  80  pounds  and  the  minimum  height  of  60 
inches  employed  in  the  New  York  law  of  190.3. 
To  the  authorities  issuing  the  iiermit  to  go  to 
work,  some  of  the  states  allow  the  option  of 
refusing  such  certificate  if  the  child  seems  un- 
fitted for  the  employment  proposed. 

2.  Education.  —  One  of  the  objects  of 
child  labor  legislation  being  to  secure  to  the 
child  his  educational  rights,  all  programs  en- 
deavor to  secure  a  minimum  education,  even 
when  the  child  has  passed  the  minimum  age. 
Early  attempts  in  this  direction  simply  provide 
that  the  child  be  able  to  read  and  write.  The 
objection  to  this  has  been  not  so  much  on  the 
ground  of  its  insufficiency  as  of  its  vagueness, 
which  opens  the  way  to  all  sorts  of  evasion. 
Recent  legislation  in  Massachusetts,  New 
York,  Ohio,  and  other  states  sets  a  minimum 
limit  in  terms  of  a  school  grade,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  third  in  Massachusetts,  the  5  a  in 
New  York  City,  and  the  eighth  grade  in  New 
Jersey.  A  different  requirement  as  to  the 
amount  of  school  attendance  to  be  made  each 
year  is  also  aimed  at. 

3.  Time  and  Amount  of  Work.  —  The  ideal 
of  child  labor  legislation  contemplates  an  8- 
hour  day  for  all  youths  under  16  and  a  week 
limit  of  48  hours.  These  conditions  are  met 
at  present  in  but  few  states,  a  10-hour  day 
or  56-hour  week  representing  the  best  condi- 
tions usually  attainable.  Night  work  is  op- 
posed for  boys  under  16  and  for  girls  under 
18,  and  for  all  women,  partly  on  physical, 
largely  on  moral,  grounds.  Prohibition  of  night 
work  must  usually  indicate  different  hours,  e.g. 
7  P.M.  to  7  A..M.,  during  which  work  may  not 
be  done.  Frequently  exceptions  must  be 
made  for  mercantile  business  where  late  work 
is  required  on  Saturday  night  or  during  holi- 
days. Street  trades  to  be  carried  on  part  time 
or  outside  of  school  hours  frequently  are  ex- 
ceptions. 

4.  Poverty  of  Children.  —  An  old  defense  of 
early  child  labor  rested  on  the  fact  of  necessi- 
tous parents.  Standard  legislation  now  recog- 
nizes that  cases  of  dependent  parents  occur, 
and  that  their  existence  should  not  deprive  the 
cliild  of  his  rights  to  education,  health,  physical 


development,  and  vocational  efficiency.  Hence 
private  philanthropy  or  state  aid  must  provide 
scholarships  to  assist  those  children  who  by 
virtue  of  their  exclusion  from  labor  are  pre- 
vented from  earning  money  to  aid  in  the  support 
of  themselves  or  their  dependent  parents.  In 
New  York  and  other  states  private  effort  sup- 
plies scholarships;  in  Ohio  and  Colorado  the  state 
now  provides  books,  clothing,  and  even  food. 

5.  Enforcement. — Child  labor  legislation  is 
rarely  sufficiently  supported  by  public  senti- 
ment and  public  knowledge  to  be  self-en- 
forcing. Experience  has  demonstrated  the 
need  of  (a)  certificates  for  all  youths  em- 
ployed; (ft)  the  posting  of  lists  of  all  employees 
as  well  as  hours  of  labor;  (c)  official  inspection; 
id)  suitable  penalties.  The  certificate  nmst 
be  possessed  by  each  young  person  employed, 
showing  age,  place  of  birth,  educational  con- 
dition, etc.  In  reaching  these  standards  many 
obstacles  have  been  encountered,  chiefly  in  the 
matter  of  establishing  the  age  of  foreigners. 
Experience  demonstrates  that  the  sworn  state- 
ment of  parents  will  not  suffice.  Birth  or  bap- 
tismal certificates  or  other  positive  evidence  is 
now  required.  The  recent  tendency  is  to  lay 
responsibility  on  school  authorities  for  the  is- 
suance of  these  certificates.  Experience  also 
demonstrates  that  publicity  on  the  part  of  em- 
ployers is  necessary.  This  includes  the  posting 
in  pubUc  places  of  the  lists  of  employees,  with 
evidence  as  to  their  possession  of  the  above 
certificates.  All  papers  must  be  produced  on 
demand  of  each  truant  officer  or  inspector. 
Working  hours  must  also  be  posted.  In  a  few 
instances  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  penal- 
ize the  concealment  of  child  employees  on  oc- 
casion of  inspection.  State  agents  or  inspectors 
are  necessary  to  the  enforcemet  of  the  laws. 
In  practice  these  are  attached  to  the  State 
Labor  Department  or  division  for  factory  in- 
spection. These  officers  should  include  a 
number  of  women  inspectors,  as  indicated  in 
the  last  law  on  this  subject  in  Ohio.  They 
must  give  their  entire  time  to  inspection,  and 
should  be  obliged  to  keep  records  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  demonstrate  the  efficiency  of  their 
work. 

The  trend  of  public  opinion  in  the  United 
States  with  respect  to  child  labor  is  fairly 
well  indicated  by  a  summary  of  the  important 
details  in  legislation  on  this  subject  during 
the  past  5  years.  The  Secretary  of  the  Na- 
tional Child  Labor  Committee  submitted  a 
statement  at  the  end  of  the  year  1909,  which 
showed  that  during  the  previous  5-year  period 
13  states  and  the  District  of  Columbia  had  es- 
tablished insjiection  departments  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  child  labor  laws;  the  S-hour  day 
for  children  had  been  established  in  10  states 
and  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  the  hours  of 
labor  measurably  reduced  in  13  additional 
states;  6  states  and  the  District  of  Columbia 
passed  child  labor  laws  for  the  first  time  dur- 
ing this  period,  and  Nevada  is  the  only  state 


J 
I 

I 


610 


CHILD  LABOR 


CHILD   PSYCHOLOGY 


in  the  Union  without  a  general  and  compre- 
hensive act,  although  many  of  tlie  laws  are  be- 
low what  is  regarded  as  a  normal  standard, 
both  with  respect  to  their  prohibitions  and  the 
provisions  for  their  enforcement.  Some  further 
comparisons  are  to  be  noted  from  the  following 
statement.  In  1904  the  l-t-year  age  limit  ap- 
plied to  factories,  stores,  etc.,  in  12  states,  and 
in  1910  in  19  states,  while  in  the  latter  year  the 
law  usually  included  offices,  laundries,  hotels, 
theaters,  and  bowling  alleys,  as  well  as  stores 
and  factories.  In  1904  the  14-year  age  limit 
in  factories  only  applied  in  9  states,  in  1910 
in  11  states.  For  mines  the  age  limit  in  1904 
was  15  in  one  state,  14  in  19  states,  and  12  in 
5  states,  while  in  1910  it  was  16  in  6  states, 
14  in  18  states,  and  12  in  8  states.  The  employ- 
ment of  children  was  forbidden  during  school 
hours  in  only  14  states  in  1904,  but  in  23  states 
in  1910.  The  13-year  age  limit  in  the  general 
law  applied  in  Pennsylvania  and  Rhode  Is- 
land in  1904,  but  only  in  North  Carolina  in 
1910,  while  the  12-year  age  limit  in  stores  and 
factories  applied  in  2  states  in  1904,  and  for 
factories  only  in  8  states,  while  in  1910  we 
find  it  in  3  states  applying  to  stores  and  fac- 
tories, and  to  factories  only  in  12  states,  but  in  the 
latter  instance  restricted  to  vacation  periods  in 
the  schools.  There  were  no  general  restrictions 
of  child  labor  in  6  states  and  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia in  1904,  but  only  in  1  state  in  1910. 
Night  work  was  prohibited  in  13  states  in  1904, 
—  the  age  limit  varying  from  12  to  18,  —  while  in 
23  states  there  was  no  prohibition;  but  in  1910 
night  work  is  prohibited  in  23  states  for  chil- 
dren ur.der  16,  in  7  states  for  children  under  14, 
and  in  2  states  for  children  under  12.  Special 
exemptions  on  account  of  poverty,  orphanage, 
and  the  demands  of  seasonal  and  privileged 
industries  still  exist  in  many  states,  but  they 
are  gradually  being  reduced  in  number,  and 
special  evils  —  such  as  those  of  the  night  mes- 
senger service  —  are  being  more  widely  rec- 
ognized, and  are  gradually  yielding  to  more 
effective  restrictions. 

In  1910  New  York  passed  an  act  prohibiting 
the  employment  of  boys  under  21  in  night  mes- 
senger service  jjctween  the  hours  of  10  p.m.  and 
5  A..\i.  in  all  cities  of  the  (ir.st  and  second  class. 
Ohio  pas.sed  a  similar  act,  [irohibiting  children 
under  18  from  working  in  the  messenger  service 
between  9  p.m.  and  G  .\.m.  Other  state  legisla- 
tures are  discu.ssing  similar  efforts  to  suppress  the 
moral  evils  of  night  messenger  service  as  lately  re- 
vealed by  the  investigations  of  the  National  Child 
Labor  Committee.  During  1910  other  significant 
legislative  advances  were  made  in  child  labor  re- 
strictions in  New  Jersey,  Massachusetts,  Mary- 
land, Virginia,  Rhode  Island,  and  Kentucky,  the 
most  notaiile  of  wliich  was  the  victory  in  New 
Jersey  for  the  suppression  of  night  work  for  chil- 
dren under  15  until  July  4,  1911,  and  after  that 
date  under  16,  the  propo.sal  for  which  for  five  suc- 
cessive legislative  sessions  had  been  successfully 
opposed  by  the  glass  manufactures  of  the  state. 


The  refinements  of  restriction  and  protection 
are  not  as  fully  developed  in  the  United  States 
as  in  Great  Britain,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
many  of  our  states  show  greater  boldness  in 
dealing  with  the  evils  of  cliild  labor  upon  a  large 
and  comprehensive  plan,  while  the  greatest 
need  in  the  United  States  is  still,  perhaps,  the 
proper  coordination  of  a  restrictive  policy 
wth  a  constructive  program  for  the  recrea- 
tion, training,  and  education  of  children,  in^- 
eluding  proper  provision  for  industrial  and 
vocational  training,  without  the  exploitation 
of  the  child  for  the  benefit  of  others. 

D.  S.  AND  S.  M.  L. 

See  Attendance,  Compulsory  ;  Childhood, 
Legislation  for  the  Conservation  and 
Protection  of. 

References:  — 

Agahd,  KoNR.tD,  and  von  Schulz,  M.  Gesetz  be- 
treffend  Kiitdcrarheil  in  Gewerblichen  Betrieben, 
(Jena,  1905,)  a.nd  Jugendwohl  und  J ugejidrecht,  Halle 
a.  S..  1907. 

Bry,  Georges.  Cours  Elhncntaire  de  Legislation  In- 
dustriclle,  Paris,  190S.  Book  II,  pp.  306-J34. 

Child  L.\bor.  Summarj-  of  Laws  in  Force,  1910.  By 
Laura  Scott.  Legislative  Rei'ietr,  No.  5.  American 
Association  for  Labor  Legislation.  (New  York. 
1910.) 

Conrad,  J.  HandwOTterbuch  der  Staatswissenschajten 
3d  ed.  Jena,  1909,  .\rt.  Arbeiterschutzgesetzgebung, 
pp.  591-783,  covers  leading  manufacturing  coun- 
tries and  is  especially  good  for  Germany,  France, 
and  the  United  States. 

Ddtton,  S.  T.,  and  Snedden,  D.  S.  Adminietration  of 
Public  Education.     (New  York,  1908.) 

Handbooks  on  Child  Labor  Legislation  prepared  by 
the  National  Consumers'  League,  and  published  by 
the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Science.     (Philadelphia.) 

HuTCHiNs,  B.  L.,and  Harrison,  A.  History  of  Factory 
Legislation.    (New  ed.,  London,  1907.) 

Kelley,  Florence.  Some  Ethical  Gains  through  LegiS' 
lation.     (New  Y'ork,  1905.) 

Publications  of  the  National  Child  Labor  Committee, 
many  of  which  can  be  obtained  upon  application 
to  the  Conmiittce,  United  Charities  Building,  New 
Y'ork  Cit.w  Espi'cially  sec  the  annual  volumes  of 
Proceedings,  published  by  the  American  Academy 
of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Philadelphia,  Vol. 
XXV,  May,  1905.  Child  Labor ;  Vol.  XXVI, 
March,  1906,  Menace  to  Industry,  Education  and 
Good  Citizenship  ;  Vol.  XXIX,  January,  1907, 
Child  Labor  and  the  Republic  ;  190K,  Child  Labor 
and  Social  Progress:  March,  1909,  The  Child 
Workers  of  the  Nation  ;  1910.  Vol.  XXXIV, 
Child  Employing  Industries. 

Sewall,  H.  R.  Cliild  Labor  in  the  United  Stales. 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  Bui.  No.  52,  Vol.  9.  (Wash- 
ington. 1904.) 

SPARcio.  .John.  The  Bitter  Cry  of  the  Children.  (New 
York,  1900.) 

Wright.  C.  D.  Child  Labor  in  the  United  Stales.  V.  S. 
Bureau  of  Labor.  Bui.  No.  62.    (Washington,  1906.) 

The  Library  of  Congress  issued  a  Bibliography  of  Child 
Labor,  including  also  foreign  works  on  the  subject. 

CHILD  PSYCHOLOGY.  —  Childhood  is 
usually  considered  to  cover  the  period  between 
infancy  and  puberty,  or,  roughly,  between  the 
ages  of  3  and  12.  Child  psychology  nmst 
then  deal  with  the  mental  life,  the  thoughts 
and  feelings,  together  with  their  influence 
on  conduct,  of  children  between  these  ages. 
Child    psychology    is    a    comparatively  new 


611 


CHILD   PSYCHOLOGY 


CHILD   PSYCHOLOGY 


study.  It  is  only  within  the  last  half  century 
that  the  need  for  such  a  specialized  branch 
of  psychology  has  been  realized.  The  trend 
of  development  has  been  along  the  line  of  in- 
vestigating the  differences  between  children 
and  adults  in  the  various  mental  states.  A 
science  of  adult  psychology  being  already  well 
established,  when  it  began  to  be  realized  that 
the  child  was  not  the  "  man  writ  small,"  and 
that  there  was  such  a  possibility  as  a  study  of 
child  psychology,  the  natural  question  was, 
"  Just  how  docs  the  child  differ  from  the  adult 
in  his  power  of  perception,  his  reasoning,  his 
attention?  "  The  fact  that  much  of  the  in- 
terest felt  in  this  new  study  was  for  the  sake  of 
its  relation  to  adult  psychology,  together  with 
the  fact  that  the  need  for  such  a  study  was  felt 
primarily  in  connection  with  the  school  education 
of  children  account,  in  some  measure  for  the 
apparently  hit-or-miss,  trivial,  and  irrelevant 
character  of  much  of  the  work  which  has  been 
done.  Also  the  newness  of  the  field,  the  diffi- 
culties attending  experimental  work  with  chil- 
dren, and  the  length  of  time  which  it  is  necessary 
to  carry  on  investigations  in  order  that  the 
results  gained  may  be  reliable,  all  help  to  ex- 
plain the  lack  of  a  complete,  well-organized, 
significant  body  of  knowledge.  Much  of  the 
work  in  this  department  of  psychology  must, 
therefore,  be  regarded  as  tentative  and  open  to 
further  modification,  but  suggestive  for  educa- 
tional application.  The  chief  questions,  then, 
which  have  been  answered  by  child  psychology 
are,  "  How  do  children  differ  from  adults  in 
the  various  mental  states?  What  are  the  ma- 
jor changes  which  take  place  in  their  mental 
life  up  to  the  period  of  puberty?  What  are  the 
chief  causes  of  these  changes?  " 

The  difference  between  children  and  adults  in 
instinctive  equipment  is  not  so  much  a  matter  of 
difference  in  number  of  in.stincts,  although  some 
of  those  characterizing  late  adolescence  are  lack- 
ing, as  in  relative  prominence  and  strength  of  the 
various  instincts,  in  their  modes  of  manifesta- 
tion, and  in  the  degree  of  their  modification 
through  habituation.  In  childhood,  because  of 
lack  of  experience,  the  instincts  manifest  them- 
selves in  very  general  and  indefinite  ways,  the 
particular  line  of  manifestation  being  deter- 
mined by  the  environment.  The  instincts,  be- 
cause of  their  correlation  with  the  physical 
gro^i/h  and  development  of  the  nervous  system, 
tend  to  follow  a  rhythmic  order  of  development, 
one  set  being  prominent  for  a  short  period,  then 
another.  The  phase  of  each  which  is  prominent 
at  first  is  associated  with  the  physical  well-being 
of  the  child.  The  response  is  to  a  concrete, 
very  definite  situation,  and  the  result  gained 
is  immediate,  physical  satisfaction.  Growing 
out  of  this  stage  is  the  interest  in  and  the  desire 
for  emotional  satisfaction.  The  child  acts  in 
such  a  way  as  to  select  those  responses  which 
bring  him  this  result.  This  is  the  time  when  the 
various  powers  brought  out  by  instinctive 
action  are  tested  and  tried  and  pitted  against 


those  of  other  children.  It  is  the  stage  of  per- 
sonal competition.  First  one  instinct  and  then 
another  is  experimented  with,  the  emphasis 
being  on  motor  activity.  Still  the  child's  point 
of  view  is  narrow,  the  self  that  is  being  pleased 
and  satisfied  is  a  very  partial  one.  It  is  still 
the  individual  interests  against  the  group  in- 
terests, or,  rather,  in  spite  of  the  group  interests. 
The  next  development  is  the  appearance  of 
the  "  gang  "  spirit.  This  phase  pervades  and 
influences  all  the  growing  and  changing  in- 
stincts, paving  the  way  for  the  more  radical 
changes  which  take  place  at  adolescence.  The 
child  is  still  interested  primarily  in  his  own 
well-being,  but  the  self  has  expanded,  the  so- 
called  social  self  now  becoming  prominent, 
carrying  with  it  a  greater  emphasis  on  the  intel- 
lectual elements  in  the  situation. 

The  instinctive  life  of  the  child  follows  this 
plan  in  development,  becoming  more  complete 
as  more  of  the  instincts  emerge,  more  highly 
specialized  as  various  phases  become  differen- 
tiated, the  line  of  advance  being  from  the  physi- 
cal through  the  emotional  to  the  more  intel- 
lectual phases  of  each,  and  from  a  narrow,  partial 
viewpoint  to  a  broader,  more  general  one. 
These  phases  are  not  distinctly  marked  off 
from  each  other,  even  within  the  development 
of  the  same  instinct,  and  as  the  various  instincts 
develop  at  different  rates  and  become  promi- 
nent at  different  ages,  there  is  great  complexity 
and  con.stant  overlapping. 

The  part  to  be  played  by  education  in  this 
development  will  depend  largely  upon  whether 
those  in  control  believe  that  these  changes  occur 
primarily  as  a  result  of  inner  growth,  or  as  a 
result,  partly  at  least,  of  the  influence  of  en- 
vironment. The  consensus  of  opinion  at 
present  seems  to  be  that  both  factors  count, 
but  that  neither  has  full  control.  The  more 
the  environment  presents  situations  calling  for 
the  exercise  on  the  part  of  the  child  of  the 
higher  and  more  uniformly  useful  phases  of 
the  various  instincts,  the  better,  provided  that 
the  demands  made  begin  at  the  level  of  devel- 
opment at  which  the  child  is,  and  gradually 
change  in  difficulty,  complexity,  and  character. 
The  various  studies  made  of  children's  inter- 
ests all  show  these  general  tendencies,  and 
all  offer  material  of  value  to  the  educator. 
Naturally,  attention  goes  hand  in  hand  with 
interest.  The  important  differences  between 
the  attention  of  the  child  and  that  of  the  adult 
grow  out  of,  and  are  caused  by,  the  differences  in 
the  interests  of  the  two  classes.  The  interests 
of  the  former  are  determined  directly  by  in- 
stinct, those  of  the  latter  more  largely  by  train- 
ing, custom,  and  habituation.  The  attention  of 
the  young  child,  attracted  by  the  things  that 
interest  him,  is  given  at  first  to  brightly  colored 
objects,  loud  sounds,  moving  things,  good 
things  to  eat.  Later  he  attends  to  new  toys, 
feats  of  physical  prowess,  games  involving  skill 
of  one  kind  or  another.  Gradually,  as  his  in- 
stincts develop,  and  he  finds  that  he  derives 


612 


CHILD  PSYCHOLOGY 


CHILD   PSYCHOLOGY 


personal  benefit  from  so  doing,  his  attention 
passes  to  things  considered  more  worth  while 
by  people  in  general,  until  finally  he  comes 
to  attend  to  the  symbols  of  mathematics,  the 
arguments  for  free  tariff,  or  the  methods  needed 
in  making  a  fortune.  The  kind  of  situation 
capable  of  attracting  and  holding  the  attention 
depends  upon  the  instinctive  equipment  of  the 
individual,  but  it  also  depends  upon  his  experi- 
ence. The  things  considered  worthy  of  atten- 
tion by  society  at  large  must  in  some  way  be 
connected  with  some  native  interest  or  instinct. 

Anotiier  characteristic  of  the  immature  mind 
is  its  lack  of  steadiness.  Attention  is  con- 
stantly changing,  rcanaining  focussed  on  an 
object  or  idea  for  a  very  short  period  of  time, 
and  then  moving  on  to  something  else.  The 
child  is  at  the  mercy  of  his  surroundings,  unable 
to  resist  the  attractiveness  of  anything  coming 
within  the  focus  of  consciousness.  With  ex- 
perience and  growtn  two  changes  occur.  First, 
any  one  line  of  thought  is  capable  of  holding  at- 
tention for  an  increasingly  longer  period  of  time, 
because  of  the  greater  possibilities  of  associa- 
tion and  elaboration,  and  second,  the  child 
learns  that  it  is  to  his  advantage  to  overcome 
the  tendency  of  attention  to  shift,  and  to  hold 
it  to  the  task  in  hand,  despite  the  effort  involved. 
Instead  of  requiring  constant  change,  the  child 
gradually  becomes  capable  of  prolonged  periods 
of  activity  along  one  line,  and  that,  perhaps,  one 
formerly  of  little  interest  to  him.  In  other 
words,  as  the  child  grows  older,  his  power  to 
give  attention  increases  in  breadth,  strength, 
and  duration. 

The  changes  in  perception  occur  along  three 
lines;  namely,  a  decrease  in  the  proportion  of 
mental  life  that  is  perceptual,  an  increase  in  the 
clearness  of  percepts,  and  a  narrowing  of  the  field 
of  perception.  The  young  child  is  essentially 
sensory  and  motor,  therefore  his  mental  life 
must  be  made  up  very  largely  of  percepts.  As 
he  grows  in  experience,  the  higher  mental  states 
increase  in  proportion,  for,  instead  of  allowing 
his  attention  to  be  ever  drifting  from  one  sen- 
sory experience  to  the  next,  he  fixes  it  on  one  and 
holds  it  there  for  an  increasingly  longer  period 
of  time.  This  fixing  and  holding  of  attention 
by  one  sensory  experience  to  the  exclusion  of 
others  must  involve  the  use  of  other  mental 
states  and  thus  decrease  the  proportion  of  per- 
cepts. It  is  often  observed  that  a  young  child 
sees  and  hears  much  more  of  his  environment 
than  the  adult  does,  but  of  necessity  the  per- 
cepts gained  in  this  way  must  be  vague,  hazy, 
and  often  inaccurate.  Only  by  fixing  atten- 
tion, comparing,  contrasting,  noticing  details, 
is  full  knowledge  of  the  situation  gained  and 
percepts  made  clear,  definite,  and  accurate. 
The  work  of  many  investigators  emphasizes 
this  increase  in  power  of  discrimination  with 
advancing  age,  showing  that  children  of  16 
do  from  twice  to  three  times  as  well  as  children 
of  6  in  tests  of  power  of  sense  discrimination. 
The  development  of  the  instinctive  interests 


of  the  child,  together  with  the  training  which 
he  receives,  both  tend  to  discourage  and  in- 
hibit general,  indiscriminate  observation,  and 
instead  to  focalize  it  along  certain  definite  lines, 
so  that  perception,  like  all  other  ])arts  of  mental 
life,  tends  to  become  specialized  and  developed 
in  the  directions  in  which  it  is  used.  Thus  the 
older  child  perceives  more  in  some  fields  than 
the  younger  child  does,  the  specific  fields  de- 
pending very  largely  on  the  training  which  he 
receives.  From  an  educational  point  of  view, 
the  need  for  a  broad  sense  experience  for  the 
young  child  cannot  be  overemphasized.  His 
proficiency  in  the  manipulation  of  the  more 
complex  mental  states  is  directly  correlated 
with  the  richness,  clearness,  and  breadth  of  his 
early  sense  perceptions.  The  need  for  develop- 
ing rationally  in  connection  with  daily  experi- 
ences, the  power  to  perceive  his  environment, 
using  all  his  senses  as  needed,  and  then  to  coor- 
dinate and  correlate  these  experiences  with  his 
life  of  thought  and  action,  this  is  of  paramount 
importance,  and  comprises  a  large  part  of  the 
school  education  of  the  child  under  10. 

In  mental  imagery  the  two  chief  differences 
between  children  and  adults  are  in  the  vividness 
of  the  image  and  in  the  kind  of  image  used  most 
frequently.  It  is  a  common  occurrence  for  the 
young  child  to  confuse  the  productive,  creative 
image  of  his  play  life  with  his  memories  of 
actual  experiences.  The  numbers  of  children 
under  8  years  of  age  who  have  imaginary 
companions  confirm  this  tendency.  From 
the  adult  point  of  view,  the  child  is  often  telling 
a  lie,  but  probably  a  large  projiortion  of  the 
lies  told  by  children  of  this  age  are  due  to  a 
real  confusion.  This  confusion  arises  from  two 
causes,  —  the  great  vividness  and  reality  of 
the  child's  play  life,  and  the  lack  on' his  )iart  of 
a  consciousness  of  the  need  of  distinguishing 
between  it  and  the  realm  of  real  life.  Experi- 
ence and  the  training  of  the  percejjtive  powers 
usually  correct  this  difficulty. 

The  second  difference,  that  of  the  kind  of  men- 
tal image  used  frequently,  is  of  more  importance. 
The  more  immature  the  mind,  tlie  greater  the 
likelihood  that  it  will  deal  with  images  of  con- 
crete experiences,  with  possibly  the  visual  im- 
age in  excess  of  the  other  types.  Maturity 
plus  experience  tend  to  increase  the  value  of  the 
less  concrete  and  faithful  images.  The  child 
thinks  in  terms  of  the  concrete  object  or  sound, 
whereas  the  adult  uses  some  symbol  standing 
for  and  representing  the  experience.  A  step 
in  this  progress  from  concrete  to  more  abstract 
image  is  probal)ly  the  so-called  generic  image, 
which  partakes  of  the  nature  of  each.  The 
ac(iuisition  by  the  child  of  language,  both  in  its 
oral  and  its  written  form,  must  condition  this  de- 
velopment. The  value  of  the  verbal  image  over 
the  concrete  in  certain  cases  is  very  great.  It 
is  more  convenient,  saves  time,  is  more  accurate, 
and  is  more  universal,  but  the  child  only  dis- 
covers this  after  a  prolonged  exiicrience  with 
perceptual    language.     Functionally,    the    con- 


613 


CHILD  PSYCHOLOGY 


CHILD   PSYCHOLOGY 


Crete  image  seems  of  little  use,  the  original  ex- 
perience, and  the  symbol,  verbal  or  otherwise, 
which  stands  for  it  being  the  important  ele- 
ments. 

Education,  then,  should  see  to  it  that  the 
child  has  clear,  definite  percepts,  and  then  that 
the  most  convenient  symbols  are  firmly  welded 
to  them,  that  the  images  of  symbols  to  be 
used  in  later  life  may  have  a  rich  reference  to 
concrete  experience.  Also  it  should  encourage 
the  natural  creative  imagery  of  the  child  along 
profitable  lines,  making  possible  for  him  the 
reconstruction  of  his  environment  as  well  as 
the  adjustment  to  it. 

The  changes  which  take  place  in  a  child's 
memory  with  advancing  years  are  unmistak- 
able. Their  cause  is  probably  complex.  Power 
in  immediate  memory  increases  up  to  about 
15  years  of  age,  and  then  remains  stationary. 
Power  in  logical  memory  increases  in  a  greater 
proportion  than  power  in  desultory  memory. 
The  changes  taking  place  in  attention,  interest, 
and  perception  probably  account  for  this  im- 
provement, in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  primary 
retentive  power  of  the  brain  increases  little  or 
none,  or  possibly  even  decreases  with  age.  The 
ability  to  concentrate  the  attention  and  the 
repetition  of  experiences,  both  of  which  come 
with  growth,  tend  to  fix  the  material.  The 
broadening  and  the  correlation  of  experiences, 
and  therefore  the  increase  in  number  and  in 
organization  of  the  associations,  also  tend  to 
hold  facts  in  mind,  which  in  earher  years  would 
not  have  remained.  Logical  memory  is  affected 
more  than  desultory  memory,  because  all  of 
these  changes  resulting  in  improvement  of  the 
function  influence  the  former,  while  only  some 
of  them  influence  the  latter.  Any  change  in  the 
kind  of  experience  attended  to  will  necessitate 
a  change  in  the  material  remembered.  Hence, 
changes  in  interests  are  paralleled  by  corre- 
sponding changes  in  memory,  the  development 
being  from  the  concrete,  sensory,  and  motor 
to  the  more  abstract  and  relational  elements  of 
situations.  The  methods  used  in  educating  the 
memories  of  children  must  take  into  considera- 
tion and  be  molded  by  these  factors.  The  things 
worth  remembering  must  be  attended  to  by 
the  child,  and  associated  with  other  experiences 
in  a  systematic  way.  The  emphasis  should  be 
on  mental  activity  on  the  part  of  the  child, 
resulting  in  organization,  rather  than  on  mere 
impression  from  without.  The  value  of  corre- 
lation of  subject  matter,  the  need  of  time  for 
assimilation  and  reorganization  of  systems,  as 
well  as  the  varying  importance,  at  different  ages, 
of  the  other  factors  influencing  memory,  all  add 
to  the  complexity  of  the  problem  of  education 
in  the  field. 

Most  students  of  adult  psychology,  and  prac- 
tically all  students  of  children,  agree  that  the 
higher  processes  of  thinking  and  reasoning  are 
not  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  mature  mind, 
but  that  children,  at  least  those  of  school  age, 
also  use  them.    The  difference  between  the  two 


is  not  in  the  absence  of  these  processes,  but  in  the 
accuracy  of  their  manipulation  and  in  the  fre- 
quency with  which  they  are  used.  The  inac- 
curacy of  the  results  of  the  reasoning  of  children 
is  due  to  several  causes.  Reasoning  and  think- 
ing require  the  use  of  relationships,  meanings, 
and  judgments,  as  well  as  feelings  of  concrete 
experiences.  These  mental  states  are  the  re- 
sult of  growth  and  experience,  and  their  num- 
ber, definiteness,  and  accuracy  will  condition 
the  thinking  power  of  the  child.  Lacking  cer- 
tain knowledge  of  relationships  or  meanings, 
through  lack  of  experience,  the  child's  thinking 
must  be  inaccurate,  despite  the  presence  of  the 
necessary  technique.  The  characteristics  of 
his  attention  and  memory  also  help  to  explain 
the  inaccuracy  of  results  when  he  reasons. 
In  reasoning  and  thinking  one  must  follow  con- 
sistently and  closely  a  train  of  related  thoughts. 
This  requires  power  of  concentration  of  atten- 
tion and  organization  of  facts.  The  child 
lacks  ability  in  both  lines.  His  mind  wanders 
from  the  problem  because  of  lack  of  attention,  or 
he  gets  sidetracked  because  of  lack  of  organiza- 
tion,—  in  either  case  a  wrong  conclusion  may  be 
the  result.  His  lack  of  skill  in  using  language  is 
also  a  drawback,  for  he  mu.st  use  symbols,  not 
concrete  imagery,  in  much  of  his  reasoning. 
The  fact  that  he  often  tends  to  use  the  concrete 
whole,  instead  of  the  essential  relationship  or 
aspect,  results  in  the  reasoning  by  analogy, 
which  is  a  characteristic  of  immature  minds. 
This  power  to  think  in  terms  of  parts  or  ele- 
ments or  aspects  of  a  situation  is  conditioned 
by  the  child's  ability  to  analyze.  Power  to 
analyze  is  a  later  development  than  power  to 
associate,  and  comes  only  with  much  practice. 
The  fact  that  the  adult  reasons  more  often  than 
the  child  is  probably  not  due  so  much  to  a  dif- 
ference in  power,  as  to  a  difference  in  the  de- 
mands made  upon  him.  His  environment  does 
not  encourage  the  child  to  reason,  for  usually 
no  responsibility  is  allowed  to  rest  upon  him. 
In  fact,  he  gets  on  much  more  comfortably 
when  he  does  not  attempt  to  think  for  himself, 
but  simply  does  and  believes  what  he  is  told. 
The  receptive,  submissive  attitude  is  tlie  one 
considered  to  be  characteristic  of  the  child  mind, 
and  hence  everything  is  arranged  to  encourage 
it.  The  adult,  thrown  on  his  own  responsibility, 
forced  by  circumstances  to  take  the  initiative, 
reasons  more  frequently,  but  even  he  really 
thinks  but  seldom,  and  then  only  when  he  is 
forced  to  do  so  by  the  pressure  of  some  problem 
whose  .solution  is  vital  to  his  wellbeing.  The 
broader  and  the  more  sy.stematized  his  percep- 
tual experiences,  the  greater  his  control  of  the 
higher  mental  states  and  language,  the  greater 
his  power  of  attention,  the  greater  his  practice 
in  dealing  with  problems  pertinent  to  his  every- 
day life,  the  greater  will  he  the  child's  power  of 
reasoning  and  reasoning  well.  Education  that 
is  definitely  planned  to  do  so  can  aid  develop- 
ment along  each  of  these  lines. 

The  emotional  life  of  the  child  differs  but 


614 


GHILD   PSYCHOLOGY 


CHILD  STUDY 


little  from  that  of  the  adult.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  emotions  connected  with  sexual  de- 
velopment, all  the  emotions  experienced  by  the 
adult  are  experienced  by  the  child,  but  in  a 
cruder  and  more  elementary  form.  There  is 
less  inhibition  by  the  child  of  the  physical  con- 
comitants of  the  emotions,  and  therefore  they 
often  appear,  probably  wrongly,  to  be  more  in- 
tense than  those  of  the  adult.  They  certainly 
are  more  transitory,  due  probably  to  the  rapid 
change  in  the  focus  of  attention.  The  emotions 
of  chiklhood,  correlating  as  clo.sely  as  they  do 
with  the  instincts,  are  less  comi)lex  tlian  those 
of  adult  life,  with  its  mixture  of  motives,  in- 
fluence of  custom  as  well  as  the  presence  of  the 
sex  emotions.  The  duty  of  education  is  to  in- 
hibit the  emotions  that  are  harmful  to  the  in- 
dividual or  to  the  race;  to  encourage  those  that 
are  uplifting,  and  to  connect  them  strongly  with 
conduct;  to  develop  true  self-control  on  the 
part  of  the  child  rather  than  mere  repression; 
and  to  connect  an  emotional  tone  with  the  ideals, 
which  are  an  outgrowth  of  productive  imagina- 
tion, in  order  that  they  may  be  of  functional 
value. 

The  child  cannot  be  considered  as  either 
truly  religious  or  truly  moral.  His  condition  is 
best  described  b\'  the  terms  "unmoral"  and  "un- 
religious,"  although  the  basis  of  true  religion 
and  true  morality  must  be  laid  in  childhood. 
The  springs  of  each  are  to  be  found  in  those  gen- 
eral and  indefinite  instincts  which  are  pecul- 
iarly human,  and  which  have  to  do  with  the 
child'.s  relation  to  his  fellows  and  to  his  God. 
Lacking  the  power  of  effective  deliberate 
choice  in  matters  of  conduct,  because  of  the 
paramount  power  of  the  cruder  forms  of  the 
instinct  of  self-preservation  and  the  paucity 
of  true  ideals,  the  essential  element  in  both 
morality  and  religion  is  lacking.  The  child's 
morality  and  religion  are  largely  but  reflections 
of  the  attitude  of  those  around  him  and  the 
result  of  actions  which  have  brought  him  satis- 
faction. His  standards  of  right  and  wrong  are 
purely  personal,  determined  by  the  results  of 
his  actions,  and  therefore  dependent  on  his  im- 
mediate surroundings. 

Education  should  help  the  child  to  form 
habits  that  later  will  have  a  moral  or  a  religious 
reference.  It  should  encourage  him  to  act 
always  from  the  highest  possible  motive,  not 
from  any  abstract,  adult  reason,  but  because 
it  pays,  exercising  reason  and  choice  in  these 
directions  as  truly  as  in  any  other.  It  .should 
give  him  definite  knowledge  of  the  field  of  re- 
ligion and  morality  which  is  suited  to  his  stage 
of  devcloiJinent.  It  should  encourage  tlie 
formation  of  ideals  of  right  conduct  which 
function.  From  the  point  of  view  of  conduct 
the  ages  from  3  to  12  are  preeminently  the 
years  for  the  formation  of  habits.  As  men- 
tal life  is  of  value  as  it  influences  conduct,  it 
follows  that  this  too  is  the  i)eriod  for  the  forma- 
tion of  mental  habits.  The  control  of  instincts 
means  but  the  formation  of  habits  of  inhibi- 


tion of  some  and  of  modification  and  strength- 
ening of  others.  The  changes  in  interest  and 
attention  are  due  largely  to  the  formation  of 
habits  along  certain  lines.  The  development  in 
perception  and  memory  is  caused  by  habitua- 
tion in  directions  that  result  in  economy  of 
effort  and  ability  to  satisfy  the  increasing  de- 
mands of  environment.  Even  power  to  rea- 
son well  is  conditioned  by  habits  of  thought. 
The  selection  and  fixation  of  useful  habits 
along  all  lines  of  motor  and  mental  action 
seems  to  be  the  most  fruitful  line  of  develop- 
ment during  childhood.  And  yet  care  nmst  be 
taken  that  the  habits  do  not  become  too  iron- 
bound,  but  that  from  them  is  evolved  the  princi- 
ple or  ideal  needed  to  make  conduct  rational  in 
order  that  adaptation  to  new  conditions  lie  pos- 
sible. These  principles  and  ideals,  of  such  vital 
worth  to  the  adult,  are  possible  only  after  the 
concrete  indi\'idual  habits,  whether  of  thought 
or  action,  have  been  formed.  Childhood  is  the 
time  to  lay  this  foundation.  N.  N. 

For  detailed  information  on  the  various  topics, 
see  the  articles  on  Acquired  C'h.\k.\cteristics; 
Attention;  IVIemory;  Moral  Education,  etc. 

References:  — 
D.twsON,  G.  E.     The  Child  and  his  Religion.     (Chicago, 

1909.) 
H.\LL,  G.  S.      Youlh.      (New  York.  1906.) 
KiRKPATRicK,    E.    A.     Fundamvnlals    of   Child   Study. 

(New  York,  1903.) 
Genetic  Psychology.      (New  York,  1909.) 
O'Shea,  M.  V.     Linguistic  Development  and  Education. 

(New  York.  1907.) 
RowE.  S.  H.      The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child.      (New 

York,  1S96.) 
The  Pedagogical  Seminary. 
The  Psychological  Clinic. 
Thorndike,  E.  L.     Notes  on  Child  Study.     (New  York, 

1903.) 
Travis,  T.     The  Young  Malefactor.     (New  York,  1908.) 
Warner,    F.      The    Study    of    Children.      (New    York, 

1898.) 

CHILD  STUDY.  —  Sometimes  called  Pai- 
dology,  or  Child  Psychology;  it  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin,  although  some  knowledge 
of  child  characteristics  has  been  possessed 
wherever  there  have  been  parents  and  schools. 

Historical.  —  Until  recent  times,  however,  most 
parents  and  teachers  have  been  so  occujiied  with 
the  adult  idea  of  what  children  should  liecome 
that  they  have  attached  little  imiiortance  to 
what  they  really  are.  Naturally,  therefore, 
little  was  done  in  the  way  of  investigation.  In 
the  last  quarter  of  a  century  knowledge  of 
children  has  steadily  grown  under  the  in- 
fluence of  increased  emjihasis  by  educational 
leaders  upon  the  dilTerences  between  children 
and  adults,  and  the  necessity  of  recognizing 
the.se  differences;  and  under  the  influence  of 
evolutionary  theory  which  calls  attention  to 
the  transitions  from  lower  to  higher  forms  and 
emphasizes  the  importance  of  studying  the 
earlier  phases  of  development  in  order  to 
understand  the  later.  These  two  influences, 
together  with  increased  interest  in  man  and 
new  methods   of  studying   him,  especially  on 


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CHILD   STUDY 


the  mental  side,  have  given  a  strong  impulse  to 
the  study  of  children,  and  resulted  in  the  ac- 
cumulation of  a  large  mass  of  information  of 
greater  or  less  scientific  and  practical  value. 

As  knowledge  of  mental  development  has  in- 
creased, child  study  has  become  differentiated 
into  two  branches  of  knowledge,  Child  Study 
and  Genetic  Psychology  (q.v.).  The  latter 
represents  the  broader  and  more  scientific 
phase  of  the  subject,  and  includes  a  considera- 
tion of  the  development  of  mind  in  animals  and 
in  the  human  race,  while  the  former,  though 
foundeii  on  the  same  principles  as  the  latter,  is 
limited  to  the  consideration  of  the  development 
of  human  beings  from  infancy  to  maturity. 
Child  study  has  always  included  a  study  of  facts 
of  physical  development,  and  it  is  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  chilli's  physiological  development 
that  the  most  definite  results  have  been  at- 
tained. Of  the  earlier  leaders  in  child  stud_v, 
the  three  best  known  are  the  following: 
Darwin  {q.v.)  in  England,  who  observed  his  in- 
fant son  with  the  same  interest  and  accuracy 
that  he  showed  in  studying  plants  and  animals; 
Preyer  in  Germany,  who  with  the  training  of  a 
scientific  physiologist  and  psychologist  prepared 
a  two- volume  study  of  the  first  3  years'  develop- 
ment of  his  boy;  and  G.  Stanley  Hall  in  America, 
who  has  directed  extensive,  statistical  studies 
of  children  and  has  stimulated  others  to  work 
in  popular  and  scientific  child  study,  both  in 
America  and  to  some  extent  in  other  countries. 
At  one  time  a  wave  of  popular  interest  spread 
over  the  country  and  many  local  and  state 
child  study  societies  were  formed  and  a  great 
variety  of  outlines  prepared  for  the  study  of 
children  by  teachers  and  parents  for  practical 
and  scientific  purposes.  ]\Iany  of  these  socie- 
ties have  ceased  to  exist,  and  it  is  now  generally 
recognized  that  parents  and  teachers  cannot  be 
expected  to  make  scientific  investigations,  but 
that  they  can  profit  greatly  by  the  researches 
of  scientists,  and  they  may  with  proper  direction 
collect  data  of  value  to  specialists.  Although 
the  societies  directly  concerned  in  promoting 
the  study  of  children  are  less  numerous  than 
formerly,  the  interest  in  children  as  children, 
and  not  simply  as  future  adults,  is  much  greater 
than  ever  before.  This  is  strikingly  indicated 
by  the  fact  that,  whereas  a  score  of  years  ago 
stories  in  which  children  were  the  chief  charac- 
ters were  almost  unknown  in  popular  magazines 
for  adults,  they  are  now  found  in  almost  every 
issue.  The  subject  of  child  study  is  now  a  part 
of  the  course  of  study  in  every  progressive  in- 
stitution engaged  in  the  training  of  teachers. 
Physiologists  and  psychologists  are  also  inter- 
ested in  studying  children  as  a  means  of  de- 
veloping a  more  complete  knowledge  of  their 
particular  sciences.  In  educational  adminis- 
tration and  in  sociology,  problems  of  childhood 
are  now  receiving  a  great  deal  of  attention. 
Child  labor,  compulsory  education,  truancy, 
delinquency,  playgrounds,  defects,  deficiencies, 
and  abnormalities  of  children,  juvenile  courts, 


health  movements,  etc.,  all  bring  into  the  fore- 
ground the  importance  of  more  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  child  nature  and  the  conditions  favoring 
normal,  healthful  development. 

The  educational  theories  that  helped  to  start 
child  study  investigations  have  been  developed 
into  a  more  definite  body  of  knowledge,  which  is 
greatly  modifying  the  science  and  art  of  educa- 
tion. The  old  idea,  that  children  are  to  be 
treated  as  undeveloped  adults,  and  that  they 
should  be  made  into  adults  in  all  their  charac- 
teristics as  soon  as  possible,  has  given  place 
to  the  established  fact  that  children  are  different 
in  all  their  physical  and  mental  characteristics 
from  adults.  The  generalizations  of  child 
study  have  materially  modified  courses  of  study 
and  methods  of  teaching.  The  kind  antl  amount 
of  work  to  be  done  has  been  modified  so  as 
to  conform  more  closely  to  the  child's  natural 
interests  and  ability  at  different  ages,  and  more 
emphasis  has  been  placed  upon  the  child's 
physical,  mental,  and  moral  development  at 
each  age,  and  less  upon  the  acquisition  of  knowl- 
edge and  skill  suited  to  adult  life. 

Methods.  —  In  studying  children,  one  or 
more  children  may  be  studied  intensively 
through  a  long  period  of  time  so  as  to  deter- 
mine the  changes  that  take  place  with  increased 
age;  or  a  large  number  of  children  of  different 
ages  may  be  compared  by  means  of  measure- 
ments and  tests  and  the  common  characteristics 
of  each  age  determined  statistically.  Neither 
method  alone  is  sufficient;  each  suiiplements 
and  corrects  the  other.  To  the  difficulties 
attending  all  psychological  investigations  are 
added  many  others  when  children  are  the  sub- 
jects. In  obtaining  facts  by  means  of  obser- 
vation, parents  have  the  best  opportunity  to 
observe  children  in  their  various  moods  under 
normal  circumstances,  but  the  observations  of 
parents  are  likely  to  be  lacking  in  definiteness 
and  accuracy.  Specialists  may  make  more 
accurate  observation,  but  their  opportunities 
are  not  so  good  and  much  time  is  required  for 
the  child  to  become  used  to  the  strange  ob- 
server. In  studying  children  by  means  of 
tests  and  experiments  like  difficulties  appear. 
Children  are  so  suggestible  and  so  easily  thrown 
into  unfavorable  attitudes  by  the  new  situa- 
tion and  the  demand  that  they  follow  direc- 
tions, that  results  vary  greatlv  with  each 
group  with  varying  conditions  and  with  the 
personality  of  the  investigator.  Even  i)hysical 
measurements,  such  as  determination  of  chest 
expansion,  vary  greatly  with  the  amount  and 
kind  of  psychological  stimulus  given  by  the 
one  making  the  measurements.  No  studies 
carried  on  bj'  means  of  language  can  be  made 
in  the  case  of  very  young  children,  and  even 
with  older  ones  the  chances  of  understanding 
what  is  wanted  and  of  inexact  and  inadequate 
expression  on  the  part  of  the  children  are 
much  greater  where  language  is  involved  than 
in  the  case  of  adults.  Hence  the  questionnaire 
method  must  be  used  with  great  care. 


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The  successive  changes  from  infantile  char- 
acter to  tliose  of  cliildhood,  youtli,  and 
manhood  are  not  wholly  the  result  of  external 
influences,  but  depend  upon  internal  tend- 
encies which  lead  to  development  in  a  cer- 
tain way  only  slightly  less  inevitable  than 
that  by  which  a  grain  of  corn  develops  blades, 
stalk,  tassel,  silk,  and  ear  in  the  order  named, 
rather  than  in  a  reverse  order.  Just  what 
the  order  of  development  in  a  child  is  and 
how  far  it  corresponds  to  the  order  in  which 
the  race  has  developed  has  not  as  yet  been 
determined  in  detail.     (See  Culture  Epoch.) 

General  Results.  —  The  child  has  so  many 
characteristics,  some  of  which  change  at  one 
time  and  some  at  another,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  sunmiarize  clearly  the  chief  facts  of  his  de- 
velopment. Physically,  the  child  grows  very 
rapidly  at  first,  then  from  about  5  to  12  at  a 
nearly  uniform  rate.  This  is  followed  by  a 
period  of  accelerated  growth,  which  after  two 
or  three  years  decreases  gradually  till  maturity 
is  reached.  The  jjcriod  of  more  rapitl  growth 
is  not  the  same  for  height  as  for  weiglit,  and  is 
not  the  same  for  one  part  of  the  boily  as  for 
another.  (See  Growth.)  In  movements,  the 
chief  change  is  not  in  number,  but  in  definite- 
ness,  accuracy,  comple.xity,  and  coordination  of 
many  parts  of  the  body  for  specific  ends. 
Reflex  and  instinctive  movements  arc  replaced 
by  habitual  mo\'ements,  and  random  move- 
ments by  specific  voluntary  acts. 

Consciousness  is  at  first  an  observer  rather 
than  a  director  of  behavior,  and  only  gradually 
do  the  different  mental  states  become  clearly 
defined.  The  instinctive  emotions  are  early 
differentiated,  and  later  the  sentiments  are 
developed.  All  forms  of  intellectual  develop- 
ment take  place  at  once,  but  perception  of 
things  present  is  most  prominent  for  the  first 
6  years,  then  imagination  of  things  not  i)rcsent, 
and  finally  conceptual  thinking.  In  acquiring 
the  power  to  gain  desired  ends  there  is  always 
shown  a  great  deal  more  activity  than  is  neces- 
sary, and  only  gradually  are  short-cut  methods 
of  doing  things  acquired.  These  improved 
methods  develop  largely  in  a  negative  way, 
through  dropi)ing  out  of  movements  and  at- 
tentive acts  which  do  not  lead  to  the  end 
desired.  Later,  positive  development  takes 
place  through  conscious  and  voluntary  empha- 
sis upon  the  more  ad\antageous  movements, 
and  by  imitation.  In  the  transition  from  play 
to  work,  from  free,  wasteful,  .slightly  directed 
activity  to  restricted,  economical  direction  of 
activity  to  the  attainment  of  an  end,  games 
which  are  pleasurable  but  which  retjuire  the 
direction  of  activity  according  to  rules  are  an 
important  factor. 

In  the  early  years  nearly  all  the  learning  of 
the  infant  is  by  the  method  of  trial  and  success, 
while  the  child  in  the  next  stage  makes  his 
most  rapid  progress  through  the  more  economi- 
cal method  of  imitation,  in  the  use  of  which 
he  profits  by  the  experience  of  others.     After 


the  child  has  learned  a  language  and  attained 
a  considerable  degree  of  representative  and 
conceptual  development,  he  readily  learns  by 
the  ideational  methoil  wliat  he  cannot  learn  by 
experience  or  by  observation  of  others.  The 
most  conspicuous  defect  of  method  in  all 
schools,  which  child  study  is  correcting,  is  that 
of  too  early  and  too  great  emphasis  ujjon  the 
ideational  method  of  learning. 

In  the  light  of  the  general  truths  already 
established,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  the  per- 
son who  has  the  characteristics  of  each  age 
well  brought  out  will  ultimately  attain  a 
higher  type  of  adulthood  than  one  who  is 
made  to  take  on  as  rapidly  as  possible  adult 
characteristics. 

Physical  Defects.  —  The  study  of  children  has 
establi.shcd  very  clearly  the  truth  that  physical 
and  mental  development  are  closely  correlated, 
and  that  physical  defects,  especially  of  certain 
kinds,  are  sometimes  more  influential  than  all 
the  mental  influences  that  can  be  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  child.  Aside  from  general  ill 
health  the  physical  deficiencies  that  most  fre- 
quently retard  or  prevent  the  normal  mental 
clevelopment  of  children  are  nervousness, 
sense  defects,  and  adenoids  (q.v.).  The  nervous 
child  is  in  general  lacking  in  power  to  control 
his  movements  and  his  thoughts  and  emotions. 
His  responses  to  sensory  and  emotional  stimuli 
are  excessive,  so  that  he  is  easily  made  to 
jump,  laugh,  or  cry.  He  fatigues  easily, 
partly  because  he  gives  out  more  energy  than 
is  necessary,  and  partly  because  he  has  little 
or  no  reserve  energy.  When  fatigued,  his 
nervousness  increases.  A  child  who  is  restless 
before  recess  and  quiet  after  vigorous  play  is 
not  nervous,  while  the  one  who  is  more  fidgety 
after  recess  probably  is  nervous.  Sometimes 
a  child  who  is  simply  lacking  in  nervous  force 
shows  no  sign  of  nervousness  until  he  is  fatigued. 
One  of  the  most  common  and  disturbing  forms 
of  nervousness,  usually  known  as  St.  Vitus's 
Dance  (q.v.)  is,  if  properly  treated,  not  serious 
in  its  effects  upon  inent;  1  development.  In 
its  milder  form  there  are  simplj'  irregular 
twitchings  of  tongue,  lips,  facial  muscles,  or 
fingers,  while  in  more  serious  cases  there  may 
be  violent  jerking  and  twitching  in  all  parts 
of  the  body.  The  disease  is  common  in 
primary  and  intermediate  grades,  and  is  es- 
pecially common  in  girls  at  13.  Attacks  are 
most  fre(iuent  in  the  sjiring,  and  often  last 
about  8  weeks.  The  chief  remedy  is  as  com- 
])lete  rest  as  possible,  with  nourishing  food  and 
no  fright  or  worrv  whatever.  If  home  condi- 
tions are  at  all  favoral)le,  the  child  should  never 
be  in  school  for  his  own  good  and  still  more 
for  the  good  of  the  scliool,  becau.se  all  forms 
of  nervousness  are  as  catching  as  any  infectious 
disease.  Stammering,  a  hesitancy  in  speech, 
and  stuttering  and  irregularity  in  the  action 
of  the  vocal  organs  may  be  regarded  as  forms 
of  nervousness.  Tiiere  is  lack  of  coiirdination 
in  the  various  muscles  involved  in  speech,  and 


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sometimes  spasmodic  contraction  of  some  of 
them.  The  condition  is  increased  by  excite- 
ment or  self-consciousness,  hence  these  should 
be  guarded  against  as  much  as  possible.  Sing- 
ing and  concert  repetition  are  helpful,  but 
severe  cases  yield  only  to  special  treatment  by 
an  e.\pert.  Adenoids  are  more  or  less  ab- 
normal growths  at  the  back  part  of  the  nose 
where  it  opens  into  the  throat,  that  i)artly  and 
sometimes  wholly  close  the  openings  so  that 
breathing  must  be  carried  on  wholly  or  in  part 
through  the  mouth.  This  is  a  very  common 
disease,  especially  in  the  primary  grades,  though 
if  not  attended  to  then,  the  severer  cases  will 
be  found  in  higher  grades.  It  is  essentially  a 
children's  disease,  as  the  growths  dry  up  and 
atrophy  in  most  cases  before  maturity  is 
reached.  The  effects  of  adenoids  may,  how- 
ever, last  all  through  life. 

Sense  defects  of  any  kind  place  a  child  at  a 
disadvantage,  and  unless  he  is  able  in  spite  of 
this  handicap  to  keep  up  with  his  mates  in 
school  for  the  first  year  or  two,  they  produce 
increasing  retardation.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
he  is  able  to  acquire  the  same  knowledge  as 
other  children  during  the  first  two  or  three 
years,  he  is  likely  to  progress  as  well  as  normal 
children  after  that.  This  is  why  children  with 
sense  defects,  especially  auditory,  are  often 
either  very  backward  or  very  bright.  After  a 
child  has  gained  a  fairly  accurate  perceptive 
knowledge  of  things  and  has  acquired  an  audi- 
tory and  visual  language,  his  further  mental 
development  can  proceed  quite  well,  even 
though  the  sense  organs  are  defective.  Aside 
from  the  handicap  in  manual  and  intellectual 
activities,  caused  by  sense  defects,  they  may 
seriously  affect  a  child's  health  or  his  character. 
The  fir-st  more  often  results  from  defects  in 
sight,  and  the  second  from  defects  in  hearing. 
If  the  child  can  see,  but  only  by  a  much  greater 
effort  than  normal  children,  headache,  ner- 
vousness, and  other  disorders  frequently  result. 
The  child  who  cannot  hear  well  is  frequently 
misjudged  by  the  teacher  and  treated  in  ways 
that  render  him  indifferent,  stupid,  sullen,  or 
resentful.  It  is  unquestionably  a  fact  that 
even  the  brightest  and  most  observant  teacher 
in  the  course  of  ordinary  school  work,  where 
her  attention  is  directed  toward  intellectual 
rather  than  sensory  activities  of  children,  may 
fail  to  discover  very  pronounced  sense  defects. 
Such  a  teacher,  and  also  others  less  acute,  can, 
however,  by  making  a  special  test  of  the  con- 
dition of  sense  organs,  easily  discover  all  the 
serious  cases.  Such  tests  should  be  made 
every  year  upon  all  except  perhaps  first-grade 
children,  and  parents  should  be  notified  when 
necessary  that  an  expert  should  be  consulted. 

Child  study  has  led  also  to  increased  criticism 
of  the  graded  system  in  education,  and  to 
numerous  attempts  to  improve  it  and  adapt 
the  work  more  fully  to  individual  needs. 
Careful  measurements  show  that  from  70  to 
85  per  cent  of  the  pupils  in  a  grade  can  be 


comfortably  seated  in  standard  seats  that  are 
not  adjustable,  but  to  insure  proper  seating 
most  progressive  schools  have  the  room  com- 
pletely furnished  with  individually  adjustable 
seats.  (See  Desks.)  About  the  same  pro- 
portion of  children  can  probably  be  successfully 
educated  by  class  methods  in  regular  grades, 
while  the  others  need  cither  special  classes  or 
individual  instruction. 

Instincts.  —  The  instinctive  tendencies  of 
children,  it  is  now  generally  recognized,  give 
them  their  fundamental  characteristics  and 
determine  to  a  considerable  extent  each  stage 
of  their  development. 

Children  have  all  the  types  of  instincts  com- 
mon to  animals,  along  with  a  number  of  others 
that  arc  either  absent  or  of  slight  importance 
in  animals  lower  in  the  scale  than  man.  These 
instincts  may  be  grouped  as  follows  on  the 
basis  of  use.  (1)  Self-preservative  or  individ- 
ualistic instincts,  which  include  all  native 
tendencies  to  action  that  contribute  primarily 
to  the  preservation  of  the  individual.  These 
are  concerned  especially  with  (a)  feeding  or 
getting  and  taking  of  food,  (6)  fearing  or  avoid- 
ing and  escaping  danger,  and  (c)  fighting  or 
struggling  with  enemies  or  mates  for  supremacy. 
(2)  Group  or  parental  instincts,  which  impel  to 
acts  by  which  the  species  is  propagated  and 
preserved.  These  are  shown  in  two  forms: 
(a)  acts  connected  with  the  production  of 
young,  and  (6)  caring  for  them  during  a  longer 
or  a  shorter  period.  (3)  Group  or  social  in- 
stincts, which  include  actions  that  tend  pri- 
marily to  the  preservation  of  the  group  to 
which  the  individual  belongs.  (4)  Adaptive 
instincts,  wliich  impel  the  individual  to  actions 
that  develop  him  for  reacting  succes.sfully  to 
whatever  situations  he  may  meet.  The  chief 
ways  in  which  instincts  of  this  type  manifest 
themselves  are  in  the  form  of  (a)  play,  {b)  imi- 
tation, (c)  curiosity.  (5)  Regulative  instincts, 
whose  function  is  to  dominate  and  harmonize 
action  so  that  reactions  shall  be  less  prompt 
and  more  consi.stent.  These  instincts,  if  in- 
stincts they  be  (their  instinctive  character  is 
disputed),  are  manifested  in  two  principal 
forms,  (a)  moral  and  (6)  religious  impulses, 
the  first  impelling  to  action  in  harmony  with 
other  persons  and  the  second  to  acts  in  harmony 
with  a  superior  power.  The  a'sthetic  instinct 
might  be  placed  with  these  as  being  norma- 
tive and  to  some  extent  regulative. 

The  first  two  classes  of  instincts,  the  indi- 
vidualistic and  the  parental,  are  of  the  same 
general  character  and  strength  in  animal  and 
in  man,  the  third  and  fourth,  the  group  and 
adaptive  instincts,  are  much  more  prominent 
in  man  than  in  animals,  while  the  last  cla.ss, 
the  regulative,  are  shown  to  only  a  very  slight 
extent  in  even  the  highest  animals.  The  bio- 
logical value  of  these  instincts  in  preserving 
life  decreases  for  the  different  classes  in  the 
order  named,  while  their  intellectual  value  in 
developing  the  mind  increases  in  the  same  order. 


618 


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There  are  many  instincts,  such  as  teasing, 
collecting,  constructing,  expressing,  that  are  the 
outgrowth  of  other  instincts  and  contribute  to 
several  ends.  Every  instinct  gives  rise  to 
emotions  of  a  certain  type,  makes  certain  as- 
sociated ideas  prominent  in  consciousness,  and 
impels  to  certain  kinds  of  acts,  even  when 
those  acts  arc  deliberative  rather  than  impul- 
sive; hence  they  are  im])ortant  factors  in  emo- 
tional and  volitional  development  as  well  as  iu 
intellectual.  All  of  these  instincts,  except  the 
parental,  manifest  themselves  at  an  early  age 
in  children,  but  some  are  more  prominent  at 
certain  ages  than  at  others,  and  this  is  one  of 
the  chief  reasons  why  children  have  different 
interests  at  different  ages.  Individual  differ- 
ences in  children,  not  produced  by  external 
causes,  are  due  to  a  large  extent  to  the  differ- 
ences in  the  relative  strength  of  the  various 
instinctive  tendencies  as  determined  by  he- 
redity and  by  individual  native  endowment. 
Slight  native  differences  lead  to  marked  differ- 
ences in  later  life,  even  when  the  child  is  sub- 
jected to  nearly  the  same  influences,  because 
all  the  instincts  are  readily  developed  by  exer- 
cise and  may  easily  be  associated  with  differ- 
ent types  of  acts.  Weaker  instincts  are  also 
suppressed  or  dominated  by  the  stronger, 
hence,  those  that  attain  strength  are  extraordi- 
narily powerful  in  determining  character. 

Stages  of  Development.  —  Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  arrange  the  development 
of  human  beings  into  stages  or  periods,  but 
the  stages  shade  into  each  other  and  their 
most  prominent  phases  do  not  appear  at  the 
same  time  in  different  children.  All  naming 
of  stages  of  development  also  necessarilj'  em- 
phasizes certain  phases  of  development  and 
partially  or  wholly  ignores  others.  It  is  best 
to  emphasize  the  more  distinctly  human  char- 
acteristics, which  are  social  and  psychic,  and 
trace  the  development  of  a  conscious  person- 
ality in  response  to  a  human  environment. 
This  gives  us  the  following  periods:  (1)  the 
objective  and  instinctive  stage  of  the  first  year, 
in  wliii'h  social  influences  play  a  comparatively 
small  part  in  the  child's  development  and  dur- 
ing which  his  behavior  is  quite  comparable 
with  tiiat  of  animals.  At  the  close  of  this 
period,  he  is  inferior  to  animals  in  his  move- 
ments, but  superior  in  his  intellectual  develop- 
ment to  any  of  the  higher  animals.  (2)  The 
imitative,  socializing  stage  extends  from  1  to 
3  years  of  age.  In  tiiis  period  the  child  comes 
through  imitation  and  language  to  appreciate 
to  some  extent  the  mental  states  of  others,  and 
partially  to  differentiate  his  own  personality 
from  that  of  others.  (3)  The  dramatizing, 
individualizing  stage  extends  from  3  to  6.  In 
this  the  child  develops  a  very  definite  conscious 
individuality,  frees  liimself  from  servile  imita- 
tion, and  begins  to  lead  an  independent  con- 
scious life.  (4)  The  period  of  competitive 
socialization  extends  from  6  to  12.  In  this 
the  child  learns  to   live   among  those  of  his 

619 


own  age  and  to  deal  with  them  in  order  to 
attain  his  ends.  He  learns  the  simple  social 
laws  in  the  same  waj'  in  which  he  earlier 
learned  the  physical  laws  governing  the  move- 
ments of  objects.  He  is  now  greatly  influenced 
not  only  by  individuals,  but,  also,  by  the  pub- 
lic sentiment  of  the  group  to  which  he  belongs. 
Besides  being  introduced  to  a  wider  environ- 
ment outside  of  the  home,  he  also  has  i)rought 
to  him,  through  the  medium  of  books,  the 
wider  world  environment.  (5)  The  pubertal 
or  early  adolescent  period  extends  from  12  to 
IS.  During  this  the  powerful  race  instinct 
becomes  active,  and  under  its  influence  a  new 
attitude  toward  others,  especially  of  the  op|)osite 
sex,  is  produced;  and  a  reorganized  personality 
is  developed  after  a  period  of  more  or  less 
erratic  behavior,  similar  to  that  marking  the 
period  immediately  following  tlie  first  emer- 
gence of  a  self-conscious  personality.  (G)  The 
post-pubertal  or  later  adolescent  period  extends 
from  18  to  24  or  30.  In  this  the  work  of  life 
begins;  individuality  is  further  developed,  and 
personal  habits  of  the  adult  are  formed  in  the 
same  general  way  as  in  the  child  between  6 
and  12.  The  interests  of  each  of  these  periods, 
especially  the  first  two  and  the  fifth,  are  deter- 
mined in  part  by  the  inner  laws  of  de\elop- 
ment,  but  the  third,  fourth,  and  sixth  are  more 
largely  directed  by  outer  influences.  The 
common  name  given  to  the  first  two  periods 
is  infancy;  the  third  and  fourth  periods  com- 
prise the  childhood  of  the  individual,  while  the 
fifth  and  si.xth  periods  cover  adolescence.  (See 
Adolescence.) 

Infancy.  —  JNIost  of  the  biographical  studies 
of  children  that  have  been  made  by  parents 
and  others  include  few,  if  any,  observations  be- 
yond the  first  3  years.  The  development 
after  this  age  is  so  varied  and  complex  that  it 
is  difficult  to  note  its  salient  and  significant 
features.  The  child  is  also  less  constantly  in 
the  presence  of  the  observer,  has  an  organized 
subjective  life  which  is  less  adequately  repre- 
sented by  ol)jective  movements  than  is  that  of 
younger  children,  and  the  changes  in  the  rela- 
tive prominence  of  the  in.stincts  are  less  rapid 
than  at  first,  so  that  outer  influences  become 
prominent  as  compared  with  developmental 
changes,  in  making  and  modifying  his  mind 
and  character.  The  development  of  children 
during  the  first  3  years  is,  therefore,  much 
better  and  more  accurately  known  than  during 
the  succeeding  years. 

Although  no  one  can  know  the  exact  char- 
acteristics of  an  infant's  consciousness  at  birth 
and  during  succeeding  periods  of  develop- 
ment, ojjinions  still  differ  greatly  as  to  its 
nature  and  influence;  yet  during  tiie  whole 
period  tiiere  are  so  many  objective  responses 
in  the  form  of  movements,  and  in  the  form  of 
words  during  the  second  and  third  years,  that 
objective  facts  may  lie  coUecteil  in  greater 
nund)ers  and  used  in  verifying  and  interpn-ting 
the   observations    made    upon   any   particular 


CHILD   STUDY 


CHILD   STUDY 


child.  The  observations  thus  far  made  indi- 
cate that  consciousness  plays  little  part  in 
directing  the  child's  activities  during  the  first 
three  months.  His  movements  are  almost 
wholly  of  a  reflex,  instinctive,  or  chance  char- 
acter during  this  period,  and  only  near  its  close 
has  he  attained  sufficient  control  over  his 
head  and  eyes  to  be  able  to  look  at  things. 
During  the  next  quarter  year  he  obtains  con- 
siderable control  over  his  hands,  so  that  he 
can  reach  for  things  and  jerk  them  about.  In 
the  third  quarter  year  he  is  able  to  move  his 
whole  body  by  creeping,  hitching  along,  rolling 
over  and  over,  and  sometimes  by  walking  while 
holding  to  something.  In  the  last  quarter  of 
the  first  year  he  often  learns  to  walk  alone, 
and  then  can  do  a  great  many  things  pre- 
viously impossible  to  him,  with  a  certainty 
and  accuracy  that  gradually  increase.  The 
most  significant  change  is  not,  however,  in  any 
one  kind  of  movement,  but  in  the  ability  he 
gains  to  use  many  parts  of  the  body  in  such  a 
way  as  to  accomplish  now  one  end  and  now 
another. 

The  higher  classes  of  instincts  are  present 
to  only  a  slight  extent  during  the  first  year, 
but  many  of  them  become  prominent  before 
the  close  of  the  third  year.  The  child  becomes 
playful  and  curious  by  the  middle  of  the  first 
year,  and  very  imitative  near  its  close.  The 
social  instinct  develops  rapidly  during  the 
second  and  third  years,  and,  in  close  association 
with  it,  the  expressive  instinct.  The  child, 
under  the  influence  of  these  two  in.stincts  and 
of  the  imitative  tendency  which  is  now  domi- 
nant, rapidly  learns  to  act,  feel,  think,  and 
speak  like  those  around  him.  At  no  period  is 
the  human  environment  so  influential  in  deter- 
mining the  direction  of  instinctive  development 
and  in  molding  mind  and  character. 

At  3  years  of  age  the  infant  has  become  a 
human  personality  with  considerable  power  of 
self-direction  and  with  some  individuality.  He 
appears  to  have  a  consciousness  of  mental 
selves,  and  of  his  own  as  distinct  from  others. 
This  is  indicated  by  the  correct  use  of  pro- 
nouns, and  in  various  other  ways.  This  de- 
velopment of  self-consciousne.ss  has  been  a 
gradual  one.  Its  core  or  background  is  formed 
by  (a)  fairly  constant  bodily  sensations,  con- 
trasted with  the  more  variable  special  sensa- 
tions, (h)  persisting  habits  of  reacting,  and 
(f)  memories  as  contrasted  with  present  sur- 
roundings and  activities.  After  he  has  learned 
to  distinguish  his  own  body  from  other  things, 
it  is  some  time  before  he  distinguishes  between 
his  mental  states  and  those  of  others.  Mental 
states  are  to  him  common  to  himself  and 
others.  This  period  of  common  consciousness, 
in  which  he  shares  with  others  all  their  experi- 
ences and  in  which  he  wishes  them  to  share  in 
all  that  he  perceives,  is  indicated  (a)  by  his 
imitations,  (6)  by  his  insistence  upon  their  see- 
ing and  hearing  what  he  sees  and  hears,  and 
(c)  by  his  desire  for  their  confirmation  of  the 


words  he  uses,  and  it  precedes  the  development 
of  self-consciousness,  in  which  there  is  con- 
sciousness of  the  fact  that  his  mental  states 
are,  in  i)art,  at  least,  not  shared  by  others. 

Childhood.  —  Very  little  has  been  done  in 
the  way  of  studying  children  between  3  and 
6  years  of  age  in  a  systematic  or  scientific 
way.  Many  interesting  and  amusing  things 
regarding  children  of  this  age  are  reported,  but 
beyond  the  fact  that  it  is  a  period  during 
which  individuality  develops  rapidly,  few 
general  statements  are  justified  by  the  facts 
that  have  been  collected.  The  case  is  quite 
different  for  elementary  school  children  of  the 
ages  from  6  to  14.  They  have  been  weighed, 
measured,  tested,  and  questioned  in  great 
numbers  and  in  a  variety  of  ways  according 
to  methods  that  are  more  or  less  scientific.  It 
is  not  possible,  however,  to  state  in  brief  form 
and  with  accuracy  the  general  results  of  such 
studies.  Most  of  the  studies  have  been  mass 
rather  than  individual  studies,  and  in  addition 
to  the  fact  that  individuals  differ  greatly  in 
rate  and  order  development  in  the  same  sur- 
roundings, and  the  fact  that  special  external 
influences  greatly  modify  development,  there 
is  still  much  uncertainty  as  to  how  far  the 
special  measurements,  tests,  and  inquiries  have 
been  properly  made,  and  if  properly  made  how 
far  the  results  indicate  a  typical  develop- 
ment in  the  line  of  being  tested.  In  general 
there  is  a  gradual  improvement  in  discrimina- 
tion, motor  control,  rate  of  physical  and  mental 
activity,  in  mental  grasp,  and  in  memory.  It 
is  impossible  to  say  how  much  of  this  im- 
provement is  due  to  incidental  practice  in 
doing  the  things  that  are  tested  or  those  that 
are  similar.  The  curves  obtained  from  such 
studies  are  usually  irregular,  and  in  all  experi- 
mental studies  as  well  as  in  other  forms  of 
statistical  investigations  there  are  very  pro- 
nounced variations  at  about  12  years  of  age. 
This  indicates  that  internal  developmental 
changes  are  at  this  age  great  enough  to  modify 
those  due  to  external  influences,  and  that  in 
some  lines  the  two  are  in  opposition  and  in 
others  in  harmony.  The  physical  and  mental 
changes  during  the  next  few  years  are  numerous 
and  profound,  but  it  is  impossible,  from  the 
statistical  data  at  hand,  to  formulate  accurate 
statements  of  the  amount  and  character  of 
the  psychical  changes.  There  are  slight  sex 
differences  shown  in  all  tests  at  nearly  all  ages 
until  near  the  teens,  when  the  differences  be- 
come very  marked.  To  what  extent  these 
differences  are  due  to  dress,  occupation,  and 
special  teaching  cannot  be  determined,  but  from 
this  time  on  the  children  rapidly  develop  mas- 
culine and  feminine  characteristics. 

Many  studies  based  on  observations  and 
answers  to  questions,  a  large  proportion  of 
which  throw  light  upon  children's  capacities, 
interests,  and  ideals  at  different  ages,  have  been 
made.  It  appears  that  the  ideas  of  small 
children   are   concerned   chiefly   with   use   and 


1 


620 


CHILD  STUDY 


CHILDHOOD 


action  and  with  speciKc  concrete  memories, 
while  a  httle  later,  tliough  still  largelj^  con- 
cerned with  action  and  use,  the  ideas  are  more 
general  in  their  form.  The  tendency  toward  a 
general  form  of  ideas  grows  with  age,  as  indi- 
cated by  definitions  that  more  and  more  give 
the  larger  class  to  which  a  thing  belongs  with 
descriptive  terms  that  identify  the  class. 
Children  are  always  interested  in  new  experi- 
ences, and  young  children  have  this  interest 
aroused  more  easily  than  the  older,  while  the 
older,  with  a  larger  stock  of  ideas,  are  in  a 
better  condition  for  the  excitation  of  appercep- 
tive interest,  which  arises  when  new  and  old 
experiences  are  brought  into  relation. 

Whatever  a  child  does  in  play  under  the 
stimulus  of  the  instincts  that  are  prominent  at 
the  time  is  an  indication  of  his  interests.  He 
is  always  interested  in  doing  things,  and  in  the 
early  years  of  school  life  the  mere  doing  is 
sufficient,  but  later  the  thing  must  not  only 
represent,  but  must  actually  be  of  the  same 
nature  as  what  it  imitates.  Later  in  the 
higher  grammar  grades  it  must  actuallj'  serve 
a  u.seful  purpose.  At  this  time  the  cliild  is 
more  interested  in  school  subjects  because  of 
some  value  he  can  see  that  they  have  than 
for  their  own  sake.  Hence  much  of  the  book- 
work  of  the  school  fails  to  ai)peal  to  him.  In 
literature  stories  of  animals,  fairies,  and  chil- 
dren are  favored  by  the  younger  children  in 
the  order  named,  while  older  boys  arc  interested 
in  history  and  stories  of  adventure,  and  girls 
in  romantic  stories. 

The  ideals  of  children  are  at  first  personal 
and  selected  from  their  environment,  but 
later  they  are  influenced  more  by  characters 
in  history  and  literature.  Their  own  national 
heroes  usually  have  a  prominent  place  in  their 
thoughts,  and  prirls  often  name  men  as  ideal 
characters,  while  boys  almost  never  mention 
women.  Abstract  ideals  come  later.  (See 
Literature,   Children's.)  E.  A.  K. 

See  Adolescence  ;  Child  Psychology  ;  Cul- 
ture Ei'ocH  Theory  ;  Growth  of  the  Child. 

References:  — 

Adler.     Moral  Instruction  of  Children.     (New   York, 

1S'.«.) 
Baldwin.     Mental  Development   in   the  Child  and  the 

Race.     (New  York,  lh9o.) 
Ch.4Mui;ul.*i.v.      The  Child.      (Lundon,  1900.) 
Hall.      Aspects  of  Child  Nature.      (Boston,  1907.) 
Haiikiso.n.      a    Study    of   Child    Nature.      (Chicago, 

1S91.) 
Kino.     Psychology    of    Child    Development.     (Chicago, 

1!K«.) 
KiRKPATRicK.     Fundamentals    of  Child   Study.     (New 

York,  1903.) 
Major.     First  Steps  in  Mental  Growth.     (New  York, 

I'JOG.) 
MooRB.     Mental  Development  of  a  Child.     (New  York, 

1896.) 
Oppenheim.     The    Development    of   the    Child.      (New 

York,   1898.) 
O'SiiEA.     Linguistic  Development.      (New  York.  1007.) 
Preyer.      The  Mind  of  the  Child.      (New  York.  1K90.) 
RowE.      The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child.      (New  York, 

1896.) 
Shinn.     Biography  of  a  Baby.     (Boston,  1900.) 


Sdllt.     Studies  nf  Childhood.     (New  York,  1896.) 
Swift.     Mind  in  the  Making.      (Now  York,  1908.) 
Tracy.      The  Psychology  of  Childhood.     (Boston,  1897.) 
Warner.      The  Study  of  Children.     (New  York,  1898.) 

CHILDHOOD,  LEGISLATION  FOR  THE 
CONSERVATION  AND  PROTECTION  OF. 

—  The  child  and  the  rights  of  childhood  have 
in  a  very  full  sense  the  ])rotection  of  the  law. 
In  all  civilized  countries  they  are  the  object  of 
much  legi.'^lative  concern.  The  proper  regis- 
tration of  a  child's  birth,  the  legal  safeguards 
thrown  about  its  right  to  live,  the  attempts  to 
reduce  and  restrict  infant  diseases  and  protect 
infant  health,  the  prevention  of  cruelty  from 
parents  or  others,  the  compulsory  attendance 
of  the  child  at  school,  its  protection  from  i)re- 
mature  emjiloyment,  its  right  to  suitable  sup- 
port from  the  State  when  not  provided  for  by 
its  parents,  or  when  the  latter  are  not  living, 
its  punishment  for  wrongdoing  as  of  one  in 
tutelage  rather  than  as  a  criminal,  all  of  these 
and  many  other  aspects  of  child  life  and  child 
welfare  are  dealt  with  in  the  legislation  of  all 
progressive  countries.  The  purpose  of  all  legis- 
lation relating  directly  to  children  is  in  the 
broadest  sense  the  conservation  of  childhood 
and  the  protection  of  the  foundation  of  the 
citizenship  of  the  State.  The  children  of  a 
nation  are  its  real  capital  and  the  modern  State 
has  come  to  realize  that  no  cajiital  investment 
brings  a  larger  return  than  that  which  is  put 
into  the  rearing  of  healthy,  happy,  and  intelli- 
gent children. 

Legislation  always  means  an  attempt  to 
define  and  express  rights  which  society  is  ready 
to  recognize,  guarantee,  and  make  universal  in 
their  apjilication.  Among  the  more  important 
rights  of  childhood  that  are  now  generally  given 
legislative  protection  are:  (1)  Tiie  right  to  be 
well  born.  (2)  The  right  to  parental  name, 
support,  and  protection.  (3)  The  right  to  lei- 
sure, play,  and  recreation.  (4)  The  right  to 
education.  (5)  The  right  to  exemption  from 
work,  until  physically  and  mentally  etiuipped 
for  the  specific  tasks  with  which  the  work  life 
may  properly  begin,  and,  for  a  longer  period, 
the  right  to  protection  from  any  teni|)tation  to 
enter  upon  extra-hazardous  or  dangerous  trades 
or  to  work  under  conditions  inimical  to  health 
and  morals,  ((i)  The  rigiit  to  protection  from 
inhumane  treatment.  (7)  The  right  to  protec- 
tion of  health  and  morals.  (S)  The  right  to  a 
chance  in  a  decent  environment,  both  physical 
and  social,  when  guilty  of  any  infraction  of  the 
law. 

Such  rights  are  guaranteed  for  dilTerent  age 
periods,  and  in  many  instances  beyond  the  begin- 
ning of  adolescence  or  even  of  adult  life.  The 
state  has  full  power  to  legislate  in  any  way  it 
sees  fit  for  minors  during  their  minority,  with- 
out any  violation  of  the  constitutional  guaran- 
tees of  individual  liberty,  and  the  i)resent 
tendency  is  decidedly  in  the  direction  of  ex- 
tending the  protective  period  to  its  full  extent. 
In  most  American   states,  children  between  2 


621 


CHILDHOOD 


CHILDHOOD 


and  16  may  not  be  kept  in  almshouses  when 
supported  by  the  state,  because  the  environ- 
ment of  an  almshouse  is  not  regarded  as  stimu- 
lating antl  helpful  to  growth.  They  ma.y  not 
work  in  some  trades  (dangerous  and  unhealthy) 
or  at  specified  hours  (night  work)  until  16,  and 
in  sonic  eases,  or  for  girls,  uutO  IS.  Very  recent 
legislation  in  New  York  has  raised  the  protected 
age  to  21  for  the  night  messenger  service,  because 
of  peculiar  moral  dangers.  (See  Child  L.ibor.) 
They  may  not  buj'  licjuor  or  frequent  places 
where  it  is  sold,  or  be  sent  to,  or  reside  in, 
disorderly  houses  during  their  minoritj'.  It  is 
now  quite  usual  to  provide  a  special  court  for 
the  trial  of  juvenile  offenders,  and  to  sentence 
such  as  violate  the  law  in  graver  offenses  to 
separate  institutions  or  reformatories  apart 
from  adult  criminals,  and  also  to  extend  the 
principle  of  parole  and  probation  more  liberally 
and  generally  to  children  of  all  ages.  (See 
Juvenile  Courts  and  Juvenile  Probation.) 
England.  —  Recent  Enghsh  legislation  for  the 
protection  and  conservation  of  childhood  will 
furnish  the  best  model  for  our  consideration, 
because  it  is  the  best  codified  and  the  most 
comprehensive  law  dealing  with  children  and 
young  persons.  Nearly  the  entire  English  law 
concerning  children  can  now  be  found  in  three 
great  groups  of  statutes:  (1)  The  Education 
Acts,  1S70  to  1907.  (2)  The  Factory  and  Work- 
shop Act,  1901.  The  Agricultural  Gangs  Act, 
1867.  The  Chimney  Sweepers  and  Chimney 
Regulations  Acts,  1S40,  1864,  1875.  The  Coal 
Mines  Regulation  Act,  1887,  1896,  1900,  1905. 
(3)  The  Children  Act,  1908. 

The  first  group  of  acts  deals  with  children  at 
school  and  with  respect  to  their  educational 
rights  and  duties  (see  Attend.\xce,  Compul- 
sory); the  second  group  of  acts  deals  with 
'children  at  work  (see  Child  L.\bor),  and  the 
third,  which  is  the  most  important  and  com- 
prehensive piece  of  legislation  on  this  subject 
attempted  in  any  country  up  to  the  present 
time,  seeks  to  bring  together  practically  aU  of 
the  other  legislative  enactments  relating  to 
children.  It  has  been  called  the  Children's 
Charter,  and  is  divided  into  six  parts,  as 
follows :  — 

1.  Infant  Life  Protection.  This  deals  with 
the  problems  of  baby  farming,  a  subject  first 
regulated  bj-  the  Infant  Life  Protection  Act, 
1872,  and  again  by  an  amending  act,  1897, 
both  of  which  proved  ineffectual,  and  it  seeks 
to  protect  the  lives  of  infants  put  out  to  nurse. 
It  requires  notice  to  the  local  authority  to  be 
given  by  persons  receiving  infants  under  7;  it 
provides  registration  and  inspection  by  the 
local  authority,  limits  the  number  of  infants 
to  be  kept  in  any  one  family,  requires  evidence 
of  moral  character,  prohibits  any  insurable 
interest  in  the  life  of  the  child,  and  provides 
severe  penalties  for  the  enforcement  of  these 
regulations. 

2.  Cruelty  to  Children  and  Young  Persons. 
This  subject  was  first  dealt  with  in  the  Pre- 


vention of  Cruelty  to  and  Protection  of  Chil- 
dren Act,  1889.  Prior  to  that  time  cruelty  to 
children  was  not  an  offense  in  any  well  defined 
sense.  Some  protection  was  had  under  the 
Poor  Law  and  under  minor  provisions  of  other 
acts.  The  decisions  of  courts  based  on  the 
common  law  had  been  variable  and  conflict- 
ing. The  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Children 
Act,  1904,  was  made  the  basis  for  this  section, 
and  is  still  in  force  in  part.  Neghgence  as 
well  as  deliberate  cruelty  is  now  an  offense,  and 
it  is  made  a  criminal  attempt  to  allow  the 
child  4  to  10  to  reside  in  or  frequent  a  brothel, 
or  to  cause,  encourage,  or  favor  the  seduction 
or  prostitution  of  a  giii  under  16.  Neglect  of 
a  child  under  7  left  in  a  room  with  an  unguarded 
fire,  if  it  causes  loss  of  life  or  serious  injury, 
and  the  overlaying  of  infants,  which  was 
shown  to  be  the  cause  of  death  in  London  alone 
in  1600  cases  annually,  when  due  to  drunken- 
ness, is  an  indictable  offense.  Provision  is 
made  for  the  public  inspection  of  private  in- 
stitutions for  poor  children,  the  inspectors  to 
be  women,  where  practicable,  for  institutions 
for  girls,  and  to  be  of  the  same  religious  denomi- 
nation, where  practicable,  for  religious  institu- 
tions. Wilful  assault,  neglect,  ill  treatment, 
abandonment,  or  exposure  of  a  child  (under  14) 
or  young  person  (14  to  16  years  of  age),  or 
being  a  party  to  conduct  that  causes  unneces- 
sary suffering  or  injury  to  the  health  of  a  child, 
constitutes  a  misdemeanor.  The  right  of  a 
parent  or  teacher,  however,  to  administer 
punishment  is  expressly  reserved. 

3.  Juvenile  Smoking.  The  sale  of  tobacco 
to  children  under  16  is  prohibited.  Cigarettes, 
cigarette  papers,  or  smoking  mixtures  used  as 
substitutes  for  tobacco,  when  found  in  the 
possession  of  any  person  apparently  under  the 
age  of  16,  who  is  smoking  in  any  street  or 
public  place,  maj'  be  seized  by  the  police  or 
park  keeper,  and  boys  found  smoking  may  be 
searched. 

4.  Reformatory  and  Industrial  Schools. 

5.  Juvenile  Offenders. 

These  two  sections  codify  and  amend  a  num- 
ber of  statutes  enacted  from  1854  to  1907. 
The  commentators,  Mr.  Atherley  Jones  and  Mr. 
Hugh  L.  Bellot,  in  their  most  useful  and  com- 
prehensive treatise  on  The  Lair  of  Children  and 
Young  Persons  (London,  1909),  in  speaking  of  this 
section  of  the  Children  Act  say:  "  The  result  of 
the  labors  of  the  legislature  over  this  statute 
is  that  now  within  a  comparativeh'  moderate 
compass  may  be  found  the  main  portion  of  the 
statute  law  which  governs  the  relation  of  the 
child  or  young  person  to  the  state  whenever 
the  state  may  assume  for  long  or  short  periods 
the  control,  custody,  or  guardianship  of  chil- 
dren or  young  persons,  or  provides  penal  meas- 
ures against  those  parents  or  guardians  who 
commit  offenses  against  or  are  unfit  to  have 
the  care  of  the  young."  A  child  14  to  21  is 
fully  responsible  for  criminal  acts,  but  the 
English  law,  which  has  been  quite  conservative 


622 


CHILDHOOD 


CHILDHOOD 


in  permitting  any  special  treatment  of  juvenile 
offenders,  or  any  interference  with  the  abso- 
lute rights  of  parents  over  children,  has  now 
been  seriously  modified  in  these  particulars. 
Part  IV  of  this  Act  now  makes  it  possible  to 
send  truant  children  to  industrial  schools,  and 
also  permits  Poor  Law  guardians  to  send  re- 
fractory children  to  such  schools,  and  parents 
and  guardians  may  ho  re(|uired  to  contribute 
to  the  sui)port  of  their  children  in  such  schools. 
The  provisions  for  such  schools  and  the  laws 
governing  them  as  well  as  reformatories  are 
systematized,  their  proper  inspection  pro- 
vided for,  provision  made  for  the  boarding  out 
of  children,  and  even  for  their  committal  to  the 
care  of  a  relative  or  other  fit  person  named  by 
the  court,  provided  they  are  placed  under  the 
supervision  of  a  probation  officer.  This  sec- 
tion also  provides  for  the  i)lacing  out  on  license 
of  an  offender  or  child  to  live  with  any  trust- 
worthy or  respectable  i)erson  as  long  as  the 
conditions  of  the  license  are  satisfied,  and  such 
time  may  be  counted  as  part  of  the  time  of  the 
child's  detention  in  the  school,  and  the  managers 
of  a  school  of  this  character  may  even  go 
farther  and  apprentice  or  dispose  of  a  child 
with  his  consent  with  the  full  powers  of  the 
parents  in  the  premises.  Neither  a  child  nor 
young  person,  unless  of  depraved  character, 
may  be  sent  to  prison,  but  must  be  detained 
in  places  provided,  but  not  under  the  same 
regulations  as  prisons,  and  when  charged  with 
offenses  in  courts  of  summary  jurisdiction,  ex- 
cept when  they  are  jointly  charged  with  an 
adult,  must  be  heard  on  different  days  from  the 
ordinary  sitting.  Children's  courts  may  be 
established  in  the  metropolis.  The  death  sen- 
tence may  not  be  passed  on  any  child  or 
young  person,  but  it  may  be  sentenced  to  de- 
tention during  his  Majesty's  pleasure,  and  on 
such  conditions  and  in  such  place  as  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  may  direct  when  convicted  of 
offenses  for  which  the  death  sentence  would  be 
impo.sed  on  adults. 

6.  Miscellaneous  and  general  provisions.  The 
most  important  of  these  relate  to  vagrant  chil- 
dren, and  prohibit  any  one  wandering  from 
place  to  place  with  a  child  above  the  age  of  5 
unless  exemjit  from  school  attendance  or  it  is 
proven  that  it  is  not  being  deprived  of  efficient 
elementary  eilucation.  It  is  also  prohibited 
to  purchase  from  a  person  apparently  under 
the  age  of  1(5  any  old  metal,  or  to  take  an 
article  in  pawn  from  any  person  apfiarently 
under  the  age  of  14.  Children  arc  excluded 
from  the  bars  of  licensed  i)renii.ses,  and  it  is  a 
punisiiable  offense  to  give,  or  to  cause  to  be 
given,  to  any  child  under  5  any  intoxicating 
liquor,  except  on  a  physician's  order.  This 
section  also  contains  a  number  of  general 
definitions  and  the  conditions  of  the  applica- 
bility of  the  .\ct  to  Scotland  and  Ireland,  as 
well  as  to  lOngland  and  Wales. 

United  States.  —  Legislation  for  children  in 
the  United  States  has  not  been  systematized. 


nor  does  it  proceed  chiefly  from  any  one  source, 
as  in  the  case  of  England.  Except  for  alien 
immigrants,  who  come  under  the  purview  of 
federal  legislation,  we  should  have  to  collate 
the  enactments  of  46  state  legislatures  and 
several  territorial  legislatures  in  addition  before 
we  could  speak  of  the  American  law  for  chil- 
dren. This  has  not  been  done,  and  indeed 
there  are  only  incomplete  attempts  at  the  collec- 
tion or  systematic  treatment  of  the  laws  relate 
ing  to  children  in  any  single  state.  There 
is  now  pending  before  Congress  a  bill  to  create 
a  Children's  Bureau,  whicii  will  do  this  very 
thing,  as  it  is  done  in  jiart  already  by  the  Bureau 
of  Education  for  legislation  concerning  the 
school  life  of  the  child.  (See  McCrea,  Tlie 
Humane  Morcment,  for  summarj'  of  laws  for 
child  ])rotection.) 

Historically  considered,  legislation  respecting 
childhood  has  its  beginnings  with  dependent 
children  for  whom  public  support  in  some  form 
is  necessary.  The  English  Poor  Law,  u|)on 
which  our  own  is  founded,  had  develoiied,  as 
far  back  as  the  time  of  (^ucen  Elizabeth,  the 
theory  of  parental  support,  and  held  not  oidy 
parents,  but  grandparents,  responsible  for  their 
children  or  grandchildren;  but  institutions  were 
early  devised  everywhere  in  this  countrj'  for 
the  care  of  foundlings  and  of  abandoned, 
neglected,  and  destitute  and  dependent  chil- 
dren. For  the  most  part  such  children 
were  cared  for  by  the  same  officials  and 
in  the  same  institutions  as  adult  paujjcrs 
until  public  sentiment,  aroused  by  the  bar- 
barities of  such  treatment,  and  calculating 
the  cost  to  the  State  of  the  manufacture  of 
paupers,  and  beginning  to  realize,  dindy  at 
first,  the  economic  value  of  the  child  to  the 
State,  made  its  protest  felt  in  Icgi.slation  for 
the  better  care  of  dependent  children.  In  1S74 
both  Michigan  and  Xew  York  made  a  radical 
move  to  deal  with  dependent  children  in  alms- 
houses; Michigan  pro\ided  for  a  state  school 
into  which  all  dependent  children  eligible  for 
public  sui)port  were  to  be  placed  and  from 
which  they  were  to  be  put  out  as  fast  as  prac- 
ticable in  i)rivate  families.  The  parents  were 
deprived  of  any  legal  rights  to  the  child  as 
soon  as  it  was  admitted  to  this  school.  Xew 
York  prohibited  children  being  kept  in  alms- 
houses, and  provided  that  they  should  be  com- 
mitted to  an  institution  of  the  same  religious 
persuasion  as  the  parents,  wherever  prac- 
ticable, the  expenses  to  be  paid  by  the  county 
and  the  legal  guardianship  remaining  with  the 
parents.  The  various  efforts  in  several  states, 
and  especially  in  the  large  cities,  to  care  for 
destitute  children  during  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century  are  well  summarized  by  Mr. 
Homer  Folks  in  his  monograpti  on  The  Care  of 
Demiidc,  XcglccUd  and  Delinquent  Children. 
(New  York,  l'JO'2.) 


"As  to  do.stituti-  ohildrc'ii,  the  sittintion  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  ci'iitiiry  |niiiotcpnth|  may,  thcn-forp.  be 
summed  up  iu  tlie  statement    tliat  ehildren  who  were 


623 


CHILDHOOD 


CHILDHOOD 


public  charges  were,  as  a  nilc,  cared  for  with  adult 
paupers  by  the  contract  system,  or  in  almshouses  or 
by  out-door  relief,  or  were  bound  out  as  apprentices  ; 
that  Charleston  had  a  municipal  orphan  asylum  ;  and 
that  private  institutions  for  children  had  been  estab- 
lished in  New  Orleans,  Savannah.  New  York.  Phila- 
delphia. Baltimore,  and  Boston.  As  to  neglected  chil- 
dren, we  find  in  the  statutes  of  the  time  but  few 
provisions  for  their  rescue  and  care.  As  early  as  173.5. 
in  Boston,  children  whose  parents  were  unable  or  neg- 
lected to  provide  for  their  support  and  education,  might 
be  bound  out  by  the  overseers  of  the  poor.  The  laws 
of  Maryland  authorized,  in  1797.  the  binding  out  of 
children  of  beggars.  The  class  of  children  who  are 
now  forcibly  removed  from  the  control  of  unfit  parents 
apparently  remained  with  their  families,  as  a  rule,  until 
the  latter  became  destitute,  when  the  children  were 
cared  for  as  pauper  children,  or  until  the  fruits  of  neg- 
lect were  reaped,  and  the  children.  con\'ictcd  of  offenses. 
were  sent  to  jails  and  penitentiaries  along  with  older 
offenders." 

Mr.  Folks  sums  up  the  public  systems  of 
caring  for  destitute  children,  outside  of  alms- 
houses, at  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
as  follows:  (o)  The  state  school  and  placing 
out  system  adopted  by  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
Wisconsin,  Rhode  Island,  Kansas,  Colorado, 
Nebraska,  Montana,  Nevada,  and  Texas. 
(6)  The  County  Children's  Home  System, 
adojited  by  Connecticut,  Ohio,  and  Indiana. 
(c)  The  plan  of  supporting  public  charges  in 
private  institutions  which  prevails  in  New 
York,  California,  Maryland,  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, and  to  some  extent  in  several  other 
states,  (rf)  The  boarding  out  and  placing  out 
system,  which  is  carried  on  directly  by  the 
public  authorities  in  Massachusetts,  through 
a  private  organization  —  the  Children's  Aid 
Society  —  in  Pennsylvania,  and  by  the  state 
authorities  in  New  Jersey.  This  leaves  a  num- 
ber of  states  without  any  general  system  ex- 
cept that  of  the  Poor  Law,  although  many  of 
these,  like  Illinois,  have  good  general  statutes 
covering  the  subject  of  the  custodial  care  of 
destitute,  neglected,  and  delinciuent  children, 
and  recognizing  associations  for  the  placing 
out  of  children,  to  whom  powers  are  given  to 
act  as  guardian,  and  bringing  all  such  work 
under  some  public  supervision  such  as  that  of 
the  State  Board  of  Charities.  The  state,  rather 
than  the  county,  system  of  care  for  dependent 
children  is  likely  to  prevail. 

The  White  House  Conference  on  the  care  of 
dependent  children,  which  met  in  January, 
1909,  adopted  unanimously  resolutions  which 
gave  the  broadest  possible  scope  to  legislation, 
and  urged  such  as  would  bring  about  preven- 
tive work,  having  in  view  the  reduction  of  the 
number  of  dependent  children  as  well  as  their 
treatment  and  care.  Emphasis  was  placed  on 
the  desirability  of  reciuiring  incorporation,  con- 
ditioned on  tiie  approval  of  a  state  board  of 
charities,  of  all  child-caring  agencies,  and  for- 
bidding all  other  than  duly  incorporated 
agencies  to  engage  in  the  care  of  needy  chil- 
dren. These  resolutions  also  contained  the 
following  statements:  "  The  proper  training 
of  destitute  children  being  essential  to  the  well- 
being  of  the  state,  it  is  a  sound  public  policy 


that  the  state  through  its  duly  authorized 
representatives  should  inspect  the  work  of  all 
agencies  which  care  for  dejjendent  children, 
whether  by  institutional  or  by  home  finding 
methods  and  whether  supported  by  public  or 
private  funds.  In  order  that  this  education 
may  be  equal  to  that  afforded  by  the  schools 
attended  by  the  other  children  of  the  com- 
munity, it  is  desired  that  the  education  of  chil- 
dren in  orphan  asylums  and  other  similar  in- 
stitutions, or  those  placed  in  families,  should 
be  under  the  supervision  of  the  educational  au- 
thorities of  the  state."  Every  child-caring 
agency  should  "  exercise  supervision  over  chil- 
dren under  their  care  until  such  children  are 
legally  adopted,  are  returned  to  their  parents, 
attain  their  majority,  or  are  clearly  beyond  the 
need  of  further  supervision.  .  .  .  We  greatly 
deprecate  the  tendency  of  legislation  in  some 
states  to  place  unnecessary  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  placing  children  in  family  homes  in 
such  states  by  agencies  whose  headciuarters 
are  elsewhere,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  we  favor 
the  care  of  destitute  children,  normal  in  mind 
and  body,  in  families,  whenever  practicable." 
The  above  quotations  from  the  Resolutions  of 
the  largest  body  of  experts  in  child  caring  work 
ever  assembled  in  this  country,  brought  together 
by  the  invitation  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  though  without  official  recognition  or 
authority,  will  serve  to  indicate  present  tend- 
encies in  public  opinion  and  to  point  out 
the  character  of  the  legislation  which  has 
already  been  had  iu  the  more  advanced  states 
of  the  Union. 

Next  to  the  legislation  which  deals  with 
dependency  comes  that  which  has  to  do  with 
neglect,  cruelty,  and  offenses  against  the  per- 
son of  the  child.  Such  legislation  came  some- 
what later  in  point  of  time.  From  1790  to 
1825  many  statutes  authorized  children  found 
begging  to  be  bound  out  or  committed  to  alms- 
houses. New  York,  in  1833,  provided  that 
the  mayor,  recorder,  two  aldermen,  or  two 
special  justices,  might  commit  to  the  alms- 
house, or  other  suitable  place  for  labor  and 
instruction,  any  child  found  in  a  state  of  want 
or  suffering  or  abandonment,  or  improperly  ex- 
posed, or  neglected  by  its  parents  or  other  per- 
son having  the  same  in  charge,  or  soliciting 
charities  from  door  to  door,  or  whose  mother 
was  a  notoriously  immoral  woman;  Massa- 
chusetts in  1866  provided  for  the  commitment 
of  children  under  16  found  under  similar  cir- 
cumstances, and  in  1882  provided  for  the  com- 
mitment of  neglected  children  between  3  and  16 
years  of  age  directly  to  the  custody  of  the  State  J 
Board  of  Charities.     (See  Folks,  op.  at.,  p.  169.)        ^ 

Societies  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to 
Animals  were  started  as  early  as  1866,  eight 
years  before  similar  societies  for  children  were 
formed.  The  New  York  law  of  1877,  modeled 
on  the  Indu.strial  School  Act  in  England,  and 
proposed  by  the  New  York  Society  for  the 
Prevention   of   Cruelty   to   Children,   laid   the 


624 


CHILDHOOD 


CHILDREN,  CRIMINALITY   IX 


foundation  for  such  legislation,  which,  through 
subsequent  amendments,  has  given  large  powers 
to  the  Society  and  has  been  followed  in  other 
states  where  similar  societies,  also  modeled  on 
the  New  York  organization,  have  been  formed. 
(See  article  on  Humane  Education'.) 

Delinquent  children  have  in  recent  years 
come  in  for  the  larger  share  of  attention  in  all 
of  our  state  legislation.  Radical  changes  with 
a  view  to  recognizing  the  independence  of  the 
child  and  the  desirability  of  treating  it  both 
apart  from  the  usual  rules  of  procedure  and 
punishment  applicable  to  adult  criminals  and 
also  with  a  view  to  holding  the  parent  or 
guardian  responsible  for  the  wrongdoing  of 
the  child,  as  well  as  to  secure  better  environ- 
mental conditions  by  removing  it  entirely  from 
the  custody  of  the  parent,  have  found  a  place 
in  the  law  of  most  states.  (See  article  on 
Juvenile  Delinquents,  which  includes  a  discus- 
sion of  Juvenile  Probation  and  Juvenile  Courts.) 

Health  legislation  has  increasingly  in  recent 
years  dealt  with  Infant  ^Mortality  and  at- 
tempted to  inaugurate  preventive  measures  to 
bring  under  control  the  diseases  of  childhood. 
Thus  the  prevention  of  blindness,  the  proper 
feeding  of  infants,  the  regulation  of  infectious 
diseases,  and  other  measures  having  particu- 
larly in  view  the  protection  of  infancy  arc 
sought  through  provisions  for  departments  of 
Child  Hygiene,  the  registration  of  nurses  or 
midwives,  the  instruction  of  mothers,  and  the 
better  enforcement  of  sanitary  regulations,  for 
the  most  part  brought  about  through  munici- 
pal ordinances  and  appropriations.  (See  arti- 
cles on:  Hygiene;  Hygiene,  School;  Nurses, 
School;  Defectives,  etc.) 

Child  Labor  legislation,  including  the  regu- 
lation of  street  trades,  and  the  employment  of 
children  in  theaters  and  in  a  great  variety  of 
occupations,  in  addition  to  their  emploj-ment 
in  factories  and  workshops,  has  thrown  around 
the  child,  in  most  of  our  states,  a  very  effective 
wall  of  protection.  (See  article  on  Child 
Labor.)  S.  M.  L. 

References:  — 

A<;auu,  Ko-vrad.  J ugendwohl  xind  Jugendrechl.  (Halle 
a.  S.,   1U07.) 

Barrett,  Rose  M.  Foreign  Legislalion  on  liihnlf  of 
Dislilute  and  Neglected  Children,  2d  ed.  (Dublin, 
1890.) 

Ellis,  Ceorge  H.  Report  of  the  Committee  on  History 
of  Child  Saving,  pp.  261,  59.      (Boiiton,  1893.) 

Folks,  Hcmer.  The  Care  of  Destitute,  Xcglectcd  and 
Delinquent  Children.     (New  York,  1902.) 

Internatio.val  C'o.ngress  of  Charities.  Correction 
AND  Bhilanthropy,  Hcportnf  the  Care  of  Dependent, 
NegUetid  and  Wayteard  Children,  1893. 

Jo.NEs,  L.  A.  .\therley,  and  Bellot,  Hdoh  H.  L. 
The  Law  of  Children  and  Young  Persons,  including 
the  Children  Act,  1908.      (London.  1909.) 

Kelley,  Florence.  On  .Some  Chanitps  in  the  Legal 
Status  of  the  Child  sinre  Blaekstone.  The  Inter- 
national RiTiew,  .AuKust.  ISS2. 

McCrea.  H.  C.  The  Humnrir  Treatment  of  Animah 
and  Children.  (New  York.  1910.)  See  Table  IL 
.Summary  of  State  Laws  for  Child  Protection. 

Mackellar,  Hon.  Chas.  K.  The  Child,  the  Law,  and 
the  State,  being  a  short  account  of  the  Progress  of  re- 


form of  the  laus  affecting  children  in  the  New  South 

Wales,  etc.     (Sydney,  Gov't  Printer,  1907.) 

(This  little  pamphlet  by  the  President  of  the  State 

Children  Relief  Board  of  .\'ew  .South  Wales  gives 

an  interesting  aeeount  of  a  progressive  attempt  to 

establish  a  state  authority  for  the  placing  out  in 

homes  and  the  supervision  of  dependent  children, 

rather  than  giving  them  institutional  care.) 
Manual  of  the  .\iw    York  Sucicty  for  the  Pretention  of 

Cruelly  to  ChiUlren.      (Gerry's  Manual,  1906,  with 

Amendments  for  1907.) 
Proceedinys  uf  the  Conference  on  the  Care  of  Dependent 

Children.      (Govt.     Printing    OflBcc.      Washington, 

.January,   1909.) 
Report  of  the  Third  International  Congress  for  the  Welfare 

and  Protection  of  Children.      (London,  1902.) 
Statutes  of  every  Slate  in  the   United  Slates,  concerning 

Dependent,     Neglected     and     Delinquent     Children. 

Compiled   by  a  Committee  of  the  New  Century 

Club.     (Philadelphia.) 
Wagner,  .\.mos  G.     American  Charities.     Rev.   ed.  by 

Mary  R.  Coolidge.     (New  Y'ork,  1908.) 


CHILDHOOD, 

Study. 


STAGES  OF.  —  See  Child 


vol.1 2  8 


CHILDREN,  CRIMINALITY  IN.  —  Pre- 
cocity in  crime  is  held  by  some  authorities  to 
be  one  of  the  most  alarming  symptoms  ac- 
companying modern  culture  progress.  Presi- 
dent Ci.  Stanley  Hall  (.L/oZcsTc/irf,  \o\.  I,  p. 
324)  cites  as  "  two  sad  and  significant  facts," 
shown  by  statistics  in  all  civilized  lands: 
"  First,  that  there  is  a  marked  increase  of 
crime  at  the  age  of  12  to  14,  not  in  crimes  of 
one,  but  of  all  kinds,  and  that  this  increase 
continues  for  a  number  of  years.  .  .  .  Second, 
that  the  proportion  of  juvenile  delimiuents 
seems  to  be  everywhere  increasing,  and  crime 
is  more  and  more  precocious."  For  America, 
in  particular,  most  recent  writers  agree  with 
Judge  Lindsey,  who  furnishes  the  introduction 
to  Travis'  book  on  The  Young  MnUJnHor,  in 
recognizing  "  the  unquestioned  increase  of 
crime  in  this  country,"  and,  especially,  of  ju- 
venile delimiuency.  One  of  the  latest  writers 
to  discuss  the  general  subject  i)oints  out  the 
rather  unsatisfactory  condition  of  statistics  re- 
lating to  juvenile  crime,  making  it  almost  im- 
possible to  determine  absohitely  whether  the 
last  few  years  have  indicated  a  diniinution  or 
an  increase  in  such  offenses.  For  France,  Du- 
prat  (p.  48)  seems  to  think  that  there  has  been, 
perhaps,  a  decrease  in  the  sum  total  of  minor 
delinquencies,  but  an  increase  in  graver  offenses, 
particularly  those  against  persons,  a  view  held 
by  other  authorities  as  well.  The  increase  or 
decrease  of  criminality  among  children  is, 
doubtless,  more  or  less  intimately  connected 
with  the  fluctuations  of  crime  among  adults, 
which  are  so  difficult  to  determine  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy. 

In  the  history  of  the  race,  the  limits  of  re- 
sponsibility for  "  crime  "  committed  before 
attaining  the  adult  status  have  varied  very 
much.  Among  many  uncivilizeil  and  some 
civilized  peoples,  children  under  the  age  of 
puberty  have  been  held  altogether  irrespon- 
sible for  such  actions.  With  some  others  the 
patria  potcslas  was  so  great  that  there  was  no 


625 


CHILDREN,  CRIMINALITY  IN 


CHILDREN,   CRIMINALITY  IN 


need  to  distinguish  between  offenses  which 
angered  or  displeased  the  parent  and  those 
which  might  he  termed  "  criminal."  Up  to 
7  years  of  age  the  complete  irresponsibility  of 
children  has  been  recognized  by  ancient 
Chinese,  ancient  Irish,  modern  English,  Scotch, 
American  law,  etc.;  and,  as  Westermarck 
(p.  265)  points  out,  "  the  total  or  partial  irre- 
sponsibility of  childhood  and  early  youth  "  is 
conceded  in  the  laws  of  the  civilized  races  of 
to-day.  A  qualified  responsibility  between  12 
(and  14),  or  16  (and  IS)  and  21  is  sometimes 
admitted.  The  age  of  criminal  responsibility 
begins  in  Italy  and  Spain  with  9;  in  Austria, 
Portugal,  and  Russia  with  10;  in  Germany 
with  12;  in  Sweden  and  Finland  with  14. 
Special  treatment  for  children  between  7  and 
14  in  England,  under  16  in  France,  between  12 
and  IS  in  Germany,  and  for  even  higher  ages 
in  some  other  European  countries,  is  also  pro- 
vided. The  powers  of  judges,  probation  officers 
iq.v.),  children's  and  juvenile  courts  (q.v.)  in 
several  of  the  states  of  the  Union  enable  them 
to  deal  in  entirely  special  fashion  with  children 
under  12,  and  often  up  to  the  age  of  16,  and  a 
common  recognition  of  14  as  such  a  limit  seems 
t;)  be  well  under  way.  Some  of  these  pro- 
visions, however,  are  of  quite  recent  origin, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  history  of  crimes  and 
their  punishment  in  England  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  to  say  nothing  of  other  civilized  lands. 
There  is  noticeable  an  evident  tendency  to 
raise  the  age  limit  until  it  coincides  more  nearly 
with  actual  mental,  individual  responsibility 
of  a  clearly  demonstrable  kind. 

Criminality  in  children  is  a  perplexing  prob- 
lem for  the  scientific  world  of  the  twentieth 
century,  as  it  was  for  the  preceding  ages  of 
human  mental  evolution,  exemplified  in  the 
development  of  the  complexities  of  modern 
urban  and  rural  life.  The  difficulty  of  account- 
ing for  it  is  evident,  whether  one  looks  into  the 
folklore  of  the  subject,  representing  the  more 
or  less  naive  experiences  of  the  mass  of  man- 
kind in  general,  or  examines  the  records  of 
statistics  and  the  results  of  scientific  investi- 
gations in  the  most  civilized  countries  on  the 
globe. 

The  old  theological  doctrines  of  "  original 
sin,"  "  total  depravity,"  "  infant  damnation," 
etc.,  found  little  difficulty  in  accounting  for  the 
criminal  aspects  and  perversities  of  childhood, 
or  in  assigning  to  them  fitting  rebuke  and  ap- 
propriate chastisement.  All  human  beings,  as 
a  result  of  the  "  sin  of  Adam,"  were  "  born 
not  merely  corrupt,  but  in  a  state  of  sin, 
guilt,  and  liability  to  punishment."  On  this 
basis  it  was  easy  to  explain  any  anti-social 
tendencies  and  any  evil-mindedne.ss  whatso- 
ever on  the  part  of  children.  The  "  old  Adam  " 
in  them  and  in  their  parents  accounted  for  all 
"  crimes."  The  obsession  of  even  very  young 
children  by  Satan  himself,  or  by  some  of  his 
minions,  was  long  believed  in,  and  the  re- 
sources of  exorcism  and  punishment  were  taxed 


to  the  uttermost  to  remove  the  evil  spirits  or 
chastise  the  sinner.  The  Dark  Ages  of  Chris- 
tianity were  filled  with  such  actions  toward 
children  as  are  now  happily  impossible  in  even 
the  most  backward  of  civilized  lands,  and  as 
never  occurred,  in  all  probability,  in  the  most 
uncivilized. 

Curiously  enough,  these  theological  doctrines, 
so  inconsistent,  with  the  spirit  of  true  religion, 
find  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  the  evolution 
of  modern  scientific  thought  in  the  prominence 
given  by  certain  writers  and  investigators  of 
the  day  to  the  theories  of  "  atavism,"  and 
"  recapitulation,"  that,  in  the  extreme  forms 
in  which  they  are  sometimes  set  forth,  are  pos- 
sibly as  far  from  being  thoroughly  scientific  as 
the  theological  doctrines  just  referred  to  were 
from  being  genuinely  religious.  Not  much  is 
gained  by  substituting  for  the  individual  Adam 
and  his  weakness  a  primal  human  race  pullu- 
lating with  abnormal  or  defective  physical  and 
psychical  characters  which  swarm  periodically 
in  the  bodies  and  minds  of  all  its  individual 
descendants. 

The  literature  of  folklore  and  proverb, 
legends,  and  other  material  indicate  how  the 
lay  mind  of  humanity  has  wavered  with  regard 
to  the  cause  and  the  cure  of  crime.  "  Happy 
is  the  child  whose  father  went  to  the  devil," 
says  one  English  proverb;  and  the  belief  is 
still  widespread  that  the  child  of  a  clergyman 
runs  every  chance  of  turning  out  bad.  But 
the  investigations  of  Welldon  prove  how  little 
there  really  is  in  the  theory  of  clerics  degenerat- 
ing in  their  sons.  For  the  Scotch  saying,  that 
"  a  daft  nurse  makes  a  wise  wean,"  there  are 
no  convincing  statistics.  The  "  folk  "  has,  in 
its  various  beliefs,  interpreted  heredity  enough 
to  show  that  it  could  be  no  out-and-out  par- 
tisan of  "  atavism  "  or  "  recapitulation  "  pure 
and  simple.  The  Japanese  put  the  case  for 
environment  as  strongly  as  possible,  when 
they  say  "  even  the  stones  in  the  street  are 
against  the  child  of  seven."  And  the  pendu- 
lum of  the  thought  of  to-day  seems  swinging 
strongly  in  a  like  direction. 

Some  authorities  regard  the  "  crimes  "  of 
childhood  as  simply,  or  chiefly,  "  exaggerations 
of  the  characters  which,  in  a  less  degree,  mark 
nearly  all  children,"  and  consider  the  child  as 
being  "  naturally,  by  his  organization,  nearer 
to  the  animal,  to  the  savage,  to  the  criminal, 
than  the  adult  "  (Ellis,  p.  212).  They  recog- 
nize a  form  of  criminality  almost  peculiar  to 
children,  showing  itself  between  the  ages  of  5 
and  11,  and  being  "  characterized  by  a  certain 
eccentricity  of  character,  a  dislike  of  family 
habits,  an  incapacity  for  education,  a  tendency 
to  lying,  together  with  astuteness  and  extraor- 
dinary cynicism,  bad  sexual  habits,  and  cruelty 
toward  animals  and  companions  "  (Ellis). 
With  some  children,  the  exaggerated  appear- 
ance of  these  characters  is  noted  only  in  con- 
nection with  the  pubertal  crisis,  to  which  so 
much     importance    has     been     attached     by 


626 


CHILDREN,  CRIMINALITY  IN 


CHILDREN,   CRIMINALITY  IN 


Marro,  Hall,  and  other  recent  authorities  and 
investigators.  President  Hall,  indeed,  seems 
willing  to  account  for  some  of  the  peculiarities 
of  character  in  children  under  8  l)y  the  hypoth- 
esis of  "  a  prehistoric  early  (sexual)  ripeness 
in  some  pigmoid  stage"  (Adolescence,  Vol.  II, 
p.  103),  thus  making  racial  sex  experience  a 
factor  at  this  early  stage  in  the  life  of  the  in- 
dividual. The  proof  of  this,  however,  is  not 
forthcoming;  and  the  less  sex  is  appealed  to 
in  explanation  of  tlie  phenomena  of  childhood 
the  better,  —  all  other  |)ossible  interpretations 
should  be  attempted  first.  Many  of  the  sexual 
"crimes"  of  cliildhood  are  due  to  the  in- 
fluence and  suggestion  of  their  elders  (older 
brothers  and  sisters,  companions,  nurses, 
parents,  etc.),  and  are  rarely  naively  childish 
or  childlike. 

The  evanescent  nature  and  transient  char- 
acter of  many  of  the  "  faults,"  "  wrongdoings," 
and  even  "  crimes  "  of  children  are  indicated 
by  both  the  verdict  of  folklore  and  the  results 
of  scientific  inquiries.  Some  of  the  mental 
and  moral  obliquities  and  abnormalities  that 
"  afflict  "  the  child  come  and  go,  appar- 
ently, with  no  more  effect  upon  the  subse- 
quent life  of  the  individual  man  or  woman 
than  that  exerted  by  certain  merely  physical 
and  somatic  peculiarities  of  an  equally  ephem- 
eral nature.  But  this  transiency  can  easily 
be  magnified  beyond  its  proper  scope.  It  is 
going  too  far,  e.g.,  to  hold,  as  do  some  recent 
writers,  that  every  child  pas.ses  through  a 
"  criminal  stage,"  normal  to  it  at  that  period 
of  development.  It  is  just  as  unscientific  to 
call  every  child  a  criminal,  as  it  is  to  call  every 
criminal  a  child.  The  parallel,  often  set  up, 
between  the  child  and  the  criminal,  though 
quite  taking  in  points,  is  really  very  ineffec- 
tive, as  must  necessarily  be  all  such  rapproche- 
menls  in  which  one  party  is  a  grown-up  and 
the  other  a  very  young  human  being.  Here, 
perhaps,  more  than  anywhere  el.sc,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  a  child  is  a  child,  and  a  man 
is  a  man.  Adulthood  always  brings  with  it 
something  sui  generis,  and  childhood  retains 
to  the  end  a  certain  autonomy  of  its  own. 

To  distinguish  between  these  "  transient 
plienomena."  which,  in  passing,  leave  the 
child  practically  normal,  and  those  others, 
which,  by  their  permanence  and  intensity  later 
on,  show  themselves  to  have  been  built  up  on 
a  firm  foundation,  or  to  have  had  some  con- 
stantly advantageous  feeding  ground,  is  by  no 
means  easy  in  the  present  condition  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  causes  and  the  stimuli  of 
crime.  It  is  ea.sy  to  confuse,  for  example, 
morbid  impulses  and  actions  of  adults,  explain- 
able from  an  adult  psychosis,  and,  as  Havelock 
Ellis  remarks  (p.  21.'5),  "  perhaps  more  closely 
related  to  insanity  than  to  criminality,"  with 
phenomena  of  child  life  having  a  certain  re- 
semblance to  them,  and  interpret  such  as  "  im- 
pulses of  childhood  persisting  in  a  more  or  less 
subdued  form  in  adult  age."     An  adult  with 


retention  of  "  child  impulses  "  must,  however, 
differ  from  one  whose  criminal  tendencies  and 
actions  are  motivated  by  adultism  altogether. 
It  is  more  correct  to  speak  of  "  child  aspects  " 
of  the  adult  criminal  than  to  term  him  a  chUd. 

It  has  been  said  that  good  people  are  those 
who  have  in  some  way  or  other  sloughed  off 
their  criminal  tendencies;  that  "  if  everyone 
had  his  deserts,  all  would  be  in  jail."  This 
last  statement  is  more  witty  than  truthful, 
and  serves  rather  as  an  index  of  human  injus- 
tice than  as  throwing  any  light  upon  the  origin 
of  criminality  in  young  children.  That  there 
has  been  no  identity  of  reaction  to  crime 
among  children  in  the  same  race,  people,  com- 
munity, or  even  family,  and,  furthermore,  no 
identity  in  the  treatment  of  such  criminal 
phenomena  is  an  undisputed  fact.  This  means 
that  sometimes  the  "  crimes  "  of  the  child  have 
gone  unpunished  or  unrebuked,  wliile  some- 
times they  have  been  sternly  repressed,  and, 
where  possible,  extinguished.  Class  and  social 
differences  have  undoubtedly  been  of  effect 
here,  especially  in  those  countries  where  aristo- 
cratic and  other  like  distinctions  have  long 
survived  in  great  strength.  The  privileges  and 
immunities  from  punishments  allowed  to 
schoolboys  and  students  at  educational  insti- 
tutions both  in  the  Old  World  and  in  America, 
as  against  corresponding  age-classes  elsewhere 
in  the  communities  in  which  they  reside,  are 
one  notorious  example  of  injustice  in  the  matter 
of  "  crime  "  among  young  people.  If  the  over- 
looking and  excusing  of  offenses  here  is  justifi- 
able at  all,  it  ought  to  be,  in  a  democracy  at 
least,  without  favor  to  class,  nationality,  etc. 
The  process  of  education  should  not  be  made 
a  promoter  of  such  prejudiced  katharsis. 
There  has  been  also  a  decided  discrimination 
in  favor  of  the  male  sex  here,  as  elsewhere  in 
society,  for  the  "  crimes  "  of  boys  have  been 
condoned  and  overlooked  to  a  much  more 
serious  extent  than  those  of  girls.  For  this 
reason,  statistics  make  out  girls  to  be,  at  cer- 
tain ages,  rather  more  "  criminal  "  than  boys, 
i.e.  they  were  not  so  well  shielded  and  excused. 
Mayhew,  who  wrote  about  the  prisons  of  Lon- 
don in  1S62  (see  Ellis,  p.  213),  said,  in  reference 
to  the  "  crimes"  for  which  boys  were  incarcer- 
ated at  TothiU  Fields:  "  For  ourselves,  we  will 
frankly  confess,  that,  at  Westminster  school, 
where  we  passed  some  7  years  of  our  boyhood, 
such  acts  were  daily  perpetrated;  and  yet,  if 
the  scholars  had  been  sent  to  the  hou.se  of 
correction,  instead  of  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  to 
complete  their  education,  the  countrj*  would 
now  have  seen  many  of  our  playmates  work- 
ing among  the  convicts  in  the  dockyards  rather 
than  lending  dignity  to  the  .senate  or  honor 
to  the  bench."  .Judge  Lindsey  puts  the  case 
for  America  quite  as  strongly  (see  Travis,  p. 
xii):  "  If  a  hundred  average  schoolboys  could, 
under  the  same  condition,  be  subjected  to 
precisely  the  same  temptation  faced  by  the 
boy  who  took  the  pocketbook  from   his  neigh- 


627 


CHILDREN,  CRIMINALITY   IN 


CHILDREN,  CRIMINALITY   IN 


bor's  kitchen,  when  he  believed  no  one  saw 
liis  act,  and  that  he  would  not  be  detected, 
only  God  knows  liow  many  out  of  tlie  hundred 
would  not  have  acted  in  precisely  the  same 
way."  These  statements  are  thought  to  be 
valid,  with  regard  not  merely  to  the  acts  of 
violence,  and  offenses  against  the  social  order, 
committed  by  the  young,  but  also  the  phe- 
nomena of  lying  and  kindred  actions.  Those 
who  take  this  view  of  the  matter  overestimate 
the  suggestion  of  the  environment  and  the 
"weakness"  of  the  individual,  and  underesti- 
mate the  possibilities  of  the  early  appear- 
ance of  at  least  the  elements  of  tem]jerament 
and  character  which  are  often  noticeably  pres- 
ent among  primitive  peoples.  All  the  inves- 
tigations of  "  children's  lies  "  and  the  facts 
adduced  by  the  rapidly  increasing  literature 
concerning  the  nature  of  the  testimony  of 
children  (the  Aussage  data  of  Meumann, 
Stern,  etc.),  while  serving  to  bring  out  many 
interesting  classifications  of  children's  lies  and 
much  new  material  concerning  the  behavior 
of  children,  while  under  adult  influence  and 
suggestion,  have  not  accounted  for  the  re- 
markable fact,  admitted  by  the  best  students 
of  the  child,  that  up  to  the  age  of  5  there  is 
practically  an  entire  absence  of  deliberate 
lying,  —  the  period  of  lying  proper  beginning 
not  before  this.  The  advocates  of  "  recapitu- 
lation "  might  score  a  point  here  by  calling 
attention  to  the  notable  trutlifulness  of  cer- 
tain primitive  peoples,  such,  e.g.,  as  the  un- 
spoiled Veddas  of  Ceylon,  etc.  Those  who 
have  resorted  to  "  imagination  "  as  the  source 
of  children's  lying,  while  successful  in  certain 
directions,  have  rather  overdone  the  matter, 
as  so  many  cases  of  an  early  perception  of  the 
difference  between  "  the  real  real  "  and  "  the 
make-believe  real,"  on  the  part  of  quite  young 
children,  seem  to  indicate.  The  utterly  false  is 
also  often  very  early  distinguished. 

The  cruelty  of  children  (La  Fontaine  said  of 
childhood,  "  this  age  is  pitiless  ")  is  ascribed 
by  Compayre  to  ignorance,  —  "  the  child  is  a 
Cartesian  without  knowing  it,  and  makes  no 
distinction  between  his  Punch  and  his  dog"; 
by  others  to  atavism,  recapitulation  of  racial 
history,  etc.,  or  to  "  psychic  rudimentary 
organs."  Havelock  Ellis  (p.  130)  holds  that 
"  a  certain  amount  of  cruelty  is,  however,  al- 
most normal  in  healthy  children,"  and  Presi- 
dent Hall  [Adolescence,  Vol.  1,  p.  359),  thinks 
that  "  the  child  torturer  is  only  an  extreme 
and  abnormal  development  from  the  arrant 
teaser."  To  explain  the  cruelty  of  children  as 
an  inheritance  from  primitive  ancestors  is  not 
at  all  satisfactory,  since  many  primitive 
peoples  are  no  more  cruel  than  the  civilized 
peoples  of  the  globe,  and  some  of  them  cer- 
taiidy  less  so.  The  presumption  that  early 
man  was  a  sort  of  ferocious  beast,  from  whose 
inhumanities  all  the  aberrations  and  degenera- 
cies of  the  child  are  to  be  accounted  for,  is  a 
theory   rejected   by   the   newer   anthropolog}'. 


It  is  interesting  to  cite,  at  this  point,  what 
Kiild  {Savage  Childhood,  pp.  107,  195)  says, 
concerning  cruelty  among  the  children  of  the 
South  African  Kaffirs:  "  At  the  age  of  4  or 
5  the  child  often  develops  a  strong  lust  for 
killing  animals  or  insects,  and  rivals  the  pro- 
verbial Englishman  in  Punch.  At  this  stage, 
there  seems  to  be  no  definite  development  of 
cruelty,  for  the  rage  is  an  obsession,  and  the 
child  is  not  deliberately  cruel.  This  sudden 
outburst  seems  to  be  some  temporary  efflores- 
cence and  soon  passes  off.  Deliberate  cruelty 
is  developed  at  a  later  period."  In  spitting 
caterpillars  and  roasting  them  over  the  fire 
these  children  are  not  intentionally  cruel,  any 
more  than  is  the  American  adult  devotee  of 
broiled  Uve  lobster.  Nor,  as  Kidd  again  ob- 
serves, "  is  there  necessarily  any  intentional 
cruelty  when  these  children  pull  off  the  wings 
and  legs  of  insects;  they  do  it  half  unwittingly, 
wondering  what  sort  of  blood  the  insects  have, 
and  being  amused  to  see  how  they  hop  with 
only  one  leg."  As  to  deliberate  cruelty  among 
Kaffir  children,  we  are  informed:  "  But  there 
is  deliberate  cruelty  in  the  way  they  torture 
some  insects  and  animals  which  they  think 
hurt  men  and  women.  They  often  choose  a 
harmless  lizard,  under  a  mistaken  idea  that  it 
stings  human  beings;  they  slowly  torture  it 
to  death,  talking  to  it  all  the  time,  and  telling 
it  that  it  deserves  to  suffer  because  it  is  an 
enemy  of  man.  Sometimes  parents  stop  boys 
from  doing  this,  but  often  they  pay  no  heed 
to  what  the  boys  are  doing."  One  sees  from 
this,  how  little  savage  children  differ  some- 
times from  those  of  cultured  races.  The 
picture  drawn  by  Kidd  might,  indeed,  stand 
almost  for  our  own  day  and  generation.  The 
reason  given  for  the  "  deliberate  cruelty  "  is 
also  not  unknown  among  us.  The  writer  of 
this  article  has  observed  cases  of  stimulation 
to  cruelty  of  this  sort  in  the  wake  of  the 
"  nature  study  "  denunciation  of  the  English 
sparrow  and  the  hj'gienic  onslaught  of  adults 
upon  the  pestiferous  house  fly.  It  is  hard  to 
say  how  much  of  children's  cruelty  to  animals 
and  insects  springs  chiefly  from  such  sources. 
Their  immediate,  rather  than  their  remote, 
ancestors  arc  certainly  responsible  for  a  good 
deal.  This  fact  is  important  when  one  con- 
siders how  large  a  part  of  the  criminality  of 
children  is  practically  a  matter  of  crueltv.  As 
noted  by  Kidd,  with  respect  to  Kaffir  children 
and  animals,  some  of  the  major  crimes  of  the 
children  of  civilized  races,  including  even  cer- 
tain homicides,  are  motivated  by  the  idea  that 
the  victim  has  injured  in  some  way  or  other 
the  parents  and  friends  of  the  child  in  ques- 
tion,—  a  parallel  to  the  case  of  the  Kaffir  child 
and  the  lizard.  Instances  are  not  wanting 
w-here  children  under  eight  or  nine  years  of  age 
have  rushed  to  the  defense  of  the  mother,  or 
some  other  close  friend,  with  the  exclamation, 
"  I'd  like  to  kill  j'ou!  "  Here  we  may  meet 
with  a  proto-altruistic  motive  and  perhaps  also 


628 


CHILDREN,  CRIMINALITY   IN 


CHILDREN,  CRIMINALITY  IN 


a  pseudo-altruistic  one.  Many  of  the  assaults 
and  kindred  expressions  of  violence  on  the  part 
of  children  are  susceptible  of  a  like  explanation. 
The  deliberate,  studied  cruelty  of  adults, 
savage  and  civilized,  is  of  another  order  and 
not  germane  to  childhood. 

As  Uttle  as  the  cruelty  and  wild  outbursts 
of  violence  noted  in  certain  children,  can  some 
of  the  other  "  criminal  phenomena  "  of  this 
age  of  the  individual  be  accounted  for  by  mere 
reference  to  the  history  of  the  race.  In  view 
of  what  is  known  of  such  uncivilized  peoples 
as  the  Veddas  of  Ceylon,  some  of  the  milder 
and  gentler  tribes  of  American  Indians,  the 
Mentawei  Islanders  of  Sumatra,  and  others,  it 
is  impossible  to  interpret  lying,  cynicism, 
sexual  immorality,  theft,  pyromania,  truancy, 
resistance  to  family  life,  selfishness,  cunning, 
and  all  their  manifold  ramifications  as  simply 
phenomena  of  ontogenetic  recapitulation  of 
phylogenctic  experiences.  President  Hall  and 
his  immediate  school  go,  perhaps,  as  much  too 
far  in  this  direction  as  does  Judge  Lindsey  in 
another,  when  the  latter  declares  (Travis,  p.  x), 
that  "  at  least  9.5  per  cent  of  cliildren  who  are 
dealt  with  as  delinquents  are  no  different  from 
the  average  child,  but  are  such  because  their  en- 
vironment is  different,"  and  that  "  juvenile  de- 
linquency pertains  to  all  children,  for  all  chil- 
dren are  delinquent  at  some  time  or  other." 
One  school  of  observers  makes  altogether  too 
large  a  draft  upon  heredity,  near  and  remote, 
another  too  large  a  draft  upon  environment 
and  the  individual's  own  contact  with  it. 
Children,  like  other  humans,  are  both  born 
and  made,  and  there  is  something  even  in 
childhood  that  is  the  forerunner  of  personality, 
and  must  be  given  some  role  in  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  facts.  Even  a  httle  girl  of  4  or  ,5 
has  been  heard  to  say,  "  I'm  not  like  anybody 
else;  I'm  just  like  my  own  self."  This  early 
"  selfhood  "  is  discernible  in  the  abnormal  as 
well  as  in  the  normal  phenomena  of  childhood. 
The  element  of  self-rivalry  and  self-emulation 
must  also  be  taken  into  account. 

Suicide  is  one  of  the  aspects  of  "  crime  " 
among  children  that  is  thought  to  have  in- 
creased perceptibly  with  the  progress  of  modern 
civilization,  having  been  influenced  much  by 
the  stress  of  school  life,  disappointment  at  the 
result  of  examinations,  and  other  similar  causes 
connected  with  wounded  self-feelings,  etc. 
Both  in  Germany  and  in  America  this  fact 
has  been  brought  out,  particularly  in  the  last 
few  years.  In  France,  since  1S99,  according 
to  Proal  (p.  3),  there  has  been  a  slight  tendency 
toward  decrease  in  child  suicides,  accompany- 
ing a  similar  movement  in  the  suicides  of 
adults.  In  France,  in  18.39,  out  of  a  total  of 
2752  suicides,  20  were  those  of  children  under 
16  years  of  age,  and  132  those  of  individuals 
between  16  and  21;  in  1904  the  figures  were, 
respectively,  SS76,  .")2,  and  429.  In  pathological 
cases,  heredity  and  alcoholism  are  assigned  the 
chief  roles,   but   in    nonpathological   ca.ses    the 


same  sen.se  of  "  wounded  self,"  so  potent  in 
adult  acts  of  self-destruction,  is  marked  in 
childhood  and  in  youth.  Homicides  by  chil- 
dren are,  in  not  a  few  instances,  due  to  similar 
causes,  as  are  likewise  many  minor  offenses 
and  delinquencies  more  or  less  directly  con- 
nected with  systems  of  education. 

Alcoholism  in  children  is  a  phenomenon 
occurring  with  surprising  fretjuency  in  certain 
regions  of  Europe  and  America,  as  a  part  of 
the  general  alcohol  "  debauch  "  of  some  modern 
civilized  races,  rather  tlian  a  harking  back  to 
Iirehistoric  times.  Of  the  many  institutions  and 
other  devices  for  preventing  juvenile  crime  and 
helping  or  reforming  young  criminals  and  delin- 
tiuents,  —  reformatory  and  industrial  schools 
(q.v.),  placing  out  agencies,  the  Borstal  system, 
probation  officers  (</.!'.),  children's  and  juvenile 
courts  ((/.!'.),  guardianship-education,  emigra- 
tion, children's  colonies,  George  Junior  Repub- 
lic {q.v.),  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  (q.v.),  —  some 
seem  to  succeed  in  certain  countries  much 
better  than  in  others,  being  evidently  more  in 
touch  with  the  racial,  national,  historical,  and 
environmental  experience.  A  method  equally 
effective  for  English,  French,  German,  Italian, 
and  Slavonic  children  has  not  yet  been  wrought 
out,  although  the  composite  nature  of  the  child 
population  of  America  almost  makes  some 
such  expedient  necessary.  The  reasonable 
success  of  the  "  junior  republic  "  points  in 
this  direction;  also  some  of  the  playground 
and  open-air  establishments.  Children's  courts 
and  the  probation  system,  while  not  uniformly 
as  successful  as  could  be  wished,  are  of  great 
promise.  Complete  change  of  environment, 
with  new  and  lasting  family  life,  is  likewise 
productive  of  much  good.  Indeed,  whatever 
can  create  a  home  environment,  or  some- 
thing closelj'  approximating  to  it,  must  be 
beneficial,  as  it  is  the  most  human  method  of 
"  reform  "  or  "  regeneration."  In  America, 
much  emphasis  has  been  laid  upon  more  or 
less  thorough  change  of  environment,  influence 
of  strong  personalities  (judge  and  other  adults) 
in  the  home.  Judge  I.indsey  claims  to  have 
cured  96  per  cent  of  all  delinquent  hoys  com- 
ing before  the  Juvenile  Court  at  Denver, 
Col.,  a  result  more  favorable  than  reported 
for  the  George  Junior  Hcimblic,  or  any  other 
known  reformatory  institution  (here  the  figures 
are  generally,  both  in  America  and  in  Europe, 
very  much  lower).  The  statistics  of  "  reform," 
however,  have  not  yet  been  subjected  to  the 
keen  analysis  which  they  must  undergo  before 
they  can  be  taken  as  undoubted  evidence  of 
success.  Details  also  as  to  special  offenses 
and  particular  "  crimes  "  are  still  rather  un- 
satisfactory. This  aspect  of  the  subject  will 
be  considered  in  the  article  on  Education  and 
Crime  (q.v.).  A.  F.  C. 

References:  — 

The  more  rccpnt  and  valuable  literature  relating  to 
eriniinality  in  eliiklreii  will  be  found  r6suni6d  or  referred 
to  in  the  following  works  :  — 


629 


CHILDREN'S   LITERATURE 


CHILE 


Albanel.   p.,   et  Legras.   M.     L'enfance  criminelle  d 

Paris.     (Paris,    1899.) 
Chamberlain,   A.  F.     The  Child,   ch.  ix.   (London  and 

Now  York,  1900.) 
Drah.ms,  a.      The  Criminal,  his  Personnel  and  Environ- 
ment, ch.  xi.     (New  York,  1900.) 
Duprat,  G.  L.  La  Criminalile  dans  V Adolescence.  (Paris, 

1909.) 
Ellis,  H.     The  Criminal.     (London,  1880.) 
Ferriani,  L.     M inorenni  delinquenti .     (Milano,  189.5.) 
Hall,  G.  S.     Adolescence.    (2  vols..  New  York  1904.) 
Jolt,  H.     L'Enfance  coupable.     (Paris,  1904.) 
KiDD,  D.     Savage  Childhood.      (London,  1906.) 
Maupate,  L.     R&chcrches d' Anthropologic  criminelle  chez 

VEnfant.     (Paris,   1893.) 
Morrison,  W.  D.  Juvenile  Offenders.  (New  York,  1897.) 
Russell,  C.  E.  B.,  and  Rigby,  L.  M.     The  Making  of 

the  Crimin<fl.     (London  and  New  York,  1900.) 
Proal,  L.    L' Education  et  le  suicide  des  Enfants.    (Paris, 

1907.) 
Steinmetz,  S.  R.     Bthnologische  Studien  zur  ersten  Ent- 

wickeluiig  dcr  Strafe.     (2  vols.,  Leiden,  1894.) 
Tr,a.vis,  T.      The  Young  Malefactor.     (New  York,  1908.) 
Westermarck,  E.      The  Origin  and  Development  of  the 

Moral  Ideas,   chs.  x  and  xxv.     (London  and  New 

York,  Vol.  I,  1900.) 

CHILDREN'S  LITERATURE.  —  See  Lit- 
erature, Children's. 

CHILE,  EDUCATION  IN.  —  Chile  :  Re- 
public comprising  23  provinces;  area  307,620 
square  miles;  population  (census  of  1905), 
3,399,928. 

Historical.  —  European  customs  and  insti- 
tutions were  originally  introduced  into  Chile, 
as  into  other  divisions  of  South  America,  by 
Spanish  forces  from  Peru  bent  upon  extending 
the  royal  dominion  in  the  New  World.  When 
permanent  settlements  were  formed  the  eccle- 
siastics and  teaching  orders  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  who  followed  the  Spanish 
flag,  entered  upon  the  task  of  proselyting  and 
instructing  the  natives  and  of  maintaining 
spiritual  and  intellectual  control  over  the 
Spaniards  themselves.  But  the  spirit  of  liberty 
which  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury arose  in  the  distant  possessions  of  Spain 
soon  manifested  itself  in  Chile.  Stimulated  by 
the  successful  revolution  in  the  province  of  La 
Plata,  the  Chilean  patriots  threw  off  the 
Spanishyokein  1810  and  organized  a  provisional 
government.  A  period  of  struggles,  anarchy, 
and  internal  dissensions  followed,  and  it  was 
not  until  1833  that  the  present  constitution 
was  adopted,  and  Chile  entered  upon  an  era  of 
stable  government  and  remarkable  prosperity. 

The  leaders  of  the  new  republic  manifested 
an  interest  in  the  cause  of  public  education 
scarcely  less  than  that  which  animated  the 
leaders  of  the  Argentine  Republic.  The  con- 
stitution declared  the  matter  to  be  one  of 
supreme  importance,  a  ministry  of  public  in- 
struction was  created  in  the  government,  and 
measures  were  at  once  adopted  for  the  pro- 
motion and  regulation  of  secondary  and  higher 
education.  The  importance  of  primary  educa- 
tion was  empha.sized  by  the  establishment  at 
Santiago,  in  1842,  of  a  normal  school  for  train- 
ing primary  teachers,  and  in  1860  the  organic 
law  of  primary  instruction  was  passed.     The 


sy.stem  of  administration  adopted  in  Chile 
differs  radically  from  that  of  the  sister  repub- 
lic. The  control  of  public  education  in  all  its 
branches  is  centralized  in  the  ministry  and  its 
support  provided  from  the  national  treasury'. 
The  teachers  of  public  schools  arc  appointed 
and  their  salaries  paid  by  the  central  authority, 
and  the  school  organization,  scheme  of  studies, 
etc.,  are  controlled  by  official  regulations 
emanating  from  the  same  source.  As  a  con- 
sequence there  is  little  interest  in  primary 
schools  on  the  part  of  local  authorities  or  on 
the  part  of  the  people  in  general.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  many  influences,  in  particular  the 
spirit  of  clerical  teachers  and  of  an  aristocratic 
society,  have  fostered  the  type  of  education 
which  in  Europe  has  long  been  the  privilege 
of  the  directive  classes.  These  distinctions  are 
reflected  in  the  administration  of  the  system  of 
public  instruction  in  two  independent  sections. 
Primary  Education.  —  Primarj^  schools,  nor- 
mal schools,  and  industrial  schools  are  under 
the  control  of  an  Inspector-General  who 
is  subordinate  only  to  the  minister.  The 
recent  efforts  for  the  improvement  of  this 
service  were  inspired  by  the  educational  con- 
gress and  exhibit  held  at  Santiago  in  1902. 
The  low  state  of  primary  education  was  the 
chief  topic  of  discussion  in  the  congress,  and 
its  relation  to  industrial  skill  was  empha.?ized 
by  the  exhibits  from  foreign  nations.  The 
interest  thus  excited  was  indicated  by  the 
marked  increase  in  the  number  of  i)ublic  primary 
schools,  in  efforts  for  the  improvement  of  the 
teaching  service,  and  larger  provision  for 
manual  training.  The  official  statistics  show 
for  1902  a  total  of  1821  public  primary  schools, 
with  an  enrollment  of  145,0.52  pupils;  in  1907 
the  totals  were  2319  schools  and  197,174 
pupils.  Of  the  3977  teachers  employed  in  the 
latter  year  only  1415,  a  little  more  than  one 
third,  had  been  trained  in  the  normal  schools. 
The  importance  of  such  preparation  was  em- 
phasized by  arrangements  for  the  professional 
instruction  of  the  untrained  teachers  in  order 
that  they  might  pass  the  government  examina- 
tions and  obtain  diplomas  as  qualified  teachers. 
Furthermore,  by  a  decree  of  March  25,  1908, 
appointments  to  the  directorship  of  higher 
grade  primary  schools  were  limited  to  normal 
graduates  who  should  successfully  pass  a  com- 
petitive examination  conducted  by  a  govern- 
ment board.  The  solicitude  of  the  government 
in  regard  to  popular  education  was  also  shown 
by  an  increase  in  the  subsidies  granted  to 
private  primary  schools.  In  1898  the  amount 
allowed  for  this  purpose  was  S49,490;  in  1907 
it  was  1232,286;  or  S16.70  per  capita  of  the 
average  attendance  (13,898  pupils).  In  his 
report  for  1908  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, while  admitting  that  under  present  con- 
ditions private  (chiefly  parochial)  schools  must 
be  recognized,  insists  that  government  aid  to 
the  same  should  not  be  granted  without  careful 
examination;  in  accordance  with  the  minister's 


630 


CHILE 


CHILE 


recommendation,  an  ordinance  was  issued  re- 
quiring, as  conditions  for  sharing  in  the  subsidy, 
that  the  hygienic  surroundings  of  the  schools 
shall  be  good;  that  the  teachers  shall  have 
diplomas  from  the  normal  schools,  or  have 
bachelors'  degrees  in  the  humanities,  or  shall 
pass  examinations;  that  reading,  writing,  ele- 
mentary arithmetic,  geography  and  history  of 
Chile  be  taught;  that  the  schools  shall  be  in 
operation  at  least  150  days  in  the  year,  and 
that  they  shall  be  subject  to  inspection  by  the 
regular  inspector  of  the  i)ublic  schools. 

At  the  opening  session  of  the  educational  con- 
gress of  1902,  the  Chilean  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction,  Senor  Don  Rivera,  dwelt  upon  the 
importance  of  technical  knowledge  and  skill  in 
the  new  activities  of  modern  life.  Tlie  subject 
was  prominent  in  the  discussions  of  the  con- 
gress, and  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  the  pro- 
vision for  manual  and  technical  training  which 
had  already  been  started  in  the  country.  In 
1S99,  10  carpenter  shops  had  been  established 
in  connection  with  primary  schools;  in  1907 
there  were  29  carpenter  shops,  with  908  pupils 
working  in  them,  40  shops  for  working  in 
pasteboard,  with  1270  pupils,  and  51  shops 
for  needlework,  with  5100  girls  in  them.  It 
was  proposed  that  year  to  introduce  training  in 
trades  in  the  higher  primary  schools.  A  special 
decree  of  April  27,  1908,  provided  that  candi- 
dates who  have  completed  the  course  of  the 
Pedagogical  Institute  and  those  who  have 
studied  at  the  Institute  of  Physical  and  Manual 
Training  are  to  be  preferred  as  teachers  in 
normal  schools,  and  if  such  candidates  are  not 
available,  then  those  who  have  diplomas  as 
teachers  in  normal  schools  or  university  gradu- 
ates will  be  accepted,  thus  precluding  the  pos- 
sibility of  filling  the  positions  with  unciualified 
persons. 

The  purpose  of  the  government  to  employ 
only  trained  teachers  in  the  primary  schools  is 
seriously  hindered  by  the  want  of  suflicient 
normal  schools,  and  further  by  the  low  salaries, 
which  offer  little  inducement  to  ambitious 
young  people  to  prepare  themselves  for  the 
service.  In  1907  there  were  onlv  15  normal 
schools  (6  for  men,  9  for  women),  with  a  regis- 
tration of  1977  students  (722  men,  1255  women) ; 
the  number  of  graduates  was  120,  of  whom  66 
were  men  and  54  women.  A  new  normal 
school  for  women  has  been  opened  since  1908, 
and  other  schools  of  the  same  class  are  con- 
temiilated. 

The  primary  school  teachers  are  graded  in 
four  classes,  with  animal  salaries  rising  from  a 
minimum  of  900  pesos  (.S240)  to  ISOO  pesos 
(.§450).  After  10  years  of  service  the  teacher  in 
any  class  is  entitled  to  an  increase  of  20  per  cent. 
Assistants  are  paid  on  a  lower  scale,  begin- 
ning at  -SlSOand  rising  to  a  maximum  of  S300. 

The  industrial  advance  of  the  country  and 
the  rising  wage  scale,  even  for  unskilled  labor, 
make  an  increase  in  teachers'  salaries  an  im- 
perative necessity.     It  is  recognized  that  the 


631 


central  government  alone  is  unequal  to  the 
emergency  that  has  arisen.  The  annual  ap- 
propriation for  the  entire  service,  including 
normal  schools,  is  about  .§2,250,000,  but  this 
amount  is  not  devoted  solely  to  current  ex- 
penditures. A  sj'stem  of  local  school  taxation 
is  strongly  urged  as  essential  to  that  extension 
of  primary  education  which  the  public  welfare 
requires. 

Secondary  and  Higher  Education.  —  Al- 
though secondary  schools  (Hreos)  and  higher 
institutions  were  established  by  decrees  is- 
sued in  the  earliest  years  of  the  Republic, 
the  system  of  secondary  and  higher  educa- 
tion in  Chile  was  not  organized  until  the  pas- 
sage of  the  law  of  Jan.  9,  1879.  This  law 
provided  that  there  should  be  at  least  one 
public  secondary  school  in  each  province  of  the 
country,  institutions  of  higher  education  "  nec- 
essary for  the  practice  of  the  scientific  and 
literary  professions,"  and  special  schools  to 
prepare  students  for  the  public  service  and  for 
the  conduct  of  mechanical  and  industrial  enter- 
prises, all  maintained  by  public  funds.  The 
immediate  charge  of  these  establishments  was 
committed  to  the  national  Council  of  Education, 
consisting  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction 
(presiding  officer) ;  the  rector  of  the  university  ; 
the  deans  of  the  university  faculties;  the  rector 
of  the  National  Institute;  three  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  of  the  republic, 
and  two  members  elected  by  the  university 
faculties. 

The  union  of  secondary  and  higher  education 
in  one  department  follows  scholastic  traditions 
which  were  perpetuated  in  the  university  sys- 
tem devised  by  Napoleon.  The  principal  fea- 
tures of  this  system  have  not  only  survived 
to  the  present  day  in  France,  but  also  in  the 
systems  of  education  of  the  Latin  countries 
generally,  which  follow  French  precedents.  The 
Council  prescribes  the  courses  of  study,  the 
number  and  (lualifications  of  the  professors,  and 
all  details  ])crtaining  to  the  conduct  of  the  insti- 
tutions under  its  direction.  In  the  scholastic 
scheme,  the  term  "  secondary  "  implies  a  course 
of  instruction,  intended  to  educate  the  directive 
classes  for  their  role  in  the  social  order,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  furnish  a  suitable  preparation 
for  the  professional  courses  of  instruction  of- 
fered in  the  universities.  The  courses  of  study 
in  the  liceos  are  officially  designated  as  "  pre- 
paratory "  and  the  "  hunuuiities,"  the  latter 
including  modern  languages,  mathematics, 
physics,  and  natural  sciences,  to  which  the  new 
studies  of  civics,  psychology,  philosophy  of  the 
sciences,  and  general  history  of  civilization  have 
been  recently  added.  In  the  full-course  liceos 
the  program  of  studies  is  arranged  to  cover  6 
years. 

From  the  beginning  the  effort  was  made  by  the 
Chilean  government  to  avoid  the  excessive  liter- 
ary tendencies  of  the  older  schools  and  impart  to 
the  new  institutions  a  more  scientific  character. 
With  this  purpose  in  view,  the/n«(itMto/'ec(ajopico 


CHILE 


CHILE 


was  founded  in  1S13  for  the  training  of  teachers 
for  the  liceos.  Professors  were  invited  from 
Germany  to  form  the  faculty  of  the  institution, 
and  as  a  result  modern  secondary  education  in 
the  country  has  been  developed  under  German 
influences.  The  Institute  has  become  in  fact  a 
university  school  of  education  intended  to  pre- 
pare special  professors  for  the  several  branches 
of  the  secondary  course.  The  curriculum  is 
therefore  divided  into  seven  distinct  sections: 
(1)  Spanish,  (2)  French,  (3)  English,  (4)  Ger- 
man, (5)  history  and  geography,  (6)  mathe- 
matics and  physics,  (7)  biology,  chemistry,  and 
mineralogy.  All  students  are  required  to  ta,ke 
pedagogy,  experimental  psychology,  logic,  ethics, 
the  history  of  philosophy,  civics,  and  educa- 
tional organization  and  legislation.  The  full 
course  covers  a  period  of  4  years.  At  the 
beginning  only  young  men  were  admitted  to  the 
Institute,  but  later  it  was  made  coeducational, 
and  thus  its  influence  was  extended  to  the  public 
liceos  for  young  women,  which  are  rapidly  in- 
creasing in  number  and  prestige. 

There  are  at  present  39  liceos  for  young  men, 
with  an  enrollment  of  9302  students,  and  an 
average  attendance  of  about  7900;  and  31 
liceos  for  young  women,  with  4810  students,  and 
an  average  attendance  of  3S00.  The  number 
of  students  in  the  course  of  humanities,  or  true 
secondary  course,  in  190S,  was  (5334,  of  whom 
4555  were  young  men.  The  private  secondary 
schools,  which  have  a  still  larger  attendance 
than  the  liceos,  are  in  a  measure  under  govern- 
ment supervision,  as  the  greater  number  re- 
ceive publico  subsidies.  They,  also,  follow  the 
official  programs,  since,  like  the  liceos,  they  pre- 
pare students  for  the  university  examinations. 
Hence  the  whole  province  of  secondary  educa- 
tion in  Chile  is  permeated  with  the  modern  spirit. 

The  provision  for  secondary  education  is  com- 
pleted by  special  technical  schools,  which  are 
of  recent  origin,  but  have  already  assumed  great 
importance  in  the  industrial  and  business  world. 
The  principal  schools  of  this  class  are  the  com- 
mercial school  of  Santiago,  established  in  1908 
by  a  group  of  public-spirited  citizens.  It  was 
provided  with  a  new  buUding  by  the  national 
government,  which  also  makes  an  annual  ap- 
propriation toward  its  support.  Similar  schools 
have  since  been  opened  in  ^'alparaiso,  Concep- 
cion,  and  other  cities.  These  schools,  which  are 
intended  for  students  from  12  to  15  years  of  age, 
represent  the  first  stage  of  a  system  of  commer- 
cial education.  The  school  of  mechanical  arts, 
situated  at  Santiago,  bears  the  same  relation 
to  industrial  education.  To  this  school  pupils 
are  sent  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  the 
success  of  its  graduates  makes  it  certain  that 
similar  institutions  will  soon  be  provided  in  all 
the  large  towns  of  the  republic.  Santiago  has 
also  led  in  the  provision  for  the  industrial  train- 
ing of  girls  by  the  establishment  of  a  school  in 
which  the  trades  open  to  women,  i.e.  dress- 
making and  hat  making,  are  taught,  as  well 
as  bookkeeping,  stenography,   etc.     In  all  the 


special  schools  named  the  courses  are  eminently 
practical  and  are  in  charge  of  competent  teach- 
ers. Numerous  private  societies,  both  secular 
and  clerical,  have  been  active  in  promoting  in- 
dustrial and  technical  training  as  an  indispen- 
sable part  of  national  education. 

Higher  Education.  —  Higher  education  cen- 
ters in  the  University  of  Chile,  inaugurated  at 
Santiago  Sept.  17,  1843.  By  its  represen- 
tation in  the  Council  of  Public  Instruction 
the  university  bears  an  important  part  in  shap- 
ing the  entire  course  of  education  in  the  coun- 
try. As  stated  by  the  Minister  in  his  report 
for  1908,  it  has  not  only  been  the  fountain  of  in- 
struction and  learning  as  such,  but  has  been  the 
source  of  the  progressive  ideas  in  educational 
reform,  which  have  so  rapidly  modified  the  in- 
tellectual condition  of  the  people  in  recent  years. 
The  Council  of  Public  Instruction  is  charged 
with  the  duty  of  conferring  degrees  and  titles 
which  qualify  the  student  to  practice  professions 
or  enter  the  public  service,  and  has  provided  a 
series  of  examinations  as  a  condition  precedent 
to  granting  the  degrees.  The  degree  of  Bache- 
lor of  the  Humanities  is  evidence  that  the  stu- 
dent possesses  all  the  ideas  which  are  indispen- 
sable to  a  man  of  culture  and  a  good  citizen. 
The  degree  of  Licentiate  in  law  or  medicine  or 
mathematics  (engineering)  is  clear  proof  not 
only  that  its  possessor  is  qualified  to  practice 
the  corresponding  profession,  but  it  also  implies 
that  he  knows,  and  knows  well,  other  subjects 
of  study  w-hich,  although  they  may  not  be  neces- 
sary in  the  practice  of  his  profession,  yet  give 
him  breadth  of  view  and  fixed  principles. 

Up  to  a  very  recent  date  the  members  of  the 
university  faculties  have  been  professional  men 
engaged  to  deliver  lectures  before  the  students. 
This  system  has  secured  the  interest  and  co- 
operation of  the  principal  lawyers,  doctors, 
engineers,  etc.,  of  Santiago,  liut  it  has  deprived 
the  university  of  organic  unity.  Serious  efforts 
were  made  b_y  the  former  rector  of  the  univer- 
sity. Dr.  Valentin  Letelicr,  to  develop  the 
conditions  of  institutional  life,  by  the  provis- 
ion of  permanent  professors  and  a  central  build- 
ing, or  clubhouse,  for  the  students.  In  the 
transformation  which  is  gradually  taking  place, 
the  lecture  system  will,  it  is  believed,  be  re- 
placed by  class  instruction,  practical  exercises, 
and  close  relations  between  students  and  pro- 
fessors. It  should  be  observed,  however,  that 
a  degree  of  organic  unity  has  always  been  main- 
tained through  the  agency  of  the  Council,  a 
permanent  directive  body  of  which  the  univer- 
sity rector  is  president.  The  progressive  spirit 
of  the  Council  is  indicated  by  the  establishment 
in  1907  of  a  special  class  for  the  study  of  the 
exploitation  of  saltpeter  and  analogous  salts,  in 
view  of  the  great  importance  of  the  saltpeter 
industry  to  Chile.  Another  new  chair  in  the 
mathematical  course  is  that  of  seismology  and 
seismic  architecture,  suggested  particularly  by 
the  earthquake  of  1906.  The  services  of  Pro- 
fessor Montessus  de  Ballore  were  secured  to  fill 


632 


CHILE 


CHILPERIC 


this  chair  and  to  erect  and  superintend  a  seis- 
mological  observatory.  The  astronomical  ob- 
servatory of  Santiago  and  tlio  museums  of 
natural  history  of  Santiago,  Valparaiso,  and 
Concepcion,  and  a  botanical  garden  arc  con- 
nected more  or  less  directly  witli  the  university 
faculty  of  physical  sciences  and  mathematics. 

The  Council  contributes  to  the  general  educa- 
tion of  the  people  through  its  own  puljlications, 
such  as  tiic  Analcs  dc  la  Universidnd,  and  by 
publishing  other  important  works  and  awarding 
prizes.  The  following  table  indicates  the  sta- 
tus of  the  university  in  1908:  — 

INSTRl'CTOR.S.  STl'DENT.S,  AND  BUDGET  OF  THE 
DIFFERENT  FACULTIES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CHILE 


Faculty 

iNSTRnCT- 
INQ  COBPS 

Stodents 

BlJDQET 

Law  and  social  sciences  (includ- 
ing special  course  in  city  of 
Concepcion) 

Medicine  and  pharmacy,  and 
nurses'  training  school 

Dentistry 

Engineering 

Architecture 

Pedagogy 

Fine  Arts 

44 

32 

5 

19 

15 

12 
11 

491 

294 
89 

149 
43 

221 

135 

$21,000 

55,360 
8,800 
29,646 
12,075 
26,CS3 
7,530 

Total 

138 

1,422 

$161,394 

The  provision  for  higher  education  in  Chile 
is  completed  by  the  Catholic  University  at 
Santiago,  founded  in  1888.  In  1908  the  regis- 
tration of  students  was  as  follows:  law  school, 
185;  engineering  school,  396;  the  agricultural 
scliool,  12;  and  the  school  of  fine  arts,  55.  In 
all  of  these  dei)artments  the  etiuipment  is  ex- 
cellent, and  the  teadiing  corps  has  been  selected 
with  great  care.  The  Catholic  University  is 
supported  by  the  wealthier  classes  of  Chile, 
whose  donations  and  bequests  to  the  institu- 
tion reach  a  large  total  each  year.  As  the  de- 
gree-conferring powers  in  Chile  are  confided  ex- 
clusively to  the  national  Council,  the  graduates 
of  the  Catholic  University  nuist  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  this  body  for  the  final  sanction  of 
their  studies. 

The  Spanish-.American  countries,  following 
the  Latin  traditions,  maintain  schools  of  art 
and  music  as  public  institutions  supported  by 
the  State.  The  studies  of  the  schools  of  fine 
arts  in  Chile  include  painting,  drawing,  sculp- 
ture, engraving,  and  architecture,  and  the  teach- 
ers are  often  European  artists  who  have  re- 
ceived prizes  for  their  work  in  Paris  or  Spain 
Tlicre  were  243  jiupils  of  both  sexes  at  the  two 
schools  of  fine  and  decorative  art  in  1907,  and 
144  male  and  439  female  students  at  the  na- 
tional conservatory  of  music.  This  institu- 
tion is  of  great  benefit  to  the  middle  class  of  the 
population,  since  the  greater  part  of  its  gradu- 
ates become  teachers  of  tiie  piano  and  singing, 
and  are  also,  if  their  talents  suffice,  trained  as 
dramatic  and  lyric  artists.     Tlie  importance  of 


art  as  an  elevating  influence  in  national  life 
is  emphasized  in  Chile  at  the  present  time  by 
an  international  exposition  of  fine  arts,  which 
was  held  at  Santiago,  September,  1910,  as  a  part 
of  the  Ciiilean  centennial  celebration.  On  the 
oi)ening  day,  Sept.  IS,  the  Palace  of  Fine  Arts, 
erected  as  a  permanent  memorial  of  the  occasion, 
was  inaugurated.  A.  T.  S.  and  R.  L.  P. 

References:  — 

A.MnN.\TEQUi  Y  Solar  Domingo,  1860.  —  Los  primeros 
afios  del  Instituto  Kacionai  (1813-1835).  (Santiago 
dc  Chile,  1889.) 

Annual  and  Special  Reports  of  the  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction. 

Arriau-\o.\,  T.  RoMULO.  Ltyislarion  de  la  tnscfiajiza 
prituaria  dc  Chile  ipuhlica  i  privada).  iJispit.sii-iunca 
vijentes  en  1"^  de  Alarzo  dc  19()().  (Santiago  de  Chile, 
1900.) 

Ballestieros,  Manuel  E.  Compilacion  de  leyes  t  de- 
crclas  vijcnlcn.  En  Materia  de  instrucei6n  pdblica. 
Ohra  anoglada.      (Santiago  de  Chile,  1872.) 

CoNGREso  Naticval  Pedacojico.  Rcsumcn  dc  las  dis- 
cusiones,  actas,  i  metnorias  prcsentadaa  al  primer 
congreso   prdagojico.     (Santiago,  September,    1889.) 

rv  Congreso  CiENTiFico  (1° Pan-Americano).  Bosquejo 
de  la  insiruccidn  publiqua  en  Chile,  1908. 

Insiruccidji  secundaria,  Superior  i  especial;  disposiciones 
vijctdcs,  1905.      (Santiago  1905.) 

Letelier,  Valentin.  1852.  La  lucha  par  la  Cidliira; 
tni^cclanca  dc  articulos  polilicos  i  estudios  pedagojicos, 
.   .  .     (Santiago  de  Chile.   1895.) 

Ministerio  de  instruccidn  puhlica.  Estadistica  escolar, 
1900.  1908.      (Santiago  dc  Chile.) 

Noel,  John  Vav.\sodr.  Report  on  the  Chilean  Edu- 
cational Congress  and  Exhibit,  1902-1903.  In  Re- 
port of  Conirnissiofier  of  Education,  1904,  eh.  xxvii. 

MuNEz,  Jcse  Abelardo,  1840.  Organizticidn  dc  cscue- 
las  nonnales.   .   .   .      (Santiago  de  Chile,  1883.) 

Prendez,  Pedro  N.  Notes  on  Public  Instruction  in 
Chile.      (Santiago,  1901.) 

Ros.\LES,  Ju.STO  Abel.  Instruccidn  puhlica  en  su  parte 
secundaria,  superior,  especial  e  historica.  Recopi- 
iacidn  de  Icycs.  dccretos  suprcTnos,  circularcs  y  acuer- 
dos  del  consejo  de  instruccidn  puhlica.  (Santiago, 
1890.) 


CHILE,    UNIVERSITY 

Education  in. 


OF. —  See    Chile, 


CHILPERIC  I.  — Son  of  King  Clothaire; 
reigned  over  the  Franks  from  561  to  584.  His 
rule  was  rendered  precarious  by  a  long  strife 
with  his  brothers,  particularly  Sigebert.  The 
assassination  of  Sigebert  in  575  left  Chilperic 
with  the  King  of  Hurgundy,  Gontran,  as  his 
chief  ojiponcnt.  In  the  field  of  eihication,  it  is 
to  l)c  noted  that  Chilperic  had  ambitions  similar 
to  those  which  Charlemagne  was  later  more 
successfully  to  realize.  He  extended  the  royal 
autluu-ity  against  the  claims  of  the  bishops,  was 
interested  in  theology  and  logic,  wrote  Latin 
verses  in  a  dark  age  when  literature  was  al- 
most unknown,  and,  not  satisfied  with  these 
es.says,  attempted  even  to  add  certain  letters 
to  the  Roman  alphabet.  At  the  same  time,  he 
is  described  by  his  contemporary  and  victim, 
Gregory  of  Tours,  as  cruel  and  vindictive,  the 
Nero  and  Herod  of  the  times.  P.  R.  C. 

References:  — 

CiUEOonY  OK  Tours.     Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Monks. 
Thieuuy.     Ricits  des  temps  Mlrovingiens.     (Paris.) 


033 


CHINA 


CHINA 


CHINA,  EDUCATION  IN.  —  Nothing  that 
one  could  say  would  express  so  concisely  the 
beginnings  of  the  education  of  Chinese  children 
as  a  few  quotations  from  their  little  classics 
for  boys  and  girls.  It  is  urged  upon  every 
woman  that  she  should  :  — 

Of  pro-natal  education 
Be  attentive  as  a  mother. 
For  the  influence  is  mutual  of  each  upon  the  other. 
Whether  walking,  standinR,  sitting,  or  reclining,  have  a 

rule. 
E'en  in  eating  and  in  drinking  have  a  care  yourself  to 
school. 

In  its  babyhood  the  prattling  infant  is  taught 
rhymes  similar  to  those  of  our  own  nursery, 
when  the  mother,  the  nurse,  or  the  elder  broth- 
ers or  sisters  take  hold  of  its  fingers  one  by  one 
while  they  repeat:  — 

This  one's  old. 

This  one's  young. 
This  one  has  no  meat. 

This  one's  gone 

To  buy  some  hay. 
And  this  one's  on  the  street. 

Boys  and  girls  are  allowed  to  play  together 
mitil  they  are  7  or  8  years  of  age,  when 

For  her  son  she  calls  a  teacher  and  she  places  him  in 

school, 
Where  he  learns  to  write  short  ballads,  studies  how  to 

be  discreet. 
Loves  his  teacher  and  rewards  him  both  with  money 

and  with  meat. 

The  pupil  commits  to  memory,  line  by  line, 
four  primers:  The  Three  Character  Classic, 
The  Thousand  Character  Classic,  The  Hundred 
Surnames,  and  The  Rules  of  Behavior,  none  of 
which  he  understands  at  the  time,  as  they  are 
written  in  the  classical  language,  which  is  to  the 
vernacular  what  Latin  was  to  ]']nglish  150 
years  ago.  In  reciting,  he  stands  with  his 
back  to  the  teacher  that  he  may  not  "cast 
sly  glances  "  at  the  book.  After  these  are 
all  "memorized"  they  are  "exjilained"  by 
the  teacher,  then  bj'  the  child,  and  from  these 
primers  he  has  obtained  the  foundation  of  all 
Chinese  history,  philosophy,  and  social  rules, 
with  every  proper  name  that  he  will  ever  come 
across  in  books,  and  is  able  to  recognize  not  less 
than  three  to  four  thousand  ideographs.  When 
he  began  memorizing,  to  impress  the  charac- 
ters more  indelibly  upon  his  mind,  he  began 
copying  them  with  a  Chinese  brush  (pen)  by 
laying  a  sheet  of  translucent  paper  over  the 
copy. 

When  these  are  completed,  he  is  given  a  school 
name  and  enters  upon  the  study  of  the  Four 
Books — Confucian  Analects,  Great  Learning, 
Doctrine  of  ike  Mean,  and  Mencius  —  commit- 
ting them  to  memory,  and  "  backing  "  them  to 
the  teacher  as  he  did  the  primers.  While  he  is 
committing  the  second,  the  teacher  explains  the 
first;  while  the  third  is  being  committed,  he  ex- 
plains the  second,  and  so  on,  giving  the  pupil 
a  thorough  review,  and  impressing  them  upon 
his  mind   so  firiply  that  during  his  whole  life 


he  is  able  to  quote  verbatim  any  sentence  the 
books  contain.  His  examinations  consist  in 
being  given  catch  words  by  the  teacher  or 
examiner,  from  which  he  is  expected  to  com- 
plete the  sentences,  the  meaning  of  any  of  which 
he  may  be  asked  to  explain.  All  the  while  he 
continues  writing,  and  begins  original  composi- 
tion both  in  prose  and  verse,  though  the  chief 
object  of  his  study  is  to  get  words  at  his 
tongue's  end  and  characters  at  his  pencil's 
point. 

The  school  in  which  he  studies  may  be  a 
room  in  his  father's  house,  a  select  school  for 
boys,  or  a  public  school  in  the  city,  to  which  he 
has  been  admitted  (if  there  be  a  vacancy),  after 
passing  the  required  examination.  No  matter 
where  the  school  is,  or  what  its  character  or 
grade,  the  furniture  is  always  the  same,  — ■ 
nigh,  plain,  oblong  tables,  at  which  he  must 
sit  straight,  on  hard,  flat  chairs  or  benches, 
without  any  depressions  to  adapt  them  to  the 
curves  of  the  Isody.  On  these  he  sits  day  after 
day,  and  year  after  year,  his  head  antl  body 
swaying  to  the  rhythm  of  the  book,  which  he 
studies  aloud,  in  a  singsong  tone,  that  the 
teacher  may  know  that  he  is  intent  upon  his 
work.  And  the  teacher's  ear  is  so  well  trained 
that,  though  he  may  have  twenty  or  thirty  boys 
all  studying  aloud  at  the  same  time,  he  is  able 
to  detect  every  mispronunciation  made  by 
any  one  of  them. 

When  he  has  completed  the  Four  Books,  he 
continues,  without  a  break,  with  the  FiVe  Clas- 
sics, The  Spring  and  Autumn,  and  the  Books  of 
Poetry,  History,  Rites,  and  Changes.  All  of 
these  are  committed  to  memory,  in  regular  or- 
der, one  being  memorized  while  another  is  ex- 
plained, until  his  entire  bible  is  at  his  tongue's 
end,  together  with  the  commentary  thereof. 
With  the  classics  he  takes  up  the  poetry  of  the 
Tang  dynasty,  the  Elizabethan  age  of  Chinese 
poetry,  and  it  is  a  pleasure  to  sit  in  the  class- 
room on  examination  day  and  listen  to  the  stu- 
dents chanting  the  odes  of  Li  Tai-po  or  Tu-Fu, 
the  rhythm  of  which  is  quite  equal  to  that  of 
Horace  or  Anacreon.  All  the  choicest  works  of 
the  greatest  poets  of  the  past  are  thus  stored 
up  in  the  mind  of  the  student  at  an  age  when  it 
will  be  impossible  for  him  to  forget  them. 

With  the  study  of  poetry  he  also  takes  up  the 
study  of  belles-lettres,  or  Ku-wcn,  —  the  iven- 
changs  or  essays  of  the  ancient  masters  of  litera- 
ture. This  is  an  interminable  task.  It  seems 
to  be  an  effort  on  the  part  of  scholars  to  em- 
body the  greatest  number  of  references  to  the 
most  interesting  incidents  of  the  past  in  the 
choicest  possible  language  and  the  fewest  words. 
And  the  student  pores  over  volumes  of  these 
essays,  committing  them  to  memory,  in  the 
hope  of  absorbing  the  style  of  their  author,  or 
developing  in  himself  one  equally  good.  It  is 
thought  boiled  down  to  its  last  consistency  in 
words.  Take,  for  instance,  the  following  advice 
from  the  great  philosopher  and  statesman  Han 
Yii  regardmg  the  treatment  of  Buddhist  priests: 


634 


Interior  of  an  Elementary-  School. 


Exterior  of  an  Elementarj'  School. 


Exainination  Halls,  Cheutu. 


Exaiiiiuatiou  llail.-^,  Chintu. 


General  \'k-\v  of  the  Examination  Hall.s,  Xankint^.  Ruined  Examination  lialU  uf  the  t'nivLi;a\ ,  i  . 

The  Old  Education  in  China. 


CHINA 


CHINA 


fen  ch'ijen,  hi  ch'i  chil,  huo  ch'i  shu,  which  trans- 
lated literally  is  man  their  men,  hoii.te  Ihcir  tcmple-'i, 
fire  their  books.  Let  the  reader  try  to  interpret 
it  for  himself  before  going  further.  To  the 
Chinese  scholar  it  meant:  "  Make  laity  of  their 
priests,  make  dwellings  of  their  temples,  and 
burn  their  books." 

Or  take  the  following  from  Giles'  translation 
of  Strange  Stories  from  a  Chinese  Studio,  Vol.  I, 
p.  xviii,  and  observe  the  references  it  embodies: 
"'Clad  in  wistaria,  girdled  with  ivy,'  (1)  thus 
sangSan-lu  (2)  in  his  Dissipation  of  (Irief  (3).  Of 
ox-hcadcd  devils  and  serpent  Clods  (4),  he  of  the 
long-nails  (5)  never  wearied  to  tell.  Each  inter- 
prets in  his  own  way  the  music  of  heaven  ((>) ; 
and  whether  it  be  discord  or  not,  depends  upon 
antecedent  causes  (7).  As  for  me,  I  cannot,  with 
my  poor  autumn  firefly's  light,  match  myself 
against  the  hobgoblins  of  the  age  (S).  I  am  but 
the  dust  in  the  sunbeam,  a  fit  laughing  stock  for 
devils  (i)).  For  my  talents  are  not  those  of  Yii 
Pao  (10),  elegant  explorer  of  the  records  of  the 
Gods;  I  am  rather  animated  by  the  spirit  of  Su 
Tung-p'o(ll),  who  loved  to  hear  men  speak  of 
the  supernatural."  In  these  few  lines  of  the  in- 
troduction to  his  book  the  author  has  eleven 
references,  the  recognition  of  which  is  like  the 
meeting  of  old  friends  to  the  Chinese  scholar. 

Such  in  brief  is  the  course  of  study  through 
which  the  student  must  pass.  He  is  now  at 
liberty  to  range  throughout  all  literature.  The 
history  of  Clrina  he  must  study  minutely,  with 
all  the  varied  biographical  incidents  of  the  great 
men.  He  must  study  philosophy,  which  he  will 
find  embodied  in  the  Encyclopedia  of  Philosophy 
(Hsing  Li  Ta  Chiian),  a  compendium  of  the 
most  brilliant  sayings  of  the  saj^s.  But  in 
addition  to  these  orthodox  philosophers,  he  has 
bound  up  in  another  set  of  books  the  Twenty- 
four  Philosophers,  who,  in  spite  of  their  hetero- 
doxy, have  taken  a  high  place  among  the  think- 
ers of  the  past  —  Chuang-tze,  mystic  moralist, 
and  social  reformer,  Yang  Chu,  the  Epicurean, 
and  Motze,  who  held  that  "  universal  mutual 
love,"  every  one  loving  every  one  else  as  he  loves 
himself,  was  a  panacea  for  all  earthly  ills,  — 
though  even  in  his  school  life  he  will  be  com- 
pelled to  take  up  the  study  of  Chou,  Chang, 
Cheng,  and  Chu  (there  being  two  brothers 
Cheng),  the  five  great  iihilosophcrs  of  the  .Sung 
dynasty,  who  made  that  period  as  brilliant  for 
its  philosophic  scholarship  as  the  Tang  was  for 
its  poetry. 

The  student  is  expected  to  be  familiar  with 
all  the  scientific  books,  —  falsely  so-called, — 
books  on  the  stars,  on  the  rocks,  on  flowers,  on 
animals,  on  the  laws  of  nature;  for  be  it  re- 
membered that,  while  the  Chinese  have  de- 
voted much  time  to  the  study  of  all  these  sub- 
jects, they  have  never  organized  their  thought 
into  anything  like  a  science  of  astronomy, 
geology,  botany,  zoology,  physics,  or  chemistry, 
or  any  other  natural  or  applied  science.  Indeed, 
the  Chinese  have  never  origiiuited  any  science, 
nor  contributed  anything  to  the  development  of 


science,  nor  studied  any  results  of  scientific 
thought  until  it  was  introduced  from  the  West, 
so  that  their  ideas  of  nature  and  the  laws  are 
remarkably  simple  and  in  some  cases  very  ab- 
surd. They  have  what  may  be  called  a  system 
of  natural  science  in  their  Feng-shua  (\Yind- 
irater)  which  purports  to  explain  the  influence 
of  the  occult  laws  of  nature  on  human  life,  and 
which  the  student  is  expected  to  understand; 
but  the  final  interpretation  of  these  laws  is 
usually  left  to  the  soothsayer. 

It  will  be  noticed  from  what  I  have  given  that 
there  is  nothing  in  the  Chinese  course  of  study 
in  the  way  of  mathematics  or  science,  or  indeed  in 
any  line  of  thought,  which  will  tend  to  develop 
the  thinking  faculties,  such  as  reason  or  inven- 
tion, and  hence  these  faculties  have  lain  dor- 
mant in  the  Chinese  mind.  They  have  never 
invented  anything.  They  have  stumbled  upon 
most  of  the  useful,  practical  appliances  of  life, 
and  among  these  upon  the  compass,  guniiowder, 
and  printing,  and,  though  noted  for  their  com- 
mercial astuteness,  have  lacked  all  power  to 
develop  them  into  a  commercial  success. 

For  more  than  a  thousand  years  the  Chinese 
have  had  two  great  educational  institutions  — 
the  Kuo  Tze  Chien,  or  College  for  the  Sons  of  the 
Empire,  located  at  Peking,  and  the  Han  Lin 
Yilan,  or  Forest  of  Feneils,  also  at  the  capital. 
They  are,  however,  without  any  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  what  with  us  go  to  make  a  college. 
The  former  is  a  square  building,  in  close  proxim- 
itj'  to  the  Confucian  Temple,  surrounded  by  a 
series  of  low  sheds  which  cover  granite  monu- 
ments or  slabs  on  wliich  are  carved  the  text  of 
the  Four  Books  and  Five  Classics.  There  are 
no  dormitories,  no  professors,  and  no  students, 
except  as  students  from  the  provinces  come  to 
visit  the  place  during  the  great  triennial  exami- 
nations. The  Han  Lin  Yiian  was  originally 
composed  of  the  masters  in  all  departments  of 
learning — philosophy,  literature,  art,  the  drama, 
etc.  Tliere  was  connected  therewith  a  great 
library,  in  which  there  was  a  single  encyclope- 
dia, which  contained  as  many  volumes  as  there 
are  days  in  one  hundred  years.  This,  however, 
was  burned  by  the  Boxers  in  1900,  and  the 
buildings  and  hbrary  were  all  destroyed,  and 
with  the  development  of  the  new  education 
since  that  time,  there  has  been  no  effort  to 
restore  the  Han-Lin  nor  to  develop  the  Kuo 
Tze  Chien. 

Civil  Service  Examinations.  —  The  old 
examination  system  in  China  is  the  fruit 
of  4000  years.  It  began  with  Shun  (2200 
B.C.),  who  examined  his  oflicers  every  third 
year,  "  emphasizing  the  able  and  promot- 
ing the  worthy."  By  the  time  of  the  Chou 
(1115  n.c.)  the  fitness  of  an  official  consisted 
in  his  ability  to  excel  in  playing  a  musical  in- 
strument, shooting  with  the  bow,  riding 
horseback,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  while  at  the 
same  time  he  was  expected  to  understand  the 
rites  and  ceremonies  of  jniblic  and  private  life. 
A  thousand  years  later  Confucian  morals  were 


635 


CHINA 


CHINA 


added.  He  was  required  to  bo  filial  and  honest, 
and  to  understand  civil  law,  military  affairs, 
agriculture,  the  administration  of  the  revenue, 
the  geography  of  the  empire,  and  the  water- 
ways. During  the  Tang  and  Sung  dynasties 
(700-1200  A.D.)  he  had  to  be  versed  in  poetry, 
literature,  philosophy,  and  art,  while,  during  the 
last  seven  hundred  years,  when  selections  from 
the  best  literature  have  been  collected  in  an 
encyclopedia  which  contains  as  many  volumes 
as  there  are  days  in  a  hundred  j-ears,  and  when 
one  emperor  (Chicn  Lung)  has  written  as  many 
separate  poems  as  there  are  minutes  in  two 
weeks,  one  could  hardly  hope  for  success,  but 
in  a  life  of  unremitting  toil. 

They  have  five  degrees,  hsiit-ts'ai,  chii-jen, 
chin-^hih,  han-lin,  and  chuang-yuan.  The  ex- 
aminations for  the  hsiu-ts'ai  were  held  in  the 
country  seat,  conducted  by  a  chancellor  who  has 
supervision  of  an  entire  province.  Here  were 
gathered  from  one  to  two  thousand  competi- 
tors, from  the  boy  in  his  teens  to  the  old  man 
in  his  dotage,  from  which  fifty  to  one  hundred 
were  given  the  degree  of  "  budding  genius." 
Once  in  three  years  the  successful  candidates 
were  examined  in  the  provincial  capital,  wlien 
ten  thousand,  more  or  less,  shut  themselves  up  in 
little  cells,  three  times,  of  three  days  each,  to 
prepare  compositions  in  prose  or  verse,  and  from 
these  one  in  a  hundred  might  be  given  the  de- 
gree of  chii-jen,  or  "  promoted  scholar."  The 
next  year  he  entered  the  examination  at  Peking, 
where  three  in  a  hundred  were  allowed  to  pass, 
and  if  he  succeeded  he  was  given  the  degree  of 
chinshih,  "ready  for  office."  Thrice  he  has  con- 
tested with  his  peers,  and  is  now  a  picked  man 
of  picked  men;  and  the  three  hundred  who  suc- 
ceed in  this  last  contest  might  enter  the  exam- 
ination for  the  Han-Lin,  or  membership  in  the 
Imperial  Academy,  whence  each  might  be  sent  as 
chancellor,  poet-laureate,  or  imperial  historian. 
Once  in  three  years  these  han-Uns  were  again 
examined  and  given  the  degree  of  chuang-yuan, 
a  picked  man  of  picked  men  of  the  fifth  degree  — 
a  flower  which  bloomed  but  once  in  three  years. 

I.  T.  H. 

See  Buddhism  AND  Education;  Confucianism 
AND  Education:  China,  Educational  Reform 
in;  Taoism  and  Education. 

References:  — 

B.iRD,   E.,  and  Twitchell,  T.     Chinese  Life  in  Town 

and  Country.      (New  York,  1905.) 
Giles.  H.  A.     Chinaand  the  Chinese.     (New  York,  1902.) 
Headl.ind,   I.  T.     The  Chinese  Boy  and  Girl.     (New 

York,  1901.) 
Legge,   J.     The   Sacred  Books  of  China;    the  Texts  of 

Confucianism,  in  F.  Max  Milller's  Sacred  Books  of 

the  East,  Vols.  27  and  28.      (Oxford,  1885.) 
Lewis,    R.    E.      The   Educational   Conquest   of  the   Far 

East.     (New  York,  1903.) 
Martin,    \V.    A.    P.       The    Chinese,    their   Education, 

Philosophy  and  Letters.      (New  York,  1881.) 
The  Lore  of  Cathay.      (Edinburgh,  1901.) 
Smith.    A.    H.    Village  Life  in    China.      (New    York, 

1899.) 
Chinese  Characteristics,     (New  York,  1894.) 
Williams,  S.  W.     The  Middle  Kingdom.     (New  York, 

1895.) 


CHINA,  RECENT  EDUCATIONAL  RE- 
FORM IN.  —  The  changes  in  the  Chinese 
educational  system  began,  as  do  many  great 
undertakings,  in  a  simple  way.  To  entertain 
the  baby  Emperor,  Kuang  Hsii,  the  eunuchs 
secured  all  kinds  of  foreign  mechanical  toys 
as  playthings,  in  which  he  became  greatly 
interested.  These  were  supplemented  in  his 
boyhood  by  ingenious  clocks  and  watches.  He 
then  obtained  a  telegraphic  apparatus,  which 
was  adopted  throughout  the  empire.  A  small 
railroad  was  built  in  the  palace  grounds,  on 
which  he  had  two  cars  and  an  engine.  Steam 
launches  were  bought  for  him,  which  he  used 
in  the  lotus  lake  in  the  palace  and  in  the  lake 
at  Wan  Shou  Shan.  He  soon  had  the  telephone, 
electric  light,  steam  heat,  the  phonograph, 
graphophone,  cinematograph,  bicycle,  and  in- 
deed all  the  useful  or  unique  inventions  of 
modern  times,  brought  to  him  in  the  palace. 

He  then  began  the  study  of  English,  and  in 
1894,  when  a  New  Testament  was  sent  to  the 
Empress  Dowager  on  her  sixtieth  birthday, 
he  at  once  secured  from  the  American  Bible 
Society  a  complete  Bible  for  himself.  He 
studied  the  Gospel  of  Luke.  This  gave  him  a 
taste  for  foreign  literature,  and  he  sent  his 
eunuchs  to  the  various  book  depositories  and 
bought  every  book  that  had  been  translated 
from  the  European  languages  into  the  Chinese. 
To  these  he  gave  much  of  his  attention,  and  it 
soon  became  noised  abroad  that  the  Emperor 
was  studying  foreign  books  and  was  about  to  em- 
brace the  Christian  faith.  This  continued  from 
1894  till  1898,  during  which  time  his  example 
was  followed  by  young  scholars  throughout  the 
empire,  and  Chang  Chih-tung  wrote  his  epoch- 
making  book,  China's  Only  Hope,  which  was 
sent  to  the  Emperor  and  led  him  to  enter  upon  a 
universal  reform,  the  chief  feature  of  which  was 
the  adoption  of  a  new  educational  system. 

In  the  summer  of  1898  he  issued  an  edict  to 
the  effect  that  "  Our  scholars  are  now  with- 
out solid  and  practical  education;  our  artisans 
are  without  scientific  instructors;  when  com- 
pared with  other  countries  "  (Germany,  Russia, 
England,  and  France,  who  had  just  taken  Chiao- 
chou.  Port  Arthur,  Wei-hai-wei,  and  Kuang- 
chou-wan)  "  we  soon  see  how  weak  we  are. 
Does  any  one  think  that  our  troops  are  as  well 
drilled  or  as  well  led  as  those  of  foreign  armies; 
or  that  we  can  successfully  stand  against  any  of 
them?  .  .  .  Changes  must  be  made  to  accord 
with  the  necessities  of  the  times.  .  .  .  Keep- 
ing in  mind  the  morals  of  the  sages  and  wise 
men,  we  must  make  them  the  basis  on  which 
to  build  newer  and  better  structures.  We  must 
substitute  modern  arms  and  Western  organiza- 
tion for  our  old  regime;  we  must  select  our 
military  oflScers  according  to  Western  methods 
of  military  education;  we  must  establish  ele- 
mentary and  high  schools,  colleges  and  univer- 
sities, in  accordance  with  those  of  foreign  coun- 
tries; we  must  abolish  the  Wen  chang  (literary 
essay),  and  obtain  a  knowledge  of  ancient  and 


636 


Bi 

^;    ■■• 

Hi 

1 

■1 

d 

Peking  Universiti'.     Football  practice  ou  the  Campus. 


Military  Cadets,  Cluntu,  C  hina. 


n      ,  J  - 

1         1 

KM        fl.^ 

1 

Mlk              'A 

i';;'^^  iS^f'JSf 

■  p!  ,  vJ 

^.  fV^   -f^V^^j 

Sl^ffl 

i 

•'/^  ' 

A  Class  in  Trigonometrj'  iu  a  Girl's  School. 


A  Chinese  Kindergarten. 


■Expluiiiiiis;  tin-  Seasons."  PhysicMl  ( ■iihun-  I  la^-  mi  a  llul  -  School. 

The  New  Educ.\tion  in  Chi.va. 


CHINA 


CHINA 


modern  world  history,  and  a  right  conception 
of  the  present-day  state  of  affairs,  with  special 
reference  to  the  governments  and  institutions 
of  the  countries  of  the  five  great  continents;  and 
we  must  understand  their  arts  and  sciences." 

The  effect  of  this  edict  was  to  cause  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  aspirants  for  office  to  put  aside 
the  classics,  and  unite  in  estabhshing  reform 
clubs  in  provincial  capitals,  open  ports,  and 
many  of  the  prefectural  cities.  Book  depots 
were  opened  for  the  sale  of  the  same  kind  of 
literature  as  that  studied  by  the  Emperor, 
magazines  and  newspapers  were  issued  and 
circulated  in  great  numbers,  lectures  were  de- 
livered and  libraries  established,  and  students 
flocked  to  the  mission  schools,  ready  to  study 
anything  the  course  contained,  literary, 
scientific,  or  religious.  Christians  and  pastors 
were  even  invited  into  the  palace  by  the  eunuchs 
to  dine  with  and  instruct  them. 

On  June  11,  1S9S,  tlie  Emperor  issued  an  edict 
ordering  a  great  central  university  to  be  es- 
tablished at  Peking,  the  funds  for  which  were 
provided  by  the  government,  his  closing  words 
being:  "  We  hope  that  all  will  take  advantage 
of  the  opportunities  for  modern  education  thus 
open  to  them,  that  in  time  we  may  have  many 
competent  helpers  in  the  great  work  of  putting 
our  country  on  a  level  with  the  strongest  of  the 
Western  powers."  Observe  the  animus  of  the 
edict,  as  well  as  that  of  the  earlier  date.  It  was 
to  reconstruct  the  army  and  make  China  strong, 
enabling  her  to  withstand  the  aggressions  of  the 
European  powers  which  were  at  that  time  readj' 
to  divide  her  up  among  themselves.  On  the 
26th  of  the  same  month  he  censured  the  princes 
and  ministers  who  were  lax  in  reporting  upon 
the  above  edict,  and  ordered  them  to  do  so  at 
once  without  furtlier  delay. 

On  .July  10  the  Emperor  ordered  that  "  schools 
and  colleges  be  established  in  all  the  provincial 
capitals,  prefectural,  departmental,  and  district 
cities,"  and  allowed  the  viceroys  and  governors 
but  two  months  to  "  report  upon  the  inimber  of 
colleges  and  free  schools  within  their  provinces," 
saying  that  "  all  must  be  changed  into  schools 
for  the  practical  teaching  of  Chinese  literature 
and  Western  learning,  and  become  feeders  to 
the  Peking  Imperial  University."  He  ordered 
further  that  "  all  memorial  and  other  temples 
erected  by  the  people,  and  not  recorded  in  the 
list  of  the  Hoard  of  Rites  and  of  .Sacrificial  Wor- 
ship, are  to  be  turned  into  schools  and  colleges 
for  the  propagation  of  Western  learning,"  a 
thought  which  was  ([uitc  in  harmony  with  that 
advocated  by  Chang  Chih-tung,  but  not  with 
the  sentiment  of  the  people.  The  funds  for 
carrying  out  this  work,  and  establishing  these 
schools,  were  to  be  provided  by  the  China  Mer- 
chants' Steamship  Company,  the  Telegraph 
Administration,  and  a  lottery  in  Canton. 

On  Aug.  4  he  ordered  tliat  numerous  ))re- 
paratory  schools  be  established  in  Peking  as 
feeders  for  the  university;  and  on  the  0th 
appointed  Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin  as  head  of  the 


faculty,  and  approved  the  site  suggested  by 
Sun  Chia-nai,  the  president.  On  the  ICth 
he  authorized  the  establishment  of  a  Bureau  for 
"  translating  into  Chinese,  Western  works  on 
science,  arts,  and  literature  and  textbooks  for 
use  in  the  schools  and  colleges,"  and  on  the  19th 
he  abolished  the  "  Palace  Examinations  for 
Han  Lin  as  useless,  .superficial  and  obsolete," 
thus  severing  the  last  cord  that  bound  them  to 
the  old  regime. 

While  the  Emperor  was  issuing  these  reform 
edicts,  the  Empress  Dowager  was  spending  the 
hot  months  quietly  resting  at  the  Summer  Pal- 
ace at  the  Western  Hills  fifteen  miles  from  the 
capital,  offering  neither  advice,  objection,  nor 
hindrance.  But  when  his  reforms  became  too 
radical,  and  promised  to  bring  about  a  revolu- 
tion, at  the  earnest  request  of  two  delegations 
of  officials  and  princes,  she  felt  compelled  to 
once  more  take  the  throne,  thus  placing  herself 
in  the  hands  of  the  conservative  party.  All 
his  reforms  except  that  of  the  Peking  University, 
the  provincial,  prefectural,  departmental,  and 
district  schools  were  countermanded,  and  the 
Boxers  were  allowed  to  test  their  strength  with 
the  allied  Powers.  After  their  failure,  and 
while  she  was  still  in  Hsiantu,  on  Aug.  29, 
1901,  the  Empress  Dowager  issued  an  edict 
ordering  "  the  abolition  of  essays  on  the  Chinese 
Classics  in  examinations  for  literary  degrees, 
and  substituting  therefor  essays  and  articles 
on  some  phase  of  modern  affairs.  Western  laws, 
or  political  economy.  This  same  jirocedurc  is 
to  be  followed  in  examination  of  candidates  for 
office,"  an  edict  which  was  quite  in  harmony  with 
that  sent  out  by  the  Emperor  three  years  before. 

In  this  same  edict  she  said,  "The  old  methods 
of  gaining  military  degrees  by  trial  of  strength 
with  stone  weights,  agility  with  the  sword, 
marksmanship  with  the  bow  on  foot  or  on 
horseback,  are  of  no  use  to  men  in  the  army 
when  strateg}'  and  military  science  are  the  sine 
qua  non  to  office,  and  hence  should  be  done 
away  with  forever,"  again  voicing  the  senti- 
ments of  the  Emperor,  and  indicating  the  root 
of  the  reform,  which  was  the  desire  to  make 
China  a  strong  military  power,  able  to  with- 
stand any  from  the  West.  Sept.  12,  1901,  she 
issued  another  edict  commanding  "  all  col- 
leges in  the  Empire  to  be  turned  into  schools  of 
Western  learning;  each  provincial  capital  to 
have  a  university  like  that  in  Peking,  whilst  all 
the  schools  in  the  prefectures  and  districts  arc 
to  be  schools  or  colleges  of  the  second  or  third 
class."  On  Sept.  17  she  ordered  "  the  vice- 
roj'S  and  governors  of  other  provinces  to  fol- 
low the  example  of  Liu  Kun-yi  of  Liangkiang, 
Chang  Chih-tung  of  IIuKuang,  and  Kuei  Chun 
(Manchu)  of  Szechuan,  in  sending  young  men 
of  scholastic  promise  abroad  to  .study  any  branch 
of  Western  science  or  art  best  suited  to  their 
tastes,  that  in  time  they  may  return  to  China 
and  place  the  fruits  of  their  knowledge  at  the 
service  of  the  Empire."  What  now  was  the 
result? 


037 


CHINA 


CHINA 


The  Imperial  College  in  Shansi  was  opened 
with  300  students,  all  of  whom  had  the  Chinese 
decree  of  B.A.  It  had  a  Chinese  and  a  Foreign 
dei)artment,  and  after  the  students  had  com- 
pleted tlie  first  they  were  allowed  to  pass  on  to 
the  second,  which  had  six  foreign  professors  who 
held  di])lomas  from  Western  colleges  or  univer- 
sities, and  a  staff  of  six  translators  of  university 
textbooks  into  Chinese,  superintended  by  a 
foreigner.  In  1901-1902,  ten  provinces  opened 
colleges  for  which  they  raised  more  than 
$400,000.  At  the  recjuest  of  Governor 
Yuan  Sliih-kai  of  Shantung,  Dr.  W.  M.  Hayes 
resigned  the  presidency  of  the  Presbyterian 
college  at  Teng-chou-fu,  and  accepted  the 
presidency  of  the  new  government  college  at 
the  provincial  capital.  He  drew  up  a  working 
plan  of  grammar  and  high  schools  for  the  prov- 
ince, which  were  to  be  feeders  for  the  provin- 
cial college.  This  was  approved  by  the  Gov- 
ernor, embodied  in  a  memorial  to  the  throne, 
copies  of  which  the  Empress  Dowager  sent  to 
the  governors  and  viceroys  of  all  the  provinces, 
declaring  it  to  be  a  law,  and  ordering  "  the  vice- 
roys, governors,  and  literary  chancellors  to  see 
that  it  was  obeyed."  Dr.  Hayes  and  Yuan 
Shih-Kai  soon  split  upon  a  regulation  which  the 
Governor  thought  it  best  to  introduce,  viz. 
"  that  the  Chinese  professors  shall,  on  the 
first  and  fifteenth  of  each  month,  conduct  their 
classes  in'reverential  sacrifice  to  the  Most  Holy 
Teacher  Confucius,  and  to  all  the  former  wor- 
thies and  scholars  of  the  provinces."  Dr.  Hayes 
and  his  Cliristian  teachers  withdrew,  but  it 
was  not  long  until  those  who  professed  Chris- 
tianity were  excused  from  this  rite,  while  the 
Christian  physicians  who  taught  in  the  Peking 
University  were  allowed  to  dispense  with  the 
queue  and  wear  foreign  clothes  as  being  more 
convenient  and  sanitary. 

When  Governor  Yuan  was  made  viceroy  of 
Chihli,  he  requested  Dr.  C.  D.  Tenny  to  draw 
up  and  put  into  operation  a  similar  schedule 
for  the  metropolitan  province.  This  was  done 
on  a  very  much  enlarged  scale,  as  was  also  the 
case  in  many  of  the  other  provinces,  and  at 
present  (1909)  "the  Chihli  province  alone  has 
nine  thousand  schools  all  of  which  are  aiming 
at  Western  education,  while  in  the  Empire  as 
a  whole  there  are  not  less  than  thirty  to  forty 
thousand  schools,  colleges,  and  universities, 
representing  some  of  the  educational  changes 
that  have  taken  place  in  China  during  the  past 
eight  years." 

The  New  Education  among  Women.  —  As 
a  result  of  a  conversation  with  certain  foreign 
ladies,  the  Empress  Dowager  issued  an  edict 
approving  of  the  education  of  women.  Two 
of  the  sisters  of  Prince  8u,  one  of  them  the  wife 
of  a  Mongol  Prince,  Ka-la-chin,  at  once  set 
about  opening  schools  for  girls,  one  of  them 
in  Peking,  and  the  other  in  a  Mongol  village 
some  two  hundred  miles  from  the  capital. 
Prince  Su  opened  in  his  own  palace  a  school  for 
his    daughters,    his    daughters-in-law,    his    de- 


ceased brother's  children,  and  his  concubines,  in 
which  they  studied  Japanese,  arithmetic,  draw- 
ing, embroidery,  music,  and  calisthenics,  while 
they  drilled  to  the  music  of  an  American  organ. 
In  all  these  schools  both  Japanese  and  Chinese 
teachers  were  employed,  and  during  the  first 
year  after  the  edict  appeared  there  were  not  less 
than  eight  large  select  schools  for  girls  opened 
in  Peking,  with  innumerable  private  schools 
like  that  of  Prince  Su,  while  similar  select  and 
private  schools  were  opened  in  all  parts  of  the 
empire.  A  lady  in  Hangchou  undertook  to 
open  such  a  school,  and  appealed  to  the  officials 
and  people  for  funds  for  its  support.  These 
were  readily  subscribed  the  first  year,  but  the 
second  year  her  appeal  met  with  a  less  favorable 
response,  and  she  cut  a  great  gash  in  her  arm 
and  sat  in  the  temple  court  at  the  fairs  to  arouse 
public  sympathy.  Failing  to  secure  sufficient 
funds  in  this  way,  she  wrote  to  the  officials, 
saying  that  "  When  these  letters  reach  you  I  will 
be  a  corpse,  as  I  propose  to  take  my  own  life  in 
order  to  arouse  public  sentiujent  to  the  impor- 
tance of  the  education  of  girls."  This  she 
did,  and  memorial  services  were  held,  and 
subscriptions  taken  for  her  school  all  over  the 
empire. 

In  all  these  schools  —  for  boys  as  well  as 
girls  —  the  primers  and  readers  which  have 
been  substituted  for  those  of  the  old  regime 
are  prepared  in  a  style  similar  to  our  own. 
Characters  most  easily  recognized  are  used  in 
the  first  lessons,  simple  sentences  are  constructed 
which  will  be  easily  understood  by  the  child,  and 
each  lesson  is  illustrated  by  an  appropriate 
woodcut,  while  the  old  method  of  committing 
to  memory  is  relegated  to  the  educational 
museum  of  the  past. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  questions 
given  at  the  triennial  examinations  of  1901- 
1902  in  6  of  the  provinces:  — 

1.  "As  Chinese  and  Western  laws  differ,  and 
Western  people  will  not  submit  to  Chinese  pun- 
ishments, what  ought  to  be  done  that  China, 
like  other  nations,  may  be  mistress  in  her  own 
country?  " 

2.  "  What  are  the  Western  sources  of  eco- 
nomic prosperity,  and,  as  China  is  now  so  poor, 
what  should  she  do?  " 

3.  "  According  to  international  law,  has  any 
one  a  right  to  interfere  with  the  internal  affairs 
of  any  foreign  country?  " 

4.  "  State  the  advantages  of  constructing 
railways  in  Shantung." 

5.  "Of  what  important  advantage  is  the 
study  of  chemistry  to  the  agriculturist?  " 

I.  T.  H. 

References :  — 

Brown.     New  Forces  in  Old  China.     (New  York,  1904.) 
Kemp,  E.  G.     The  Face  of  China.     (London,  1909.) 
Lewis.     Eiiucational  Conquest  of  the  Far  East.      (New 

York,  1903.) 
Reinsch,    Paul    S.     The    New    Education    in    China. 

Atlantic  Monthly,  Vol.  103,  p.  515. 


See  references  to  previous  article. 


638 


CHIVALRIC   EDUCATION 


CHIVALRIC   EDUCATION 


CHIVALRIC  EDUCATION.  —  The  form  of 
education  open  to  the  upper  or  noble  classes  in 
the  Middle  Ages  is  (despite  some  modern  litera- 
ture on  the  subject)  still  far  from  clear.  The 
manuscript  authorities  are  still  more  or  less 
closed,  and  some  modern  notions  (such  for  in- 
stance as  the  theory  that  the  post- Reformation 
system  of  secondary  schools  owes  much  to  chiv- 
alric  education)  are  open  to  great  doubt.  The 
present  discussion  is  based  on  the  propositions 
that  feudal  lords  adopted  with  various  modifica- 
tions the  educational  ideas  that  were  elaborated 
in  the  Palace  Schools  of  Charlemagne  (q.v.)  and 
(perhaps)  Alfred  (q.v.)  and  applied  them  to  the 
condition  of  things  that  sprang  from  the  feudal 
fee  and  feudal  rights  of  wardships  and  marriage. 
It  is  necessary  to  remember  that  the  feudal 
lords  who  were  in  the  long  chain  of  feudal  ser- 
vice that  began  with  the  king  and  passed  down 
to  the  smallest  knight's  fee  or  tenement,  in 
reality  formed,  so  to  speak,  a  class  or  caste 
that  had  educationally  little  in  common  with 
the  dependent  free  and  unfree  classes  that  ren- 
dered services  to  the  lord  of  the  fee  and  of  the 
manor.  It  is  of  course  true  that  the  Hall  and 
the  Demesne  lands  of  the  manor  were  the  rally- 
ing center  of  an  entire  community,  a  center  that 
had  very  largely  absorbed  the  ancient  township, 
though  it  had  not  brought  within  manorial 
control  the  parish  priest,  who  with  his  township 
or  parochial  school  represented  the  culture  of 
the  people  as  opposed  to  the  chivalric  educa- 
tion of  the  Hall.  But  educationally  the  noble 
had  little  in  common  with  the  serf,  and  that 
these  two  aspects  of  education  clashed  is 
known  from  the  manorial  regulations  limiting 
the  educational  facilities  of  the  serf  population, 
regulations  which  were  swept  away  by  the 
Statute  of  1406  that  threw  open  the  parochial 
schools  to  all  boys  and  girls,  whether  free  or 
unfree. 

Chivalric  education  was  largely  based  on  the 
necessities  of  the  old  law  of  wardship  and  mar- 
riage, and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  state, 
as  succinctly  as  may  be,  that  law.  If  a  man 
held  a  tenement  by  knight's  service  or  military 
sergeanty  of  a  mesne  lord,  and  died  leaving 
a  son  under  age  as  heir,  the  lord  had  the 
wardship  of  the  land  until  the  heir  attained 
21  years  or  died  under  that  age.  The  lord 
had  the  right  to  the  rents  and  profits  of  the 
tenement  for  his  own  use,  but  had  to  provide 
for  the  youth's  maintenance  and  pay  the  dead 
man's  debts.  The  lord  was  also  entitled  to  the 
custody  of  the  body  of  the  heir,  and  was  en- 
titled to  the  boy's  "  marriage  ";  that  is  to  say, 
he  could  sell  him  in  marriage  provided  that  the 
marriage  was  not  a  disparaging  one.  In  the  case 
of  a  female  heir  the  lord's  rights  were  much 
the  same.  Complicated  questions  might  arise  if 
the  tenant  held  in  respect  of  several  tenements 
of  various  lords,  since  of  course  only  one  lord 
could  have  the  custody  of  the  heir.  As  a  rule 
that  lord  was  preferred  "from  whom,  or  from 
whose   ancestors,   the    most   ancient   of   those 


titles  was  derived.  ...  If  the  dead  man  held 
in  chief  of  the  Crown  by  knight's  service  or  by 
grand  sergeanty,  the  king  was  entitled  to  the 
wardship  of  the  heir's  body  and  to  his  marriage, 
no  matter  how  many  other  lords  there  might  be, 
and  no  regard  being  had  to  the  relative  an- 
tiquity of  the  various  titles  by  which  the  tene- 
ments were  held;  no  one  can  compete  with  the 
king.  But  further,  the  king  was  entitled  to  the 
wardship  of  all  the  lands  which  this  dead  man 
held,  no  matter  of  whom  he  held  them.  Such 
was  the  right  of  'prerogative  wardship,'  and  a 
section  in  the  Great  Charter  had  been  nece-ssary 
to  keep  it  within  these  spacious  bounds."  (Pol- 
lock and  Maitland,  History  of  English  Law, 
before  the  time  of  Edward  I.  Vol.  I,  pp.  301-302.) 
In  addition  to  this  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  right  of  wardship  and  marriage  was 
saleable,  and  was  in  fact  frequently  sold.  Bear- 
ing this  in  mind,  what  may  be  called  the  bare  ma- 
chinery of  chivalric  education  becomes  fairly 
clear.  The  fact  that  a  lord  had  the  custody 
of  his  ward  rendered  some  educational  pro- 
vision necessary.  The  fact  that  he  had  the 
right  of  marrying  his  ward  to  some  other  young 
person  of  adequate  birth  and  fortune  rendered 
the  advantageous  association  of  suitable  young 
people  of  both  sexes  also  desirable,  if  not  neces- 
sary. If  a  lord  was  not  in  a  position  to  give  the 
necessary  education  and  a.ssociation,  it  was 
clearly  to  his  advantage  to  sell  his  right  of  ward- 
ship and  marriage  to  some  other  lord  who  could 
provide  both  education  and  opportunities  of 
suitable  marriage.  Thus  by  a  species  of  eco- 
nomic law  there  was  a  natural  drift  of  marriage- 
able wards  into  the  larger  Halls  and  households. 
The  king,  with  his  right  of  prerogative  wardship, 
undoubtedly  provided  the  best  school  of  chiv- 
alry, but  it  may  be  doubted  if  the  king  habitu- 
ally or  indeed  often  purchased  wardships,  and 
thus  other  great  households  competed  with  the 
Court  as  a  place  of  training  for  the  gilded  youth 
of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
Girls  were,  in  their  earlier  years  at  any  rate, 
not  educated  in  the  household.  The  convent 
schools  received  them,  and  taught  them  ad- 
mirably the  arts  of  sewing,  weaving,  music 
and  song,  elements  of  medicine  and  first  aid, 
and  Latin.  There  were  certain  well-known 
nunnery  schools  for  girls  of  the  highest  class. 
The  Dartford  nunnery  in  Kent  received  girls 
of  royal  rank.  Carow  nunnery,  near  Nor- 
wich, was  a  famous  school  for  girls  of  high 
birth,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  St.  Mary's 
nunnery  school  at  A\'inchcster.  From  these 
schools  the  girls  passed  into  the  "  Bower " 
of  the  Household,  there  to  receive  the  final 
touches  of  chivalric  culture  and  there  to  meet 
the  noble  youths  whom  they  were  destined  to 
marry.  The  fact  that  there  were  in  these  house- 
holds marriageable  heirs  and  heiresses  drew  to 
the  households  noble  youths  and  maidens,  who, 
though  not  in  wardship,  were  sent  thither 
by  parents  who  understood  the  ways  of  a  world 
that  differed  only  in  form  from  the  world  as  it  is 


639 


CHIVALRIC   EDUCATION 


CHIVALRIC   EDUCATION 


lived  to-day.  To  marry  and  to  be  given  in 
marriage  in  the  most  suitable  fashion  was  one 
object,  if  not  the  supreme  object,  of  chivalric 
education.  But  this  is  not  a  cynical  criticism  of 
chivalric  education,  for  the  words  "  suitable 
fashion "  imply  many  things.  A  high  and 
noble  standard  of  life  was  set  before  the  young 
people,  and  one  may  doubt  if  that  age  or  any 
age  could  have  set  to  work  with  nobler  ideals  to 
form  men  and  women  fit  to  carry  on  a  particu- 
lar conception  of  civilization.  The  long  and  de- 
termined resistance  of  chivalry  and  of  the  feudal 
system  to  the  inroads  of  a  commercial  genera- 
tion from  the  late  fourteenth  century  onwards 
is  one  of  the  significant  facts  of  English  history. 
The  fact,  indeed,  of  noblesse  oblige,  which  may  be 
said  to  have  been  the  normal  basis  of  chivalric 
education,  long  sur\'ivcd  both  chivalry  and  feu- 
dalism, and  is  not  dead  to-day.  It  is  therefore 
desirable  to  consider  in  some  detail  the  ma- 
chinery, so  to  speak,  of  chivalric  education, 
since  it  undoubtedly  gave  to  national  educa- 
tion in  the  largest  sense  a  moral  undernote  that 
has  survived  the  changes  and  chances  of  time. 
The  fact  that  the  universities,  after  the  Reforma- 
tion and  the  final  disappearance  of  formal 
chivalric  education,  made  special  provision  for 
and  offered  special  privileges  to  members  of 
the  nobility  was  not  a  policy  sine  nobilitate,  but 
a  deliberate  and  not  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
graft  into  the  highest  stage  of  national  educa- 
tion the  culture  and  the  morale  that  had  been 
begotten  by,  and  had  happily  survived,  feudal- 
ism. 

The  children  of  both  sexes  were  brought  up 
with  the  women  of  the  household  until  the  age 
of  7  years,  but  before  this  age  the  boys  were 
taught  to  ride.  The  children  were  taught  to 
write  quite  early,  and  used  wax  tablets  with  a 
stylus  to  prevent  waste  of  parchment.  Apart 
from  the  regular  intellectual  education,  the 
boys  from  the  ages  of  7  to  1.5  years  were 
taught  to  fence  and  hunt.  Fencing  included 
sword  and  lance  practice  and  the  use  of  the 
singlestick.  Hunting  in  the  thirteenth  century 
was  a  regular  science  of  the  most  complicated 
kind,  involving  a  knowledge  of  the  forest  laws, 
and  was  divided  into  two  branches,  each  of 
which  had  to  be  known  in  detail,  namely  (1) 
vener}',  the  art  of  hunting  the  deer  and  so 
forth,  and  (2)  falconry,  a  most  difficult  and  in- 
volved business,  comprising  the  knowledge  how 
to  fly,  feed,  call,  and  hold  the  various  classes 
of  birds  such  as  the  Gerfalcon,  the  Sacre,  the 
P61erin,  the  Gentil,  and  the  Lavier.  When  it  is 
realized  how  much  the  children  had  to  learn 
before  the  age  of  1.5  in  the  way  of  arms  and 
sports  (such  as  wrestling,  boxing,  running,  rid- 
ing, tilting  at  the  ring,  quintain,  bull  and  bear 
baiting)  it  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  in  a  con- 
siderable percentage  of  cases  even  the  arts  of 
reading  and  writing  were  forgotten  in  later 
years.  These  arts  in  the  case  of  many  children 
did  not  compete  in  interest  with  the  arts  of 
controlling    a    horse,  a    gerfalcon,   a    lance,   a 


sword.  The  same  may  be  said  of  music. 
There  were  opportunities  to  learn  the  use  of 
instruments  and  to  train  the  voice,  and  no 
doubt  those  boys  or  young  men  who  had  a 
taste  for  music  took  advantage  of  the  oppor- 
tunities, especially  as  the  gift  for  minstrelsy 
was  greatly  appreciated  in  the  age  that  was 
largely  dependent  on  the  efforts  of  the  amateur 
for  amusement.  The  houses  where  training 
could  be  secured  were  not  limited  to  the  halls 
and  castles  of  the  nobility.  Some  of  the  great 
religious  houses  also  maintained  schools  of  chiv- 
alry (in  virtue  of  tlie  fact  that  they  were  often 
lords  of  manors  and  had  rights  of  wardship), 
and  no  doubt  in  such  schools  the  teaching  of 
"song"  received  very  special  attention. 

But  the  life  of  the  varlets  or  damoiseaux  (as 
the  young  pages  were  called;  the  girls  of  the 
household  were  of  course  the  damoiselles)  was 
in  many  ways  a  hard  one  as  they  grew  older 
and  more  capable  of  doing  the  work  of  the  grade 
above  them,  that  of  the  squire.  We  have  seen 
something  of  their  outdoor  training,  but  the 
indoor  life  was  even  busier.  There  were  the 
school  lessons  of  which  something  will  be  written 
directly,  but  assuming  (and  the  assumption  is 
a  considerable  one)  that  the  arts  of  reading  and 
writing  had  been  acquired,  it  is  clear  that  the 
poor  little  damoiseau  had  before  him  what  must 
have  been  a  dreary  vista  to  many  minds.  It 
was  essential  that  the  boy  should  become  ex- 
pert at  heraldry,  a  most  involved  and  compli- 
cated art,  that  he  should  become  a  competent 
carver  of  meat,  another  almost  forgotten  art, 
that  he  should  acquire  aU  the  arts  of  the  valet, 
the  groom,  the  armorer.  Thus  at  table  the 
squire  carved  and  then  handed  the  wines  and 
dishes  and  was  followed  along  the  table  by  the 
pages  or  varlets  carrying  the  dishes  that  he  is  to 
hand.  Then  again  it  was  the  business  of  the 
squires  and  pages  to  make  the  beds,  to  help  the 
Lord  to  dress,  to  groom  the  horses,  scour  the 
armor.  Moreover,  the  squire  slept  in  his 
lord's  room  or  at  the  door  for  the  purpose  of  giv- 
ing him  protection  at  night.  The  squire,  in- 
deed, was  busy,  for  the  training  of  the  pages  was 
his  duty.  He  had  to  teach  the  damoiseau  to 
ride  as  a  squire  should  ride,  to  speak  tongues 
(English  and  German;  damoiseaux  as  well  as 
damoiselles  all  learned  to  speak  French),  to  harp 
and  pipe,  to  sing  and  dance,  and  these  things 
(and  other  forms  of  culture  and  courtoisie, 
such  as  chess,  and  the  rules  of  good  manners 
and  gallantrj")  were  impressed  on  the  varlet's 
mind  "  with  corrections  in  their  chambers." 
One  of  the  chief  manuals  of  manners  was 
Bishop  Grosseteste's  Stans  puer  ad  mensam.  It 
was  a  hard  and  busy  life,  and  its  softer  side  was 
(to  a  boy)  arduous  enough:  the  boys  and 
squires  had  to  wait  on  the  ladies  of  the  Bower, 
to  play  chess  vath  them,  walk  with  them,  dance 
with  them,  harp  and  sing  to  them.  The  free- 
dom allowed  between  the  two  sexes  appears  to 
have  been  great,  and  deliberately  great  as  part 
of    the    education    in    chivalry.     Scandals    no 


640 


CHIVALRIC  EDUCATION 


CHIVALRIC   EDUCATION 


doubt  occurred  on  occasions,  but  such  things 
were  rare,  and  on  the  whole  the  freedom  justi- 
fied itself.  It  must  be  remembered  that  mar- 
riage was  alwaysonc  end  aimed  at  by  the  system, 
and  certainly  in  a  hard  age  that  recked  little  of 
bloodshed,  of  pain  and  suffering,  this  chivalrous 
intermingling  of  the  two  sexes  did  much  to  add 
a  tenderness,  a  sense  of  honor,  an  atmosphere 
of  compassion  and  religion  to  the  round  of  daily 
life.  The  part  played  by  religion  is  very  im- 
portant. All  through  the  educational  period  the 
boy  (first  as  varlet  or  page  or  damoiseaii,  then  as 
squire  and  at  last  — -at  21  —  as  knight)  has  lying 
before  him  the  impressive  religious  ceremony 
of  his  investiture  as  knight,  his  robing  with  a 
white  tunic  for  purity,  with  the  red  robe  to  show 
that  he  has  blood  to  shed  for  the  faith,  the  Black 
Doublet  to  keep  death  before  his  mind,  and 
then  the  night  of  watching  in  the  Church,  the 
confession,  the  Holy  Communion,  the  ritual  of 
the  Missa  de  sancto  spiritu,  the  sermon  on  the 
Knightly  Life.  Betmxt  the  young  boy  first 
learning  the  art  of  knightly  life  and  the  moment 
when  the  armor  is  put  on  lay  some  ten  years 
of  continuous  training  with  a  definite  religious 
and  moral  purpose  in  view.  This  clearly  ap- 
pears in  the  ]\Is.  evidence  on  the  subject.  The 
following  account  is  taken  from  a  late  fifteenth- 
century  Ms.  of  a  thirteenth-century  treatise 
on  the  subject  of  this  training  in  the  British 
Museum.  The  work  in  question  was  very 
popular  and  its  use  long  outlived  the  formal 
schools  of  chivalry.  The  Ms.  is  a  translation 
of  De  Rcgiinine  Principum,  written  for  King 
Philippe  le  Bel  of  France,  before  his  acces- 
sion in  1285,  by  his  tutor  Egidio  Colonna,  who 
is  known  to  students  of  this  work  as  Giles  de 
Romme.  This  translation  into  French  was 
executed  at  the  request  of  Philippe  by  Henry 
de  Gaud,  or  Henry  de  Gauchy,  or  possiblj'  by 
Gyles  de  Campus  (Desohampes).  This  Trade 
de  Gouvernement  dcs  Princes  asks  early  in  Part  I 
what  is  the  "  soverain  bien  de  cestc  niortele 
vye"?  The  answer  comes  that  it  is  not  "  dclit 
du  corps"  nor  riches  nor"  honneur  mondaine," 
nor  glory  and  renown  nor  force  of  courage ; 
nor  does  it  lie  in  "  force  sante  et  beaute  do 
corps,"but  in  (cap.  11)  "  euvres  de  largesse" 
and  in  governing  according  to  law  and 
reason.  The  second  part  goes  on  to  discuss 
"  La  vertue  de  sagcsse,"  and  declares  that  "  Ics 
rois  ct  princes  doivcnt  cstre  sages,"  that 
"  sans  justice  et  saus  droiture  les  Roiaulmcs 
ne  peuvent  durer,"  lays  stress  on  the  im- 
portance of  force  and  courage,  and  on  the  virtues 
of  temperance  and  largesse.  The  second  part  of 
the  second  book  directs  the  teacher  (cap.  5)  to 
instruct  children  "  en  la  foy  catholique  do  sancte 
eglise,"  (0)  "  instruire  en  jeunesse  a  bonnes  meurs 
et  bonnes  maneres  avoir,"  (7)  "  aprendre  en  jeu- 
nesse les  sciences  de  lettre  et  de  dcrgic."  The 
crown  of  all  is  Courtoisie,  coupled  with  good  laws 
for  the  people.  Something  more  must  be  said 
about  the  seventh  chaiiter,  as  it  deals  with  the 
question  that  has  up  till  now  been  left  undis- 

voL.  I— 2t  641 


cussed  in  this  article,  the  intellectual  training 
of  the  pages,  or  damoiseaux.  The  chapter 
covers  ten  pages  (folios  198o-2086).  It  is  en- 
titled "  les  enfans  des  gentilz  homes  et  des  rois 
et  i)rinces  doivent  aprendre  en  jeunesse  les 
sciences  de  lettre  et  de  clergie."  Not  only 
must  Latin,  but  all  other  things  that  are  to  be 
well  learned  be  learned  in  youth.  We  get  on  this 
point  the  striking  phrase,  "  aussi  pour  ce  que  les 
sciences  sont  longues  et  la  vye  de  I'Homme  est 
brief,  ne  il  convient  commence  de  aprenre  ene 
jeunesse."  We  are  very  sharply  made  to  see 
that  the  intellectual  training  of  the  court  school 
was  certainly  not  behind  that  of  the  grammar 
school.  "  Les  philosophes  dirent  que  ils  font 
sept  sciences  francos  et  liberaulz  a  scavoir:  — 
Gramaire,  logicque,  Rethoricque,  musicque, 
arithmeticque,  geometric  et  astronomic,  les 
quelles  sciences  les  philosophes  apelent  liberaulz 
pour  ce  que  les  enfans  des  princes  les  souloicnt 
aprendre.  Et  aprendoicnt  premierement  gra- 
maire. .  .  ."  We  are  told  that  rhetoric  is  neces- 
sary for  the  children  of  princes,  that  arithmetic, 
the  science  of  numbers,  is  learned  by  the  children 
of  the  gentry,  for  without  arithmetic  they  can- 
not know  music  perfectly,  that  geometry 
teaches  "  les  mesures  et  les  quantity  "  of  things, 
and  is  necessary  to  astronomy,  which  teaches 
the  quality,  distance,  and  number  of  the  stars. 
But  Giles  de  Romme,  court  teacher  in  the  late 
thirteenth  century,  does  not  limit  the  range  of 
study  to  the  Trivium  and  Quadrivium  {q.v.). 
There  are  other  sciences  of  peculiar  value  to 
the  kingly,  that  are  more  noble  than  the  seven 
hberal  arts.  There  are  (1)  natural  science, 
which  deals  with  the  nature  of  things;  (2)  la 
science  mctaphysic(pie,  which  gives  knowledge 
of  God  and  of  his  angels;  (3)  Theology;  (4) 
Ethics  —  the  science  of  governing  yourself; 
(5)  Yconomicgue  —  the  science  of  governing 
your  house  ;  (6)  Polliticque  —  the  science  of 
governing  cities  and  kingdoms.  Truly  the 
curriculum  in  the  school  for  princes  was  ad- 
vanced enough  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  lesser  courts  of 
Prince  and  Duke  and  Earl  and  Baron  and 
wealthy  Knight  were  modeled  on  the  Court  of 
Philippe  or  of  Edward  III.  Nodoubt  the  teachers 
varied  in  quality  and  the  standard  varied  from 
Hall  to  Hall,  and  a  good  deal  dcjiendcd  on  the 
warlike  activity  of  the  time  and  the  opportuni- 
ties for  sport,  for  the  use  of  the  bow  and  the 
gerfalcon,  but  the  fact  remained  that  these 
boys  had  as  an  ultinuite  ideal  the  above  curricu- 
lum, and  also  had  to  learn  French  (out  of  books 
svich  as  that  written  by  Walter  de  Bibelsworth 
iq.v.)  for  the  House  of  Lady  Dionysia  dc  Mon- 
chensy  of  Swanscombe  in  Kent  towaril  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century),  heraldry,  and  all 
the  other  arts  and  graces  of  which  mention  has 
been  made.  It  was  certainly  a  very  complete 
education ;  not  less  complete  in  its  way  than  that 
given  by  the  grammar  school  and  the  univer- 
sity combined. 

One  word  in  conclusion  must  be  said  as  to  the 


CHIVALRIC   EDUCATION 


CHOREA 


decay  of  chivalric  education.  When  we  enter 
the  fiftoontli  century  its  days  of  glory  are  over, 
though  the  greater  schools  lasted  on.  But  the 
century  itself  did  much  to  complete  that  rout  of 
feudalism  which  commerce  had  already  begun. 
In  the  Gloucester  Grammar  School  Case  of  1410 
it  is  spoken  of  as  a  common  thing  for  a  man  to 
"  retain  a  ma.ster  in  his  house  to  teach  his  chil- 
dren." The  private  teacher,  who  for  the  four 
succeeding  centuries  was  to  play  so  large  a  part 
in  the  education  of  the  nobility,  had  begun  to 
take  the  place  of  teachers  like  Alcuin,  who  taught 
(of  course  in  one  sense  in  a  private  house)  the 
children  of  various  families,  a  common  and  high 
standard  for  the  nobility  being  the  end  aimed 
at.  After  the  Renaissance  books  poured  forth 
dealing  with  the  education  of  the  sons  of  the 
nobility  and  gentry,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  any  of 
them  were  better  or  even  as  good  as  the  De 
Rcgimine  Principum  of  Egidio  Colonna,  on 
which  indeed  many  of  them  were  based.  Co- 
lonna's  book  was  world-famous.  The  Ms.  cata- 
logue of  the  library  of  the  parson  of  King's 
Swinford  in  1432  (Rolls,  Early  Chancery 
Proceedings,  Bundle  12,  250)  contains  a  work 
called  Dc  Rcgimine  partnilorum  iiohilium,  vflnch. 
is  possibly  Egidio  Colonna's  book,  but  the  fact 
that  a  book  of  this  name  was  in  use  in  1432 
shows  that  at  that  date  the  special  education 
of  the  nobility  still  continued.  An  excellent 
collection  of  works  on  the  subject  of  courtly 
training  from  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries  is  to  be  found  in  the  Bahces  Book 
edited  by  the  late  Dr.  F.  J.  Furnivall.  In 
the  sixteenth  century  there  appears  a  series 
of  books  dealing  with  the  education  of  the 
children  of  the  nobility,  works  such  as  Castig- 
lione's  (q.v.)  Cortegiano,  Elyot's  (q.v.)  Gou- 
vernour  (1531),  the  rnslitulion  of  a  Gentleman 
(1555),  Rnrnphrey'sOpti males.  But  by  this  date, 
except  perhaps  to  some  extent  in  Italy,  the  me- 
dieval .system  of  chivalric  education  had  gone, 
and  private  tutors  superintended  the  education 
of  single  pupils.  The  courisc  of  education  was 
largely  guided  by  books  of  the  type  named. 
In  England  the  practice  had  arisen  in  the  fif- 
teenth century  for  young  men  of  noble  birth  to 
join  one  of  the  Inns  of  Court,  and  these  Inns  in 
some  fashion  become  a  university  or  Studium 
Generals  for  noble  youths  (see  Fortescue's 
de  Laudihus  Lcgum  Angliae).  At  the  same  time 
or  a  little  later  the  same  class  began  to  attend 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  with  special  privileges, 
and  a  gradual  assimilation  of  the  type  of  educa- 
tion given  to  the  noble  and  to  other  scholars 
took  place.  Professor  Watson  finds  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  century  curriculs 
usual  in  the  case  of  the  children  of  the  nobility 
one  of  the  sources  that  enlarged  the  curricula 
of  ordinary  schools.  Mulcaster  in  the  late 
sixteenth  century  advocated  a  special  training 
for  princes.  They  need  Courtoisie  more  than 
do  ordinary  men,  and  the  knowledge  of  tongues, 
of  theology,  political  science,  and  religion.  Thus 
the  ideals  of   the  old  chivalric  education  still 


swayed  the  minds  of  teachers  in  days  when  the 
old  education  itself  was  passing  away.  The  same 
ideals  prompted  the  advocacy  and  establish- 
ment of  academies  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
If  the  educational  forces  that  were  at  work 
translating  the  medieval  into  the  modern  world 
are  to  be  understood,  the  history  of  cliivalric  edu- 
cation cannot  be  neglected.         J.  E.  G.  de  M. 

See  Academies  ;  Gentlemen,  Education 
of;  Middle  Ages,  Education  in  ;  Renais- 
sance, Education  in  the  ;  Social  Realism. 

References:  — 

B.^TTY.  John.     The  Spirit  and  Influence  of   Chivalry. 
(Londou,  1890.) 

Cornish,  F.  Wakren.     Chivalry.     (London,  1901.) 

FuHNiv.\LL,  F.  J.  The  Babces  Book.  Published  for  the 
Early  English  Text  Society.  (London,  1868.) 
Italian  and  German  Books  of  Courtesey,  etc.  Early 
English  Text  Society,  Extra  Series,  Vol.  8.  (Lon- 
don, 1869.) 
IntToditction  to  Knowledge,  etc.  Early  English  Text 
Society,  Extra  Scries,  No.  10.      (London,  1870.) 

Gautier,     Le'on.     Chivalry.      Tr.     by    Henry    Firth. 
(London,  1891.) 

MoNTMORENCT,  J.  E.  G.  DE.  State  Intervention  in  Eng- 
lish Education.     (Cambridge,  1902.) 

Oliph.\nt,  J.vmes.  Educational  WritiTigs  of  Richard 
Mulcaster.     (1903.) 

Pollock  and  M.4Itl.\nd.     History  of  English  Law. 

Watson,  Foster.  The  Beginnings  of  the  Teachings  of 
Modern  Subjects  in  England.     (London,  1909.) 

Welton,  James.  The  Historj-  of  Physical  Education, 
in  Principles  and  Methods  of  Physical  Education  and 
Hygiene.    (London,  1908.) 

CHOICE.  —  When  volition  takes  place  under 
conditions  such  that  the  reactor  is  conscious 
that  he  might  have  followed  either  one  of  two 
or  more  courses,  the  process  is  called  a  choice. 

See  Volition;  Will. 

CHOICE     REACTIONS.  —  See     Reaction 

Experijients. 

CHORD.  —  A  combination  of  more  or  less 
simple  musical  tones,  usually  such  as  produce 
harmony,  e.g.  the  major  chord,  the  minor 
chord,  the  dominant  seventh,  the  diminished 
seventh,  etc.  In  scientific  works  it  is  often  used 
broadly  to  include  any  combination  of  tones, 
whether  consonant  or  dissonant.  The  former 
are  called  concords  or  harmony,  the  latter  dis- 
cord. C.  S. 

CHOREA.  —  This  name  is  given  to  a  symp- 
tom, and  at  the  same  time  to  certain  definite 
diseases  of  the  nervous  system  in  which  the 
symptom  is  prominent.  The  choreic  symptom 
is  a  rapid,  uncontrollable  twtching  of  a  muscle 
or  group  of  muscles,  which  may  be  slight  or 
severe,  and  momentary  or  continued.  The 
symptom  is  found  in  hysteria  (q.v.),  in  the  so- 
called  choreas  of  Friedreich,  of  Morvan,  of 
Bergeron,  and  of  Dubini,  in  Huntington's 
chorea,  and  in  Sydenham's  chorea.  The 
choreas  of  Friedreich,  of  Morvan,  of  Ber- 
geron, and  of  Dubini  are  more  properly  called 
myoclonias,  and  need  not  be  discussed  here. 
Huntington's  chorea  is  an  incurable  nervous 


642 


CHOREA 


CHOREA 


disease  occurring  in  adults,  but  is  so  rare  as  to 
warrant  description  only  in  textbooks  of  ner- 
vous diseases. 

The  chorea  of  Sydenham,  or  chorea  minor,  is 
the  most  common  and  the  most  important  of 
these  diseases,  and  is  almost  exclusively  found 
in  children.  From  an  examination  of  the  his- 
tories of  over  two  thousand  such  patients 
treated  in  his  clinic  Starr  shows  that  only  one 
third  of  the  cases  are  boys  and  young  men,  and 
that  the  disease  occurs  most  frequently  between 
the  ages  of  6  and  15.  Only  5  per  cent  of 
his  cases  began  before  the  age  of  6,  45  per 
cent  began  between  the  ages  of  6  and  10, 
38  per  cent  between  11  and  15,  10  per  cent  be- 
tween 16  and  20,  and  only  2  per  cent  began  after 
the  age  of  20.  It  will  be  noticed  that  this  is  a 
disease  coincident  in  time  with  school  life.  A 
seasonal  variation  has  been  noted  by  some 
observers,  the  greatest  number  of  cases  begin- 
ning in  the  spring  months,  from  March  to  July. 
In  most  of  the  cases  the  twitchings  are  bilateral, 
but  about  one  third  of  the  total  show  only 
unilateral  disturbance. 

The  disease  is  chiefly  found  among  excitable 
and  nervous  children,  usually  of  neurotic  par- 
ents, and  especially  among  those  who  are  ab- 
normally bright  and  precocious.  It  is  said  to  be 
brought  on  by  emotional  shocks,  such  as  those 
of  fright  or  of  grief,  and  by  mental  strain.  The 
emotional  shock  may  precede  by  only  a  few  hours 
or  by  as  long  a  period  as  several  weeks  the 
beginning  of  the  motor  disturbances.  Lack  of 
exercise,  improper  food,  and  bad  air  help  to 
undermine  the  system  and  predispose  to  an 
attack.  The  latter  conditions,  associated  with 
mental  strain  from  the  continued  work  of  the 
school  year  is  taken  to  explain  the  increased 
morbidity  during  the  spring  and  early  summer 
months. 

The  average  duration  of  the  disease  is  about 
three  months.  During  the  first  month  the 
symptoms  usually  increase  in  severity,  and  then 
gradually  diminish.  There  is  a  tendency  to 
the  recurrence  of  the  attacks  at  the  same  season 
each  year,  and  this  may  also  be  accounted  for 
on  the  ground  of  bad  hvgienic  conditions  during 
the  winter  months  and  the  strain  of  continued 
school  work.  Starr  states  that  chorea  is  not  a 
direct  sequela  of  the  acute  infectious  diseases 
which  children  have,  and  that  heredity  plays 
only  a  small  part. 

The  choreic  movements  are  irregular  twitch- 
ings of  certain  muscles,  usually  those  of  the  face 
and  of  the  arms  and  legs,  although  in  severe 
cases  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  of  the  trunk 
may  be  involved.  In  the  face  region  the  lips, 
nose,  tongue,  and  jaws  are  most  often  affected, 
and  protrusions  of  the  tongue,  snapping  or  bit- 
ing movements  of  the  jaws,  and  grimaces  are 
common.  If  these  movements  cannot  be  con- 
trolled, the  speech  becomes  explosive  in  charac- 
ter and  there  is  at  times  a  decided  hesitancy.  In 
many  cases  one  of  the  earliest  signs  is  an  inac- 
curacy in  the  movement  of  the  hands  and  arms. 


evidenced  by  an  inability  to  properly  perform 
acts  that  are  even  habitual.  Liquids  carried 
to  the  mouth  may  be  spilled,  the  clothes  and  the 
shoes  may  be  buttoned  or  laced  inaccurately 
and  only  with  great  difficulty.  In  the  involve- 
ment of  the  legs  the  gait  is  unsteady  and  there 
is  a  staggering  due  to  the  irregularity  in  force 
with  which  the  feet  are  propelled  and  placed 
upon  the  floor.  Muscular  weakness  and  ir- 
regularity in  the  force  of  movements  accompany 
the  involmitary  motor  disturbances.  When  the 
child  is  told  to  grasp  your  hand  firmly  and 
steadily,  inequalities  in  the  grip  will  be  no- 
ticed, and  similar  changes  in  the  strength  of 
other  muscle  groups  can  be  determined  by  suit- 
able tests. 

The  differences  in  the  occurrence  of  the  con- 
vulsive movements  arc  marked,  and  this  has 
been  taken  as  a  basis  of  da.ssification.  It  is 
sufficient,  however,  to  know  that  most  cases 
show  an  absence  of  choreic  movements  during 
rest  and  sleep,  that  in  some  there  is  an  increase 
in  the  movements  if  they  are  attended  to  and  if 
motor  tasks  are  to  be  performed,  but  that  in 
some  patients  the  involuntary  movements 
cease  upon  the  beginning  of  voluntary  move- 
ment. 

Chorea  is  to  be  differentiated  from  convulsion 
iq.v.),  from  the  various  kinds  of  tic  (q.v.),  and 
from  the  false  chorea  which  is  found  in  hysteri- 
cal people.  (See  Hystekh.)  In  the  latter 
case  the  motor  phenomena  are  not  accompa- 
nied by  weakness  and  by  the  mental  changes, 
and  the  movements  can  readily  be  stopped  for 
a  time  by  suggestion  or  by  forcible  command. 
The  term  St.  Vitus's  Dance  has  been  used  to  in- 
clude all  forms  of  chorea,  but  this  wide  use  is 
now  limited  to  the  laity,  and  restricted  in  a 
medical  way  to  the  chorea  associated  with  and 
caused  by  hysteria. 

In  true  chorea  there  are  mental  changes  co- 
incident with  the  motor  disturbance.  Irri- 
tability, forgetfulness,  at  times  a  moral  obliquity, 
disturbances  in  sleep,  and  occasionally  visual 
hallucinations  have  been  noted.  If  the  eye 
muscles  become  involved,  diplopia,  with  its 
mental  effect,  may  be  present. 

From  the  educational  standpoint  all  children 
with  chorea  of  whatever  form  should  be  treated 
aUke.  They  should  be  removed  from  school 
and  placed  under  proper  medical  care  and 
treatment,  both  for  their  own  benefit  and  for 
the  sake  of  the  other  children  in  the  class  and  in 
theschool.  If  sufferingfrom  Sydenham's  chorea, 
the  child  is  unable  to  properly  perform  his 
school  work,  and  it  is  harmful  to  him  to  permit 
him  to  continue.  Rest,  proper  food,  good  air, 
and  suitable  exercises  are  advisable,  but  often 
a  simple  change  in  environment  will  cause  the 
symptoms  to  subside.  On  the  other  hand,  on 
account  of  the  marked  suggestibility  of  many 
children,  it  is  essential  that  the  choreic  child  be 
removed,  else  his  movements  may  be  taken  as 
an  example  and  copied.  In  this  way  many 
cases  of  hysterical  chorea,  or  St.  Vitus's  dance, 


643 


CHORISTERS'   SCHOOLS 


CHORISTERS'   SCHOOLS 


may  be  produced,  and  there  may  result  a  real 
epidemic  similar  to  the  dancing  manias  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  S.  I.  F. 

References  :  — 

AuBRY,  P.  Des  rapports  de  la  chorie  avecV hysteric  et  en 
particuUcr  de  la  choree  rylhmie  consicutive  de  la 
chorie  de  Sydenham.      (Toulouse,  1908.)     pp.  65. 

Flatau.  G.     Die  chorea.      (Leipzig,   1905.)      pp.  32. 

Starr,  M.  A.  Nervous  Diseases,  Organic  and  functional, 
pp.  713-728.    (New  York,  1907.) 

CHORISTERS'  SCHOOLS.  —  The  origin 
of  our  modern  schools  has  often  been  attributed 
to  choir  or  choristers'  schools,  but  without  any 
reason.  It  is  doubtful  whether  there  were, 
and  almost  certain  that  there  were  not,  any 
choristers  before  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, if  then.  There  is,  for  instance,  no  trace  of 
choristers  in  the  Institution  of  St.  Osmund  of 
Salisbury  in  1091.  Their  number  in  medieval 
churches  was  so  small,  the  highest  being  12, 
that  a  school  for  them  was  not  needed.  When, 
in  the  thirteenth  century  they  first  appear  in 
documents,  we  find  only  8  at  St.  Paul's, 
7  at  York  and  Beverley,  12  at  Lincoln,  and 
so  on,  though  the  number  of  canons  was 
then  30  at  York,  50  at  St.  Paul's,  and  60  at 
Lincoln.  They  were  at  first  merely  regarded 
as  charity  boys,  and  looked  for  their  food  to  the 
broken  meats  of  the  residentiary  canons,  and 
did  errands  in  the  choir.  At  St.  Paul's  an  Al- 
monry was  first  established  about  1180,  and  in 
it  the  boys,  afterwards  called  riuiresters  or 
choristers  (choristae)  who  had  previously  lived 
where  they  could,  were  housed  together.  (See 
Almonry  Schools.)  These  boys  stood  in  pairs 
at  each  corner  of  the  choir,  and  it  would  appear 
that  their  main  duty  was  not  that  of  singing,  but 
of  carrying  candles  and  incense-burners.  They 
are  not  called  choristers  till  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, when  they  were  increased  to  10. 

At  Lincoln  the  first  mention  of  choristers 
is  in  12.54,  when  the  monastery  of  Caldwell 
granted  two  marks  a  year  rent  charge  to  the 
Precentor  of  Lincoln  for  the  12  boys  minis- 
tering in  Lincoln  church,  viz.,  the  candle 
bearers  and  incense  bearers  {ciroferariis  et 
lurribulariis)  elected  if  fit  in  the  office  of  singing 
and  serving.  The  Choristers'  Register  begins: 
"  For  perpetual  remembrance  of  the  matter  be  it 
known  that  the  boys  of  the  choir  of  Lincoln  used 
to  live  on  the  alms  of  the  canons.  But  Bishop 
Richard  of  Gravesend,"  who  came  from  London 
and  introduced  the  St.  Paul's  arrangement, 
"  ordained  that  they  should  be  twelve  in  num- 
ber, of  whom  two  should  be  incense-bearers 
and  five  together  in  common  in  one  house  under 
a  master."  He  bestowed  upon  them  separate 
endowments,  relieving  the  precentor  of  the 
rcsponsibihty  for  their  admission  and  discipline, 
and  gave  it  to  the  dean  and  chapter,  one  of 
whom  was  appointed  supervisor  or  cuslos  of  their 
house.  The  Neiv  Register  of  Dean  Lexington 
(1263-1272)  under  the  duties  of  the  precentor 
mentions  that  of  presenting  to  the  dean  and 
chapter  a  master  to  teach  the  choristers  song 


and  grammar,  and  if  he  cannot  find  one  able  to 
do  both,  separate  masters  for  each.  This  mas- 
ter is  shown  by  the  chapter  records  to  be  dis- 
tinct from  either  the  general  grammar  school- 
master appointed  by  the  chancellor  or  the 
general  song  schoolmaster  appointed  by  the 
precentor.  It  is  probable  that  at  first  he  was 
merely  a  private  tutor,  or  housemaster  to  teach 
and  look  after  the  Ijoj's  in  their  house,  and 
that  they  still  attended  the  general  grammar 
school  and  song  school. 

From  1477  the  choristers  learned  singing 
and  music  from  a  special  master,  who  was 
also  the  organist.  In  Edward  VI's  reign,  the 
old  school  of  the  city  was  made  a  Free  School, 
the  Chapter  being  made  to  pay  a  salary  of 
£20  to  the  master,  whereas  formerly  he  had 
lived  on  tuition  fees.  During  the  reign  of 
Queen  Mary,  the  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  White, 
who  had  been  Headmaster  of  Winchester  Col- 
lege, erected  this  choristers'  school  into  a  New 
College  of  30  poor  clerks  who  were,  like  those 
of  Winchester  and  Eton,  from  all  over  the 
country.  There  had  long  been  a  body  of  12 
poor  clerks  attached  to  the  cathedral,  who 
looked  after  its  various  altars,  and  were  fre- 
quently warned  to  attend  the  Grammar  School. 
This  New  College  represented  an  attempt  to 
make  them  a  regular  Public  School.  It  was 
suppressed  again  with  the  altars  in  Elizabeth's 
reign.  In  1570  the  old  Grey  Friars'  church 
was  given  for  a  schoolhouse  to  the  city  grammar 
school.  The  competition  of  this  school  proved 
too  nmch  for  the  Choristers'  Grammar  School, 
and  in  1583  the  two  were  reunited,  the  city 
paying  the  master,  and  the  Chapter  the  usher, 
and  so  remained  till  1850. 

At  York  the  choristers  were  first  brought 
under  one  roof  when,  on  May  6,  1307,  the 
Chapter  contracted  with  one  Richard  of  Craven 
to  maintain  the  7  choristers  in  table  and  learn- 
ing for  4s.  8rf.  a  week,  or  8rf.  a  week  each; 
centuries  after  the  School  of  York  made  its 
appearance.  On  Aug.  23,  1346,  the  chaplain 
of  one  of  the  canons  was  appointed  to  look  after 
them  and  live  with  them.  No  choristers'  school 
as  a  separate  institution  seems  to  have  been 
developed  at  York.  The  Hospital  of  St.  Leon- 
ard at  York  had,  at  the  Dissolution,  an  inde- 
pendent choristers'  school  for  its  12  choristers, 
who  were  taught  grammar  as  well  as  singing, 
and  its  right  to  this  school  had  been  asserted 
by  a  royal  writ  in  1340,  because,  being  a  royal 
foundation,  it  was  exempt  from  the  Chapter's 
jurisdiction.  At  Beverley  Minster,  in  1312,  a 
dispute  was  settled  by  the  Chapter  between  the 
grammar  schoolmaster  and  the  succentor,  a  vicar 
choral,  who  looked  after  the  choristers,  the  lat- 
ter claiming  that  they  ought  to  be  admitted  to 
the  grammar  school  free,  while  the  former 
claimed  that  only  7,  the  ancient  number,  should 
be  admitted  free,  and  the  rest  should  pay 
fees.  The  Chapter  found  that  all  choristers 
ought  to  be  free,  but  the  succentor  was  not  to 
admit  choristers  nominally  to  the  choir  merely 


644 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS 


to  get  free  admission  to  this  school.  This  suffi- 
ciently shows  that  the  school  was  not  by  founda- 
tion a  choristers'  school.  At  Salisbury  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  c.  1314,  the  choristers' 
grammar  school  was  endowed  and  developed 
into  a  rival  of  the  old  Glomery  or  Grammar 
School,  and  both  these  schools  were  still 
going  on  during  the  Commonwealth.  But  the 
grammar  school  died  out  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury before  the  competition  of  its  better  en- 
dowed rival,  which,  however,  is  now  a  mere 
choristers'  school,  not  a  grammar  school.  The 
choristers  at  Winchester  College,  founded  in 
1382,  were  more  numerous  than  in  any  cathe- 
dral, being  16  in  number,  and  the  same  at 
Eton.  In  both  colleges  they  attended  the  gram- 
mar school  equally  with  the  scholars,  and  at 
Eton  were  given  a  preference  to  election  for 
scholarships.  This  seems  to  have  been  the 
case  at  other  collegiate  and  chantry  schools, 
which  embraced  a  grammar  as  well  as  a  song 
school.  For  the  scholars  attended  both,  a 
famous  sixteenth-century  headmaster,  first  of 
Eton,  then  of  Winchester,  William  Horman 
(,q.v.),  laying  down  probably  from  Quintilian 
(g.v.)  that  without  music  grammar  cannot  be 
perfect.  Since  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury the  choristers'  schools  at  Winchester  and 
Eton,  as  at  most  of  the  cathedrals,  have  been  en- 
tirely separate.  The  choristers  were  regarded  as 
of  a  lower  class  and  the  grammar  school  educa- 
tion as  unsuitable  for  them;  the  difficulty  of 
making  their  hours  suit  ordinary  school  hours 
being  even  greater  now  than  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

A.  F.  L. 
See  Almonry  Schools:  Bishops'  Schools; 
Church  Schools;    Reformation,  Education 

IN. 

CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS,  or  THE 
BROTHERS  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN 
SCHOOLS. —  The  Institute  of  the  Brothers 
of  the  Christian  Schools  is  a  society  com- 
posed of  religious  teachers,  founded  at  Rheims, 
France,  June  24,  1682,  by  St.  John  Baptist 
de  la  Salle  {g.v.).  The  members  of  this 
Institute  are  not  priests  and  may  not  aspire  to 
the  priesthood.  By  the  Bull  of  Approbation, 
granted  by  Pope  Benedict  XIII,  Mar.  20, 
1725,  the  Institute  was  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  a  religious  congregation  and  an  authorita- 
tive teaching  bodv.  Its  founder  was  canonized 
by  Pope  Leo  Xill,  May  24,  1900,  and  i)r()- 
claimed  as  the  Patron  of  Youth. 

The  object  of  the  Institute  is  the  Christian 
education  of  youth,  the  cultivation  of  letters, 
the  diffusion  of  knowledge.  This  is  indicated 
in  the  preamble  of  the  Bull  of  Approbation, 
In  apostulicac  dignitalis  solio,  as  follows:  "  We, 
to  fulfill  the  duty  imposed  upon  us,  cheerfully 
devote  ourselves  to  the  furtherance  of  institu- 
tions who.sc  object  is  the  cultivation  of  letters, 
and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge." 

The  scope  of  the  educational  system  in  use 
in  the  Institute  includes  colleges,  technical  and 


industrial  schools,  academies  and  high  schools, 
elementary  and  grammar  schools,  commercial 
colleges,  asylums,  and  protectorates.  It  is 
evident  that  De  la  Salle  planned  his  work  upon 
a  broad  scale  and  adapted  his  methods  to  the 
varied  conditions  of  time  and  place.  Thus  he 
devised  a  system  complete  in  all  its  details  from 
the  elementary  grades  to  the  collegiate  curricu- 
lum. 

The  government  of  the  Institute  is  admin- 
istered by  a  Superior  General  and  twelve  Assist- 
ants. The  former  is  elected  for  life,  while  the 
latter  are  also  elected,  and  hold  office  for  a  period 
of  ten  years.  For  administrative  purposes  the 
several  communities  in  the  different  countries 
are  grouped  into  districts  or  provinces  under 
the  supervision  of  Brothers  Visitors,  who  are  ap- 
pointed to  office  by  the  General  for  a  term  of 
three  years.  The  individual  communities  arc 
also  governed  by  the  appointees  of  the  General, 
and  are  called  Brothers  Directors.  The  center 
of  administration  is  at  Lcmbecq-lez-Hal,  Bel- 
gium. Brother  Barthelemy  was  the  finst  Su- 
perior General,  and  was  elected  in  1717.  The 
present  incumbent  is  Brother  Gabriel  Marie, 
elected  in  1897. 

The  growth  of  the  Institute  from  its  origin 
is  evidenced  by  the  foUowiug  statistical  table:  — 


Yeab 

HOOSES 

Brothers 

P0PILS 

1682 

6 

30 

1,100 

1700 

18 

165 

5,000 

1750 

95 

662 

24.000 

1700 

125 

920 

36,000 

ISOO 

3 

20 

500 

1825 

210 

950 

60,000 

1860 

986 

8.385 

:i:i5.iioo 

1880 

1309 

12,000 

380,000 

1903 

1569 

15,457 

340,000 

Educational  Reforms.  —  De  la  Salle  origi- 
nated, perfected,  and  applied  several  educa- 
tional reforms  which  have  wrongly  been  at- 
tributed to,  or  claimed  b.y,  later  pedagogical 
reformers,  viz.:  — 

(1)  The  organization  and  management  of 
the  elementary  school,  1684-1688.  (2)  The 
perfecting  and  apphcation  of  the  simultaneous 
method  of  teaching.  Tliis  method,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  traditional  method,  g.'ive  prominence 
to  the  vernacular  as  the  basis  of  instruction,  and 
grouped  the  pupils  of  each  class  according  to 
their  mental  capacity,  1688.  All  the  pujiils  of 
the  same  grade  receive  the  same  lesson  at  one 
and  the  same  time  from  the  same  teacher.  In 
his  Conduct  of  Schools  (1721),  De  la  Salle  gives 
explicit  directions  regarding  this  method  of 
teaching.  Lancaster  admits  "  that  he  was 
astonished  that  the  French  preferred  his  method 
tothatof  the  Brothers  of  theChristian  Schools." 
(3)  The  grade  school,  1688.  (4)  The  Normal 
College  for  secular  teachers,  1684.  (5)  The 
Christian  Academy  or  Sunday  school,  where 
drawing,     geometry,     and    architecture    were 


64.5 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS 


taught,  Paris,  1698.  (6)  Schools  for  technical 
instruction  in  drawing,  architecture,  navigation, 
practical  geometry,  hydrography,  botany,  and 
manual  training,  Sain-Yon  (Rouen),  1705. 
(7)  The  Reform  School,  Saint-Yon,  1706.  (,S) 
Boarding  colleges,  having  for  object  the  higher 
secondary  courses,  Paris,  1698,  and  Rouen,  1705. 
(9)  The  modern  popular  system  of  education, 
which  he  inaugurated,  Paris,  1698,  and  then 
perfected   and   systematized,    1717. 

Institutions  of  these  various  types  arc  con- 
ducted by  the  Christian  Brothers  in  France, 
Belgium,  Austria,  Germany,  Spain,  Holland, 
Italy,  England,  Ireland,  and  in  the  French  and 
English  colonies,  in  Algeria,  Tunis,  Isle  of 
Malta,  Canary  Islands,  and  Congo  (Africa). 
There  are  under  the  direction  of  the  Institute 
18  houses  in  the  District  of  Alexandria,  22  in 
the  District  of  Constantinople,  10  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  .lerusalem,  11  in  the  District  of  Mada- 
gascar, Isle  of  Reunion  and  Maurice,  12  in  the 
District  of  India,  S  in  the  District  of  Indo-China, 
4  in  the  District  of  Brazil,  9  in  the  District  of 
Argentine,  12  in  the  District  of  Chile,  7  in  the 
District  of  Ecuador,  19  in  the  District  of  Co- 
lombia, 15  in  the  District  of  Panama,  and  7 
in  the  District  of  the  Antilles.  It  is  obvious 
that  De  la  Salle  embraced  in  his  program  the 
whole  scope  of  secondary  education. 

The  founder  clearly  distinguished  between 
pedagogy  as  a  science  and  pedagogy  as  an  art. 
The  uniting  of  instruction  with  Christian  educa- 
tion appeared  so  important  to  De  la  Salle  that 
he  constituted  it  the  second  object  of  the  In- 
stitute, and  an  essential  characteristic  of  the 
spirit  that  should  animate  its  members. 

Basic  Principles.  —  The  following  are  the 
general  basic  principles  of  his  system  of  edu- 
cation: — 

(1)  Man  is  a  rational  being,  composed  of 
body  and  soul.  (2)  Children  are  as  weak  from 
the  viewpoint  of  intellection  and  volition  as 
they  are  in  their  physical  faculties.  (3)  AU 
moral  disorders,  especially  among  the  poor 
and  working  classes,  are  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  are  left  to  their  own  guidance,  and  are  ex- 
posed thereby  to  the  greatest  spiritual  dangers. 
(4)  Man  is  so  prone  to  evil  that  he  takes  pleas- 
ure therein;  this  is  specially  noticeable  among 
children,  who,  owing  to  their  lack  of  proper 
training,  cannot  reflect  seriously,  and  are  con- 
sequently inclined  to  gratify  their  senses  and 
the  lower  appetites.  (5)  Man  may  and  can 
improve.  (6)  Men  should  attain  the  same  de- 
gree of  perfection,  for  God  is  the  ultimate  object 
of  all.  Again,  men  should,  according  to  their 
vocation  and  social  position,  aspire  to  perfect 
the  gifts  or  special  talents  with  which  they  have 
been  endowed.  (7)  To  correct  a  defect  or  vice, 
man  should  make  frequent  acts  of  the  virtue 
opposed  thereto.  (8)  The  senses,  having  a 
large  share  in  the  operations  of  the  intellect, 
should  be  carefully  cultivated.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  developing  the  intellect,  of  rectify- 
ing the  judgment,  of  educating  the  will,  and  of 


forming  the  heart  to  virtue.  (9)  The  teacher 
should  imitate  Providence,  i.e.  act  with  decis- 
ion and  gentleness.  (10)  From  the  intellect- 
ual viewpoint,  children  should  graduallj'  be 
trained  to  do  spontaneously  the  work  set  for 
them,  even  when  the  teacher  cannot  be  present 
to  supervise  their  labor.  (11)  Character  should 
be  carefully  molded  and  developed;  pupils 
should  be  taught  to  practise  virtue  in  a  manner 
proportionate  to  their  age.  (12)  The  school 
should  be  the  novitiate  of  Christianity,  the 
preparation  for  the  duties  of  the  Christian  and 
the  civic  life. 

The  following  are  the  chief  counsels  of  De  la 
Salle  concerning  Physical,  Intellectual,  and 
Moral  education :  — 

Physical.  —  (1)  Children  should  be  clean. 
Twice  a  day  the  teacher  should  make  an  ex- 
amination or  inspection  regarding  cleanliness. 
(2)  Cleanliness  of  body,  especially  of  the  head, 
should  be  considered  as  an  exterior  indication  of 
purity.  (3)  Children,  whether  standing  or  sit- 
ting, should  at  all  times  avoid  in  their  deport- 
ment all  affectation,  restraint,  thoughtlessness, 
or  anything  which  would  indicate  effeminacy,  in- 
solence, pride,  or  rudeness.  (4)  Children  should 
be  taught  habits  of  regularity  concerning  the 
principal  actions  of  the  day.  (5)  During  rec- 
reation, children  should  prefer  to  engage  in 
manly  exercises  which  develop  and  strengthen 
the  body.  (6)  The  classroom  should  be  thor- 
oughly ventilated. 

Inlellectual.  —  (1)  De  la  Salle  insists  that 
the  teacher  should  have  an  accurate  knowledge 
of  psychology  and  of  the  degree  of  intellectual 
development  acquired  by  the  pupil.  (2)  To 
inspire  the  pupil  with  the  love  of  virtue.  (3) 
To  induce  the  pupil  to  take  the  initiative  in 
intellectual  work,  proportionate  to  his  mental 
capacity.  (4)  To  urge  him  to  study  the  truth 
of  things  by  teaching  him  the  principles  of 
logic.  (5)  To  persuade  him  to  study  only 
useful  subjects  and  dissuade  him  from  trifling 
ones,  or  those  merely  prompted  by  curiosity. 
(6)  The  knowledge  of  children  should  be  pro- 
gressive as  well  as  practical.  (7),  To  question 
the  pupils  so  as  to  fix  their  attention  on  the 
lesson  given,  and  to  ascertain  that  they  thor- 
oughly understand  it.  (8)  By  questioning,  to 
teach  them  the  truths  under  consideration,  and 
to  draw  logical  consequences  from  the  truths 
with  which  they  are  familiar.  (9)  To  employ 
a  rational,  progressive,  and  practical  method  in 
teaching.  (10)  To  make  use  of  the  inductive 
method  as  one  of  the  most  efficacious  means  of 
intellectual  culture.  (11)  To  interest  the  par- 
ents in  the  progress  of  their  children.  (12)  To 
have  a  daily  schedule  of  lessons  and  to  follow 
it  with  exactness. 

Moral.  —  (1)  To  enlighten  the  consciences 
of  the  pupils  and  to  guide  them  in  their  choice 
between  good  and  evil.  (2)  To  teach  the  pupils 
their  duty  to  God,  to  country,  to  their  neigh- 
bor, and  to  themselves.  (3)  To  induce  pupils 
to  withdraw  from  everything  that  may  corrupt 


646 


A 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS 


their    morals,    especially    evil    companionship. 

(4)  To  cultivate  the  habit  of  frankness  among 
pupils  in  word  and  deed,  and  to  inspire  a  great 
horror  for  hypocrisy  and  lying.  (5)  To  pre- 
vent faults  by  an  enlightened  vigilance.  (6)  To 
act  toward  the  child  who  has  contracted  some 
vicious  habit  as  a  skillful  physician  treats  his 
patient. 

Qualifications  of  Teachers.  —  De  la  Salle 
demanded  the  following  qualifications  from  his 
disciples:  — 

Physical :  A  good  constitution,  a  strong 
clear,  and  sympathetic  voice,  and  a  dignified 
carriage.  Intellectual  ■'  An  understanding  suf- 
ficiently keen  to  grasp  promptly  the  sense 
of  the  pupil's  questions,  a  sound  judgment, 
practical  common  sense,  a  retentive  memory, 
correct  and  fluent  speech,  a  good  method,  and 
the  facility  of  teaching.  Moral :  A  true  vo- 
cation, great  dignity  of  character,  politeness, 
kindness,  firmness,  gentleness,  and  an  invio- 
lable fidelity  to  duty,  both  in  private  and  public 
life. 

A  good  teacher  has  the  virtues  of  gravity, 
silence,  discretion,  prudence,  wisdom,  patience, 
reserve,  gentleness,  zeal,  vigilance,  piety,  and 
generosity. 

De  la  Salle  strongly  insisted  upon  the  correc- 
tion of  the  following  faults  in  young  teachers:  — 

(1)  Nervousness  in  teaching.  (2)  Petulancy 
and  constant  movements  of  the  body.  (3) 
Thoughtlessness  and  diversion.  (4)  Fastidi- 
ousness in  punishing  faults.  (5)  Impatience, 
harshness,  excessive  severity.  ((>)  Spite. 
(7)  Favoritism.  (8)  Slothfulness  and  indul- 
gence. (9)  Dullness,  enervation.  (10)  Weak- 
ness, pusillanimity.  (11)  Dejection,  grief. 
(12)  Familiarity,  froliesomeness.  (13)  The 
habit  of  irony.  (14)  Inconstancy.  (15)  Sus- 
ceptibility, jealousy.  (16)  Equality  and  uni- 
formity of  method  with  all  the  pupils,  without 
taking  into  consideration  the  difference  in  age, 
character,  and  education.  (17)  Loss  of  time. 
(IS)  Presumption. 

Laws  of  Education.  —  (1)  Custom  takes  the 
middle  course  between  instinct  and  will,  which 
latter  is  a  free  and  spontaneous  activity. 
(2)  The  chief  intellectual  habits  which  the 
teacher  should  stimulate  the  pupils  to  acquire, 
are  attention  and  reflection.  (3)  The  intelli- 
gence should  be  exercised  in  the  youngest  pupils 
from  the  first  lessons  which  they  receive.  (4) 
Tiie  a(lvance<l  pujjils  shoukl  be  accustomed  to 
invent  their  own  jilans  of  literary  coni|)()sition. 

(5)  The  teacher  ought  to  attach  much  inij)or- 
tance  to  normal  education.  (6)  The  laws  of 
education  should  be  universal,  expedient,  pro- 
gressive, and  moral.  Universal,  i.e.  extending 
to  all  the  faculties,  to  all  periods  of  life,  to  all 
classes  of  society,  to  both  sexes.  (7)  Educa- 
tion siiould  be  rational.  (S)  Instruction  is  not 
the  final  object  to  be  attained.  The  object  is 
the  acquisition  and  practice  of  virtue.  (!))  Edu- 
cation should  be  national.  Moral  law  does  not 
change  under  the  varying  conditions  of  time 


and  place.  In  all  countries  and  under  the 
most  changing  chmates,  it  preserves  the  same 
characteristics.  It  is  peremptory,  invariable, 
uniform,  and  always  practical.  Pupils  should 
be  brought  up  in  accordance  with  the  customs 
and  spirit  of  the  country  in  which  they  live. 

Success  of  the  Order.  —  The  varied,  yet 
uniform,  character  of  De  la  Salle's  educational 
methods,  and  the  steady  progress  of  the  schools 
he  founded  in  the  face  of  the  severest  trials, 
gained  for  his  Institute  substantial  aid  at  the 
hands  of  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities 
in  France,  so  that  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolu- 
tion in  1789  the  Institute  was  flourishing  and 
its  schools  bore  the  reputation  for  efficient 
work  in  the  field  of  popular  education.  At 
that  period  also  the  simultaneous  method  (q.v.) 
of  teaching  had  already  been  so  perfectly  de- 
veloped that  the  superiority  of  the  Christian 
Schools  was  unquestioned.  Textbooks,  cover- 
ing all  the  subjects  taught  in  tlie  elementary 
and  secondary  grades  of  education,  had  been 
published  in  accordance  with  the  progressive 
spirit  of  De  la  Salle.  Brother  Agathon,  sixth 
Superior  General  (1777-1797),  had  written  the 
Tioelve  Virtues  of  a  Good  Master,  a  manual  of 
guidance  for  imparting  the  moral,  intellectual, 
and  religious  instruction  outlined  by  the 
founder. 

History.  —  Scattered  at  the  Revolution  in 
1791,  the  surviving  nicndjers  of  the  Insti- 
tute resumed  their  work  in  Lyons,  Paris, 
Rheims,  and  other  cities,  1S05.  Napoleon,  in 
1808,  gave  an  imperial  decree  reestablishing 
the  legal  status  of  the  institute  in  France. 
From  that  period  is  dated  the  constant  de- 
velopment of  the  Christian  Schools  in  respect 
to  their  external  organization  and  the  spread 
of  the  Brothers  into  other  countries.  The 
scheme  of  instruction  remained  the  same  as 
heretofore,  i.e.  the  Christian  education  of 
youth  through  the  teaching  of  the  catechism 
and  the  Gospel  maxims,  to  which  were  added 
courses  of  study  fitting  the  pujiils  for  conmier- 
cial,  industrial,  and  professional  pursuits. 
The  higher  secondary  program  in  the  Christian 
Schools  was  the  logical  sequence  of  the  system 
devised  by  De  la  Salle.  Thus  were  developed 
the  superior  courses  in  the  great  boarding  col- 
leges of  Passy  (Paris),  St.  Etienne,  Toulouse, 
Lyons,  Bordeaux,  and  others  which  prepared 
students  for  the  professional  and  technical 
courses  of  the  Ecole  Centrale  and  the  School  of 
Mines. 

During  the  administration  of  Brother 
Philippe  (1838-1874),  the  Institute  made  great 
progress.  In  1838  the  Brothers  ojiencd  a  free 
grammar  school  in  Montreal,  Canada.  Some 
years  later,  1846,  schools  were  established  in 
Baltimore  and  New  York  City.  When  Brother 
Facile  became  the  Visitor  of  North  America,  in 
1848,  there  were  56  Brothers,  3200  pupils, 
representing  the  strength  of  the  Institute  in 
Canada  and  the  United  States.  In  1873,  at 
the  close  of  Brother  Facile's  active  life,  there 


647 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS 


were  5  districts,  176  houses,  and  900  Brothers, 
having  charge  of  36,500  pupils  in  colleges, 
academies,  high  schools,  grammar  schools, 
asylums,  and  protectorates. 

The  census  of  the  Institute  in  1907  gives 
Canada  692  Brothers,  40  in  the  normal  insti- 
tutes, and  36  novices.  The  estabhshmcnts 
under  the  management  of  the  Brothers  num- 
ber 51,  comprising  day  and  boarding  colleges, 
academies,  grammar  schools,  and  asylums, 
with  an  enrollment  of  over  20,000  pupils. 
Mt.  St.  Louis  College,  Montreal,  is  the  most 
important  institution,  opened  in  1887,  having 
on  its  roster  300  boarders  and  310  day  pupils. 

New  York  ilistrict  was  and  still  is  the  scene 
and  center  of  the  greatest  activity  of  the  Chris- 
tian Brothers  in  the  United  States.  Brother 
Ambrose  was  the  moving  spirit  of  the  remark- 
able development  of  Catholic  educational  work 
in  the  'oO's.  In  1863,  under  the  management 
of  Brother  Patrick,  Manhattan  College  began 
its  successful  career,  and  its  graduates  are 
found  in  all  professions.  Academies,  grammar 
schools,  and  orphanages  had  also  been  founded 
in  Troy,  Albany,  Utica,  Buffalo,  and  Detroit. 
Thus,  in  the  short  space  of  15  years,  the 
Brothers  developed  in  New  York  a  complete 
system  of  higher  secondary  education:  the  ele- 
mentary, grammar  schools,  academies  and  high 
schools,  and  the  college.  To  this  was  added 
in  1863  the  New  York  Catholic  Protectorj', 
having  over  2000  inmates,  who  apply  them- 
selves to  the  various  trades.  This  institution 
has  become  the  model  for  similar  ones  through- 
out the  states.  The  value  of  this  complete 
system  of  education,  devoted  to  the  conserva- 
tion of  Catholic  life,  and  to  the  development 
of  higher  culture,  under  an  organized  body  of 
educators,  is  suggestive.  The  New  York  Dis- 
trict was  established  in  1861,  with  Brother 
Turibe  as  Visitor.  Brothers  Ambrose,  Patrick, 
Paulian,  Justin,  Joseph,  and  Gerardus  have 
successively  held  that  position.  The  district  now 
includes  the  institutions  of  the  Brothers  in  the 
archdioceses  of  Boston  and  New  York,  and  in 
the  dioceses  of  Albany,  Brooklyn,  Buffalo, 
Cleveland,  Detroit,  Manchester,  Portland, 
Providence,  Fall  River,  Hartford,  Springfield, 
and  Syracuse,  numbering  39  houses.  The 
Christian  Schools  in  the  archdiocese  of  Halifax 
arc  likewise  afhliated  to  those  of  the  New  York 
district.  The  normal  institute  is  located  at 
Poncantico  Hills,  N.Y. 

In  1849,  Brother  Philippe,  tenth  Superior 
General  (1838-1874),  sent  three  Brothers  to  St. 
Louis,  to  open  a  free  grammar  school  at  the 
earnest  solicitation  of  Archbishop  Kenrick.  In 
1851  the  Christian  Brothers  College  was 
opened,  having  a  well-organized  plan  of  in- 
struction and  with  full  power  to  confer  degrees 
usually  granted  by  universities  of  learning. 
The  progressive  methods  adopted  by  the  faculty 
of  the  college  drew  many  students  to  its  halls 
from  far  and  near.  To  meet  this  increase  of 
patronage.  Brother  James,  president,  sought  a 


better  site  and  built  a  more  commodious  in- 
stitution. The  new  college  was  built  in  1882, 
at  Cote  Brillante,  within  the  limits  of  the  city. 
Brother  Justin,  its  present  head  (from  1903), 
has  added  an  engineering  department  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  the  students  who  desire  to 
become  skilled  mechanical,  electrical,  or  civil 
engineers.  Its  enrollment  is  over  500,  and  its 
courses  have  the  sanction  of  the  New  York 
Board  of  Regents.  St.  Louis  was  formed  into 
a  district  in  1870,  with  Brother  Edward  as 
Visitor.  His  successors  were  Brothers  Ro- 
muald,  Paulian,  and  the  present  incumbent, 
Brother  Emery.  The  district  includes  schools 
in  the  archdioceses  of  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  St. 
Paul,  and  Santa  F6,  as  well  as  in  the  dioceses 
of  Kansas  City,  St.  Joseph,  Nashville,  and 
Duluth.  The  (Christian  Brothers  College  gradu- 
ates are  prominent  in  the  professions,  in  civic 
and  political  life,  and  may  be  found  through- 
out the  South  and  West.  The  Normal  Institute 
is  at  Glencoe,  Mo. 

The  District  of  San  Francisco  was  established 
in  1868.  This  arduous  task  fell  to  the  lot  of 
Brother  Justin,  who  with  seven  Brothers  as- 
sumed the  charge  of  St.  Mary's  College, 
September,  1868.  The  indomitable  courage 
and  energy  of  Brother  Justin  was  instrumental 
in  multiplying  the  houses  of  the  district. 
Many  of  the  graduates  of  St.  Mary's  College 
became  members  of  the  Institute,  thus  provid- 
ing professors  of  ability  who  helped  to  develop 
the  educational  ideas  of  De  la  Salle,  applying 
them  to  the  requirements  of  the  peculiar  con- 
ditions prevailing  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The 
college  prospered,  and  the  Brothers  were 
obliged  to  erect  another  college  to  accommodate 
the  eager  students  that  demanded  admission. 
In  1889  St.  Mary's  College  was  removed  to 
Oakland.  Its  well-equipped  engineering  course 
was  created  by  Brother  IJernard  in  1903.  The 
successors  of  Brother  Justin  as  Visitor  are 
Brothers  Bettelin,  Theodorus,  and  Xenophon. 
This  district  has  grammar  schools,  academies  and 
high  schools,  commercial  schools,  and  colleges. 
Besides  several  houses  in  San  Francisco,  the 
Brothers  are  established  in  Berkeley,  Portland, 
Sacramento  City,  Santa  Cruz,  St.  Vincent, 
Walla  Walla,  and  Vancouver.  The  members 
number  over  150.  The  normal  institute  is  at 
Martinez. 

The  Baltimore  District,  which  was  founded, 
October,  1879,  has  colleges  in  Ellicott  City 
(Rock  Hill  College),  Md.,  in  Philadelphia, 
Scranton,  Baltimore,  and  Washington.  These 
colleges  are  conducted  on  the  same  lines  as  those 
in  the  other  districts.  It  has  3  industrial  Pro- 
tectorates, viz.;  at  Pawling,  Pa.,  Eddington, 
Pa.,  and  Bel  mead,  Va.  Besides  these  institu- 
tions, the  Brothers  have  the  management  of 
large  grammar  schools  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  Cum- 
berland, Md.,  Germantown,  Jersey  City, 
Newark,  Orange,  Patterson,  Richmond,  Va., 
6  in  Philadelphia,  numbering  in  all  24  houses. 
Brothers     Christian,      Romuald,     Quintinian, 


648 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION 


Reticius,  and  Austin  have  had  the  administra- 
tion of  the  district.  The  normal  institute  is 
at  Ammendale,  Md. 

The  Christian  Brothers  in  the  United  States 
have  96  schools,  consisting  of  normal  institutes, 
colleges,  high  schools,  academies,  grammar 
schools,  orphanages,  and  industrial  protecto- 
rates. These  are  distributed  in  31  archdioceses 
and  dioceses,  with  a  total  enrollment  of  over 
57,000  pupils;  265  young  men  are  under  in- 
struction in  the  normal  institutes  and  novitiates, 
as  candidates  for  membership  in  the  Institute. 
The  personnel  of  the  congregation  includes 
natives  of  46  different  countries. 

Literary  and  Scientific  Works.  —  The  Insti- 
tute, in  the  United  States  as  elsewhere,  has  its 
own  series  of  textbooks,  composed  by  the 
Brothers  and  published  in  its  name.  These 
embrace  classbooks  for  teaching  reading,  writ- 
ing, arithmetic,  algebra,  geography,  history, 
grammar,  rhetoric,  literature,  drawing.  Chris- 
tian doctrine,  pedagogy,  and  methodology. 
The  following  works  may  be  pointed  out;  — 

Brother    Potamun.     Electrical    Measurements.     (Lon- 
don, 1885.) 
Electricity,    its    Place    in    a    College    Course.      (New 

York,  1897.) 
Essays  on   Electrical   Experimentors  and  Experiments. 
(New  York,  1893.) 
Brother  Louis  de  Poisst.    Christian  Philosophy.    (New 

York,  1893.) 
Brother    Chrysostom,    Elementa    Philosophiae.    (New 

York,  1906.) 
Brother  Constantius.     Young  Christian   Teacher  En- 
couraged, 2d  ed.      (St.  Louis,  1910.) 
Brother  Azarias.     Philosophy  of  Literature.     7th  ed. 
(Philadelphia,  1899.) 
Essays  Pldhsophical.     (New  Y'ork,  1896.) 
Essays  Educational.      (New  York,  1896.) 
Essays  Miscellaneous.     (New  York,  1896.) 
Phases  of  Thought  and  Criticism.     (Boston,  1890.) 
Old  English  Thought.     (New  York,  1885.) 

B.C. 
References:  — 
Alain.     L' Instruction  Primaire  en  France  avanl  la  Revo- 
lution.    (Paris,  1881.) 
Azarias.     Essays  Educational.     (New  York,  1896.) 
Barnard.  H.     Normal  Schools,  etc.      (Hartford,  1853.) 
BeaOREPAIRe.     Recherchcs    sur    I'lnstruclion    Publique 
cians  le  Diocise  de  Rouen  avant  1789.    3  vols.     (Ev- 
reux,  1872.) 
Boisson.     Dictionnaire  de  Pedagogic.     (Paris,  1887.) 
Chevalier.    Les  Frires  des  Ecolcs  chritiennes.     (Paris, 

1887.) 
Christiam  Brothers.     Elements  of  Practical  Pedagogy. 

(New  York,  1905.) 
Constantius,  Brother.     St.  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle. 
Catholic    Encyclopedia,    Vol.    VIII.     (New    York, 
1910.) 
De  Felleh.     Dictionnaire  Historicpte.    1797. 
Dei.aire.     Snint  Jean-Batiste  de  la  Salle.     44me  6dit. 

(Paris,  1901.) 

DuRO/.iER.     L'Alil)(  de  la  Salle  et  I'Inslitut  dc  Frires  dcs 

Ecoles  Chritienncs,  depuis  1654  jusqu'ii   nos  jours. 

(Paris.  1842.) 

De  la  Sai.i.e.     Conduite  des  Ecolcs.     (Avignon,  1720.) 

Les   Regies   de   la    Biensiance   el   de   la  Civiliti  Chri- 

tienne.     (Paris,  1835.) 
Meditations   on   the  Schools  for   the   Time  of  the  Re- 
treat.    (New  York,  1882.) 
Meditations  for  Sundays  and  Festirals.      (New  York, 

18S2.) 
Management    of   Christian    Schools.      (Philadelphia, 

1885.) 
Ragles  Communes.     (Rouen,  1717.) 
Histoire  de  Rouen,  t.  III.     (Rouen,  1710.) 


Greard.     Education   et   Instruction,   Enseignment   Pri- 
maire.     (Paris,  1895.) 
JusTiNUS,  Fr&re.     Educational  System   of  the   Brothers 

of  the  Christian  Schools  in  France.      Report  of  the 

Commissioner    of   Education.     (Washington,  1898- 
,  1899.) 

Elements  de  Pedagogic.     2  vols.     (Paris,  1901.) 
Lancaster.     The  Truth  of  Mutual  Teaching. 
Luca5D,   Fr^re.     Annates  dc    I'Institut    des  Frires   des 

Ecoles  Chreticnnes.     2  vols.      (Tours,  1883.) 
Blessed    de  Ja  ^ Salle  and    his    Educational    Methods. 

(Chicago,  1893.) 
Vie  du  Vcn.  de  la  Salle.     2  vols.     (Paris,  1876.) 
Noah,  Brother.     Life  and  Works  of  the  Yen.  J.-B.  de  la 

Salle.      (New  Y'ork,  1878.) 
Poujoulat.     La  Vie  du  Frire  Philippe.     (Tours,  1875.) 
Ravelet-O'Meara.     Life   of  Bl.    J.   B.   de   la   Salic. 

(Tours,  1SS8.) 
Rendu,    A.     De   I'lnstrucfion   Puldique   et   parliruliire- 

ment  des  Ecoles  Chreticnnes.     (Paris,   1819.) 
Speil.     Der  Heilige  Johatines  Baptista  de  la  Salle  und 

seine  Stiftung.      (Kaufbeuren,  1907.) 
Wilson,  Mrs.      The  Christian  Brothers,  their  Origin  and 

their  Work.     (London,  1883). 

CHRISTUN  BROTHERS'  COLLEGE, 
MEMPHIS,  TENNESSEE.  —  See  Christian 
Brothers,  Schools  of. 

CHRISTLA.N  BROTHERS'  COLLEGE, 
ST.  LOUIS,  MO.  —  See  Christian  Brothers, 
Schools  of. 

CHRISTIAN  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA,  MO. 

—  An  institution  for  the  education  of  young 
women,  established  in  1851.  College  prepara- 
tory, collegiate,  and  fine  arts  departments  are 
maintained.  Entrance  requirements  are  in- 
definite. Degrees  are  conferred.  There  is  a 
faculty  of  20  instructors. 

CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  THE  EARLY 
CHURCH.  —  Although  it  has  been  rightly  said 
that  the  Christian  Church  is  the  mother  of 
schools,  yet  it  is  only  of  the  Church  of  the 
Middle  Ages  and  of  the  West  that  this  is  true. 
In  the  first  centuries  of  its  existence  the 
Church  appears  to  have  done  little  for  the 
education  of  its  members  by  the  way  of  schools. 
This,  however,  was  not  strange.  In  the  first 
place,  the  Church  regarded  itself  as  an  educa- 
tional institution.  It  was  itself  engaged  in 
teaching,  not  mere  speculative  dogmas,  but  the 
practical  wisdom  of  life,  and  this  was  what 
many  of  the  philosophical  schools  were  doing. 
Among  the  Church's  officers  were  teachers, 
didaslcaloi,  those  who  had  the  chariifiiia  of 
teaching  (cf.  Eph.  4:11).  The  Christian  com- 
munity in  some  places  assumed  for  protection 
the  form  of  a  philosophical  school  without  mak- 
ing any  change  in  its  nature,  customs,  or  con- 
stitution. In  the  second  place,  faith  in  the 
speedy  return  of  Christ  in  glory  continuetl  to 
be  a  determining  factor  in  life  until  well  into 
the  second  century.  Few  institutions,  therefore, 
were  as  yet  rigidly  established.  Only  as  con- 
flicts with  heresy  and  serious  problems  of  ad- 
ministration arose  did  ecclesiastical  institutions 
take  form  and  assume  prominence  in  the 
Church's   consciousness.     Toward  the  end   of 


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CHRISTIAN   EDUCATION 


the  second  century  chiliastic  expectations  be- 
came less  general,  and  were  confined  more  and 
more    to    minor    sects    and    parties,  and    the 
Church  began  to  make  itself  at  home  in  the 
world.     Even  then  the  Church  did  not  make 
any  provision  for  secular  education,  although 
the  only  sciiools  available  were  those  kept  by 
heathen  teachers  who  used  heathen  textbooks. 
There  were,  therefore,  no  schools  of  elementary 
instruction  officially  connected  with  the  Church 
for  centuries,  with  the  exception  of  the  monas- 
tery schools  under  the  rule  of  St.  Basil  iq.v.), 
and   other   monasteries   of  the   East.     In  the 
West  only  with  the  Benedictine  rule,  after  500, 
do  they  become  at  all  common,  and  then  only 
in    monasteries.     Neither   is   there   any   satis- 
factory evidence  that  Christians  in  any  num- 
ber adopted  the  profession  of  teacher  for  the 
sake  of  Christian  children.     A  number  of  diffi- 
culties stood  in  the  way  of  a  Christian  who 
would    adopt    the    profession.     The    subjects 
taught    in    the    elementary    schools    were     of 
necessity  connected  with  pagan  literature,  for 
there  was  as  yet  no  Christian  literature  worthy 
of    the    name.     Then    again,    the    life    of    the 
teacher  necessarily  brought  him  in  contact  with 
heathen  worship,  and,  if  he  would  open  a  school, 
he    was    obliged    to    follow   heathen    customs. 
These  disadvantages  Tertullian  (q.v.)  sets  forth 
with  his  usual  vehemence  in  his  work  On  Idola- 
try (cf.  especially  ch.  10).     Nevertheless,  some 
did   venture   upon   a   profession   regarded   by 
manj'   as  dangerous  to  the   Christian's   faith. 
Thus  Origen  {q.v.},  when  he  was  left   penniless 
by  the  confiscation  of  the  property  of  his  father, 
the  martyr  Leonidas,  supported  himself  and  his 
mother  by  teaching  rhetoric,   and  it  is  prob- 
able   that    the    School    of     Alexandria    Iq-v.), 
which  had  been  broken  up  by  the  persecution 
of    Septimius    Severus    in    202,    thus    opened 
again  under  the  guise  of  a  rhetorical  school, 
with   Origen   as   its   teacher.     (Cf.    Neumann, 
Der  romische  Slaat  und  die  allgemeine    Kirche, 
I,    164.)     But    the    other    cases    of    rhetorical 
teaching  by   Christians   are   very  scanty   and 
doubtful  before  the  end  of  the  third  century. 
Malchio  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  {H.  E.  VII, 
29,  2)  as  principal  of  the  Greek  school  at  An- 
tioch  {q.v.),  who,  nevertheless,  was  a  presbj'ter 
of  the  Church  of  that  city,  having  been  made 
such  on  account  of  his  superior  faith  in  Christ. 
It  may  be  that  on  becoming  a  Christian  he 
abandoned  teaching  rhetoric  as  a  profession,  as 
was  the  case  with  Cyprian  {q.v.)  on  his  con- 
version, who  had  formerly  been  a  distinguished 
teacher    of    rhetoric.     But    we    certainly    find 
Christian  teachers  of  rhetoric  by  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century,  and  they  were  probably 
numerous  by  the  time  of  Julian's  edict  against 
Christian  teachers  in  362.     During  the  heathen 
Empire  and  for  a  considerable  time  after  the 
sole    reign    of    Constantine,    Christians    were 
obliged  either  to  have  tutors  for  their  children 
at  home  or  to  send  them  to  the  heathen  teachers, 
in  both  cases  using  heathen  literature  as  the 


means  of  instruction,  or  they  had  to  teach 
them  themselves  as  best  they  could.  It  was 
practically  impossible  for  Christians  wholh'  to 
refrain  from  attendance  on  the  schools.  Even 
such  a  rigorist  as  Tertullian  had  to  admit  the 
necessity  of  secular  education  in  spite  of  the 
objectionable  literature;  though  in  the  case  of 
the  student  there  was  less  danger  to  the  faith 
than  in  case  of  the  teacher,  i.e.  danger  of  being 
involved  in  acts  that  might  be  regarded  as 
forms  of  idolatry. 

In  the  matter  of  higher  instruction  the  case 
was  somewhat  different  from  that  of  elementary 
literary  instruction.    Even  the  rhetorical  schools 
taught  more  than  beUes-lettrcs  ;  historical  and 
scientific  works  were  read.     The  texts  of  the 
latter    were    less    defaced    with    mythological 
matter  and  salacious  morality,  and  might  safely 
be  employed  by  Christians  both  as  teacher  and 
as  students.     Such  were  the  works  of  Ari.stotle, 
Euclid,  and    Galen,  studied    in   the    Christian 
schools    conducted    by  Theodotus    at    Rome. 
(Cf.  article  on  Catechetical  Schools.)     The 
teacher  of  philosophy,  furthermore,  might  easily 
treat  Christianity  as  the  supreme  philosophy, 
and  pursue  methods  similar  to  those  followed  in 
other  philosophical  schools.     This  was  all  the 
more  easy  because  Hellenistic  philosophy  had 
entered  upon  its  religious  stage  and  was  studied 
very  largely  from  religious  interest.     As  a  fact, 
a    number   of    men  of    philosophical  training 
became    Christians;     some    were    professional 
teachers  of  philosophy,  of  whom  the  most  im- 
portant were  Aristides,  Justin  MartjT,  Athenag- 
oras,  Pantienus  {q.v.),   Clement  of  Alexandria 
{q.v.),  and  probably  Melito  of  Sardis.     Of  these 
Justin    Martyr,    Pantsnus,    and    Clement   are 
known  to  have  become  professional  teachers  of 
Christian  philosophy,  the  former  conducting  a 
school  on  Ids  own  responsibility,  the  two  latter 
being  connected  with  the  Catechetical  School 
of  Alexandria.     (See  article  on  Catechetical 
Schools.)     The  case  of  Justin   Martyr  is  no 
doubt  typical  of  others  of  less  distinction.     He 
treated  Christianity  as  a  philosophy,  and  con- 
tinued to  wear  his  philosopher's  cloak,  and  saw 
nothing  to  prevent  his  practice  of  his  profes- 
sion as  a  teacher  of  philosophy.     He  was  now 
an  adherent  of  the  school  of   Christ,  and  not 
of  the  heathen   philosophers.     The  theoretical 
justification  was  simple;  what  the  divine  Logos 
had  revealed  in  part  to  Socrates  had  been  com- 
pletely revealed  in  Christ,  who  was  the  incar- 
nation  of   that   same  Logos,  or   divine  reason. 
(Cf.  Justin  Martyr,  ll,Apol.,  c.  10.)     The  same 
line    of    thought  was    taken    up    by    Clement 
{q.v.),  who  regarded  the  Law  of  the  Jews  and 
the  Philosophy  of  the  Greeks  as  being  both 
divinely    ordained    forms    of    preparation    for 
Christ.     But  the  amount  of  private  teaching 
after  the  method  of  Justin  Martyr  could  never 
have  been  considerable.      It  does  not  seem  to 
have  affected  the  life  of  the  Church  as  a  whole; 
it  gave  rise  to  no  institutions,  and  left  no  trace 
upon  legislation.     The  men  who  gave  them- 


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selves  to  it  were  never  numerous  at  the  most, 
and  in  the  course  of  the  Church's  development 
they  would  have  less  and  less  opportunity  for 
treating  Christianity  in  this  way.  The  chief 
schools  of  this  sort  appear  to  have  been  those 
of  the  Gnostics  {q.v.),  and  men  who  by  eccen- 
tricity of  doctrine  separated  themselves  from 
the  main  body  of  the  Church,  so  that  the 
name  "  school  "  became  early  synonymous  with 
schism  and  heresy.  (Cf.  Harnack,  Mission  und 
Aushreiiung  des  Christenlums,  1906,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
300  f.)  Those  who  did  not  alienate  themselves 
from  the  main  bod}'  of  the  Church  could  carry 
on  their  work  as  private  teachers  only  before 
the  rise  in  the  Church  of  a  body  of  Christian 
theology,  i.e.  before  the  early  part  of  the  third 
century.  After  that  time  they  would  have 
been  strongly  suspected  of  heresy.  From  the 
early  part  of  the  third  century,  in  spite  of  the 
attitude  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Christian 
thought  was  regarded  in  most  parts  of  the 
Church  as  something  different  from,  and  su- 
perior to,  philosophy.  The  Gnostics  were  too 
much  concerned  with  philosophical  problems 
to  make  the  study  of  philosophy  or  the  treat- 
ment of  Christianity  as  philosophy  ai)pear  as  any- 
thing other  than  something  extremely  doubt- 
ful if  not  positi\'ely  heretical.  (Cf.  TertuUiau, 
De  Praescriptione,  c.  7.)  Men  who  had  been 
trained  in  philosophy  now  found  work  in  other 
occupations  than  that  of  a  private  teacher; 
the  charismatic  didaskaloi  had  long  since  given 
way  to  ordained  clergy  as  teachers.  But  men 
of  philosophical  training  could  stUl  find  abun- 
dant opportunity  for  their  dialectical  powers  in 
the  explication  and  defense  of  doctrine.  The 
Church  was  building  up  a  body  of  science  which 
was  itself  a  subject  of  profoundest  study  and  a 
means  of  education.  If  these  men  became 
clergj-,  as  not  a  few  did,  they  would  em- 
ploy all  their  talents  in  the  work  of  preaching, 
which  in  the  East,  at  least,  became  a  universal 
means  of  popular  education  in  religion  and 
ethics.  Speculative  philosophy  and  meta- 
physics under  such  circumstances  would  be 
entirely  beside  the  mark.  And  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  no  Christian  takes  any  prominent  place 
as  a  philosopher,  though  not  a  few  were 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  prevailing 
schools  and  employed  the  current  conceptions 
in  their  theological  science. 

What  the  Church  was  able  to  do  directly 
and  confessedly  for  education  in  the  first  cen- 
turies was  not  in  the  form  of  literary  instruc- 
tion, but  in  what  was  more  in  harmony  with  its 
mission,  in  the  catechumenal  instruction.  (See 
CA'rECHUMEN.\L  SCHOOLS.)  And  it  regarded  it 
as  its  duty  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of 
parents  the  necessity  of  the  moral  instruction 
aiul  training  of  their  children  and  the  obliga- 
tion of  parents  to  see  that  tiieir  children  were 
taught  religion  and  morals.  In  the  matter  of 
catechumenal  instruction  the  training  and  dis- 
cipline in  morality  and  the  actual  instruction 
in  the  doctrines  of  the  faith  were  given  to  can- 


didates for  baptism,  as  yet  chiefly  adults.  In 
the  matter  of  parental  training,  the  exhorta- 
tions of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  which 
never  received  any  general  authority  and  which 
date  for  the  most  part  from  the  fourth  century, 
may  be  taken  as  typical  of  Church  teaching- 
generally.  They  did  little  more  than  enlarge 
upon  the  precepts  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  catechetical  schools,  however,  did  take  up 
the  advanced  instruction  of  students  beyond 
the  primary  stages  of  discipline,  and  in  some 
cases,  notably  that  of  Alexandria  and  Casarea 
under  Origen,  covered  the  whole  range  of 
religious  and  secular  education.  (Cf.  Gregory 
Thaumaturgus,  Panegyric  on  Origen.)  But  it 
is  hardly  likely  that  this  comprehensive  treat- 
ment of  all  branches  of  knowledge  was  followed 
in  other  catechetical  schools,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  it  was  peculiar  to  Origen. 

After  the  establishment  of  Christianity  as 
the  religion  of  the  State,  nothing  stood  in  the 
way  of  the  foundation  of  Christian  schools. 
Yet  young  Christians  still  patronized  heathen 
schools.  The  profession  of  teacher,  except  in 
the  case  of  religious  instruction,  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  followed  by  many  Christians  for 
some  time  after  the  downfall  of  heathenism. 
Proijeresius,  one  of  the  Athenian  professors  of' 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus  and  the  emperor  Julian, 
was  a  Christian  teacher  of  distinction,  as  was 
also  Basil,  the  father  of  Basil  the  Great  of 
Csesarea.  The  best  evidence  that  it  remained 
the  custom  for  Christian  parents  to  send  their 
children  to  heathen  teachers,  at  least  after  the 
first  rudimentary  instruction,  is  that  eminent 
Christians,  brought  up  by  Christian  parents 
renowned  for  their  piety,  were  so  sent.  This 
was  the  ca.se  of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  {q.v.),  the 
son  of  the  Bishop  Gregorj'  of  Nazianzus. 
After  he  had  studied  at  the  Catechetical  School 
of  Cffsarea,  and  possibly  for  a  short  time  at 
Alexandria,  he  went  to  Athens,  where  he  at- 
tended the  lectures  of  heathen  as  well  as 
Christian  teachers.  The  same  is  true  of  Basil 
of  CVsarea,  Gregory's  intimate  friend.  His 
father,  though  a  Christian,  and  an  advocate 
and  teacher  of  rhetoric,  sent  him  to  Athens 
after  giving  him  some  instruction  himself. 
John  Chrysostom  (q.r.)  received  the  bulk  of 
his  higher  instruction  from  the  heathen  sophist 
Libanius.  Jerome  (q.v.),  born  of  Christian 
parents  and  educated  strictly  and  religiously, 
after  studying  with  Donatus,  the  granuiiarian 
(q.v.),  studied  with  the  iiliilosopher  \'ictorinu3 
while  he  was  still  a  heathen.  The  list  could  be 
enlarged.  The  ca.se  of  Augustine  (q.v.)  is 
hardly  to  the  point,  as  Monica's  religious 
career  began  after  her  son  was  a  grown  man, 
and  she  was  little  more  than  a  nominal  Chris- 
tian during  his  youtli. 

After  tlie  middle  of  the  fourth  century, 
things  dianged,  and  more  Christians  became 
teacliers  of  rhetoric  and  possibly  of  philosophy. 
Tliis  change  was  natural  enough,  in  spite  of  the 
fact    that    the    classical    literature    was    still 


G.J1 


CHRISTIAN   EDUCATION 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION 


studied  in  instruction  in  rhetoric.  The  Church 
had  begun  to  make  terms  with  the  world  and 
to  tolerate  wliat  was  once  an  abomination  to 
stricter  Cliristians.  That  the  Christian  teaclicrs 
must  have  been  numerous  is  clear  enough  from 
Julian's  attack  upon  them,  already  alluded  to, 
whereby  in  362  they  were  forbidden  to  use  the 
classical  literature  and  were  directed  to  confine 
themselves  to  the  Gospels.  In  this  edict  Julian 
attempted  both  to  discredit  the  Cliristian  teachers 
and  to  bring  Christians  distinctly  under  heathen 
teachers.  The  attempt  of  some  Christian  teachers 
to  prepare  substitutes  for  the  classics  was  not 
fated  to  be  carried  to  its  natural  termination,  as 
Julian's  edict  was  repealed  in  364.  At  Athens 
and  probaljly  elsewhere,  Cliristian  teachers  re- 
sumed their  accustomed  textbooks  and  taught 
side  by  siile  with  heathen  instructors.  In  the 
Western  Empire  Ausonius,  a  Cliristian,  acting 
under  the  commission  of  Gratian,  reorganized  the 
system  of  imperial  schools  and  restored  the  former 
methods  and  textbooks.  Late  in  the  fifth 
century  the  heathen  schools  of  Athens  were 
flourishing,  and  the  Neo-Platonic  philosophy 
entered  upon  its  most  developed  state  under 
Proclus  (d.  485).  The  study  of  Aristotle  was 
revived  by  heathen  teachers  both  at  Athens 
and  Alexandria,  and  influenced  in  no  small 
degree  the  later  developments  of  patristic 
theology.  The  end  of  confessedly  heathen 
schools  seems  only  to  have  come  with  the  clos- 
ing of  the  schools  of  Athens  in  529  by  Justinian 
in  his  plan  to  strengthen  and  reorganize  the 
schools  at  Constantinople.  (See  Athens,  Uni- 
versity OF.) 

In  the  matter  of  heathen  classical  literature 
used  in  instruction,  it  should  be  frankly  recog- 
nized that  there  was  a  distinction  made  be- 
tween the  purely  literary  productions  and  the 
scientific  and  historical  works.  There  was 
reason  in  the  Christian's  scruple  as  to  the  use 
of  the  former  when  the  real  existence  of  heathen 
gods  was  accepted  by  all  parties  in  the  Church. 
There  was  also  the  practical  question  of  per- 
version to  heathenism,  at  least  until  after  the 
time  of  Juhan.  Under  such  circumstances  it 
may  be  asked  whether  it  was  morally  justifiable 
for  Christians  to  send  their  children  to  study 
works  that  were  filled  at  once  with  false  beliefs 
and  polluting  indecencies.  Much  as  it  looked 
like  obscurantism  on  the  part  of  men  like 
Tertullian  when  in  perfervid  rhetoric  they  de- 
nounced classical  literature  and  its  teachers, 
it  was  at  the  bottom  merely  reasonable  con- 
sistency. The  classical  works  of  Horace  and 
other  poets  had  not  been  edited  i)i  usum  Dd- 
■phini,  and  thoy  presented  then,  as  now,  a 
morality  and  a  teaching  often  utterly  contrary 
to  Christian  sentiment.  It  was  to  this  phase 
as  much  as  to  the  mythology  that  objection 
was  taken.  True  it  is  that  Tertullian  also  de- 
nounces philosophy  because  of  its  connection 
with  Gnosticism,  yet  he  himself  is  saturated 
with  Stoic  metaphysics,  and  is  willing  enough 
to  profit  by  the  best  science  of  his  times  in  his 


treatise  On  the  Soul.  (For  the  use  made  by 
Tertullian  and  others  of  Greek  medical  science 
see  Harnack,  Medizinisches  aus  der  altesten 
Kirchengeschichte;  Texle  ^ind  Untersttchimgen, 
Bd.  Vlli,  1892.)  The  extreme  position  is  not 
typical  of  the  Church  in  the  first  centuries. 
The  Apologists  constantly  appealed  to  heathen 
writers;  so  did  Clement.  Origen  recognized 
the  consequences  of  the  fact  that  the  Apostle 
Paul  made  citations  from  heathen  writers.  So 
far  as  there  was  prohibition  of  heathen  books, 
it  was  a  part  of  a  system  which  aimed  to  pro- 
hibit heretical  and  bad  books  which  came  into 
existence  in  the  reign  of  Constantine.  (Cf. 
Eusebius,  Vita  Const.,  Ill,  66.)  Basil  distinctly 
defends  the  use  of  classical  literature  in  his 
so-called  homily  Ad  Juvenes.  But  toward  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century  the  mona.stic  and 
ascetic  spirit  began  to  oppose  this  literature. 
Thus  Jerome  says  he  gave  up  reading  such  after 
374.  His  example  had  great  weight,  and  it  is 
with  him  that  the  sentiment  began  to  turn 
against  the  use  of  the  classics.  (Cf.  Jerome, 
Ep.  20,  ad  Eiistorch.,  §  30.)  Yet  he  recognizes 
the  necessity  of  such  books,  and  defends  their 
use  by  Christian  theologians  (Ep.  70,  ad 
Magnum).  He  actually  taught  Vergil  and 
other  profane  writers  in  the  school  he  estab- 
lished in  his  monastery  at  Bethlehem!  Augus- 
tine, although  perceiving  the  danger  in  the 
study  of  the  classics,  recognized  their  utility 
as  a  whole  for  the  Christian  teacher.  (De 
doctrina  Christiana,  II,  40.)  In  spite  of  the 
obscurantism  of  Gregory  the  Great,  due  in 
great  part  to  his  belief  in  the  approaching  end 
of  the  world,  and  in  spite  of  his  enormous  in- 
fluence upon  the  Middle  Ages,  in  spite  of 
monkish  asceticism  which  tried  to  prevent  the 
reading  of  profane  writers,  their  works,  which 
had  formed  the  basis  of  early  education  under 
the  Christian  Church,  remained  in  use  and  were 
read  constantly  in  the  monasteries  and  other 
centers  of  learning,  until  the  overwhelming 
interest  in  scholastic  theology  absorbed  the 
mind  of  the  learned,  and  little  attention  was 
given  to  literary  elegance.  J.  C.  A.,  Jr. 

See  Church  Schools;  also  Bishops' 
Schools;  C.\thedral  Schools;  Cloister 
Schools;  Collegi-\te  Church  Schools; 
Monastic  Schools;  etc. 

References:  — 

Sources :  — 
Eusebius.  Historia  Ecctesiastica ;  the  works  of  .Justin 
Martyr  ;  Tertullian  (especially,  De  Idololafria  aiitl  De 
Praescriptione  Hacreiicoruyn)  ;  Clement  of  Alexandria  ; 
and  Origen  ;  Gregory  Thaumaturgiis,  Panegyric  on 
Origen  (the  most  valuable  account  of  a  Christian  school 
in  the  third  century)  :  the  Epistles  of  Jerome  ;  Augus- 
tine, De  doctrina  Christiana ;  Basil,  Ad  Juvenes.  With 
the  exception  of  the  last,  all  these  may  be  found  trans- 
lated in  Anle-Nicene  Fathers,  and  the  Nicene  and  Post- 
Nicenc  Fathers,  Series  I  and  II.  (New  York,  1885- 
1900.) 

RIodern :  — 
Dill,  S.    Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  West- 
ern Empire.     (London,  1898.) 


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CHRYSOLORAS 


Ebert.  AUgcmeine  Oeschirhtc  der  Literatur  des  Mittelal- 
lers  im  Ahindlande.     (1,SS(>-1889.) 

Hatch.  The  In/luence  of  Greek  Ideas  arid  Usages  upon 
the  Christian  Church.      (London,  1890.) 

Hodgson,  G.  Primitive  Christian  Education,  (Edin- 
burgh, 1906.) 

MuLLiNGER,  J.  B.  Art.  "  Schools "  in  Smith  and 
Chcetham's  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities,  and 
The  Schools  of  Charles  the  Great.     (London,  1S97.) 

Rasbdall.  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
(O.tford,  1895.) 

Taylor.  The  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
(New  York,  1901.) 

CHRISTIAN  UNIVERSITY,  CANTON,  MO. 

—  Founded  in  1852  under  the  auispices  of  the 
Christian  Disciples  Church.  It  is  a  coeduca- 
tional institution,  with  academic,  collegiate, 
theological,  and  musical  courses.  About  14 
units  are  required  for  admission,  which  may  be 
by  examination  or  certificate  from  recognized 
high  schools  and  academies.  Degrees  are  con- 
ferred in  the  college  and  theological  courses. 
There  is  a  faculty  of  11  professors  and  3  in- 
structors. 

CHRISTIANIA,   UNIVERSITY   OF.  —  The 

only  university  in  Norway,  founded  in  1811 
and  opened  for  instruction  in  1813.  Faculties 
of  law,  medicine,  arts,  sciences,  and  theology 
are  maintained.  In  1909  there  were  about  500 
students  in  attendance.  See  Nokw.^y,  Edu- 
cation IN. 

CHRODEGANG.  —  A  Benedictine  monk, 
born  about  712,  died  in  760,  w^ho  held  the  office 
of  chancellor  under  Charles  Martel,  and  that 
of  Archbishop  of  Metz  from  742  to  766,  and 
attempted  to  effect  a  literary  revival  in  the 
monasteries  of  northern  Germany.  His  system 
of  rules  was  very  generally  adopted  throughout 
western  Europe;  and  the  result  was  a  cer- 
tain standardization  of  monastic  singing,  lan- 
guage, and  script,  which  continued  to  be  effective 
until  the  time  of  the  greater  revival  under 
Charles  the  Great. 

References :  — 

EcKHART...  Vita  S.  Chrodcgangi. 

Pertz.  Ubcr  die  Vita  Chrodrgangi,  in  Berlin-Akad. 
d.  U'l'ss.  Hist,  philol.  classe.  Abhandlungen  (1852. 
pp.  507-517). 

Sandys,  .J.  E.  History  of  Classical  Scholarship.  (Cam- 
bridge, I90:i-1908.) 

Works:  lirguta  Canonicorum ;  Diploma  pro  fundalione 
Gorzienais  monasterii.  In  Mignc,  Pat.  Lat.  (186.3, 
V.  89). 

CHROMATIC  QUALITIES.  —  By  these  are 
meant  chromatic  as  distinguished  from  achro- 
matic [q.v.) ;  the  term  "chromatic,"  then,  applies 
to  all  visual  sensations  that  are  neither  white, 
gray,  nor  black.  The  purest  of  chromatic 
qualities  are  obtained  by  analyzing  white  light, 
either  of  the  sun's  rays  or  of  some  artificial 
source,  by  passing  it  through  a  prism,  into  its 
constituent  color  elements.  Such  a  prismatic 
band  of  colors  is  termed  a  spectrum,  and  may 
be  roughly  divided  into  four  parts  —  the  col- 
ors from  red  to  yellow,  from  yellow  to  green, 


green  to  blue,  and  blue  to  violet.  The  tran- 
sition between  the  members  of  any  such  pair 
is  through  a  series  of  qualities  bearing  some 
resemblance  to  each  color  of  the  pair,  but  the 
colors  mentioned  first  in  each  pair  —  red, 
yellow,  green,  blue  —  are  turning  points  in  the 
series,  since  no  one  of  them  resembles  the  other 
three.  These  are  often  called  the  jjrimary  or 
cardinal  colors,  and  plaj-  an  important  role  in 
color  investigation  and  theory.  Most  colors 
in  everyday  life  are  not,  indeed,  pure  colors 
(see  Color),  and  for  some  of  them  (the  purples) 
there  are  no  like  colors  in  the  spectrum.  By 
mixing  (sec  Color  Mi.xing)  two  colors  near  the 
respective  ends  of  the  spectrum,  however  (for 
instance,  red  and  blue),  a  series  of  purples  may 
be  obtained.  The  chromatic  sjiectral  qualities 
might  thus  be  ordered  in  a  color  circle  {q.v.)  — 
red,  yellow,  green,  blue,  violet,  and  through 
the  purple  back  to  red.  We  can  discriminate 
about  150  different  chromatic  ([ualities  in  the 
spectrum,  and  many  thousands  of  tints  (q.v.), 
hues  {q.v.),  and  shades  of  these.  A  chromatic 
quality  may  be  adequately  defined  by  giving 
its  tone  {q.v.)  or  hue,  its  brightness  or  in- 
tensity {q.v.),  and  its  saturation  {q.v.). 

R.  P.  A. 
References:  — 
T^.^LDWiK'i^  Dictionary  of  Phil.  OTul  Psych. :  Art.  "Vision,'* 
Helmholtz,  H.  V.     Phi/siologische  Optik.     2d  ed.,  pp. 

321  ff.      (Leipzig,   1896.) 
Ebbinghaus.     Grundziig.    d.   Psychologic.     Vol.    I,    pp. 
195  ff.    (Leipzig,  1905.) 

CHRONOGRAPH.  —  An  apparatus  for  re- 
cording, usually  on  a  smoked  surface,  time  in- 
tervals. The  apparatus  is  used  in  various 
types  of  reaction  experiments  {q.v.).  See  also 
Kymogr.\ph. 

CHRONOLOGY.  —  See  History. 

CHRONOSCOPE.  —  An  apparatus  for  meas- 
uring very  short  intervals  of  time,  from  tJtj  to 
ff,'o,7  .second.  This  is  used  in  determining  the 
length  of  reactions.  See  Re.\ction  Experi- 
ments. 

CHRYSOLORAS,  MANUEL.  —  Diplomat 
and  scholar  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  who 
exercised  considerable  iufiuence  among  the 
early  Humanists  in  the  revived  .study  of  Greek. 
He  was  frequently  sent  to  the  West  on  diplo- 
matic missions,  and  in  1396  he  was  invited  to 
remain  at  Florence  to  teach  Greek.  His  stay 
lasted  from  1397  to  1400,  when  he  removed  for 
3  more  years  to  Pavia.  He  also  taught  at 
A'enice.  Among  his  i)upils  were  tluarino  {q.v.), 
who  lived  in  his  house  at  Constantinople  as  a 
famulu.'i  and  was  also  taught  by  his  son,  and 
Vergerius  (q.v.).  Filelfo  {q.v.)  married  his 
niece.  Chrysoloras  was  the  author  of  a  Greek 
grammar  in  Greek  in  the  form  of  question  and 
answer  {Erotemata),  wh'n'h  was  edited,  with  a 
Latin  version,  by  Guuriuo.     The  son  of  Chryso- 


653 


CHRYSOSTOM 


CHRYSOSTOM 


loras,  Johannes,  was  a  teacher  in  Constanti- 
nople. 

References  :  — 

Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  I.      The  Renaissance. 

(London  and  New  York,  19013.) 
WooDWAUD,  W.  H.     Education  during  the  Renaissance. 

(Cambridge,   1906.) 
Vittorino  da  Fcllre.     (Cambridge,  1891.) 

CHRYSOSTOM,  JOHN.  —  The  greatest 
pedagogue  of  his  day,  and  probably  the  greatest 
preacher  of  all  time,  was  born  at  Antioch,  a.d. 
347,  and  died  in  exile,  407.  Descended  from 
an  illustrious  family,  he  enjoyed  the  highest 
educational  advantages.  His  mother,  Anthusa, 
a  woman  of  rare  Christian  graces,  devoted  her- 
self wholly  to  his  education.  He  studied  under 
the  best  masters  —  the  celebrated  rhetorician 
Libanius,  the  philosopher  Andragathius,  the 
theologians  JMcletius,  Theodorus,  and  Diodorus 
of  Tarsus.  Revolting  from  the  sordid  life  of 
the  forum,  he  became  a  Christian  and  spent  six 
years  of  solitary  study  with  a  company  of  her- 
mits. Returning  to  Antioch,  he  was  ordained 
to  the  ministry,  and  soon  won  world-wide  fame 
as  a  preacher  and  teacher.  Antioch  was  then 
the  intellectual  center  of  the  world,  and  Chrys- 
ostom  became  the  dictator  of  its  thought. 
The  Catechetical  School  of  Antioch  (q.v.)  was 
then  even  more  flourishing  than  that  of  Alex- 
andria (q.v.),  but  followed  Aristotle  rather  than 
Plato  and  was  less  given  to  the  study  of  Greek 
philosophy  and  more  to  the  exposition  of  Holy 
Scripture  and  Christian  doctrine.  Its  great 
teachers  inaugurated  the  literal  and  historical 
method  of  exegesis  instead  of  the  allegorical 
interpretations  of  Origen  (q.v.).  It  matured 
many  of  the  greatest  theologians  of  the  Greek 
Church,  but  its  finest  product  and  its  head 
during  its  most  flourishing  period  was  St. 
Chrysostom.  All  fourth-century  educational 
progress  centers  round  his  name.  The  Church 
was  then  the  mother  of  schools,  and  the  world 
is  indebted  to  her  for  the  survival  of  learning. 
This  alliance  between  the  Church  and  the 
school  imparted  to  educational  work  a  spirit 
of  intense  earnestness  and  seriousness  which  it 
had  not  possessed  before.  St.  Chrysostom 
regarded  education  as  the  chief  handmaid  of 
the  Church,  and  established  schools  and  directed 
educational  movements  throughout  the  Eastern 
Empire.  Among  his  pupils  was  John  Cassian 
(q.v.),  who  inaugurated  the  educational  in- 
fluences which  later  on  enlightened  the  whole 
Western  Church.  Like  the  Alexandrian 
Fathers,  St.  Chryso.stom  held  that  the  Chris- 
tian scholar  should  extract  the  honey  from  the 
flowers  of  heathen  poetry  and  philosophy,  and 


consecrate  it  to  the  service  of  the  Church,  but 
he  violently  opposed  the  theater  as  injurious 
to  public  morality.  Some  of  the  pedagogical 
principles  which  he  laid  down  may  be  sum- 
marized as  foUows:  Women,  especially  mothers, 
are  the  natural  educators  of  children;  Chris- 
tian life  and  experience  are  the  foundation  of 
all  true  education,  and  therefore  all  parents  and 
teachers  must  teach  not  only  by  precept  but 
by  example;  religious  education  is  an  essential 
factor  in  school  work,  and  hence  it  is  of  the  high- 
est importance  that  children  be  brought  up  "  in 
the  nurture  and  admonition  of  the  Lord  ";  as 
Christ  lowered  himself  to  man's  estate  in  order 
to  raise  men  to  a  higher  level,  so  the  teacher 
must  lower  himself  to  the  capacity  of  his 
pupils  in  order  to  elevate  them  to  his  standard; 
just  as  Christ  left  his  pupils  to  discover  much 
of  the  truth  for  themselves,  so  the  teacher 
must  not  do  for  his  pupils  what  they  can  do 
for  themselves.  During  the  twelve  years  of  his 
ministry  in  Antioch,  John  attained  the  perfec- 
tion of  sacred  eloquence,  won  from  an  admir- 
ing posterity  the  surname  Chrysostom  (the 
Golden-mouthed),  and  became  a  great  moral 
and  intellectual  force  which  was  felt  through- 
out the  world.  In  39S  he  was  forced  to  become 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  filled  this 
difficult  and  responsible  post  as  Head  of  the 
Greek  Church  until  his  martyrdom.  He  de- 
voted much  attention  to  Liturgies,  and  framed 
the  Liturgy  which  bears  his  name  and  is  still 
used  throughout  the  Oriental  Church.  His 
extant  writings  exceed  in  bulk  those  of  any 
Greek  Father,  and  contain  a  vast  variety  of 
valuable  material.  They  include  240  letters 
(many  of  them  of  extreme  interest),  more  than 
1000  sermons  (in  which  a  wealth  of  sacred  and 
secular  learning  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
exposition  of  divine  truth),  and  a  most  valuable 
commentary  covering  nearly  the  whole  New 
Testament.  His  Golden  Book  concerning  the  Edu- 
cation  of  Children,  which  lays  down  the  moral 
and  religious  basis  of  education  as  conceived  in 
the  Early  Christian  period,  has  been  well  trans- 
lated by  John  Evelyn  (q.v.).  W.  R. 

See  Catechetical  Schools;  Catechu- 
iiENAL  Instruction;  Christian  Education  in 
THE  Early  Church. 

References  :  — 
r.\Rn,vR,    F.    W.     Lives   of  the   Fathers.     (New   York, 

1907.) 
Library  of  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers.     (New  York,  1890- 

1.S97.) 
MoNTFAUcoN.     Works  of  St.  Chrysostom.     (Paris,  1840.) 
Oxford  Library  of  the  Fathers. 
Palladids.     Contemporary  Biographer. 
Stephens,    W.    R.    W.     St.  Chrysostom,  His   Life  and 

Times.     (London,  1880.) 


End  op  Vol.  I. 


654 


'  I  ""HE   following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
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I 


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General  Method 

The  Elements  of  General  Method.     By  Charles  A.  McMurry.  j2j  pages.     $.qo  net. 

The  Method  of  the  Recitation.     By  Charles  .A.  McMurry  and  Frank  M.  McMurry,  Pro- 
fessor of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

xi  +  J2g)  pages.     $.go  net. 

Special   Method.      By  Charles  A.  McMurry. 

Special  Method  in  Primary  Reading  and  Oral  Work  with  Stories. 

i-ii  +  loj  pages.     $.60  net. 

Special  Method  in  the  Reading  of  English  Classics.  vi  +  254  pages.  S.75  net. 

Special  Method  in  Language  in  the  Eight  Grades.  ■uiii  +  ig2  pages.  $.70  net. 

Special  Method  in  History.  i';/  +  2gi  pages.  $.J5  tiet. 

Special  Method  in  Arithmetic.  vU  +  22^  pages,  ^.jo  nft. 

Special  Method  in  Geography.  xi  +  217  pages,  i.jo  net. 

Special  Method  in  Elementary  Science.  ix  +  2j§  pages.  $.75  net. 

Nature  Study  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.     By  Mrs.  Lida  B.  McMurry,  with  an  Intro- 
duction by  Charles  A.  McMurry.  xi  +  igi  pages.     $.60  net. 

Course  of  Study  in  the  Eight  Grades. 

Vol.  I.      Grades  I  to  IV.      vii  +  2j6  pages.     $.75  net. 
Vol.  II.     Grades  V  to  VIII.     v  +  226  pages.     $.75  net. 

MONROE,  Paul.     A  Brief  Course  in  the  History  of  Education.     By  Paul  Monroe,  Ph.D., 

Professor  in  the  History  of  Kducation,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

Cloth.     Svo.     xviii  +  4og  pages.     $1.25  net. 


A   LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS  —  Cotitimed 


MONROE,  Paul.    A  Text-book  in  the  History  of  Education. 

Cloth,     xxiii  +  277  pages,     izmo.     $i.go  net. 

A  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education.     For  the  Greek  and  Roman  Period. 

Cloth,     xiii  +  315  pages.     Svo.     $2.2$  net. 

O'SIIE.A,  M.  V.     Dynamic  Factors  in  Education.     By  M.  V.  O'Shea,  Professor  of  the  Science 
and  Art  of  Education,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Cloth.     121110.     xiii  +  J20  pages.     $1.2  j  net. 

Linguistic  Development  and  Education.       Cloth.     i2mo.     xvii -'r  347  pages.     $1.25  net. 


PARK,  Joseph  C.  Educational  Woodworking  for  Home  and  School.  By  Joseph  C.  Park, 
State  Normal  and  Training  School,  Oswego,  N.Y. 

Cloth.     I2H10.     xiii  +  210  pages,  illus.     $1.00  net. 

PERRY,  Arthur  C.  The  Management  of  a  City  School.  By  Arthur  C.  Perry,  Jr.,  Ph.D., 
Principal  of  Public  School  No.  85,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

Cloth.     i2mo.     viii  +  350  pages.     $1.25  net. 

ROWE,  Stuart  H.  The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child.  By  Dr.  Stuart  H.  Rowe,  Professor  of 
Psychology  and  the  History  of  Education,  Training  School  for  Teachers,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

Cloth.     i2mo.     vi  + 211  pages.     $.go  net. 

ROYCE,  JosiAH.  Outlines  of  Psychology.  An  Elementary  Treatise  with  Some  Practical  Ap- 
plications.    By  Josiah  Royce,  Professor  of  the  History  of  Philosophy  in  Harvard  University. 

Cloth.     i2mo.     xxvii  +  jp2  pages.     $i.go  net. 

SHAW,  Edward  R.     School  Hygiene.     By  the  late  Edward  R.  Shaw. 

Cloth,     vii  +  255  pages.     i2mo.     $1.00  net. 

SHURTER,  Edwin  DuBois.  The  Rhetoric  of  Oratory.  By  the  Associate  Professor  of  Public 
Speaking  in  the  University  of  Te.xas.  Cloth.     J2j  pages.     i2tno.     $1.10  net. 

SMITH,  David  E.  The  Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics.  By  David  E.  Smith,  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

Cloth.     XV  -\-  J12  pages.     i2mo.     $1.00  net. 

SNEDDEN  AND  ALLEN.  School  Reports  and  School  Efficiency.  By  David  S.  Snedden, 
Ph.D.,  and  William  H.  Allen,  Ph.D.     For  the  New  York  Committee  on  Physical  Welfare  of 

School  Children.  Cloth.     i2mo.     xi  +  i8j  pages.     $i.jO  net. 

VANDEWALKER,  Nina  C.  The  Kindergarten  in  American  Education.  By  Nina  C.  Vande- 
walker.  Director  of  Kindergarten  Training  Department,  Milwaukee  State  Normal  School. 

Cloth,     xiii  +  224  pages.     Porlr.,  index,  i2mo.     $1.2^  net. 

WARNER,  Franci-s.     The  Study  of  Children  and  their  School  Training.     By  Francis  Warner. 

Cloth,     xix  +  264  pages.     i2mo.     $1.00  net. 

WINTERBURN  and  BARR.  Methods  in  Teaching.  Being  the  Stockton  Methods  in  Elemen- 
tary Schools.  By  Mrs.  Rosa  V.  Winterburn,  of  Los  Angeles,  and  James  A.  Barr,  Superintend- 
ent of  Schools  at  Stockton,  Cal.  Cloth,     xii  -j-  jj^  pages.     i2mo.     $i.2§  net. 


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